1. Edward C. Hayes, Power Structure and Urban Policy: Who Rules in Oakland ? (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1972), 21; CIO Labor Herald , May 20, 1947; Daily People's World , May 7, 9, 1947.

2. Carl Abbott, The New Urban America: Growth and Politics in Sunbelt Cities (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1981), 120-142.

3. Proponents of this view include Nelson Lichtenstein, Labor's War at Home: The CIO in World War II (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982); and James C. Foster, The Union Politic: The CIO Political Action Committee (Columbia, Mo.: University of Missouri Press, 1975).

4. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Sixteenth Census of the United States, 1940: Reports on Population , Vol. 2, Characteristics of the Population , Part I, "California"; Beth Bagwell, Oakland: The Story of a City (Novato, Calif.: Presidio Press, 1982), 62, 82, 90, 196; Lawrence P. Crouchett, Lonnie G. Bunch III, and Martha Kendall Winnacker, eds., Visions Toward Tomorrow: The History of the East Bay Afro-American Community, 1852-1977 (Oakland: Northern California Center for Afro-American History and Life, 1989), 9-10, 37.

5. Hayes, Power Structure and Urban Policy , 10-14.

6. Bruce Nelson, Workers on the Waterfront: Seamen, Longshoremen, and Unionism in the 1930s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988), 127-129, 137, 219-221; Bagwell, Oakland: Story of a City , 218; East Bay Labor Journal , July 27, 1934.

7. Labor Herald , June 8, 15, August 24, September 22, October 6, 20, December 1, 29, 1937, March 31, May 19, October 27, 1938; Hayes, Power Structure and Urban Policy , 17-18.

8. East Bay Labor Journal August 24, 1934; Labor Herald , July 27, 1937, May 5, July 7, August 4, 1938; Labor's Non-Partisan League of Alameda County, Bring the New Deal to California (Oakland, n.p., n.d.); Labor's Non-Partisan League of California, Minutes and Report , December 1937, June 1938, January 1939 (copies of League documents in Institute for Governmental Studies Library, University of California, Berkeley).

9. Oakland Tribune Yearbook, 1943 (Oakland: Oakland Tribune Company, 1943), 29. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Sixteenth Census of the United States, 1940: Reports on Population , Vol. 2, Characteristics of the Population , Part 1, "California"; and Population , Series CA-3, No. 3, Characteristics of the Population, Labor Force, Families and Housing, San Francisco Bay Congested Production Area, April 1944 . A general overview of the wartime transformation of West Coast cities is available in Gerald Nash's The American West Transformed: The Impact of the Second World War (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985); a more specific account of the East Bay may be found in my book The Second Gold Rush: Oakland and the East Bay in World War II (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).

10. Commonwealth Club of California, The Population of California (San Francisco: Parker Printing Co., 1946), 127. Census Bureau, U.S. Census of Population: 1950 , Vol. 2, Characteristics of the Population , Part 5, "California"; and Population , Series CA-3, No. 3, Characteristics of the Population, San Francisco Area , 14.

11. For a more complete account of labor organization in East Bay shipyards, see chapter three of Johnson, The Second Gold Rush .

12. Labor Herald , April 16, 1943. For specific examples of labor's involvement in citywide committees, see back issues of the Labor Herald for 1943-45.

13. Oakland Postwar Planning Committee, Oakland's Formula for the Future (Oakland: n.p., 1945); Hayes, Power Structure and Urban Policy , 145-146.

14. Carl Abbott, ''Planning for the Home Front in Portland and Seattle, 1940-45, in The Martial Metropolis , ed. Roger Lotchin (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1984), 181-182; Labor Herald , December 12, 1944. For the shifting priorities of labor, see back issues of the CIO's Labor Herald for the war and prewar years.

15. Nelson Lichtenstein suggests that the founding of the CIO-PAC was also a reaction to the internal threat from left-wing CIO members (primarily in New York and Michigan) who supported a radical third-party alternative. I have found no evidence of a similar split in California CIO ranks. Lichtenstein, Labor's War at Home , 172-173; Robert H. Zeiger, American Workers, American Unions, 1920-1985 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), 115; Foster, The Union Politic , 14.

16. Labor Herald , June 20, 1944, October 6, 20, 1944, November 3, 1944; Daily People's World , October 23, 24, 1944. Local Republicans even suggested that a conspiracy was afoot to "colonize" California cities with Southern Democrats. Migrant war workers, said the editors of the local conservative weekly, "are being dragooned into California from the solid Democratic Southern states, where their votes are not needed . . ." Oakland Observer , June 17, 1944.

17. Daily People's World , November 4, 9, 1944. For an insider's view of PAC organizing in a war housing project, see Henry Kraus, In the City Was a Garden (New York: Renaissance Press, 1951).

18. James C. Foster argues that the CIO-PAC was not the effective vote-getting machine that contemporaries believed; see Foster, The Union Politic , 1-2; Joseph James, "Profiles: San Francisco," in "Race Relations on the Pacific Coast," ed. L. D. Reddick, Journal of Educational Sociology 19 (November 1945): 175; Daily People's World , November 10, 1944; Oakland Tribune , April 18, 1945. The organizational affiliations of the 1944 campaign coordinators were as follows: Ruby Heide, secretary of the Alameda County CIO Council; J. C. Reynolds, chair of the Alameda County Central Labor Council; William Hollander and Earl Hall, directors of the county Democratic and Republican campaigns to reelect Roosevelt; and C. L. Dellums, an official in the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters and president of the Alameda County NAACP.

19. Labor Herald , December 22, 1944, February 16, March 2, 1945.

20. Daily People's World , March 17, 1945; Department of Labor, War Manpower Commission, "Summary of Monthly Narrative Reports, June 14, 1945," Labor Market Survey Reports, Box 27, Bureau of Employment Security, Record Group 183, National Archives, Washington, D.C.; Labor Herald , February 16, 1945.

21. For a more detailed articulation of this view, see William C. Mullendore. "What Price Prosperity?" (Oakland: Oakland Chamber of Commerce, 1946) (copy in Institute for Governmental Studies Library, University of California, Berkeley); and Gerald Nash, World War H and the American West: Reshaping the Economy (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990).

22. My argument about the war years was influenced by my reading of Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990).

23. Daily People's World , April 6, 13, 20, 1945; Labor Herald , February 16, 1945.

24. Labor Herald , February 16, 1945; Daily People's World , April 9, 13, 20, 1945.

25. In an attempt to split the labor vote, the Knowland forces pressured incumbent councilman James DePaoli to resign one month before the Oakland elections of 1945. They appointed James D'Arcy, an official of the AFL Culinary Workers Union and a Knowland supporter, to replace him and then announced D'Arcy's candidacy as an incumbent. The United for Oakland Committee denounced D'Arcy, noting that his union had followed exclusionary and undemocratic policies during the war. Labor forces thus remained united behind their candidate, CIO steelworkers' shop steward Herman Bittman. Labor Herald , March 16, 1945; Daily People's World , March 15, 17, 1945.

26. Labor Herald , February 16, March 16, 1945; Daily People's World , March 15, April 6, 13, 1945; Oakland Tribune Yearbook: 1944 , 45; Abbott, The New Urban America , 121.

27. Labor Herald , April 20, 1945; Daily People's World , March 16, 1945.

28. James, "Profiles: San Francisco," 175.

29. Labor Herald , April 13, 20, 1945; Daily People's World , April 19, 1945; Oakland Tribune , March 25, April 15, 18, 1945. Despite the moderate tone of the labor campaign, the pro-incumbent Oakland Tribune did not hesitate to redbait the UOC, highlighting the fact that the local Community Party supported the progressive slate. Such attacks, however, did not reach lethal potential until the peak Cold War years beginning in 1948.

30. Hayes, Power Structure and Urban Policy , 145; Daily People's World , April 19, 1945. The school measure was subsequently defeated; Hayes speculates that the separation of the bond measures indicated lukewarm business support for school funding.

31. M. I. Gershenson, "Wartime and Postwar Employment Trends in California," Monthly Labor Review 64 (April 1947): 577, 584; U.S. Department of Labor, War Manpower Commission, "Summary of Monthly Narrative Reports, June 14, 1945," Labor Market Survey Reports, Box 27, Bureau of Employment Security, Record Group 183, National Archives, Washington, D.C.; and ''Monthly Area Statement, Richmond, California," October, November 1946, located in Box 20 of above collection.

32. Zeiger, American Workers, American Unions , 100-108; Philip Taft, Labor Politics American Style: The California State Federation of Labor (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968).

33. Oakland Tribune , December 2, 5, 1946; San Francisco Chronicle , December 4, 1946; Hayes, Power Structure and Urban Policy , 19-20. For the most detailed accounts of the Oakland general strike, see Philip J. Wolman, "The Oakland General Strike of 1946," Southern California Quarterly 57 (1975): 147-178; and Frank H. Douma, "The Oakland General Strike" (M.A. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1951).

34. Hayes, Power Structure and Urban Policy , 21-22; Oakland Voters Herald , May 9, 1947.

35. Hayes, Power Structure and Urban Policy , 21-22; Labor Herald , April 22, 29, May 6, 1947; Oakland Voters League circular, March 24, 1947 (copies in election files, Oakland History Room, Oakland Public Library).

36. Labor Herald , April 9, 1947; Daily People's World , May 6, 1947; Hayes, Power Structure and Urban Policy , 81-82. The only labor unions not participating in the OVL campaign were the fourteen locals of the Teamsters Union led by conservative Knowland supporter Charles Real. Real had been instrumental in getting the international to call off striking Oakland teamsters in 1946, thus breaking the general strike. Oakland Voters Herald , May 9, 1947.

37. Labor Herald , April 9, 1947; Oakland Voters Herald , May 9, 1947; Daily People's World , May 2, 6, 9, 12, 1947. The Oakland Tribune, Post-Enquirer , and other mainstream newspapers were strangely mute about the electoral challenge. Except for some editorial redbaiting just prior to the elections (see, for example, April 1947 issues of the Oakland Tribune ), the Knowland-owned Tribune and the Hearst-owned Post-Enquirer provided no sustained coverage. In ignoring their opponents, I suspect, the Knowland machine hoped to render them invisible and thus ineffective. By contrast, the labor and left press devoted extensive coverage to these events. Used carefully, these sources provide vital information on Oakland municipal politics unavailable elsewhere in the written record.

38. Oakland Tribune , May 14, 1947; Labor Herald , May 20, 1947; Daily People's World , May 14, 1947; Hayes, Power Structure and Urban Policy , 21. The Labor Herald claimed that Goldfarb's loss was a result of the misplacement of his name under the incumbents' column on the 1947 ballot. Alternatively, Hayes suggests that it was anti-Semitism which contributed to Goldfarb's defeat in this predominantly Protestant city.

39. Labor Herald , July 8, 1947.

40. Census Bureau, Census of Population 1950 , Vol. 2, Characteristics of the Population , Pt. 5, "California"; Housing Authority of Oakland, "Analysis of the Oakland Housing Shortage as of January, 1946," 1 (located in Institute for Governmental Studies Library, University of California, Berkeley); Hayes, Power Structure and Urban Policy , 77-78.

41. For information on the changing composition of public housing projects, see Helen Smith Alancraig, "Codornices Village: A Study of Non-Segregated Public Housing" (M.A. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1953), 113; and Housing Authority of Oakland, Annual Report, 1946-47 , 2-3. For a thorough explanation of the discriminatory functioning of federal loan programs, see Kenneth Jackson, The Crabgrass Frontier (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985).

42. Under the council-manager form of government, city councilmembers elected a mayor from among their own ranks. Several of the older conservative councilmembers were bidding for the position, which meant that liberals would cast the deciding vote. See Edward C. Hayes, "Power Structure and the Urban Crisis" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1968), 56-57.

43. California Housing Association, Newsletter , November 18, 1949; Alancraig, " Codornices Village," 82-83; San Francisco Chronicle , November 17, 1949.

44. San Francisco Chronicle , November 17, 1949, January 4, 1950; California Housing Association, Newsletter , December 27, 1949; Hayes, "Power Structure and the Urban Crisis," 59-60.

45. Alancraig, "Codornices Village," 85; Hayes, Power Structure and Urban Policy , 83. See also Housing Authority of Oakland, annual reports for 1948-49 through 1959-60.

46. Zeiger, American Workers, American Unions , 131; Labor Herald , May 22, 1951; Daily People's World , May 18, 1951; Oakland Tribune , May 11, 1951.

47. Richard Baisden, "Labor in Los Angeles Politics" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1958), 359-378; Thomas S. Hines, "Housing, Baseball, and Creeping Socialism," Journal of Urban History 8 (February 1982): 137-140; Carl Abbott, Portland: Planning, Politics, and Growth in a Twentieth Century City (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), 156-158.

48. Baisden, "Labor in Los Angeles Politics," 309-324; James, "Profiles: San Francisco," 175; William Issel, "Liberalism and Urban Policy in San Francisco from the 1930s to the 1960s,'' Western Historical Quarterly 22 (November 1991): 431-450.

49. For an insightful analysis of "old" and "new" social movements, see Bob Fisher and Joe Kling, "Popular Mobilization in the 1990s: Prospects for the New Social Movements," New Politics (Winter 1991): 71-84; and Robert Korstad and Nelson Lichtenstein, "Opportunities Lost and Found: Labor, Radicals, and the Early Civil Rights Movement," Journal of American History 75 (December 1988): 786-811.