1. Dominique Lapierre, Beyond Love, trans. Kathryn Spink (New York: Warner Books, 1991), 51-54; Randy Shilts, And the Band Played On: Politics, People, and the AIDS Epidemic (New York: St. Martin's, 1987), 42-67.

2. "Pneumocystis Pneumonia—Los Angeles," Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 30 (5 June 1981): 250-252.

3. "Kaposi's Sarcoma and Pneumocystis Pneumonia among Homosexual Men—New York City and California," Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 30 (3 July 1981): 305-308.

4. Lawrence K. Altman, "Rare Cancer Seen in 41 Homosexuals," New York Times, 3 July 1981, A-20.

5. Lawrence Mass, "Cancer in the Gay Community," New York Native, 27 July 1981, 1, 21, 30.

6. Michael S. Gottlieb et al., "Pneumocystis Carinii Pneumonia and Mucosal Candidiasis Found in Previously Healthy Homosexual Men," New England Journal of Medicine 305 (10 December 1981): 1425-1431; Henry Masur et al., "An Outbreak of Community-Acquired Pneumocystis Carinii Pneumonia," New England Journal of Medicine 305 (10 December 1981): 1431-1438; Frederick P. Siegal et al., "Severe Acquired Immunodeficiency in Male Homosexuals, Manifested by Chronic Perianal Ulcerative Herpes Simplex Lesions," New England Journal of Medicine 305 (10 December 1981): 1439-1444; David T. Durack, "Opportunistic Infections and Kaposi's Sarcoma in Homosexual Men," New England Journal of Medicine 305 (10 December 1981): 1465-1467; Centers for Disease Control Task Force on Kaposi's Sarcoma and Opportunistic Infections, "Special Report: Epidemiologic Aspects of the Current Outbreak of Kaposi's Sarcoma and Opportunistic Infections," New England Journal of Medicine 306 (28 January 1982): 248-252.

7. Helper T cells go by various names, including T4 cells and CD4 cells, the latter term referring to the CD4 molecule that serves as the receptor site by which other entities bind to the cell. Colloquially, in discussions of AIDS, these cells are often simply called T cells, and I shall do the same except when it is important to distinguish the helper T cells from other varieties of T cells. Increasingly, however, laypeople who are "in the know" use the term "CD4" to demonstrate their linguistic competence. In the later chapters of the book, I adopt that term as well.

8. Siegal et al., "Severe Acquired Immunodeficiency in Male Homosexuals," 1441.

9. Robert O. Brennan and David T. Durack, "Gay Compromise Syndrome," Lancet 2 (December 1981): 1338-1339 (letter to the editor).

10. Masur et al., "Outbreak of Community-Acquired Pneumocystis Carinii Pneumonia."

11. Durack, "Opportunistic Infections and Kaposi's Sarcoma in Homosexual Men," 1466.

12. Matt Clark and Mariana Gosnell, "Diseases That Plague Gays," Newsweek, 21 December 1981, 51-52.

13. Dennis Altman, AIDS in the Mind of America (Garden City: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1986), 33-36, esp. 35; see also Cindy Patton, Sex and Germs: The Politics of AIDS (Boston: South End Press, 1985), 6-7.

14. On "normalization," see Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (New York: Vintage Books, 1979).

15. Gottlieb et al., for instance, reported in December 1981 that, of four patients, one had been monogamous for four years, two had several regular partners, and only one "was highly sexually active and frequented homosexual bars and bathhouses" ("Pneumocystis Carinii Pneumonia and Mucosal Candidiasis," 1429).

16. Irving Kenneth Zola, "Pathways to the Doctor: From Person to Patient," in Perspectives in Medical Sociology, ed. Phil Brown (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1989), 223-238, quote from 234.

17. Eliot Freidson, Profession of Medicine: A Study of the Sociology of Applied Knowledge (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1988), 270.

18. David Perlman, "Drug Users Started AIDS Epidemic, Doctor Says," San Francisco Chronicle, 18 October 1985, 28; Cindy Patton, Inventing AIDS (New York: Routledge, 1990), 27-28.

19. The currency of this term has been reported by Shilts, among others, and it was used in the New York Times (Shilts, And the Band Played On, 121; Lawrence K. Altman, "New Homosexual Disorder Worries Health Officials," New York Times, 11 May 1982, C1). However, as Murray and Payne have noted, few instances can be found in the published medical literature, suggesting that "GRID" never became institutionalized as a legitimate designation for the syndrome (Stephen O. Murray and Kenneth W. Payne, "Medical Policy without Scientific Evidence: The Promiscuity Paradigm and AIDS," California Sociologist 11 [winter-summer 1988]: 13-54, esp. 44, note 5). But see Michael S. Gottlieb et al., "Gay-Related Immunodeficiency (GRID) Syndrome: Clinical and Autopsy Observations" (abstract submitted to the Thirty-Ninth Annual National Meeting of the American Federation for Clinical Research, Washington, D.C., 7-10 May 1982), Clinical Research 30 (April 1982): 349A; M. Vogt et al., "GRID-Syndrome," Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift 107 (15 October 1982): 1539-1542.

20. On "framing," see Erving Goffman, Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience (New York: Harper & Row, 1974). On the framing of illnesses, see Charles E. Rosenberg, "Introduction: Framing Disease: Illness, Society, and History," in Framing Disease: Studies in Cultural History, ed. Charles E. Rosenberg and Janet Golden (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers Univ. Press, 1992), xiii-xxvi.

21. See Gerald M. Oppenheimer, "In the Eye of the Storm: The Epidemiological Construction of AIDS," in AIDS: The Burdens of History, ed. Elizabeth Fee and Daniel M. Fox (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1988), 279-280.

22. Shilts, And the Band Played On, 83, 104, 171.

23. Henry L. Kazal et al., "The Gay Bowel Syndrome: Clinico-Pathologic Correlation in 260 Cases," Annals of Clinical and Laboratory Science 6 (March-April 1976): 184-192; Yehudi M. Felman, "Examining the Homosexual Male for Sexually Transmitted Diseases," Journal of the American Medical Association 238 (7 November 1977): 2046-2047; Samuel Vaisrub, "Homosexuality—A Risk Factor in Infectious Disease," Journal of the American Medical Association 238 (26 September 1977): 14 (editorial); Alexander McMillan, "Gonorrhea in Homosexual Men: Frequency of Infection by Culture Site," Sexually Transmitted Diseases 5 (October-December 1978): 146-150; Richard R. Babb, "Sexually Transmitted Infections in Homosexual Men," Postgraduate Medicine 65 (March 1979): 215-218; Yehudi M. Felman, "Homosexual Hazards," The Practitioner 224 (November 1980): 1151-1156; Franklyn N. Judson, "Comparative Prevalence Rates of Sexually Transmitted Diseases in Heterosexual and Homosexual Men," American Journal of Epidemiology 112 (December 1980): 836-843; William M. Owen Jr., "Sexually Transmitted Diseases and Traumatic Problems in Homosexual Men," Annals of Internal Medicine 92 (June 1980): 805-808; H. Hunter Handsfield, "Sexually Transmitted Diseases in Homosexual Men," American Journal of Public Health 71 (September 1981): 989-990 (editorial); R. R. Willcox, "Sexual Behaviour and Sexually Transmitted Disease Patterns in Male Homosexuals," British Journal of Venereal Diseases 57 (June 1981): 167-169.

24. See Steven Epstein, "Moral Contagion and the Medicalizing of Gay Identity: AIDS in Historical Perspective," Research in Law, Deviance and Social Control 9 (1988): 3-36.

25. Felman, "Homosexual Hazards."

26. Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, vol. 1 (New York: Vintage, 1980), 43; Jeffrey Escoffier, "The Politics of Gay Identity," Socialist Review, July-October 1985, 119-153; Jeffrey Weeks, Sexuality and Its Discontents: Meanings, Myths and Modern Sexualities (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985); Peter Conrad and Joseph W. Schneider, Deviance and Medicalization: From Badness to Sickness (St. Louis: C. V. Mosby, 1980).

27. For a history of "gay bowel syndrome" and its relation to essentialist conceptions of the gay male body, see Michael Scarce, "Urban Bums and Rough Rides: A Bad Case of Gay Bowel Syndrome" (master's thesis, Ohio State University, 1995). Clearly, there are important parallels here to the medical portrayal of gender and racial differences; see Deborah Lupton, Medicine as Culture: Illness, Disease and the Body in Western Societies (London: Sage, 1994).

28. Alan P. Bell and Martin S. Weinberg, Homosexualities: A Study of Diversity among Men and Women (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1978).

29. In fact, most of these blanket characterizations of gay male sexuality were based on studies of patients at clinics for treatment of sexually transmitted diseases. One study did attempt to recruit a large sample of homosexual men from the "gay community" at large by distributing questionnaries in a gay magazine and through gay organizations (William Darrow et al., "The Gay Report on Sexually Transmitted Diseases," American Journal of Public Health 71 [September 1981]: 1004-1011); but it is doubtful that the 1.5 percent response rate generated a representative sample of readers of the magazine or members of the organizations, let alone members of "the gay community," whatever its supposed locus and boundaries.

30. "Immunocompromised Homosexuals," Lancet 2 (12 December 1981): 1326 (editorial).

31. Murray and Payne, "Medical Policy without Scientific Evidence"; Stephen O. Murray and Kenneth W. Payne, "The Social Classification of AIDS in American Epidemiology," Medical Anthropology 10 (March 1989): 115-128.

32. Quoted in "Safe-Sex Comic Book for Gays Riles Senate," San Francisco Chronicle, 15 October 1987, A-7.

33. Jana L. Armstrong, "Causal Explanations of AIDS," in The Meaning of AIDS: Implications for Medical Science, Clinical Practice, and Public Health Policy, ed. Eric T. Juengst and Barbara A. Koenig (New York: Praeger, 1989), 12.

34. Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary, 27th ed. (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1988), 285.

35. Charles Rosenberg, The Cholera Years (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1962), 133-150.

36. Judith Walkowitz, Prostitution and Victorian Society: Women, Class, and the State (Cambridge, England: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1980), 56.

37. Joan Trauner, "The Chinese as Medical Scapegoats in San Francisco, 1870-1905," California History, spring 1978, 70-87.

38. Shilts, And the Band Played On, 149.

39. See Michael Bronski, "AIDing Our Guilt and Fear," Gay Community News, 9 October 1982, 8.

40. A publication called BAPHRON, the newsletter for the Bay Area chapter, is a useful source of information about the activities and concerns of this group.

41. See Dennis Altman, The Homosexualization of America (Boston: Beacon Press, 1982).

42. See D. Altman, AIDS in the Mind of America; Patton, Sex and Germs; Steven Petrow, Pat Franks, and Timothy R. Wolfred, eds., Ending the HIV Epidemic: Community Strategies in Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (Santa Cruz, Calif.: Network Publications, 1990).

43. Quoted in Lawrence Mass, "An Epidemic Q&A," New York Native, 21 June 1982, 11 (emphasis in the original).

44. "Update on Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)—United States," Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 31 (24 September 1982): 508.

45. Lawrence K. Altman, "AIDS Now Seen as a Worldwide Health Problem," New York Times, 29 November 1983, C-1.

46. Cristine Russell, "Body's Immune System Disease Seen Occurring Also in Equatorial Africa," Washington Post, 2 April 1983, A-7.

47. Victor Cohn, "Africa May Be the Origin of AIDS Disease," Washington Post, 27 November 1983, A-4.

48. Anthony S. Fauci, "The Syndrome of Kaposi's Sarcoma and Opportunistic Infections: An Epidemiologically Restricted Disorder of Immunoregulation," Annals of Internal Medicine 96 (June 1982): 777-779 (editorial).

49. "Opportunistic Infections and Kaposi's Sarcoma among Haitians in the United States," Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 31 (9 July 1982): 353-361.

50. "Pneumocystis Carinii Pneumonia among Persons with Hemophilia A," Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 31 (16 July 1982): 366.

51. Lawrence Mass, "A Major Meeting on the Epidemic," New York Native, 2 August 1982, 11, 12.

52. Allan M. Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Diseases in the United States Since 1880 (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1985), 4.

53. René Dubos, Mirage of Health: Utopias, Progress, and Biological Change (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1959), 86.

54. Judith S. Mausner and Shira Kramer, Epidemiology—An IntroductoryText, 2d ed. (Philadelphia: W. Saunders, 1985), 27-34. For a critique of such approaches, see Sylvia Noble Tesh, Hidden Arguments: Political Ideology and Disease Prevention Policy (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers Univ. Press, 1990).

55. See, for example, Barbara Ellen Smith, "Black Lung: The Social Production of Disease," in Perspectives in Medical Sociology, ed. Phil Brown (Prospect Heights, Ill: Waveland Press, 1992), 122-141.

56. Andrew Abbott, The System of Professions: An Essay on the Division of Expert Labor (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1988), 136, 193.

57. Harry Nelson, "Mysterious Fever Now an Epidemic," Los Angeles Times, 31 May 1982, 1, 3, 20.

58. "'Homosexual Plague' Strikes New Victims," Newsweek, 23 August 1982, 10.

59. "Possible Transfusion-Associated Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)—California," Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 31 (10 December 1982): 652-654.

60. "Immunodeficiency among Female Sexual Partners of Males with Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)—New York," Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 31 (7 January 1983): 697-698.

61. Catherine Macek, "Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome Cause(s) Still Elusive," Journal of the American Medical Association 248 (24 September 1982): 1423-1431.

62. For biographical information on Sonnabend, see Bruce Nussbaum, Good Intentions: How Big Business and the Medical Establishment Are Corrupting the Fight Against AIDS (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1990), chapter 4.

63. Anne-Christine d'Adesky, "The Man Who Invented Safer Sex Returns," Out, summer 1992, 29.

64. J. A. Sonnabend, "Promiscuity Is Bad for Your Health: AIDS and the Question of an Infectious Agent," New York Native, 13 September 1982, 39.

65. On the importance of recruiting allies in scientific controversies, see Bruno Latour, Science in Action (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1987), chapter 4.

66. Barry Adkins, "Looking at AIDS in Totality: A Conversation with Joseph Sonnabend," New York Native, 7 October 1985, 22.

67. Latour has stressed that the effect of powerful scientific rhetoric is precisely to "isolate" opponents and make them feel "lonely"; see Science in Action, 33, 44.

68. Adkins, "Looking at AIDS in Totality," 24.

69. Joseph Sonnabend, Steven S. Witkin, and David T. Purtilo, "Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome, Opportunistic Infections, and Malignancies in Male Homosexuals: A Hypothesis of Etiologic Factors in Pathogenesis," Journal of the American Medical Association 249 (6 May 1983): 2370-2374. Reprinted in Irving J. Selikoff, Alvin S. Teirstein, and Shalom Z. Hirschman, eds., Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, vol. 437 of Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (New York: 1984); and in Helene M. Cole and George D. Lundberg, eds., AIDS: From the Beginning (Chicago: American Medical Association, 1986).

70. Sonnabend, Witkin, and Purtilo, "Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome."

71. J. A. Sonnabend, "The Etiology of AIDS," AIDS Research 1 (1983): 1-12.

72. James J. Goedert et al., "Amyl Nitrite May Alter T Lymphocytes in Homosexual Men," Lancet 1 (20 February 1982): 412-415.

73. Mass, "Major Meeting on the Epidemic," 11.

74. Lawrence Mass, "The Epidemic Continues: Facing a New Case Every Day, Researchers Are Still Bewildered," New York Native, 29 March 1982, 1, 12-15.

75. Gordon Murray, "The 'Gay Disease' Epidemic," Gay Community News, 9 October 1982, 8.

76. Bronski, "AIDing Our Guilt," 9.

77. G. Murray, "'Gay Disease' Epidemic," 11.

78. Editors' note, New York Native, 8-21 November 1982, 22.

79. Peter Seitzman, "Good Luck, Bad Luck: The Role of Chance in Contracting AIDS," New York Native, 8-21 November 1982, 22.

80. Michael Callen and Richard Berkowitz, "We Know Who We Are: Two Gay Men Declare War on Promiscuity," New York Native, 8 November 1982, 23-29, quote from 23.

81. Charles Jurrist, "In Defense of Promiscuity: Hard Questions about Real Life," New York Native, 6 December 1982, 27, 29.

82. D. Altman, AIDS in the Mind of America, 40-47; Patton, Sex and Germs, 119-158.

83. Michael Lynch, quoted in D. Altman, AIDS in the Mind of America, 137.

84. Lawrence Mass, "The Case against Medical Panic," New York Native, 17 January, 1983, 25.

85. Callen and Berkowitz, "We Know Who We Are," 29.

86. Dennis Altman, "Legitimation through Disaster: AIDS and the Gay Movement," in AIDS: The Burdens of History, ed. Elizabeth Fee and Daniel M. Fox (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1988), 301-315. On the role of community in social movement mobilization, see Clarence Y. H. Lo, "Communities of Challengers in Social Movement Theory," in Frontiers in Social Movement Theory, ed. Aldon D. Morris and Carol McClurg Mueller (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1992), 224-247.

87. See, for example, Jean-Robert Leonidas and Nicole Hyppolite, "Haiti and the Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome," Annals of Internal Medicine 98 (June 1982): 1020-1021. More generally, see Paul Farmer, AIDS and Accusation: Haiti and the Geography of Blame (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1992).

88. Cathy Jean Cohen, "Power, Resistance and the Construction of Crisis: Marginalized Communities Respond to AIDS" (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1993), 472, 484.

89. Ibid., 450-451.

90. Robert C. Gallo, "HIV—The Cause of AIDS: An Overview on Its Biology, Mechanisms of Disease Induction, and Our Attempts to Control It," Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 1 (December 1988): 521.

91. John M. Coffin, "Introduction to Retroviruses," in AIDS and Other Manifestations of HIV Infection, 2d ed., ed. Gary P. Wormser (New York: Raven Press, 1992), 37-56; Steve Connor and Sharon Kingman, The Search for the Virus, 2d ed. (London: Penguin Books, 1989), 29.

92. Connor and Kingman, Search for the Virus, 29.

93. Robert Gallo, Virus Hunting (New York: Basic Books, 1991), 133.

94. Joan Fujimura, "Constructing `Do-Able' Problems in Cancer Research: Articulating Alignments," Social Studies of Science 17 (May 1987): 257-293.

95. Gallo, Virus Hunting, 134.

96. Robert C. Gallo and Luc Montagnier, "AIDS in 1988," Scientific American 259 (October 1988): 40 ff.

97. Gallo, Virus Hunting, 148-149.

98. John Crewdson, "The Great AIDS Quest (Part 1: Science under the Microscope)," Chicago Tribune, 19 November 1989, C-1.

99. Jacques Leibowitch, A Strange Virus of Unknown Origin (New York: Ballantine Books, 1985), esp. chapter 1.

100. Quoted in Crewdson, "The Great AIDS Quest (Part 1)."

101. Ibid.; Connor and Kingman," Search for the Virus, 33.

102. Robert C. Gallo et al., "Isolation of Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus in Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)," Science 220 (20 May 1983): 865-867; F. Barré-Sinoussi et al., "Isolation of a T-Lymphotropic Retrovirus from a Patient at Risk for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)," Science 220 (20 May 1983): 868-870.

103. Crewdson, "The Great AIDS Quest (Part 1)."

104. Jay Levy, interview by author, tape recording, San Francisco, 16 December 1993.

105. Gallo, Virus Hunting, 170.

106. Crewdson, "The Great AIDS Quest (Part 1)."

107. In November 1993, the Office of Research Integrity of the Department of Health and Human Services concluded a four-year investigation by dropping all accusations of scientific misconduct against Gallo. Gallo declared himself "completely vindicated," but the office said it was "acting reluctantly" in response to the adoption of a new, more stringent definition of what constitutes misconduct in science. See Philip J. Hilts, "Misconduct Charges Dropped against AIDS Virus Scientist," New York Times, 13 November 1993, A-1.

108. Lawrence K. Altman, "Federal Official Says He Believes Cause of AIDS Has Been Found," New York Times, 22 April 1984, 1.

109. Shilts, And the Band Played On, 451.

110. Lawrence K. Altman, "New U.S. Report Names Virus That May Cause AIDS," New York Times, 24 April 1984, C-1.

111. Levy, interview.

112. Connor and Kingman, Search for the Virus, 41.

113. Shilts, And the Bank Played On, 451.

114. John Crewdson, "The Great AIDS Quest (Part 4: `Could You Patent the Sun?')," Chicago Tribune, 19 November 1989, C-7.

115. "A Viral Competition over AIDS," New York Times, 26 April 1984, 22 (editorial).

116. Crewdson, "The Great AIDS Quest (Part 4)."

117. Robert C. Gallo et al., "Frequent Detection and Isolation of Cytopathic Retroviruses (HTLV-III) from Patients with AIDS and at Risk for AIDS," Science 224 (4 May 1984): 500-502.

118. Ibid., 502.

119. Gallo, "HIV—The Cause of AIDS," 523.

120. In one of the other papers, Gallo and his colleagues reported finding antibodies to the virus in three of five asymptomatic IV drug users and six of seventeen asymptomatic homosexual men. Again, there was no knowledge at that point about whether these individuals would develop AIDS. Moreover, the presence of antibodies to the virus was somewhat weaker evidence than the presence of the virus itself (M. G. Sarngadharan et al., "Antibodies Reactive with Human T-Lymphotropic Retroviruses [HTLV-III] in the Serum of Patients with AIDS," Science 224, 4 May 1984, 506-508).

121. Robert Gallo, interview by author, tape recording, Bethesda, Md., 3 November 1994.

122. Gallo, Virus Hunting, 277-280; Alfred S. Evans, "Does HIV Cause AIDS? An Historical Perspective," Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2 (April 1989): 107-113.

123. Richard M. Krause, "Koch's Postulates and the Search for the AIDS Agent," Reviews of Infectious Diseases 6 (March-April 1984): 272, 278. The original talk was presented at the International Congress for Infectious Diseases, Vienna, Austria, August 24-27, 1983.

124. Lawrence K. Altman, "How AIDS Researchers Strive for Virus Proof," New York Times, 23 October 1984, C-3.

125. James E. D'Eramo, "Federal Health Officials Announce Cause of AIDS," New York Native, 7 May 1984, 8.

126. Nathan Fain, "Researchers Track Down Virus They Believe Is AIDS' Cause," Advocate, 29 May 1984, 8-9.

127. Mausner and Kramer, Epidemiology—An Introductory Text, 185.

128. Jay A. Levy et al., "Isolation of Lymphocytopathic Retroviruses from San Francisco Patients with AIDS," Science 225, 24 August 1984, 840-842.

129. Levy, interview.

130. Levy et al., "Isolation of Lymphocytopathic Retroviruses," 225.

131. See, for example, Flossie Wong-Staal and Robert C. Gallo, "The Family of Human T-Lymphotropic Leukemia Viruses: HTLV-I as the Cause of Adult T Cell Leukemia and HTLV-III as the Cause of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome," Blood 65 (February 1985), 253-263.

132. John Coffin et al., "Human Immunodeficiency Viruses," Science 232 (9 May 1986): 697 (letter to the editor).

133. On the stabilization of HIV, see also Paula A. Treichler, "AIDS: An Epidemic of Signification," in AIDS: Cultural Analysis, Cultural Activism, ed. Douglas Crimp (Cambridge, Mass.: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1988), 31-70, esp. 57.

134. Steven Seidman, "Transfiguring Sexual Identity: AIDS and the Contemporary Construction of Homosexuality," Social Text 19/20 (fall 1988): 187-205.

135. On struggles over the ownership of social problems, see Joseph R. Gusfield, The Culture of Public Problems (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1981).

136. On courtesy stigmas in AIDS, see Peter Conrad, "The Social Meaning of AIDS," Social Policy (summer 1986), 53. On the role of lesbians, see Amber Hollibaugh, "Lesbian Denial and Lesbian Leadership in the AIDS Epidemic: Bravery and Fear in the Construction of a Lesbian Geography of Risk," in Women Resisting AIDS: Feminist Strategies of Empowerment, ed. Beth E. Schneider and Nancy E. Stoller (Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press, 1995), 219-230; Nancy Stoller, "Lesbian Involvement in the AIDS Epidemic: Changing Roles and Generational Differences," in Women Resisting AIDS, 270-285.