1. John H. Coatsworth, "Obstacles to Economic Growth in Nineteenth-Century Mexico," American Historical Review 83 (1978): 81, 84; Laura Randall, A Comparative Economic History of Latin America, 1500-1914 (Ann Arbor, 1978), 1:162, 180; Christopher Armstrong and H.V. Nelles, "A Curious Capital Flow: Canadian Investment in Mexico, 1902-1910," Business History Review 58 (1984): 179-80; Daniel Cosío Villegas et al., Historia moderna de México, vol. 7, pt. 2 (Mexico City, 1965), 642, 1154; Esperanza Durán de Seade, "Mexico's Relations with the Powers During the Great War" (D.Phil. thesis, St. Antony's College, Oxford University, 1980), 7-11; Clifton B. Kroeber, Man, Land, and Water: Mexico's Farmlands Irrigation Policies, 1885-1911 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1983), 12; Stephen H. Haber, Industry and Underdevelopment: The Industrialization of Mexico, 1890-1940 (Stanford, 1989), 91-93, 100.

2. Richard Guenther to Dept. of State, 11 October 1890, U.S. Consular Despatches, Mexico City, no. 32, Record Group 59, National Archives, Washington, D.C.; and ibid., 1 December 1903, U.S. Consular Despatches, Tampico, no. 181, Record Group 59, National Archives. See also Cosío Villegas et al., Historia moderna de México, vol. 7, pt. 1 (Mexico City, 1965), 245, 517, 624, 628, 695; Chitraporn Tanratanakol, "Threats to Subsistence: Regional Economy and the 1869 Mezquital Peasant Rebellion in Mexico" (Ph.D. diss., Northern Illinois University, 1987), chap. 4.

3. Representative works include Randall, Comparative Economic History of Latin America; D.C.M. Platt, ed., Business Imperialism, 1840-1930: An Inquiry Based on British Experience in Latin America (Oxford, 1977); and Marshall C. Eakin, "Business Imperialism and British Enterprise in Brazil: The St. John d'el Rey Mining Company, Limited, 1830-1960," Hispanic American Historical Review 66 (1986): 697-742. Also see Mark Wasserman, "Enrique C. Creel: Business and Politics in Mexico, 1880-1930," Business History Review 59 (1985): 645-62; Armstrong and Nelles, "A Curious Capital Flow."

4. Sahagún, Historia de las cosas de Nueva España (c. 1569), tenth book, chap. 24, as quoted by Ezequiel Ordóñez, "El petróleo en México: bosquejo histórico," part 1, Revista Mexicana de Ingeniería y Arquetectura 10, no. 3 (15 March 1932): 135. Also see Gabriel Antonio Menendez, Doheny El Cruel: episodios de la sangrienta lucha por el petróleo mexicano (Mexico City, 1958), 17-19; Alexander von Humboldt, Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain (London, 1811), 4:38, 47; untitled memo in English, Aug 1938, Archivo de la Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores, Mexico City, L-E-555.

5. Quoted by Francisco Alonso González, Historia y petróleo. México: el problema del petróleo (Mexico City, 1972), 55. See also Mexico, Secretaría de Industria, Comercio y Trabajo, Documentos relacionados con la legislación petrolera mexicana (Mexico City, 1919), 36-37.

6. Alonso González, Historia y petróleo, 135; Ordóñez, "El petróleo de México," 143-44.

7. Quoted in José Domingo Lavín, Petróleo: pasado, presente y futuro de una industria mexicana (Mexico City, 1976), 23.

8. Prospectus of "The Boston and Mexican Oil Co." of Portland, Maine (Boston, 1882), Cleland, box 2.

9. E. DeGolyer, "History of the Petroleum Industry in Mexico," 11 Mar 1914, DeGolyer, file 5347; "The Petroleum Industry of Mexico," [c. 1920,] ibid., file 5220; Lavin, Petróleo: pasado, presente y futuro, 22, 25-26.

10. Menéndez, Doheny El Cruel, 17-19.

11. Paul H. Giddens, The Beginnings of the Petroleum Industry: Sources and Bibliography (Harrisburg, Pa., 1941), 5-9; Giddens, Early Days of Oil: A Pictorial History of the Beginnings of the Industry in Pennsylvania (Princeton, 1948), 10.

12. See Ralph W. Hidy and Muriel E. Hidy, Pioneering in Big Business, 1882-1911: History of the Standard Oil Company, New Jersey (New York, 1955), 49, 200, 259; Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977), 424; Daniel Yergin, The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and Power (New York, 1991), chap. 2.

13. On Pierce's early career, see Bruce Bringhurst, Antitrust and the Oil Monopoly: The Standard Oil Cases, 1890-1911 (Westport, Conn., 1979), 40-41; Frederick U. Adams, The Waters Pierce Case in Texas (St. Louis, 1908).

14. U.S. Supreme Court, Transcript of Record, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas, October term, 1908, no. 356 (Washington, D.C., 1909), 441.

15. Allen Nevins, John D. Rockefeller: The Heroic Age of American Enterprise (New York, 1940), 1:657-58; and Hidy and Hidy, Pioneering in Big Business, 49, 122.

16. At least, this was the charge of the Texas attorney general. See Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas, no. 1, 212 U.S. 86 and no. 2, 212 U.S. 112 (1898).

17. Waters-Pierce Oil Co. to A. Gilmer, 10 Mar 1894, Waters-Pierce Oil Co. Records, OHTOR, Box 3K10 F2.

18. "Interview with Mr. S.W. Smith of the Mexican Petroleum Company," 11 May 1918, interview no. 596, Doheny. The biographer of Rockefeller, Allan Nevins, finds price cutting morally reprehensible, but he claims that often Rockefeller had no control over the activities of his marketers like Pierce. Nevins, John D. Rockefeller, 2:92. Ida Tarbell was also appalled at the business practices of Waters-Pierce. Ida M. Tarbell, The History of the Standard Oil Company (1904; reprint, New York, 1950), 2:41-42, 46-47. For price cutting, see the testimony of several Brownsville merchants like Miguel Fernández in U.S. Supreme Court, Transcript of Record, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas, October term, 1898, no. 177, U.S. 28 (Washington, D.C., 1889).

19. Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas, 44 S.W. Rep 936 (1898); U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1898).

20. U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1908), 442.

21. Marquis James, The Texaco Story: The First Fifty Years, 1902-1952 (n.p., 1953), 6-8, 11-13, 21-22; Joseph A. Pratt, The Growth of a Refining Region (Greenwich, Conn., 1980), 34-35; Martin V. Melosi, Coping with Abundance: Energy and Environment in Industrial America (Philadelphia, 1985), 40-46;

Alfred A. Glasier to Am. consul, 10 Apr 1906, U. S. Consular Records, Tampico, Misc. Letters Rec'd, Record Group 84, National Archives.

22. Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas, no. 1, 103 S.W. Rep. 836 (1907); ibid., no. 2, 106 S.W. Rep. 918 (1907); U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1908), 20.

23. Salary Book A, 1 Jan 1887, Secy's Dept., SONJ; Hidy and Hidy, Pioneering in Big Business, 5.

24. Thomas C. Manning to Mariscal, 30 May 1887, Despatches from U.S. Ministers to Mexico, no. 144, Record Group 59, National Archives; Hidy and Hidy, Pioneering in Big Business, 514.

25. "Interview with Mr. S.W. Smith," 11 May 1918, Doheny; Mexican Herald, 1 Nov 1903; Alan Knight, The Mexican Revolution (Cambridge, Eng., 1986), 1:80.

26. U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1908), 466.

27. Ibid., 448, 506, 671; Hidy and Hidy, Pioneering in Big Business, 128, 258, 363. The California exports to Mexico began as early as 1878. See Gerald T. White, Formative Years in the Far West: A History of the Standard Oil Company of California and Predecessors Through 1919 (New York, 1962), 56, 97, 122, 145.

26. U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1908), 466.

27. Ibid., 448, 506, 671; Hidy and Hidy, Pioneering in Big Business, 128, 258, 363. The California exports to Mexico began as early as 1878. See Gerald T. White, Formative Years in the Far West: A History of the Standard Oil Company of California and Predecessors Through 1919 (New York, 1962), 56, 97, 122, 145.

28. "Interview with Mr. S.W. Smith," 11 May 1918, Doheny.

29. Six of the wagons were not operating at one point in 1902, awaiting spare parts from St. Louis. U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1908), 1108; U.S. Supreme Court, Transcript of Record, Standard Oil Company et al. v. U.S., October term, 1909, 221 U.S. 1 (Washington, D.C., 1910), 1095-96.

30. Calculated at 42 gallons to the barrel from 11,905,618 gallons of crude oil, lubricants, illuminants, naphthas, and 3,902 barrels of residual products and tar. See table 1; U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1908), 445; and Hidy and Hidy, Pioneering in Big Business, 528-29.

31. U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1908), 510.

32. Lord Cowdray to Sir Edmund Holden, 13 Aug 1912, Pearson, C44 F7; Bringhurst, Antitrust and the Oil Monopoly, 57; Hidy and Hidy, Pioneering in Big Business, 609, 633; and U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1908), 472. Two other Standard marketing companies, Iowa Standard and Consolidated, also made large profits. See White, Formative Years in the Far West, 193-94, 323.

33. U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1898); U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1908), 666-67, 874-75.

34. U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1908), 1095; and U.S. Supreme Court, Standard Oil Company et al. v. U.S. (1909), 667.

35. U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1908), 471, 666-67, 1105-6, 1115.

36. Ibid., 606.

35. U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1908), 471, 666-67, 1105-6, 1115.

36. Ibid., 606.

37. Cosío Villegas et al., Historia moderna de Mexico, vol. 7, pt. 1, 211.

38. Hidy and Hidy, Pioneering in Big Business, 514.

39. Ibid., 448-51; U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1908), 463, 465, 880-82, 897, 1089-90.

38. Hidy and Hidy, Pioneering in Big Business, 514.

39. Ibid., 448-51; U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1908), 463, 465, 880-82, 897, 1089-90.

40. Nevins, John D. Rockefeller, 1:659.

41. Ibid., 2:531-33, 571. See also testimony of William A. Morgan in U.S. Supreme Court, United States of America, petitioner, v. Standard Oil Company of New Jersey, et al., defendants (Washington, D.C., 1909), 3:1006-7.

40. Nevins, John D. Rockefeller, 1:659.

41. Ibid., 2:531-33, 571. See also testimony of William A. Morgan in U.S. Supreme Court, United States of America, petitioner, v. Standard Oil Company of New Jersey, et al., defendants (Washington, D.C., 1909), 3:1006-7.

42. "Interview with Mr. S.W. Smith," 11 May 1918, Doheny.

43. As quoted in Charles K. Smith to David E. Thompson, 27 Aug 1908, State Dept. Numerical and Minor Files, 15351/1-4, Record Group 59, National Archives.

44. The Mexican Herald, 3 Nov 1908, as quoted in State Dept. Numerical and Minor Files, 11770/13-15.

45. "Interview with Mr. S.W. Smith," 11 May 1918, Doheny.

46. As quoted in Ward Ritchie, The Dohenys of Los Angeles (Los Angeles, 1974), 15-16. Doheny in 1920 recreated the Los Angeles oil strike from the site of this first well, and repeated with raised arm what he said was his 1892 proclamation of a new day for the economy of Los Angeles. See William Rintoul, Spudding In: Recollections of Pioneer Days in the California Oil Fields (San Francisco, 1976), 83, 88.

47. White, Formative Years in the Far West, 152-53; Caspar Whitney, Charles Adelbert Canfield (New York: private printing, 1930), 110-11, 128, 140; Ritchie, The Dohenys of Los Angeles, 18-19; Edmund Burke to Doheny, 18 Nov 1900, AALA; Sign of the 76: The Fabulous Life and Times of the Union Oil Company of California (Los Angeles, 1976), 105-6.

48. Burke to Doheny, Washington, D.C., 18 Nov 1900, AALA; Whitney, Charles Adelbert Canfield, 129-30; Fritz L. Hoffman, "Edward L. Doheny and the Beginnings of Petroleum Development in Mexico," Mid-America 24 (April 1942): 97-98; and White, Formative Years in the Far West, 154, 198, 229, 234, 312, 351-52. Additional information about Doheny can be found in Gene Z. Hanrahan, The Bad Yankee — El Peligro Yankee: American Entrepreneurs and Financiers in Mexico, 2 vols. (Chapel Hill, 1985); Menéndez, Doheny El Cruel. The latter two books are rather critical.

49. "Report on Kern Co. Field to W.G. Nevin of Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe," n.p., n.d., AALA.

50. William E. McMahon, Two Strikes and Out (Garden City, 1939), 26-27.

51. Hanrahan, The Bad Yankee, 1:6; Clarence W. Barron, The Mexican Problem (Boston, 1917), 95; affidavit of E.L. Doheny, n.d., Cleland, box 2.

52. R.G. Cleland, interview with E.L. Doheny, 15 Jan 1918, interview no. 45, Doheny. Arguínzoniz lived in Ciudad del Maís in the state of San Luis Potosí. During the Revolution, he lived in exile in San Antonio, Texas.

53. Ibid.

52. R.G. Cleland, interview with E.L. Doheny, 15 Jan 1918, interview no. 45, Doheny. Arguínzoniz lived in Ciudad del Maís in the state of San Luis Potosí. During the Revolution, he lived in exile in San Antonio, Texas.

53. Ibid.

54. See Doheny's Senate testimony in U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 66th Congress, 1st sess. (Washington, D.C., 1920), 1:209-12.

55. Ibid., 1:212, 218-19, 225.

54. See Doheny's Senate testimony in U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 66th Congress, 1st sess. (Washington, D.C., 1920), 1:209-12.

55. Ibid., 1:212, 218-19, 225.

56. Walter Sharp to unnamed correspondent, 21 Sept 1901, in Walter Benona Sharp, "Letters, Excerpts from," OHTO, Box 33K11.

57. Interview with Doheny, 20 Apr 1918, Doheny.

58. Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:213-14, 227-29; Pan American Petroleum Corporation, Mexican Petroleum (New York, 1922).

59. Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:214, 241, 269. On drilling technology, see Mexican Oil Corporation, Ltd., Mexico Today: The Mexican Petroleum Industry (London, 1905), 13-15.

60. Barren, The Mexican Problem, 122.

61. Ordóñez, "El petróleo en México: bosquejo histórico," part 2, Revista Mexicano de Ingeniería y Arquetectura 10, no. 4 (15 Apr 1932): 154-61; McMahon, Two Strikes and Out, 29. Menéndez attributes greater Mexican participation than Ordóñez's report does. He states that Doheny would have given up had it not been for the financial backing of a Mexican banker, Gerardo Meade of San Luis Potosí. See Menéndez, Doheny El Cruel, 21-22. The story is repeated by James D. Cockcroft, who places the loan at fifty thousand pesos (twenty-five thousand dollars). Cockcroft, Intellectual Precursors of the Mexican Revolution, 1900-1913 (Austin, 1968), 24-25. The Stanford University geologist was Ralph Arnold. See his entry for 31 July 1911 in Field Books, 1911-1912, Trinidad & Mexico, Arnold, Box 129.

62. "Interview with Mr. H. Wylie," 15 May 1918, interview no. 597, Doheny.

63. Herbert G. Wylie to Charles E. Harwood, Ebano, 13 Jan 1903, AALA.

64. Body to Pearson, 28 June 1904, Pearson, A4; "R.G. Cleland, second interview with Mr. E.D. [ sic ] Doheny," 20 May 1918, Doheny; Hanrahan, The Bad Yankee, 1:3; F.B. McKercher to Doheny, 16 Dec 1902, AALA.

65. R.C. Kerens to Doheny, Chicago, 20 July 1902, AALA.

66. Wylie to Doheny, Ebano, 22 and 23 Jan 1902, AALA.

67. Cleland, interview with Doheny, 15 Jan 1918, interview no. 45, Doheny.

68. Martin R. Ansell, "Pouring Oil on Troubled Waters: Edward L. Doheny and the Mexican Revolution" (M.A. thesis, University of Oregon, 1985), 11; Harold Walker to Oscar D. Bennett, 28 Oct 1909, AALA; E.L. Doheny, "A Few Comments on the Report Submitted to You by Mr. R.A. on August 26, 1911," 7 Sept 1911, AALA.

69. E. Ordóñez to Doheny, 6 Oct 1902, AALA.

70. Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:214-16; President Díaz's message to Congress, The Mexican Herald, 2 Apr 1906, in David E. Thompson to sec. of state, 2 Apr 1906, State Dept. Numerical and Minor Files, 16.

71. Walker to Doheny, 28 Oct 1909, AALA.

72. Barron, The Mexican Problem, 62-63.

73. Fairchild & Gilmore to Doheny, 1 July 1902, AALA.

74. Wilbur Carr to C. Piquette Mitchel, Washington, 5 Mar 1909, State Dept. Numerical and Minor Files, 18125; República de México, "Resumen de la importación y de la exportación, 1908-09," FO, 368-308/35907.

75. C.H. Smith to Doheny, St. Louis, 30 Mar 1903, AALA.

76. Cleland, second interview with Doheny, 20 May 1918, Doheny; Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:225-26; Mexican Oil Corporation, Mexico Today, 19-21.

77. Mexican Petroleum Co., Los impuestos sobre la industria de petróleo (Mexico City, 1912), 1; Barron, The Mexican Problem, 131.

78. Cosío Villegas et al., Historia moderna de Mexico, vol. 7, pt. 1, 233-34, 520; Great Britain, Foreign Office, Consular Report for Mexico, 1902 (London, 1903), Tampico consul, no. 3285, 21; Consular Report for Mexico, 1904 (London, 1905), Tampico consul, no. 932, 11 Mar 1904; Consular Report for Mexico, 1906 (London, 1907) Tampico consul, no. 240, report dated 8 May 1906.

79. Cleland, second interview with Doheny, 20 May 1918, Doheny. After the government purchased the Mexican Central and merged it into the National Railways system, it continued to purchase fuel oil from Doheny.

80. Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:216; "E. Richards, counsel for H. Clay Pierce, Summary of Correspondence," J.B. Body to L., 22 Aug 1908 in "Summary of Correspondence: Negotiations with WPO Co.," Pearson, C44 F7; Reports, 6, 13 Apr 1907, Ramo de Hacienda, Fomento y Obras Públicas, Secretaría de Comunicacion y Obras Públicas, 1907-26, 2/226, Leg. 1, 1907, AGN.

81. Ordóñez to Doheny, 6 Oct 1902, AALA.

82. Martínez del Río to Doheny, 23 Oct 1902, AALA.

83. F.B. McKercher to Doheny, 5 June 1903, AALA.

84. Pan American Petroleum Corporation, Mexico Petroleum, 28-29.

85. Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:226-27, 299; Clarence A. Miller to R.W. Grant, 17 Dec 1910, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, Misc. Letters Rec'd.

86. See the correspondence relating to the dispute in despatches dating from 26 Nov to 8 Dec 1908, State Dept. Numerical and Minor Files, 1728.

87. Cleland, interview with Doheny, 15 Jan 1918, interview no. 45, Doheny.

88. Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:217; Pan American Petroleum Corporation, Mexico Petroleum, 26-27.

89. McKercher to Doheny, 16 Dec 1902, AALA.

90. Cleland, second interview with Doheny, 20 May 1918, Doheny. See also Ansell, "Pouring Oil on Troubled Waters," 33, 49.

91. Contract, 22 May 1908, Ramo de Hacienda, Fomento y Obras Públicas, Minas y Petróleo, 1916, C194, E23/324.6-452/2, AGN.

92. Ronald MacLeay to Foreign Office, Mexico, 18 Mar 1909, FO, 12924; Mexican Petroleum Co., Los impuestos sobre la industria de petróleo, 4.

93. Cleland, interview with Doheny, 15 Jan 1918, interview no. 45, Doheny.

94. C.M. Leonard to asst. sec. of state, 3 Sept 1908, State Dept. Numerical and Minor Files, 11770/5.

95. Doheny to Estelle Doheny, Buena Vista Station, 29 Dec 1906, AALA.

96. Ezequiel Ordóñez, "El petróleo en México," part 2, 193.

97. Doheny to Estelle Doheny, 1 May 1910, AALA; Pan American Petroleum Corporation, Mexico Petroleum, 31-32; Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 230-32, 242; Barron, The Mexican Problem, 38.

98. Sam T. Mallison, The Great Wildcatter (Charleston, W.V., 1953), 33-37.

99. Mexican Petroleum, The Oil Industry in Mexico, 35-38; Doheny to Wm. Salomon & Co., 7 Sept 1911, Arnold, box 201.

100. Ralph Arnold et al., The First Big Oil Hunt: Venezuela, 1911-1916 (New York, 1960), 63, 91.

101. Mallison, The Great Wildcatter, 238-41.

102. Mexican Petroleum, The Oil Industry in Mexico, 35; McMahon, Two Strikes and Out, 39.

103. Ordóñez, "El petróleo en México," part 2, 196-97.

104. Hanrahan, The Bad Yankee, 1:9; White, Formative Years in the Far West, 152.

105. The following information comes from J.A. Spender, Weetman Pearson: First Viscount Cowdray, 1856-1927 (London, 1930; reprint, New York, 1977); Desmond Young, Member for Mexico: A Biography of Weetman Pearson, First Viscount Cowdray (London, 1966); Robert Keith Middlemas, The Master Builders: Thomas Brassey, Sir John Aird, Lord Cowdray, Sir John Norton-Griffiths (London, 1963).

106. See especially Cathryn Thorup, "La competencia económica británica y norteamericana en México (1887-1910): El caso de Weetman Pearson," Historia Mexicana 31 (1982): 599-641.

107. Middlemas, The Master Builders, 171-72, 175, 180; President Díaz's message to congress, Diario Oficial, 28 Feb 1889, in Reinsen Whitehouse to sec. of state, 28 Feb 1889, Despatches from U.S. Ministers to Mexico, no. 268. Spender, Weetman Pearson, 286-90, lists the company's contracts from 1854 to 1926.

108. Middlemas, The Master Builders, 183.

109. Ryan to sec. of state, 7 Feb 1890, 4 March 1890, Despatches from U.S. Ministers to Mexico, nos. 239, 253.

110. Clayton to sec. of state, 18 Aug 1902, 26 November 1902, ibid., nos. 1532, 1634.

111. As quoted in Young, Member for Mexico, 107-8. On the Tehuantepec railway, see Middlemas, The Master Builders, 194-99; The Mexican Daily Record, 14 May 1906, in D.E. Thompson to sec. of state, 25 May 1906, Despatches from U.S. Ministers to Mexico, no. 69; Mexican Herald, 1 Dec 1902.

112. The Mexican Herald, 24 Jan 1907; Thompson to sec. of state, 5 Mar 1907, State Dept. Numerical and Minor Files, 1639/13.

113. As quoted in Spender, Weetman Pearson, 149-50.

114. B. to P., 29 May 1903, Body to Pearson, 23 June 1905, Pearson, "Memo for Mr. J.B. Body," 28 April 1908, Pearson, A4.

115. As quoted by E. DeGolyer, "Anthony Francis Lucas (1855-1921)," 1951, DeGolyer, file 1074.

116. Body to Pearson, 23 Aug 1904, Pearson to Body, 26 Jan 1906, B. to P., 29 May 1903, Body to Pearson, 29 May 1905, 23 June 1905, Pearson, "Memo for Mr. J.B. Body," 28 Apr 1908, Pearson, A4.

117. Bryan Cooper, ed., Latin American and Caribbean Oil Report (London, n.d. [c. 1980]), 136.

118. Purdy went on to become a director of Shell-Mex Petroleum, Ltd., the London holding company, in the 1920s. The Pipeline, 3:57 (1923): 51; Ryder to Body, 8 Apr 1906, Pearson, A4.

119. P. to B., 1 May 1906, B. to P., 21 Jan 1909, Pearson, A4; "History: The Mexico Eagle Oil Company, Limited," ibid., C43 F1.

120. "Memorandum by Lord Cowdray," 10 May 1915, Pearson, A3; P. to B., 6 Oct 1906, 3 Dec 1908, "Memo for Mr. Body," 21 Apr 1907, ibid., A4.

121. "History, The Mexican Eagle Oil Company, Limited," Pearson, C43 F1.

122. "Memorandum by Lord Cowdray," 10 May 1915, Pearson, A3.

123. B. to P., 19 Dec 1905, 8 Jan 1906, 22 Jan 1906, Pearson, A4; Middlemas, The Master Builders, 186, 220, 222.

124. B. to P., 9 Nov 1905, 30 July 1908, Pearson, A4; Thorup, "La competencia económica," 616.

125. "Contrato entre Secretaría de Fomento y la Compañía S. Pearson & Son, Ltd.," 12 May 1906, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/126, Record Group 59, National Archives; I.H. MacDonald to Major Cassius E. Gillette, 13 Oct 1916, Pearson, A4.

126. B. to P., 8 Jan 1906, Pearson, A4; Thorup, "La competencia económica," 622.

127. See the testimony in Revolutions in Mexico, Hearing before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Foreign Relations, U.S. Senate, 62d Congress, 2d sess. (Washington, 1913), 263-65.

128. Both Doheny and Pearson were impelled toward integration by the same incentives identified by Alfred Chandler as motivating U.S. firms to begin foreign operations. Pearson and Doheny wished "to reduce costs by exploiting the economies of throughput" and "to assure a constant flow of materials into processing and manufacturing plants on a precise schedule and to precise specifications." Alfred Chandler, Jr., "Technological and Organizational Underpinnings of Modern Industrial Enterprise: The Dynamics of Competitive Advantage," in Multinational Enterprise in Historical Perspective, ed. Alice Teichova, Maurice Lévy-Leboyer, and Helga Nussbaum (Cambridge, Eng., 1986), 52.

129. "Second Interview with Mr. Arthur C. Payne," 20 May 1918, Doheny.

130. Percy Norman Furber, I Took Chances: From Windjammers to Jets (Leicester, 1953), 129-30, 139-41. Apparently the Royal Dutch-Shell also rejected an offer to buy Furbero. See Gerretson, History of the Royal Dutch (Leiden, 1953), 4:264.

131. Anonymous, Daily Field Book, 1908, entry for 22 Feb, OHTOR, Box 3K10 F6.

132. Furber, I Took Chances, 125, 141-142; "Oil Fields of Mexico Co." The Joint Stock Companies' Journal, 14 Aug 1912, Shell International Petroleum Co. archives, London, press clippings.

133. "Anglo-Mexican Oilfields Limited" [log book], 1908-9, OHTO, box 3K10 F6; Furber, I Took Chances, 127-30, 140-45.

134. "Mexico Oil Fields: Some Well Logs," n.d., DeGolyer, file 5300; Guillermo de Landa y Escandón to Pearson, 8 June 1910, Pearson, A4.

135. See correspondence of A.J. Lespinasse to David E. Thompson, 6 Oct 1906 to 2 Oct 1908, State Dept. Numerical and Minor Files, 1854.

136. Body, "Notes for Sir Weetman," 15 May 1909, Pearson, "Memo for Mr. Body," 9 Mar 1909, Pearson, A4.

137. As quoted in Spender, Weetman Pearson, 155.

138. Merrill Griffith to asst. sec. of state, 15 Aug 1908, State Dept. Numerical and Minor Files, 14453/2.

139. Merrill Griffith to Thompson, 6 July 1908, ibid., 14453. Also see The Pipe Line 3, no. 63 (23 May 1923): 126; R.P. Brousson, "The Oil Industry of Mexico," Pearson, C43 F1.

140. Doheny, "A Few Comments on the Report Submitted to You by Mr. R.A. on August 26, 1911," 7 Sept 1911, Arnold; Merrill Griffith to asst. sec. of state, 8 Sept 1908, State Dept. Numerical and Minor Files, 14453/3; C. Reed, "History of S.P. & S's Interests in Mexico," Aug 1928, Pearson, C43 F1.

141. B. to P., 30 Nov 1907, "Aguila/Waters-Pierce Oil Co. Agreement," 15 May 1908, Pearson, C44 F7.

142. L. to G.W., 16 May 1908, Pearson, C44 F7.

143. P. to B., 23 Dec 1907, Cowdray, "History of the Fight with the Waters Pierce Oil Co.," Aug 1928, Cowdray, "Private Memo re negotiations with Mr. Clay Pierce," 8 Mar 1909, Pearson, C44 F7.

144. "Memo to Mr. W. re Agreement with C.P." 30 Jan 1908, L. to H.C. P, 8 Feb 1908, C. to H.J., 20 Oct 1909, and L. to Japp, 8 Nov 1909, Pearson, C44 F7.

145. From Cowdray's private papers, as quoted in Middlemas, The Master Builders, 216.

146. Ronald MacLeay to Sir Edmund Gray, 18 June 1909, FO, 368-309/25272; "History: The Mexican Eagle Oil Company, Ltd.," Pearson, C43 F1; Julian Barlow to asst. sec. of state, 31 Dec 1897, U.S. Consular Despatches, Mexico City, no. 65. Gerretson, History of the Royal Dutch, 4:260, claims that El Aguila incorporated in 1908.

147. Diario Oficial, 4 Feb 1904, 1 Apr 1904 in Clayton to sec. of state, 11 Apr 1904, Despatches from U.S. Ministers to Mexico, no. 2235.

148. As quoted in Gerretson, History of the Royal Dutch, 4:261; Pearson to Dr. M., 16 Apr 1909, "Summary of Correspondence: Negotiations with W.P.O. Co.," Pearson, C44 F7.

149. Thorup, "La competencia económica," 633; Ordóñez, "El Petróleo en México," part 1, 158; Revolutions in Mexico, 263-65.

150. Benjamin Ridgely, "A Great Oil Fight in Mexico," 18 July 1908, State Dept. Numerical and Minor Files, 11770/2-3.

151. "Extract from letter to Senor Guillermo Landa," 30 July 1909, Pearson, A4; Mexican Herald, 27 Mar 1909.

152. See contracts dated 26 Nov 1908, Pearson, C43 F2; The Mexican Herald, 23, 29 Oct 1908; document dated 18 Oct 1908, Ramo de Hacienda, Fomento y Obras Públicas, Secretaría de Comunicación y Obras Públicas, 82/118-1, AGN.

153. ''Extract from letter to Senor Guillermo Landa," 30 July 1909, Pearson, A4.

154. "Report of Secretary of Interior in Response to Senate Res. No. 53, Statement of Dr. C.W. Hayes respecting the Petroleum Fields of Mexico," 5 June 1909, DeGolyer, file 1591; Pearson, "General Memo for Mr. Body," 16 May 1909, Pearson, A4.

155. Lon Tinkle, Mr. De: A Biography of Everette Lee DeGolyer (Boston, 1970), 6-39; B. to P., 21 Jan 1909, Pearson, "Memo for Mr. Body," 24 Mar 1909, Pearson, A4.

156. Tinkle, Mr. De, 15.

157. For a detailed description of the scene at Potrero, see Tinkle, Mr. De, chap. 3; A. E. Chambers, "Potrero No. 4: A History of One of Mexico's Earliest and Largest Wells," Journal of the Institution of Petroleum Technologists 37, no. 9 (1923): 141-64.

158. See DeGolyer's notes dating from Dec 1910 to Jan 1911, DeGolyer, file 1439.

159. Chambers, "Potrero No. 4," 164.

160. Oil Weekly 59, no. 11 (28 Nov 1930): 26.

161. Comments of Robert Stirling in Chambers, "Potrero No. 4," 163-64.

162. Spender, Weetman Pearson, 157-58.

163. Pearson to Body, 8 June 1909, B. to C., 28 June 1911, Body to Cowdray, 10 May 1911, Pearson, A4; Young, Member for Mexico, 131.

164. México, Departamento de la Estádistico Nacional, Resumen del censo general de habitantes de 30 de noviembre de 1921 (Mexico City, 1928), 187-88, 190; México, Secretaría de Economía, Dirección General de Estadística, Estadísticas sociales del Porfiriato, 1877-1910 (Mexico City, 1956), 11; Carlos González Salas, "Sub-cultura laboral en Tampico (1877-1924)" (unpublished ms., 1988), 9-10; S. Lief Adleson G., "Historia social de los obreros industriales de Tampico, 1906-1919" (doctoral thesis, El Colegio de México, 1982), 4.

165. México, Secretaría de Fomento, Censo y division territorial del Estado de Tamaulipas verificados en 1900 (Mexico City, 1904).

166. Historically, Veracruz had always dominated Mexican foreign trade. In 1828, for example, 276 ships departed from Mexico, of which 110 departed from Veracruz, 69 from Tampico, 7 from Tuxpan, and 4 from Coatzalcoalcos. Inés Herrera Canales, Estadística del comercio exterior de México (1821-1875) (Mexico City, 1980), 237, 245-46, 262, 287-92.

167. H.S. Gilbert to Magill, 1 Oct 1902, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, Misc. Letters Rec'd; Salas, "Sub-cultura laboral en Tampico," 11; Cosío Villegas et al., Historia moderna de México, vol. 7, pt. 2, 95.

168. Cosío Villegas et al., Historia moderna de México, vol. 7, pt. 2, 10, 247, 520, 544; Adleson, "Historia social de los obreros," 14-15.

169. México, Secretaría de Fomento, Censo y division territorial del Estado de Vera Cruz verificados en 1900 (Mexico City, 1904); Censo de Tamaulipas (Mexico City, 1904).

170. Cosío Villegas et al., Historia moderna de México, vol. 7, pt. 2, 115-16, 135, 147.

171. México, Secretaría de Economía, Estadísticas sociales del Porfiriato, 41. For all of Mexico between 1877 and 1910, the number of haciendas grew from 5,869 to 8,431 and ranchos from 14,705 to 48,633.

172. See Frans J. Schryer, The Rancheros of Pisaflores: The History of a Peasant Bourgeoisie in Twentieth-Century Mexico (Toronto, 1980), 7.

173. W.E. Lucas to S.E. Magill, 31 Jan 1907, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, Misc. Letters Rec'd.

174. Ordóñez, "El petróleo en México," part 1, 159.

175. Powell Clayton to sec. of state, 27 May 1898, Despatches from U.S. Ministers to Mexico, no. 443.

176. Andrés Molina Enríquez, Los grandes problemas nacionales (1909) (Mexico City, 1978), 158-59.

177. México, Secretaría de Fomento, Censo de Vera Cruz and Censo de Tamaulipas.

178. Cosío Villegas et al., Historia moderna de México, vol. 7, part 2, 747.

179. Merrill Griffith to Thompson, 1 June 1908, State Dept. Numerical and Minor Files, 14054.

180. Thomas Ryan to sec. of state, 2 Jan 1890, Despatches from U.S. Ministers to Mexico, no. 197; Mexican Herald, 2 Apr 1904, in Clayton to sec. of state, 11 Apr 1904, Despatches from U.S. Ministers to Mexico, no. 2235.

181. A.J. Lespinasse to Loomis, 28 Apr 1905, U.S. Consular Despatches, Tuxpan, no. 52, Record Group 59, National Archives; Lespinasse to Robert Bacon, 7 Feb 1906, ibid., no. 62; Lespinasse to David J. Hill, 21 Aug 1902, 9 Mar 1904, 5 Jan 1903, 11 Mar 1903, 11 May 1904, ibid., nos. 9, 40, 19, 23, 44.

182. Lespinasse to Hill, 25 Feb, 20 Apr, 18 May 1904, ibid., nos. 38, 41, 46; Cosío Villegas et al., Historia moderna de México, vol. 7, part 2, 14, 545, 963.

183. Samuel E. McGill to Francis Loomis, 5 July 1904, Despatches from U.S. Ministers to Mexico, no. 201; Horace M. Reeve to Powell Clayton, 13 Oct 1904, ibid., no. 2486; McGill to Loomis, 18 Feb 1903, 31 Oct 1905, U.S. Consular Despatches, Tampico, nos. 159, 221; Magill to Herbert H.D. Pierce, 27 July 1903, ibid., no. 172; Mordelo L. Vincent, Jr., A Man Remembers (Chapel Hill, 1985), 9-12.

184. 28 June, 4 Aug 1906, U.S. Consular Despatches, Tampico, nos. 245, 251; John A. Nelson to Magill, 16 Apr 1906, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, Misc. Letters Rec'd.

185. H.H. Harder to Magill, 20 Feb 1906, William Hollis to Magill, 24 Apr 1905, ibid.

186. C.A. Miller to F.C. Tompkins, 14 June 1911, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, General Correspondence.

187. Neill E. Pressley to Mr. G.W. Sigler, 17 Sept 1907, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, Misc. Letters Rec'd.

188. 6 Dec 1903, U.S. Consular Despatches, Tuxpan, no. 35; Edwin R. Wells to Alvey A. Adee, 30 August 1901, 14 Nov 1902, ibid., nos. 5, 14; unnamed correspondent to Loomis, 5 Dec 1904, 2 May 1903, ibid., nos. 51, 25; 29 Sept 1903, ibid., no. 34.

189. Testimony of William A. Horton, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 2:1710. See ibid., 2:1036-37 and 1708-12 for additional information about the American farmers in Mexico.

190. "Labor Conditions on Banana Plantations near Tampico," 11 June 1918, interview no. 545, Doheny.

191. "Interview with Mr. S.W. Smith," 11 May 1918, ibid.

192. Jorge Basurto, El proletariado industrial en México (1850-1930) (Mexico City, 1975), 49.

193. Mexico, Departamento de la Estadística Nacional, Resumen del Censo General de Habitantes, 190; Viviane Brachet de Márquez, La población de los estados mexicanos en el siglo xix (1824-1895) (Mexico City, 1976), 95, 141. The population density of Veracruz increased from 6.99 persons per square kilometer to 15.69 between 1877 and 1910. México, Secretaría de Economía, Estadisticas sociales del Porfiriato, 68.

194. Ralph W. Hutchinson to Magill, 4 July 1903, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, Misc. Letters Rec'd.

195. Ralph W. Hutchinson to Magill, Pánuco, 25 Apr 1904, ibid.

196. W.W. Smith to Magill, 9 Apr 1906, ibid. The eastern region of San Luis Potosí gained a reputation for peasant revolts, and historians identify uprisings in 1849, 1856, 1879, 1882, 1905, and 1910. Cockcroft, Intellectual Precursors of the Mexican Revolution, 51-52.

197. S.E. Cross to Magill, San Luis Potosí, 18 Aug 1905, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, Misc. Letters Rec'd. For the "moral economy," see E.P. Thompson, "The Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Eighteenth Century," Past & Present 50 (1971): 76-136; and James Scott, The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Rebellion and Subsistence in Southeast Asia (New Haven, 1976).

198. Ordóñez, "El petróleo de México," part 1, 148.

199. [Affidavit of E.L. Doheny], n.d. [c. 1918], Cleland; Furber, I Took Chances, 125; "Second Interview with Mr. Arthur C. Payne," 20 May 1918, Doheny; Jesús Silva Herzog, El petróleo de México (Mexico City, 1940), 50.

200. [Affidavit of E.L. Doheny], Cleland.

201. "Interview with Mr. H. Wylie," 15 May 1918, Doheny.

202. Cleland, second interview with Doheny, 20 May 1918, ibid.

203. "Interview with Mr. H. Wylie," 15 May 1918, Doheny.

204. Ibid.

203. "Interview with Mr. H. Wylie," 15 May 1918, Doheny.

204. Ibid.

205. "Second Interview with Mr. Arthur C. Payne," 20 May 1918, Doheny; L.W. Prunty to American consul, 10 Sept, 11 Dec 1910, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, General Correspondence.

206. Doheny to Estelle Doheny, 29 Dec 1906, Pablo P. Juárez to Carlos E. Shillaber, 28 Aug 1907, Shillaber to Doheny, 12 Sept 1907, AALA.

207. "Interview with Mr. H. Wylie," 15 May 1918, Doheny.

208. Body to Pearson, 25 July 1902, Pearson to Body, 30 June 1905, Pearson, A4.

209. Julio Valdivieso Castillo, Historia del movimiento sindical petrolero en Minatitlán, Veracruz (Mexico City, 1963), 25; Silva Herzog, El petróleo de México, 50.

210. Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 219; anonymous, Daily Field Book, 1908, OHTOR, Box 3K10 F6; Adleson, "Historia social de los obrero," 76, 104.

211. Pearson Photographic Albums, p. 14, PR; Valdivieso Castillo, Historia del movimiento sindical petrolero, 21.

212. D.S. McAlister to U.S. consul, 18 Sept 1910, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, General Correspondence.

213. Body to Pearson, 4 July, 23 July 1910, Pearson, A4.

214. L.D. Archer to sec. of state, 30 Nov 1907, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, Misc. Letters Rec'd.

215. Wylie to Magill, 11 Oct 1906, ibid.; Diana Davids Olien, Oil Booms: Social Change in Five Texas Towns (Lincoln, 1982), 110; Pratt, Growth of a Refining Region, 155. Also see various interview typescripts in the Oral History of the Texas Oil Industry, University of Texas Barker History Center, Austin. The Americans established a similar hierarchical social system in the Panama Canal Zone, retaining native Panamanians and West Indians in the unskilled, low-paying, and unprivileged positions. European gang laborers, who frequently worked no more efficiently than the most seasoned West Indians, still received greater privileges. A Canal Zone policeman once commented on the social attitudes of New Englanders in Panama: "Any northerner can say `nigger' as glibly as a Carolinian, and growl if one of them steps on his shadow." David McCullough, The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870-1914 (New York, 1977), 475-77, 575-76.

216. Anonymous, Daily Field Book, 1908, entry for 19 Mar, OHTOR, Box 3K 10 F6.

217. For discussions of these issues, see Friedrich Katz, The Secret War in Mexico: Europe, the United States and the Mexican Revolution (Chicago, 1981), x; G.M. Joseph, Revolution from Without: Yucatán, Mexico, and the United States, 1880-1924 (Cambridge, Eng., 1982), xiv, 45, 82; Mark Wasserman, Capitalists, Caciques, and Revolution: The Native Elite and Foreign Enterprise in Chihuahua, Mexico, 1854-1911 (Chapel Hill, 1984), 6, 93-94, 173n; John Mason Hart, Revolutionary Mexico: The Coming and Process of Mexican Revolution (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1987), 87, 109; Steven Topik, "The Economic Role of the State in Liberal Regimes: Brazil and Mexico Compared, 1888-1910," in Guiding the Invisible Hand: Economic Liberalism and the State in Latin American History, ed. Joseph L. Love and Nils Jacobsen (New York, 1988), 117-44.

218. David W. Walker, Kinship, Business, and Politics: The Martínez del Río Family in Mexico, 1824-1867 (Austin, 1986), 23.

219. "Interview with Mr. S.W. Smith," 11 May 1918, Doheny.

220. Alexander Gerschenkron, Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective: A Book of Essays (Cambridge, Mass., 1962), 25, 28. There remains the question about whether the Díaz policies were conducive to economic growth or whether those policies increased the instability of the Mexican economy. For instance, Laura Randall criticizes Porfirian decision-makers for faulty economic policies that unbalanced agricultural production and provoked foreign exchange problems that eventually undermined the Mexican economic growth of

the Porfiriato. See Laura Randall, A Comparative Economic History of Latin America, 1:2, 190.

221. Cosío Villegas et al., Historia moderna de México, vol. 8, part 2 (Mexico City, 1972), 842.

222. Marvin D. Bernstein, The Mexican Mining Industry, 1890-1950: A Study of the Interaction of Politics, Economics, and Technology (Albany, 1964), 11, 18-19, 27-28.

223. Carleton Beals, Porfirio Diaz: Dictator of Mexico (Philadelphia, 1932), 328.

224. Detailed discussions of the various laws affecting the petroleum industry are found in Merrill Rippy, Oil and the Mexican Revolution (Leiden, 1972), 7-26; Antonio J. Bermúdez, The Mexican National Petroleum Industry: A Case Study in Nationalization (Stanford, 1963), 2-3.

225. Don M. Coerver, The Porfirian Interregnum: The Presidency of Manuel González of Mexico, 1880-1884 (Fort Worth, 1979), 64, 71-72.

226. José Yves Limantour, Apuntes sobre mi vida pública [1872-1911] (Mexico City, 1965), 91.

227. Furber, I Took Chances, 95-100.

228. Pearson to Dr. M., 16 Apr 1909, "Summary of Correspondence: Negotiations with W.P.O. Co.," Pearson, C44 F7.

229. Walker, Kinship, Business, and Politics, chap. 10; Cosío Villegas et al., Historia Moderna de México, vol. 8, part 2, 359, 371-72, 409. A Mexican historian suggests that Manuel Calero and Jorge Vera Estañol also served as legal advisors to Doheny. See Menéndez, Doheny El Cruel, 35.

230. Beals, Porfirio Diaz, 379; Cosío Villegas et al., Historia Moderna de México, vol. 8, part 2, 130, 169, 373, 387, 424.

231. Ibid., 363, 365, 400, 416, 596, 858.

230. Beals, Porfirio Diaz, 379; Cosío Villegas et al., Historia Moderna de México, vol. 8, part 2, 130, 169, 373, 387, 424.

231. Ibid., 363, 365, 400, 416, 596, 858.

232. Cowdray to Manuel Zamacona, New York, 26 Apr 1911, Pearson, A3 (this letter informed the Mexican government of Cowdray's interview); W.B. Hohler to Grey, 17 May 1911, FO, 371-1147/20781.

233. Cable, Doheny to W.H. Taft, New York City, 5 May 1911, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.00/1666.

234. H.C. Folger, Jr., "Standard Oil Company and Mexico," 4 Apr 1911, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.00/1796.

235. S.W. Finch to the Attorney General, 26 Apr 1911, ibid., 812.00/1503.

236. This report, sent by the special agent for El Paso, Texas, was forwarded by the attorney general to the sec. of state, 2 May 1911, ibid., 812.00/1593.

237. Report quoted verbatim in attorney general to sec. of state, 9 May 1911, ibid., 812.00/1679.

238. See C.R. Troxel to John D. Archbold, 13 Jan 1910; Archbold to Troxel, 14 Jan 1910; William H. Libby to attorney general, 11 May 1911; J.D. Archbold to P.C. Knox, 15 May 1911, ibid., 812.00/1796. Several historians of the Revolution also question the authenticity of the Standard Oil-Madero connection. See especially Knight, The Mexican Revolution, 1:184-87; Peter A.R. Calvert, The Mexican Revolution, 1910-1914: The Diplomatic Anglo-American

Conflict (Cambridge, Eng., 1968), 78-84. Madero's biographer points out that Standard Oil never received a thing from the Madero government. See Stanley R. Ross, Francisco I. Madero: Apostle of Mexican Democracy (New York, 1955), 142-43.

239. Calvert, The Mexican Revolution, 84. Stanley Ross lends credence to this view. Ross, Francisco I. Madero, 141-42.

240. J.B. Body to Cowdray, 20 May, Cowdray to Sebastian de Mier, 9 June 1911, Pearson, A3.