Hysteria Beyond Freud "nsd0e11158"

Three— The Body and the Mind, The Doctor and the Patient: Negotiating Hysteria

1. See H. O. Lancaster, Expectations of Life: A Study of the Demography, Statistics and History of World Mortality (New York: Springer Verlag, 1990); James C. Riley, Sickness, Recovery and Death: A History and Forecast of Ill Health (London: Macmillan, 1989); Alex Mercer, Disease, Mortality and Population in Transition: Epidemiological-demographic Change in England since the Eighteenth Century as Part of a Global Phenomenon (London: Leicester University Press, a division of Pinter Publishers, 1990); Roderick Floud, Kenneth Wachter, and Annabel Gregory, Height, Health, and History: Nutritional Status in the United Kingdom, 1750-1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Mark Nathan Cohen, Health and the Rise of Civilization (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1989).

2. W. H. McNeill, Plagues and Peoples (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1976); A. Crosby, Ecological Imperialism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986).

3. Mary Kilbourne Matossian, Poisons of the Past: Molds, Epidemics, and History (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1989). It is claimed that some of Freud's "hysterical" patients in reality suffered from organic disorders that Freud, in his zeal for psychodynamic explanations, omitted to investigate. See E. M. Thornton, Hypnotism, Hysteria and Epilepsy: An Hysterical Synthesis (London: Heinemann, 1976); Lindsay C. Hurst, "What Was Wrong with Anna O," Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 75 (1982): 129-131; and the discussion in Mark Micale, "Hysteria and Its Historiography: A Review of Past and Present Writings," History of Science 27 (1989): 223-261, esp. p. 45.

4. The issues of shifting medical terminology are well discussed in J. H. Dirckx, The Language of Medicine: Its Evolution, Structure, and Dynamics (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1983); see also Roy Porter, "The Doctor and the Word," Medical Sociology News 9 (1983): 21-28.

5. James Longrigg, "Plague of Athens," History of Science 18 (1980): 209-225.

6. Such matters lead, of course, to questions as to the meaning of the term disease itself; see W. Riesse, The Conception of Disease: Its History, Its Versions and Its Nature (New York: Philosophical Library, 1953); G. Risse, "Health and Disease: History of the Concepts," in W. T. Reich, ed., Encyclopedia of Bioethics , 2 vols. (New York: Free Press, 1978), 579-585; O. Temkin, "Health and Disease," Dictionary of the History of Ideas 2 (1973): 395-407.

7. On cholera, see Margaret Pelling, Cholera, Fever and English Medicine 1825-1865 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978).

8. See Alan Krohn, Hysteria: The Elusive Neurosis , appearing in Psychological Issues , nos. 45/46 (New York: International Universities Press, 1978). These problems are intelligently addressed for a comparably elusive condition, asthma, in J. Gabbay, "Asthma Attacked? Tactics for the Reconstruction of a Disease Concept," in The Problem of Medical Knowledge , ed. P. Wright and A. Treacher (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1982), 23-48. Modern psychiatrists are themselves unsure of the current validity of the hysteria diagnosis. See, for example, several of the contributions in Alec Roy, ed., Hysteria (Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1982), especially Henri Ey, "Hysteria: History and Analysis of the Concept," 3-19; René Major, "The Revolution of Hysteria," International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 15 (1974): 385-392; D. W. Abse, Hysteria and Related Mental Disorders (Bristol: Wright, 1987); E. M. R. Critchley and H. E. Cantor, ''Charcot's Hysteria Renaissant," British Medical Journal 289 (22-29 December 1984): 1785-1788; Harold Merskey, "Hysteria: The History of an Idea," Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 28 (1983): 428-433; idem, "The Importance of Hysteria," British Journal of Psychiatry 149 (1986): 23-28.

For invaluable reflections on the relations between modern thinking, historiographical trends, and the history of hysteria, see Micale, "Hysteria and Its Historiography" (part 1), 223-261; idem, "Hysteria and Its Historiography" (part 2), 319-350; idem, "Hysteria and Its Historiography: The Future Perspective," History of Psychiatry 1 (1990): 33-124.

9. I believe Elaine Showalter's chap. 4 embodies these goals.

10. Though it developed ideas of diseases of the womb, and diseases of love: see Danielle Jacquart and Claude Thomasset, Sexuality and Medicine in the Middle Ages (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989).

11. From the high serious—for instance, F. C. Skey, Hysteria (London: Longman, 1867)—to the highly stigmatizing: Robert Thornton, The Hysterical Woman: Trials, Tears, Tricks, and Tantrums (Chicago: Donohue & Hennebury, 1893).

12. For the representations of hysteria and other exemplary diseases in art and the media, see Elaine Showalter's and Sander Gilman's chapters. See also S. Sontag, Illness as Metaphor (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1978); idem, AIDS and Its Metaphors (London: Allen Lane, 1988); Sander Gilman, Difference and Pathology (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1985); idem, Disease and Representation: Images of Illness from Madness to Aids (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1988); idem, Seeking the Insane: A Cultural History of Madness and Art in the Western World (New York: Wiley, 1982).

13. Ian Dowbiggin, "The Professional, Sociopolitical, and Cultural Dimensions of Psychiatric Theory in France, 1840-1900," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Rochester, 1986; idem, "French Psychiatric Attitudes toward the Dangers Posed by the Insane ca. 1870," in Research in Law, Deviance, and Social Control , ed. Andrew Scull and Steven Spitzer, vol. 9 (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, 1988), 87-111; Jan Goldstein, "The Hysteria Diagnosis and the Politics of Anti-clericalism in Late Nineteenth Century France," Journal of Modern History 54 (1982): 209-239; J. Guillais, Crimes of Passion (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989); Ruth Harris, "Melodrama, Hysteria and Feminine Crimes of Passion in the Fin-de-Siècle," History Workshop 25 (1988): 31-63; Robert Nye, The Origins of Crowd Psychology: Gustave LeBon and the Crisis of Mass Democracy in the Third Republic (London: Sage, 1975); Daniel Pick, Faces of Degeneration: Aspects of a European Disorder c. 1848-1918 (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Yannick Ripa, Women and Madness: The Incarceration of Women in Nineteenth Century France (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990); S. Moscovici, L'Age des foules: Un Traité historique de Psychologie des masses (Paris: Fayard, 1981).

14. On Ada Byron, see D. Stein, Ada: A Life and Legacy (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1985); for a parallel case, see Roger Cooter, "Dichotomy and Denial: Mesmerism, Medicine and Harriet Martineau," in Science and Sensibility: Gender and Scientific Enquiry, 1780-1945 , ed. Marina Benjamin (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1991), 144-173; generally on patients' accounts of their own conditions, see Dorothy Porter and Roy Porter, Patient's Progress: Doctors and Doctoring in Eighteenth-Century England (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989); idem, In Sickness and in Health: The British Experience 1650-1850 (London: Fourth Estate, 1988).

15. Mark Micale, "Charcot and the Idea of Hysteria in the Male: A Study of Gender, Mental Science, and Medical Diagnostics in Late Nineteenth Century France," Medical History 34 (1990): 363-411.

16. Also discussed in Mark Micale, "Diagnostic Discriminations: Jean-Martin Charcot and the Nineteenth Century Idea of Masculine Hysterical Neurosis," Ph.D. thesis, Yale University, 1987.

17. Edward Shorter, "Paralysis: The Rise and Fall of a 'Hysterical' Symptom," Journal of Social History 19 (1986): 549-582; and, more fully, his From Paralysis to Fatigue: A History of Psychosomatic Illness in the Modern Era (New York: Free Press, 1992).

18. Robert B. Carter, On the Pathology and Treatment of Hysteria (London: John Churchill, 1853).

19. Edward Shorter, "Private Clinics in Central Europe, 1850-1933," Social History of Medicine 3, 2 (1990): 159-196; idem, "Women and Jews in a Private Nervous Clinic in Late Nineteenth Century Vienna," Medical History 33 (1989): 149-183; Anne Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine: A Study of the York Retreat, 1796-1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 217, 287; Charlotte Mackenzie, "A Family Asylum: A History of the Private Madhouse at Ticehurst in Sussex, 1792-1917," Ph.D. dissertation, University of London, 1987; Trevor Turner, "A Diagnostic Analysis of the Casebooks of Ticehurst Asylum 1845-1890," M.D., University of London, 1990.

20. Suzanne Poirier, "The Weir-Mitchell Rest Cure: Doctors and Patients," Women's Studies 10 (1983): 15-40; R. D. Walter, S. Weir Mitchell, MD, Neurologist: A Medical Biography (Springfield, Ill.: Thomas, 1970); Janet Browne, "Spas and Sensibilities: Darwin at Malvern," in The Medical History of Waters and Spas , ed. Roy Porter (London: Wellcome Institute, Medical History Supplement 10, 1990), 102-113; Susan E. Cayleff, Wash and Be Healed: The Water-Cure Movement and Women's Health (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987).

21. Edward Shorter, "Mania, Hysteria and Gender in Lower Austria, 1891-1905," History of Psychiatry 1 (1990): 3-31; Francis Gosling, Before Freud: Neurasthenia and the American Medical Community, 187o-1910 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987).

22. William J. McGrath, Freud's Discovery of Psychoanalysis: The Politics of Hysteria (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1986); John Forrester, The Seductions of Psychoanalysis: Freud, Lacan and Derrida (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); C. Bernheimer and Clare Kahane, eds., In Dora's Case: Freud, Hysteria and Feminism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985).

23. D. Mechanic, "The Concept of Illness Behaviour," Journal of Chronic Disease 15 (1962): 189-194.

24. For excellent cross-cultural comparative accounts, see A. Kleinman, Patients and Healers in the Context of Culture: An Exploration of the Borderline between Anthropology, Medicine, and Psychiatry (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1980); idem, Social Origins of Distress and Disease: Depression, Neurasthenia, and Pain in Modern China (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1986); idem and B. Good, eds., Culture and Depression: Studies in the Anthropology and Cross-Cultural Psychiatry of Affect and Disorder (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1985).

25. For some accounts of these pressures Victorian ideals exerted, see Walter Houghton, Jr., The Victorian Frame of Mind (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1957); Eric Sigsworth, ed., In Search of Victorian Values (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1988); Martin Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal: Culture, Law and Policy in England, 1830-1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991). For further instances see H. Martineau, Life in the Sick-Room: Essays by an Invalid , 2d ed. (London: Moxon, 1854); idem, Autobiography , 2 vols. (London: Virago, 1983; 1st ed., 1877).

26. Among the mass of excellent recent feminist scholarship, see, for instance, Joan Jacobs Brumberg, Fasting Girls: The Emergence of Anorexia Nervosa as a Modern Disease (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989); Lynne Nead, Myths of Sexuality: Representations of Women in Victorian Britain (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988); Cynthia Eagle Russett, Sexual Science: The Victorian Construction of Womanhood (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989).

27. Shorter, "Paralysis"; Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 1830-1980 (London: Virago, 1987); and see op. cit. (ref. 17). Against feminists who claim that hysteria is an effective form of rebellion, Showalter effectively counterargues for the self-victimization thesis. See 'also Ann Daily, Why Women Fail (London: Wildwood House, 1979); idem, The Morbid Streak (London: Wildwood House, 1978). For shellshock see Martin Stone, "Shellshock," in Anatomy of Madness , ed. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd, vol. 2 (London: Routledge, 1985), 242-271; Edward M. Brown, "Between Cowardice and Insanity: Shell Shock and the Legitimation of the Neuroses in Great Britain," Science, Technology and the Military 12, (1988): 323-345.

28. Gilman, Disease and Representation , valuably indicates the sociocultural factors behind so many representations of illness.

29. On Briquet's syndrome see Maurice Dongier, "Briquet and Briquet's Syndrome Viewed from France," Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 28 (October 1983): 422-427. See also J. Babinski and J. Froment, Hysteria or Pithiatism and Reflex Nervous Disorders in the Neurology of War (London: University of London Press, 1918).

30. Harold Merskey, "Hysteria: The History of an Idea," Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 28 (1983): 428-433; idem, "Importance of Hysteria."

31. And see also Helen King, "From Parthenos to Gyne: The Dynamics of Category" (Ph.D., University of London, 1985), and James Palis, E. Rossopoulos, and L.-C. Triarkou, "The Hippocratic Concept of Hysteria: A Translation of the Original Texts," Integrative Psychiatry 3 (1985): 226-228. Compare A. Rousselle, Porneia: On Desire and the Body in Antiquity (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988).

32. (Hysteria has always existed, in all places and in all times.) Quoted in E. Trillat, Histoire de l'Hystérie (Paris: Seghers, 1986), 272.

33. J.-M. Charcot and P. Richer, Les Démoniaques dans l'art (Paris: Delahaye and Lecrosnier, 1887); J. Carroy-Thirard, "Possession, Extase, Hystérie au XIX siècle," Psychanalyse a l'Université (1980), 499-515; idem, Le Mal de Morzine: De la Possession a l'hystérie (Paris: Soin, 1981); see also J. Devlin, The Superstitious Mind: French Peasants and the Supernatural in the Nineteenth Century (London: Oxford University Press, 1987); Jan Goldstein, Console and Classify: The French Psychiatric Profession in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); idem, "The Hysteria Diagnosis and the Politics of Anticlericalism in Late Nineteenth Century France," Journal of Modern History 54 (1982): 209-239; Catherine-Laurence Maire, Les Posedées de Morzine 1857-1873 (Lyons: Presses Universitaires de Lyons, 1981); G. H. Glaser, "Epilepsy, Hysteria and 'Possession'; A Historical Essay," Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 166 (1978): 268-274; on the underlying medical politics, see Jack D. Ellis, The Physician-Legislators of France: Medicine and Politics in the Early Third Republic, 1870-1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Bernard Brais, "The Making of a Famous Nineteenth Century Neurologist: Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-1893)," M. Phil. thesis, University College, London, 1990.

34. The foundational text for this reading is G. Zilboorg, The Medical Man and the Witch During the Renaissance (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1935); and more generally, idem, A History of Medical Psychology (New York: Norton, 1947). The self-validating aspects of this ploy have been explored by T. Szasz, The Myth of Mental Illness (New York: Paladin, 1961).

35. See the discussion in Micale, "Hysteria and Its Historiography," 226.

36. I. Veith, Hysteria: The History of a Disease (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965). Veith's book is assessed in Harold Merskey, "Hysteria: The History of a Disease: Ilza Veith," British Journal of Psychiatry 147 (1985): 576-579, and in Micale, "Hysteria and Its Historiography," 223-261. Elaine Showalter offers in chap. 4 a more sympathetic appraisal of Veith and her work, in context of the ideological constraints shaping her stance, all abundantly clear from Veith's autobiography, Can You Hear the Clapping of One Hand ? (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1988). The following pages should be read alongside Elaine Showalter's more personal assessment of Veith below, which sympathetically and convincingly reconstructs Veith's study from a biographical viewpoint. The aim of my discussion is rather different: it is to show the inbuilt historiographical biases resulting from uncritically accepted Freudian perspectives.

37. This characterization of the Middle Ages is revealed as complete caricature in Helen King's essay in chap. 1, and in Jacquart and Thomasset's Sexuality and Medicine in the Middle Ages , 173ff.

38. Veith, Hysteria , 156, 157, 183.

39. J. Breuer and S. Freud, Studies on Hysteria , in The Standard Edition of the Complete Works of Sigmund Freud , ed. J. Strachey et al., vol. 3 (London: Hogarth Press, 1959), 86.

40. Veith, Hysteria , viii.

41. Ibid., 199.

40. Veith, Hysteria , viii.

41. Ibid., 199.

42. Carter, Pathology and Treatment of Hysteria ; A. Kane and E. Carlson, "A Different Drummer: Robert B. Carter on Nineteenth Century Hysteria," Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 58 (1982): 519-534.

43. For a sample see Bernheimer and Kahane, In Dora's Case ; J. Gallop, The Daughter's Seduction: Feminism and Psychoanalysis (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1982); Dianne Hunter, "Hysteria, Psychoanalysis, and Feminism: The Case of Anna O.," Feminist Studies 9 (1983): 464-488; Showalter, Female Malady ; J. M. Masson, The Assault on Truth: Freud's Suppression of the Seduction Theory (London: Faber, 1984; Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin, 1985); idem, A Dark Science: Women, Sexuality and Psychiatry in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1986); M. Rosenbaum and M. Muroff, eds., Anna O: Fourteen Contemporary Reinterpretations (New York: Free Press, 1984). For Freud and the witch-hunters, see J. M. Masson, ed., The Complete Letters of Sigmund Freud to Wilhelm Fliess, 1887-1904 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1986), 225.

44. Veith, Hysteria , vii.

45. Veith doles out dozens of accolades and brickbats. See, for instance, the judgment on Paré, that his "return to the ancient views on hysteria, though seemingly a regression, was actually a scientific advance": Veith, Hysteria , 116; or the view that Jorden showed "extraordinary perceptiveness" because he recognized the role of mental passions (123); likewise the "surprisingly contemporary overtones" of Burton's "blunt assertion of the evils of enforced sexual abstinence" (127).

46. Szasz, Myth of Mental Illness . If Szasz's point is well taken, the shortcoming of his view, however, is that he has nothing to say about pre-Freudian accounts of hysteria.

47. Ibid.; also relevant are idem, The Manufacture of Madness (New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1970).

46. Szasz, Myth of Mental Illness . If Szasz's point is well taken, the shortcoming of his view, however, is that he has nothing to say about pre-Freudian accounts of hysteria.

47. Ibid.; also relevant are idem, The Manufacture of Madness (New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1970).

48. Szasz, Myth of Mental Illness , 100.

49. Ibid., 65.

48. Szasz, Myth of Mental Illness , 100.

49. Ibid., 65.

50. E. Gellner, The Psychoanalytic Movement (London: Paladin, 1985); A. C. Macintyre, The Unconscious (London: Routledge, 1958).

51. For such psychological pictorialization, see Graham Richards, On Psychological Language (London: Routledge, 1989).

52. Szasz, Myth of Mental Illness , 19. For instance, the hysteric behaves in a womanly way (being ultra weak) to avoid fulfilling womanly functions (e.g., having sex, having babies, keeping house).

53. Ibid.

54. The rigidity, arbitrariness, and ahistoricity of Szasz's view of disease are well analyzed in Peter Sedgwick, Psychopolitics (London: Pluto Press; New York: Harper & Row, 1982).

55. Micale, "Hysteria and Its Historiography," (part 1), 223-261; (part 2), 319-350.

56. Points well made in Ludmilla Jordanova, Sexual Visions: Images of Gender in Science and Medicine between the Eighteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1989).

57. See Ian Hacking, The Taming of Chance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); G. Canguilhem, On the Normal and the Pathological (Dordrecht: D. Reidel, 1978).

58. J. Goldstein, "The Hysteria Diagnosis and the Politics of Anticlericalism in Late Nineteenth Century France," Journal of Modern History 54 (1982): 209-239.

59. For classic complaints about the ascientificity of Freud, see K. R. Popper, The Open Society and Its Enemies (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1971); H. J. Eysenck, The Decline and Fall of the Freudian Empire (Harmondsworth: Viking, 1985); E. Gellner, The Psychoanalytic Movement (London: Paladin, 1985).

60. Excellent and contrasting discussions are offered in F. Sulloway, Freud: Biologist of the Mind (New York: Basic Books, 1979); William J. McGrath, Freud's Discovery of Psychoanalysis: The Politics of Hysteria (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1986); Isabel F. Knight, "Freud's Project : A Theory for Studies on Hysteria," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 20 (1984): 340-358; B. B. Rubinstein, "Freud's Early Theories of Hysteria," in Physics, Philosophy and Psychoanalysis: Essays in Honor of Adolf Grünbaum , ed. R. S. Cohen and L. Laudan (Dordrecht: D. Reidel, 1983), 169-190.

61. Hannah Decker, Freud in Germany: Revolution and Reaction in Science, 1883-1907 (New York: University Press International, 1977).

62. See S. Marcus, Freud and the Culture of Psychoanalysis (Boston: Allen & Unwin, 1984).

63. H. T. Ellenberger, The Discovery of the Unconscious (London: Allen Lane, 1970); L. L. Whyte, The Unconscious Before Freud (New York: Doubleday, 1962).

64. See M. Foucault, Discipline and Punish (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1979); Theodor T. Adorno and Max Horkheimer, Dialectic of Enlightenment (New York: Herder & Herder, 1972); N. Elias, The Civilizing Process (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1983); and discussion in Dorinda Outram, The Body and the French Revolution: Sex, Class and Political Culture (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1989), and Roy Porter, "Body Politics: Approaches to the Cultural History of the Body," in New Perspectives on Historical Writings , ed. P. Burke (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1991).

65. For histories of mind/body doctrines, see J. Yolton, Thinking Matter: Materialism in Eighteenth Century Britain (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1983); G. S. Rousseau and Roy Porter, "Introduction: Toward a Natural History of Mind and Body," in The Languages of Psyche: Mind and Body in Enlightenment Thought , ed. G. S. Rousseau (Berkeley, Los Angeles, Oxford: University of California Press, 1990), 3-44; B. S. Turner, The Body and Society: Explorations in Social Theory (Oxford and New York: Basil Blackwell, 1984). Critiques of mind/body dualism are offered in F. Barker, The Tremulous Private Body (London: Methuen, 1984); M. Berman, The Re-enchantment of the World (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1981). For the Blakean quotation, see Roy Porter, Mind Forg'd Manacles: A History of Madness from the Restoration to the Regency (London: Athlone, 1987).

66. There is a hostile account of Freud's hostility to religion in N. Isbister, Freud: An Introduction to HIS Life and Work (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1985); see also Norman O. Brown, Life and Against Death: The Psychoanalytical Meaning of History (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1957).

67. Hence orthodox Freudianism's dismissal of Wilhelm Fliess's or Wilhelm Reich's biologism.

68. Peter Gay, Freud: A Life for Our Time (London: Dent, 1988). The non-believer in psychoanalysis might observe that Freud substituted the psychoanalytic priesthood for the Christian.

69. P. Lain Entralgo, Mind and Body (London: Harvill, 1955); for a good account of medicine's metaphysics, see Lester S. King, The Philosophy of Medicine: The Early Eighteenth Century (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1978). On the Project see Isabel Knight, "Freud's Project : A Theory for Studies on Hysteria," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 20 (1984): 340-358.

70. E. L. Griggs, ed., Collected Letters of Samuel Taylor Coleridge 1 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1956), 256: Coleridge to Charles Lloyd, Sr., 14 November 1796; for discussion see Roy Porter, "Barely Touching: A Social Perspective on Mind and Body," in Languages of Psyche , ed. Rousseau, 45-80.

71. Szasz, Myth of Mental Illness , 80ff.

72. F. Bottomley, Attitudes to the Body in Western Christendom (London: Lepus Books, 1979); Peter Brown, The Body and Society: Men, Women and Sexual Renunciation in Early Christianity (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988).

73. Of course, there is also a long history of attempts, from both sides, to deny the other, e.g., Berkeleyan immaterialism or the kind of dogmatic medical materialism developed from the time of La Mettrie, trying to prove that consciousness is either a complete delusion or at most epiphenomenal. See Roy Porter, "Medicine in the Enlightenment," in Inventing Human Science , ed. C. Fox and R. Porter (Berkeley, Los Angeles, Oxford: University of California Press, 1994). The point is, as I go on to show, that such arguments have largely remained marginal rather than mainstream.

74. M. Clark, "'Morbid Introspection,' Unsoundness of Mind, and British Psychological Medicine, c. 1830-1900," in Anatomy of Madness , ed. W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd, Vol. III (London: Routledge, 1988), 71-101; idem, "The Rejection of Psychological Approaches to Mental Disorder in Late Nineteenth Century British Psychiatry," in Madhouses, Mad-Doctors and Madmen , ed. A. Scull (London: Athlone, 1981), 271-312; W. F. Bynum, "The Nervous Patient in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Britain: The Psychiatric Origins of British Neurology," in Anatomy of Madness , ed. Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, Vol. I (London: Tavistock, 1985), 89-102; more generally see B. Haley, The Healthy Body and Victorian Culture (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1978); Martin Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal: Culture, Law and Policy in England, 1830-1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 168f.; Charles E. Rosenberg, "Body and Mind in Nineteenth-Century Medicine: Some Clinical Origins of the Neurosis Controversy," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 63 (1989): 185-197.

75. M. H. Nicolson and G. S. Rousseau, "Bishop Berkeley and Tar Water," in The Augustan Milieu: Essays Presented to Louis A. Landa , ed. H. K. Miller (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970), 102-137; Marina Benjamin, "Medicine, Morality and the Politics of Berkeley's Tar-Water," in The Medical Enlightenment of the Eighteenth Century , ed. Andrew Cunningham and Roger French (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 165-193.

76. The very complex interplay of mind and body in medical therapeutics is splendidly brought out in Rosenberg, "Body and Mind in Nineteenth-Century Medicine," 185-197.

77. Thomas Willis, Essay of the Pathology of the Brain (1684), 69, quoted by Veith, Hysteria , 134.

78. W. Buchan, Domestic Medicine, or a Treatise on the Prevention and Cure of Diseases by Regimen and Simple Medicines (Edinburgh: Bayou, Auld, & Smellie, 1769), 561.

79. The discussion in "Bourgeois Hysteria and the Carnivalesque," by Peter Stallybrass and Allon White, in The Politics and Poetics of Transgression (London: Methuen, 1986), 171-190, is highly relevant. They argue that civilization's need to repress the carnivalesque produced a return of the repressed in hysteria. Thus hysteria was a mockery of official mind/body relations.

80. See Rousseau and Porter, "Introduction," in Languages of Psyche , ed. Rousseau, 3-44.

81. Feminist historians have plausibly argued that late nineteenth-century female hysterics, such as "Anna O" or Charlotte Perkins Gilman, possessed better insight into their condition than the doctors who treated them. See above, n. 43; and Mary A. Hill, Charlotte Perkins Gilman: The Making of a Radical Feminist, 1860-1896 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1980).

82. For hysteria in the limelight see Ruth Harris, "Melodrama, Hysteria and Feminine Crimes of Passion in the Fin-de-Siècle," History Workshop 25 (Spring, 1988), 31-63; idem, "Murder under Hypnosis in the Case of Gabrielle Bompard: Psychiatry in the Courtroom in Belle Epoque France," in Anatomy of Madness , ed. Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, Vol. II, 197-241; J. Guillais, Crimes of Passion (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989); G. Didi-Huberman, Invention de l'Hystérie: Charcot et l'Iconographie Photographique (Paris: Macula, 1982).

83. Carter, Pathology and Treatment of Hysteria , 159f. On mass hysteria see Moscovici, Age des Foules ; Robert Nye, Crime, Madness and Politics in Modern France (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1984).

84. Eliot Slater, "What Is Hysteria?" in Hysteria , ed. A. Roy (Chichester: John Wiley, 1982), 37-40, esp. p. 40.

85. Berman, Re-enchantment of the World , and classically Theodor T. Adorno and Max Horkheimer, Dialectic of Enlightenment (New York: Herder & Herder, 1972). For a more balanced view of Descartes's impact, see T. Brown, "Descartes, Dualism and Psychosomatic Medicine," in Anatomy of Madness , ed. Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, 2:40-62; R. B. Carter, Descartes's Medical Philosophy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983).

86. Here see John Mullan, "Hypochondria and Hysteria: Sensibility and the Physicians," The Eighteenth Century: Theory and Interpretation 25 (1984): 141-174; H. Mayer, Outsiders: A Study in Life and Letters (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1984).

87. P. M. Spacks, The Female Imagination (New York: Knopf, 1975); idem, Imagining a Self: Autobiography and Novel in Eighteenth Century England (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); K. O. Lyons, The Invention of the Self (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press; London: Feffer & Simons, 1978); Janet Todd, Sensibility: An Introduction (London: Methuen, 1986); and, for nerves, see especially G. S. Rousseau, "The Language of the Nerves: A Chapter in Social and Linguistic History," in Language, Self and Society: The Social History of Language , ed. P. Burke and R. Porter (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1991), 213-275; and Roy Porter, "'Expressing Yourself Ill': The Language of Sickness in Georgian England," in Language, Self and Society , ed. Burke and Porter, 276-299.

88. B. Faulkner, Observations on the General and Improper Treatment of Insanity (London: H. Reynell, 1789), p. 1; Faulkner added that it had "given birth to endless conjecture, and perpetual error." See also W. Falconer, A Dissertation on the Influence of the Passions Upon Disorders of the Body (London: C. Dilly, 1788); J. Haygarth, Of the Imagination, as a Cause and as a Cure of Disorders of the Body (Bath: Cadell & Davies, 1800).

89. Nicholas Jewson, "The Disappearance of the Sick Man from Medical Cosmology 1770-1870," Sociology 10 (1976): 225-244; idem, "Medical Knowledge and the Patronage System in Eighteenth Century England," Sociology 8 (1974): 369-385; D. Porter and R. Porter, Patient's Progress .

90. William Heberden, Medical Commentaries (London: T. Payne, 1802), 227.

91. Ibid., 225.

92. Ibid., 235. Heberden did insist, however, that "their force will be very different, according to the patient's choosing to indulge and give way to them."

90. William Heberden, Medical Commentaries (London: T. Payne, 1802), 227.

91. Ibid., 225.

92. Ibid., 235. Heberden did insist, however, that "their force will be very different, according to the patient's choosing to indulge and give way to them."

90. William Heberden, Medical Commentaries (London: T. Payne, 1802), 227.

91. Ibid., 225.

92. Ibid., 235. Heberden did insist, however, that "their force will be very different, according to the patient's choosing to indulge and give way to them."

93. Sir Richard Blackmore, A Treatise of the Spleen and Vapours; or, Hypochondriacal and Hysterical Affections (London: Pemberton, 1725), quoted in Richard Hunter and Ida Macalpine, Three Hundred Years of Psychiatry: 1535-1860 (London: Oxford University Press, 1963), 320.

94. Barbara Sicherman, "The Uses of a Diagnosis: Doctors, Patients and Neurasthenia," Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 32 (1977): 33-54.

95. See W. F. Bynum, "Rationales for Therapy in British Psychiatry: 1780-1835," Medical History 18 (1974): 327-334; idem, "The Nervous Patient in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century England: The Psychiatric Origins of British Neurology," in Anatomy of Madness , ed. Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, 1:89-102; Bonnie Ellen Blustein, "'A Hollow Square of Psychological Science': American Neurologists and Psychiatrists in Conflict," in Madhouses, Mad-doctors and Madmen , ed. A. Scull (London: Athlone, 1981), 241-270; M. Clark, "'Morbid Introspection,' Unsoundness of Mind, and British Psychological Medicine, c. 1830-1900," in Anatomy of Madness , ed. Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd 3:71-101; M. Clark, "The Rejection of Psychological Approaches to Mental Disorder in Late Nineteenth Century British Psychiatry'' in Madhouses, Mad-Doctors and Madmen , ed. Scull, 271-312. For Tissot see Antoinette Emch-Dériaz, Towards a Social Conception of Health in the Second Half of the Eighteenth Century: Tissot (1728-1797) and the New Preoccupation with Health and Well-Being (Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms International, 1984).

96. Quoted in Andrew Scull, Mental Disorder/Social Disorder (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1989), 275.

97. Gosling, Before Freud . Of course, it was women who disproportionately underwent the rest-cure hysteria treatments meted out in these clinics. Some, such as Charlotte Perkins Gilman, who was treated by Silas Weir Mitchell, and Virginia Woolf, rebelled against what they considered to be demeaning and counterproductive therapeutics. Elsewhere in this book, Elaine Showalter explains the powerful social, cultural, and medical forces that particularly exposed women to such treatments. See Hill, Charlotte Perkins Gilman ; Suzanne Poirier, "The Weir-Mitchell Rest Cure: Doctors and Patients," Women's Studies 10 (1983): 15-40; R. D. Walter, S. Weir Mitchell, MD, Neurologist: A Medical Biography (Springfield, Ill.: Thomas, 1970).

98. Gosling, Before Freud ; A. Rabinbach, "The Body without Fatigue: A Nineteenth Century Utopia," in Political Symbolism in Modern Europe: Essays in Honor of George L. Mosse , ed. S. Drescher, D. Sabean, and A. Sharlin (London: Transaction Books, 1982), 42-62; Shorter, "Paralysis," 549-582; idem, "Mania, Hysteria, and Gender in Lower Austria," 3-32; Clifford Beers, A Mind That Found Itself (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1981; 1908); Norman Dain, Clifford W. Beers: Advocate for the Insane (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1980); George Beard, A Practical Treatise on Nervous Exhaustion (Neurasthenia ) (1880); idem, American Nervousness: Its Causes and Consequences (New York: Putnam, 1881); Charles Rosenberg, "The Place of George M. Beard in Nineteenth Century Psychiatry," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 36 (1962): 245-259; S. Weir Mitchell, Doctor and Patient (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1888); idem, Lectures on the Diseases of the Nervous System, Especially in Women (Philadelphia: Lea, 1881); idem, Doctor and Patient (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1888); idem, Fat and Blood: An Essay on the Treatment of Certain Forms of Neurasthenia and Hysteria (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1877); Kenneth Levin, "S. Weir Mitchell: Investigations and Insights into Neurasthenia and Hysteria," Transactions and Studies of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia 38 (1971): 168-173.

99. A particular worry of Maudsley's: Trevor Turner, "Henry Maudsley: Psychiatrist, Philosopher and Entrepreneur," in Anatomy of Madness , ed. Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, 3:151-189.

100. For Mill and Carlyle, see Barbara T. Gates, Victorian Suicide: Mad Crimes and Sad Histories (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1988), and B. Haley, The Healthy Body in Victorian Culture (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1978); John M. Robson and Jack Stillinger, eds., Autobiography and Literary Essays by John Stuart Mill (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1981): Collected Works of John Stuart Mill , vol. 1. It has often been noted that hysteria cases were never prominent in England. Was this because well-bred young people were trained against introspection and in habits of healthy-minded out-goingness? For some support for this view, see M. Jeanne Peterson, Family, Love and Work in the Lives of Victorian Gentlewomen (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989).

101. Veith, Hysteria , 212-220. Veith proceeds on the Freudian assumption that such women were suffering from sexual frustration. But why should we assume this? For one thing, it might be argued, per contra, that such patients were pleased to go on rest cure because it offered an escape from sexual demands. For another, as Peter Gay has contended, our vision of the frustrated, sex-starved Victorian women may be mythical. See Carl H. Degler, "What Ought to Be and What Was: Women's Sexuality in the Nineteenth Century," The American Historical Review 79 (1974): 1467-1490; P. Gay, The Bourgeois Experience, Victoria to Freud : vol. 1, The Education of the Senses ; vol. 2, The Tender Passion (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984 and 1986).

102. Bevan Lewis, A Textbook of Mental Diseases (London: Griffin, 1889), 143.

103. M. Clark, "'Morbid Introspection,' Unsoundness of Mind, and British Psychological Medicine, c. 1830-1900," in Anatomy of Madness , ed. Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, 3:71-101; A. N. Gilbert, "Masturbation and Insanity: Henry Maudsley and the Ideology of Sexual Repression," Albion 12 (1980): 268-282. For an exemplary source, see D. Hack Tuke, Illustrations of the Influence of the Mind upon the Body in Health and Disease, Designed to Elucidate the Action of the Imagination (London: Churchill, 1872).

104. Henry Maudsley, Body and Mind (London: Macmillan & Co., 1873), 79-80.

105. Ibid.

104. Henry Maudsley, Body and Mind (London: Macmillan & Co., 1873), 79-80.

105. Ibid.

106. On Woolf see Roger Poole, The Unknown Virginia Woolf (Brighton: Harvester Press, 1982); Stephen Trombley, " All That Summer She Was Mad": Virginia Woolf (London: Junction Books, 1981); Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady (New York: Pantheon, 1986); Elizabeth Abel, Virginia Woolf and the Fictions of Psychoanalysis (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990).

107. Jean-Martin Charcot, Charcot the Clinician: The Tuesday Lessons: Excerpts from Nine Case Presentations on General Neurology Delivered at the Salpêtrière Hospital in 1887-88 , translation and commentary by Christopher G. Goetz (New York: Raven Press, 1987).

108. Well emphasized in Martin Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal: Culture, Law and Policy in England, 1830-1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 40f.

109. M. Praz, The Romantic Agony (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1933); M. Poovey, Uneven Developments: The Ideological Work of Gender in Mid-Victorian England (London: Virago, 1989).

110. Bram Dijkstra, Idols of Perversity: Fantasies of Feminine Evil in Fin de Siècle Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986).

111. Peterson's Family, Love and Work in the Lives of Victorian Gentlewomen has warned us not to equate advice for women with actual women's lives, reminding us that many women escaped, or coped perfectly happily with these pressures.

112. For women as defined by Victorian science and society see Cynthia Eagle Russett, Sexual Science: The Victorian Construction of Womanhood (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989).

113. See most recently Ornella Moscucci, The Science of Woman: Gynaecology and Gender in England, 1800-1929 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Londa Schiebinger, The Mind Has No Sex? Women in the Origins of Modern Science (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989); Lynne Nead, Myths of Sexuality: Representations of Women in Victorian Britain (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988); Thomas Laqueur, Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1990).

114. There is a disappointing lack of studies of the wider social significance of the nineteenth-century revolution in medicine. See however M. Jeanne Peterson, The Medical Profession in Mid-Victorian London (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1978); A. J. Youngson, The Scientific Revolution in Victorian Medicine (London: Croom Helm, 1979). This situation will be rectified by the forthcoming work by W. F. Bynum, Basic Science and Clinical Medicine in Nineteenth Century Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994). Michel Foucault, The Birth of the Clinic , trans. A. M. Sheridan Smith (London: Tavistock, 1973), is highly suggestive.

115. For the development of these professional specialties see, for instance, E. Lesky, The Vienna Medical School of the Nineteenth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976); R. Maulitz, Morbid Appearances: The Anatomy of Pathology in the Early Nineteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); L. S. Jacyna, "Somatic Theories of Mind and the Interests of Medicine in Britain, 1850-1879," Medical History 26 (1982): 233-258; E. Clarke and L. S. Jacyna, Nineteenth Century Origins of Neuroscientific Concepts (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1987); A. Scull, Social Order/Mental Disorder: Anglo-American Psychiatry in Historical Perspective (London: Rout-ledge, 1989), esp. "From Madness to Mental Illness: Medical Men as Moral Entrepreneurs," 118-161; Constance M. McGovern, Masters of Madness: Social Origins of the American Psychiatric Profession (Hanover and London: University Press of New England, 1985); Moscucci, Science of Woman ; B. Latour, The Pasteurization of France (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988).

116. Jacyna, "Somatic Theories of Mind"; illuminating is L. Fleck, Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979).

117. Foucault, Birth of the Clinic , trans. S. Smith; D. Armstrong, The Political Anatomy of the Body (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); Canguilhem, On the Normal and the Pathological .

118. Ian Dowbiggin, "Degeneration and Hereditarianism in French Mental Medicine 1840-1890: Psychiatric Theory as Ideological Adaptation," in Anatomy of Madness , ed. Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, 1:188-232; Nye, Crime, Madness and Politics in Modern France .

119. Elaine Showalter and English Showalter, "Victorian Women and Menstruation," Victorian Studies 14 (1970): 83-89; Thomas W. Laqueur, "Orgasm, Generation, and the Politics of Reproductive Biology," in The Making of the Modern Body , ed. C. Gallagher and T. Laqueur (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1987), 1-41; E. Gasking, Investigations into Generation, 1651-1828 (London: Hutchinson, 1967); F. J. Cole, Early Theories of Sexual Generation (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1930).

120. On women and difference see Ludmilla Jordanova, Sexual Visions: Images of Gender in Science and Medicine Between the Eighteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1989); S. Gilman, Difference and Pathology (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1985).

121. On this pathologizing of female sexuality, see G. J. Barker-Benfield, The Horrors of the Half-Known Life: Male Attitudes towards Women and Sexuality in Nineteenth Century America (New York: Harper, 1976); C. Smith-Rosenberg, "The Hysterical Woman: Sex Roles and Role Conflict in Nineteenth Century America," Social Research 39 (1972): 652-678; C. Smith-Rosenberg and C. Rosenberg, "The Female Animal: Medical and Biological Views of Woman and Her Role in Nineteenth Century America," in Women and Health in America: Historical Readings , ed. J. W. Leavitt (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984), 1227; Lorna Duffin, "The Conspicuous Consumptive: Woman as an Invalid,'' in Delamont and L. Duffin, eds., The Nineteenth Century Woman: Her Cultural and Physical World , ed. S. Delamont and L. Duffin (London: Croom Helm, 1978), 26-56.

122. The best account of the rise of British gynecology in the nineteenth century is Moscucci, Science of Woman .

123. Michel Foucault, Histoire de la sexualité , vol. 1, La volonté de savoir (Paris: Gallimard, 1976) (trans. Robert Hurley, The History of Sexuality: Introduction [London: Allen Lane, 1978]).

124. Nancy F. Cott, "Passionlessness: An Interpretation of Victorian Sexual Ideology," in Women and Health in America: Historical Readings , ed. J. W. Leavitt (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984), 57-69.

125. Discussions of views such as this can be found in Smith-Rosenberg and Rosenberg, "Female Animal," in Women and Health in America , ed. Leavitt, 12-27.

126. On chlorosis see K. Figlio, "Chlorosis and Chronic Disease in Nineteenth-Century Britain: The Social Constitution of Somatic Illness in a Capitalist Society," Social History 3 (1978): 167-197; I. S. L. Loudon, "Chlorosis, Anaemia and Anorexia Nervosa," British Medical Journal (1978), I, 974-977; Joan J. Brumberg, "Chlorotic Girls 1870-1920: A Historical Perspective on Female Adolescence," in Women and Health in America , ed. Leavitt, 186-195.

127. On masturbation see E. H. Hare, "Masturbatory Insanity: The History of an Idea," Journal of Mental Science 108 (1962): 1-25; R. H. MacDonald, "The Frightful Consequences of Onanism," Journal of the History of Ideas 28 (1967): 423-441; J. Stengers and A. Van Neck, Histoire d'une Grande Peur: La Masturbation (Brussels: University of Brussels Press, 1984).

128. Hysteria was the mimic disorder. Charcot spoke of "neuromimesis," "this property possessed by functional diseases of resembling organic ones"; he discussed the problem of "simulation" as a kind of ''art for its own sake" (l'art pour l'art) done "with the idea of making a sensation, to excite pity." J.-M. Charcot, Clinical Lectures on Diseases of the Nervous System , trans. T. Savill (London: New Sydenham Society, 1889), 14. This has been reprinted in the Tavistock Classics in the History of Psychiatry series (London: Routledge, 1990), with a fine introduction by Ruth Harris.

129. See the strictures of Carter: Carter, Pathology and Treatment of Hysteria (London: John Churchill, 1853), 69.

130. Maudsley, Body and Mind , 62-64.

131. John Haslam, Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons (London: R. Hunter, 1817), 4-5. Haslam stressed that this was a matter of exclusive medical judgment, for "of such circumstances those who are not of the medical profession would be unable to judge."

132. George Man Burrows, Commentaries on Insanity (London: Underwood, 1828), 146-148.

133. Ibid. See Vern Bullough and Martha Voght, "Women, Menstruation and Nineteenth Century Medicine," in Women and Health in America: Historical Readings , ed. Leavitt, 28-38; J. Delaney, M. J. Lupton, and E. Toth, The Curse: A Cultural History of Menstruation (New York: Dutton, 1976). For comparable views to those of Burrows, see Thomas Laycock, An Essay on Hysteria (Philadelphia: Haswell, 1840); idem, A Treatise on the Nervous Diseases of Women: Comprising an Inquiry into the Nature, Causes and Treatment of Spinal and Hysterical Disorders (London: Longman, 1840); idem, Mind and Brain, or the Correlations of Consciousness and Organization , 2 vols. (Edinburgh: Sutherland & Knox, 1860); Alex Leff, "Thomas Laycock and the Cerebral Reflex," History of Psychiatry 2 (1991): 385-408. All such writers bear out Michael Clark's point, that Victorian psychiatrists looked to organic causation: M. J. Clark, "The Rejection of Psychological Approaches to Mental Disorder in Late Nineteenth Century British Psychiatry," in Madhouses, Mad-Doctors and Madmen , ed. Scull, 271-312.

132. George Man Burrows, Commentaries on Insanity (London: Underwood, 1828), 146-148.

134. Burrows, Commentaries on Insanity , 146.

135. Ibid.

136. Ibid.

137. Ibid., 147.

138. Ibid.

139. Ibid.

140. Ibid.

141. Ibid., 148.

142. Ibid.

143. Ibid., 191.

144. Ibid.

145. Ibid.

146. Ibid. Nevertheless, Burrows admitted that "occasional hysteria, however, in young and susceptible females whose nervous systems are always highly irritable, may certainly occur without any such suspicion."

134. Burrows, Commentaries on Insanity , 146.

135. Ibid.

136. Ibid.

137. Ibid., 147.

138. Ibid.

139. Ibid.

140. Ibid.

141. Ibid., 148.

142. Ibid.

143. Ibid., 191.

144. Ibid.

145. Ibid.

134. Burrows, Commentaries on Insanity , 146.

135. Ibid.

136. Ibid.

137. Ibid., 147.

138. Ibid.

139. Ibid.

140. Ibid.

141. Ibid., 148.

142. Ibid.

143. Ibid., 191.

144. Ibid.

145. Ibid.

134. Burrows, Commentaries on Insanity , 146.

135. Ibid.

136. Ibid.

137. Ibid., 147.

138. Ibid.

139. Ibid.

140. Ibid.

141. Ibid., 148.

142. Ibid.

143. Ibid., 191.

144. Ibid.

145. Ibid.

134. Burrows, Commentaries on Insanity , 146.

135. Ibid.

136. Ibid.

137. Ibid., 147.

138. Ibid.

139. Ibid.

140. Ibid.

141. Ibid., 148.

142. Ibid.

143. Ibid., 191.

144. Ibid.

145. Ibid.

134. Burrows, Commentaries on Insanity , 146.

135. Ibid.

136. Ibid.

137. Ibid., 147.

138. Ibid.

139. Ibid.

140. Ibid.

141. Ibid., 148.

142. Ibid.

143. Ibid., 191.

144. Ibid.

145. Ibid.

134. Burrows, Commentaries on Insanity , 146.

135. Ibid.

136. Ibid.

137. Ibid., 147.

138. Ibid.

139. Ibid.

140. Ibid.

141. Ibid., 148.

142. Ibid.

143. Ibid., 191.

144. Ibid.

145. Ibid.

134. Burrows, Commentaries on Insanity , 146.

135. Ibid.

136. Ibid.

137. Ibid., 147.

138. Ibid.

139. Ibid.

140. Ibid.

141. Ibid., 148.

142. Ibid.

143. Ibid., 191.

144. Ibid.

145. Ibid.

134. Burrows, Commentaries on Insanity , 146.

135. Ibid.

136. Ibid.

137. Ibid., 147.

138. Ibid.

139. Ibid.

140. Ibid.

141. Ibid., 148.

142. Ibid.

143. Ibid., 191.

144. Ibid.

145. Ibid.

134. Burrows, Commentaries on Insanity , 146.

135. Ibid.

136. Ibid.

137. Ibid., 147.

138. Ibid.

139. Ibid.

140. Ibid.

141. Ibid., 148.

142. Ibid.

143. Ibid., 191.

144. Ibid.

145. Ibid.

134. Burrows, Commentaries on Insanity , 146.

135. Ibid.

136. Ibid.

137. Ibid., 147.

138. Ibid.

139. Ibid.

140. Ibid.

141. Ibid., 148.

142. Ibid.

143. Ibid., 191.

144. Ibid.

145. Ibid.

134. Burrows, Commentaries on Insanity , 146.

135. Ibid.

136. Ibid.

137. Ibid., 147.

138. Ibid.

139. Ibid.

140. Ibid.

141. Ibid., 148.

142. Ibid.

143. Ibid., 191.

144. Ibid.

145. Ibid.

134. Burrows, Commentaries on Insanity , 146.

135. Ibid.

136. Ibid.

137. Ibid., 147.

138. Ibid.

139. Ibid.

140. Ibid.

141. Ibid., 148.

142. Ibid.

143. Ibid., 191.

144. Ibid.

145. Ibid.

147. Alfred Maddock, On Mental and Nervous Disorders (London: Simpkin, Marshall & Co., 1854), 177.

148. Ibid.

147. Alfred Maddock, On Mental and Nervous Disorders (London: Simpkin, Marshall & Co., 1854), 177.

148. Ibid.

149. John Millar, Hints on Insanity (London: Henry Renshaw, 1861), 32.

150. Maudsley, Body and Mind , 79.

151. Ibid.

152. Ibid.; A. N. Gilbert, "Masturbation and Insanity: Henry Maudsley and the Ideology of Sexual Repression," Albion 12 (1980): 268-282; Trevor Turner, "Henry Maudsley: Psychiatrist, Philosopher and Entrepreneur," in Anatomy of Madness , ed. Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, 3:151-189.

150. Maudsley, Body and Mind , 79.

151. Ibid.

150. Maudsley, Body and Mind , 79.

151. Ibid.

153. Henry Maudsley, The Pathology of Mind (New York: Appleton, 1886), 464.

154. Maudsley, Body and Mind , 79-80.

155. Ibid. On earlier views of nymphomania see G. S. Rousseau, "Nymphomania, Bienville and the Rise of Erotic Sensibility," in Sexuality in Eighteenth-Century Britain , ed. P.-G. Boucé (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1982), 95-120. For fears of sexually active women, see Elizabeth Lunbeck, "'A New Generation of Women': Progressive Psychiatrists and the Hypersexual Female," Feminist Studies 13 (1987): 514-543.

154. Maudsley, Body and Mind , 79-80.

156. Veith, Hysteria , 197.

157. W. Griesinger, Mental Pathology and Therapeutics , trans. C. Lockhard Robertson and James Rutherford (London: New Sydenham Society, 1867). For similar views expressed by other German neurologists, see F. Schiller, A Moebius Strip: Fin-de-siècle Neuropsychiatry and Paul Moebius (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1982).

158. Griesinger, Mental Pathology and Therapeutics , trans. Robertson and Rutherford, 1; Veith, Hysteria , 197.

159. Jeffrey M. Masson, Against Therapy (London: Fontana, 1990); idem, A Dark Science: Women, Sexuality and Psychiatry in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1986); Moscucci, Science of Woman ; A. Scull and D. Favreau, "A Chance to Cut Is a Chance to Cure: Sexual Surgery for Psychosis in Three Nineteenth Century Societies," in Research in Law, Deviance and Social Control , vol. 8, ed. S. Spitzer and A. Scull (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, 1986), 3-39; A. Scull and D. Favreau, "The Clitoridectomy Craze," Social Research 53 (1986): 243-260; Ann Dally, Women under the Knife: A History of Surgery (London: Hutchinson, 1991). See Isaac Baker Brown, On the Curability of Certain Forms of Insanity, Epilepsy, Catalepsy and Hysteria in Females (London: Robert Hardwick, 1866). More generally upon gynecological violence, see Roger Cooter, "Dichotomy and Denial: Mesmerism, Medicine and Harriet Martineau," in Science and Sensibility: Gender and Scientific Enquiry, 1780-1945 , ed. Marina Benjamin (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1991), 144-173.

160. See broadly E. Clarke and L. S. Jacyna, Nineteenth Century Origins of Neuroscientific Concepts (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1987); Anne Harrington, Medicine, Mind and the Double Brain: A Study in Nineteenth Century Thought (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1987).

161. For the new medicine of the nineteenth-century hospital, see Foucault, Birth of the Clinic , trans. S. Smith (London: Tavistock, 1973); E. H. Ackerknecht, Medicine at the Paris Hospital, 1794-1848 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1967); L. Granshaw and Roy Porter, eds., The Hospital in History (London: Routledge, 1989); C. E. Rosenberg, The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System (New York: Basic Books, 1987), esp. the discussion in the introduction.

162. For degenerationism, see Dowbiggin, "Degeneration and Hereditarianism in French Mental Medicine," in Anatomy of Madness , ed. Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, 1:188-232; Nye, Crime, Madness and Politics in Modern France ; D. Pick, Faces of Degeneration: A European Disorder, 1848-1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); J. E. Chamberlin and S. L. Gilman, Degeneration: The Dark Side of Progress (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); S. Gilman, Difference and Pathology (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1985).

163. Didi-Huberman, Invention de l'Hystérie . For Charcot see Pearce Bailey, J.-M. Charcot, 1825-1893: His Life — His Work (London: Pitman Medical, 1959); A. R. G. Owen, Hysteria, Hypnosis and Healing: The Work of J. M. Charcot (London: Dobson, 1971).

164. Stallybrass and White, "Bourgeois Hysteria and the Carnivalesque," in Politics and Poetics of Transgression (London: Methuen, 1986), 171-190; from the literary viewpoint, quite helpful is Martha Noel Evans, Fits and Starts: A Genealogy of Hysteria in Modern France (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991).

165. Trillat, Histoire de l'hystérie ; Micale, "Hysteria and Its Historiography" (part 2), 319-350. For the French alienist tradition see Jan Goldstein, Console and Classify: The French Psychiatric Profession in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).

166. Charcot, Clinical Lectures , trans. Savill, 12. See also Charcot, Charcot the Clinician , translation and commentary by Goetz.

167. E. W. Massey and L. C. McHenry, "Hysteroepilepsy in the Nineteenth Century: Charcot and Gowers," Neurology 36 (1986): 65-67.

168. Points well made in Mark Micale, "Diagnostic Discriminations: Jean Martin Charcot and the Nineteenth Century Idea of Masculine Hysterical Neurosis," Ph.D., Yale University, 1987; idem, "Hysteria Male/Hysteria Female: Reflections on Comparative Gender Construction in Nineteenth Century France and Britain," in Science and Sensibility , ed. Benjamin, 200-242; see also Charcot, Clinical Lectures , trans. Savill, 77.

169. Charcot, Clinical Lectures , trans. Savill, 131-166.

170. Ibid., 77.

171. Ibid., 13. For Briquet see Pierre Briquet, Traité Clinique et Therapeutique de l'hystérie (Paris: Baillière, 1859); Maurice Dongier, "Briquet and Briquet's Syndrome Viewed from France," Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 28 (1983): 422-427; François M. Mai, "Pierre Briquet: Nineteenth-Century Savant with Twentieth-Century Ideas," Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 28 (1983): 418-421; idem and Harold Merskey, "Briquet's Concept of Hysteria: An Historical Perspective,'' Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 26 (1981): 57-63; idem, "Briquet's Treatise on Hysteria : A Synopsis and Commentary," Archives of General Psychiatry 37 (1980): 1401-1405. Briquet saw hysteria as a neurosis of the brain.

169. Charcot, Clinical Lectures , trans. Savill, 131-166.

170. Ibid., 77.

169. Charcot, Clinical Lectures , trans. Savill, 131-166.

170. Ibid., 77.

172. Charcot, Clinical Lectures , trans. Savill, 13.

173. For Bernheim see H. Bernheim, Suggestive Therapeutics: A Treatise on the Nature and Uses of Hypnotism (Westport, Conn.: Associated Booksellers, 1957).

174. A Harrington, "Metals and Magnets in Medicine: Hysteria, Hypnosis and Medical Culture in Fin-de-Siècle Paris," Psychological Medicine 28 (1988): 21-38; idem, "Hysteria, Hypnosis, and the Lure of the Invisible: The Rise of Neo-Mesmerism in Fin-de-Siècle French Psychiatry," in Anatomy of Madness , ed. Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, 3:226-246. Rather similarly Charcot discovered, in the case of one male hysteric, that when the skin of the patient's scrotum was pinched, the patient began a hysterical attack. One is not surprised. Charcot, Clinical Lecures , trans. Savill, 239.

175. Points well made by Micale, "Hysteria and Its Historiography" (part 2), 319-350.

176. Charcot, Clinical Lecures , trans. Savill, 3.

177. Ibid. Charcot raised the possibility of "contagious imitation" only to dismiss it: 7.

176. Charcot, Clinical Lecures , trans. Savill, 3.

177. Ibid. Charcot raised the possibility of "contagious imitation" only to dismiss it: 7.

178. P. Janet, The Major Symptoms of Hysteria: Fifteen Lectures Given in the Medical School of Harvard University , 2d ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1929).

179. Charcot, Clinical Lecures , trans. Savill, 14.

180. For Charcot and sex, see Emily Apter, Feminizing the Fetish: Psychoanalysis and Narrative Obsession (Ithaca, N.Y., and London: Cornell University Press, 1991).

181. Charcot, Clinical Lecures , trans. Savill, 85.

182. Ibid., 99. Hereditary diathesis offered one cast-iron reason why male hysteria existed.

181. Charcot, Clinical Lecures , trans. Savill, 85.

182. Ibid., 99. Hereditary diathesis offered one cast-iron reason why male hysteria existed.

183. A point well made in Ruth Harris, "Murder under Hypnosis in the Case of Gabrielle Bompard: Psychiatry in the Courtroom in Belle Epoque France," in Anatomy of Madness , ed. Bynum, Porter, and Shepherd, 2:197-241.

184. See Scull, Social Order/Mental Disorder ; Michel Foucault, Madness and Civilization, History of Insanity in the Age of Reason , trans. Richard Howard (New York: Random House, 1965); A. Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); M. Fears, "Therapeutic Optimism and the Treatment of the Insane," in Health Care and Health Knowledge , ed. R. Dingwall (London: Croom Helm, 1977), 66-81; idem, "The 'Moral Treatment' of Insanity: A Study in the Social Construction of Human Nature," Ph.D. thesis, University of Edinburgh, 1978.

185. Veith, Hysteria , 202, 209.

186. Carter, Pathology and Treatment of Hysteria . See also Kane and Carlson, "A Different Drummer: Robert B. Carter," 519-534; Elaine Showalter examines Carter's work (see chap. 4) from the viewpoint of gender.

187. Carter, Pathology and Treatment of Hysteria , 83.

188. Ibid.

189. Ibid.

187. Carter, Pathology and Treatment of Hysteria , 83.

188. Ibid.

189. Ibid.

187. Carter, Pathology and Treatment of Hysteria , 83.

188. Ibid.

189. Ibid.

190. See Alex Leff, "Thomas Laycock and the Cerebral Reflex," History of Psychiatry 2 (1991) 385-408.

191. Carter, Pathology and Treatment of Hysteria , 17.

192. Ibid., 2.

193. Ibid., 43.

194. Ibid.

195. Ibid., 46.

196. Ibid.

197. Ibid., 51.

198. Ibid., 56.

199. Ibid., 96.

200. Ibid., 129.

201. Ibid., 67.

202. Ibid., 106.

203. Ibid., 113.

204. Ibid., 111.

205. Ibid., 95.

206. Ibid., 35.

207. Ibid., 26.

208. Ibid., 122.

209. Ibid., 107.

191. Carter, Pathology and Treatment of Hysteria , 17.

192. Ibid., 2.

193. Ibid., 43.

194. Ibid.

195. Ibid., 46.

196. Ibid.

197. Ibid., 51.

198. Ibid., 56.

199. Ibid., 96.

200. Ibid., 129.

201. Ibid., 67.

202. Ibid., 106.

203. Ibid., 113.

204. Ibid., 111.

205. Ibid., 95.

206. Ibid., 35.

207. Ibid., 26.

208. Ibid., 122.

209. Ibid., 107.

191. Carter, Pathology and Treatment of Hysteria , 17.

192. Ibid., 2.

193. Ibid., 43.

194. Ibid.

195. Ibid., 46.

196. Ibid.

197. Ibid., 51.

198. Ibid., 56.

199. Ibid., 96.

200. Ibid., 129.

201. Ibid., 67.

202. Ibid., 106.

203. Ibid., 113.

204. Ibid., 111.

205. Ibid., 95.

206. Ibid., 35.

207. Ibid., 26.

208. Ibid., 122.

209. Ibid., 107.

191. Carter, Pathology and Treatment of Hysteria , 17.

192. Ibid., 2.

193. Ibid., 43.

194. Ibid.

195. Ibid., 46.

196. Ibid.

197. Ibid., 51.

198. Ibid., 56.

199. Ibid., 96.

200. Ibid., 129.

201. Ibid., 67.

202. Ibid., 106.

203. Ibid., 113.

204. Ibid., 111.

205. Ibid., 95.

206. Ibid., 35.

207. Ibid., 26.

208. Ibid., 122.

209. Ibid., 107.

191. Carter, Pathology and Treatment of Hysteria , 17.

192. Ibid., 2.

193. Ibid., 43.

194. Ibid.

195. Ibid., 46.

196. Ibid.

197. Ibid., 51.

198. Ibid., 56.

199. Ibid., 96.

200. Ibid., 129.

201. Ibid., 67.

202. Ibid., 106.

203. Ibid., 113.

204. Ibid., 111.

205. Ibid., 95.

206. Ibid., 35.

207. Ibid., 26.

208. Ibid., 122.

209. Ibid., 107.

191. Carter, Pathology and Treatment of Hysteria , 17.

192. Ibid., 2.

193. Ibid., 43.

194. Ibid.

195. Ibid., 46.

196. Ibid.

197. Ibid., 51.

198. Ibid., 56.

199. Ibid., 96.

200. Ibid., 129.

201. Ibid., 67.

202. Ibid., 106.

203. Ibid., 113.

204. Ibid., 111.

205. Ibid., 95.

206. Ibid., 35.

207. Ibid., 26.

208. Ibid., 122.

209. Ibid., 107.

191. Carter, Pathology and Treatment of Hysteria , 17.

192. Ibid., 2.

193. Ibid., 43.

194. Ibid.

195. Ibid., 46.

196. Ibid.

197. Ibid., 51.

198. Ibid., 56.

199. Ibid., 96.

200. Ibid., 129.

201. Ibid., 67.

202. Ibid., 106.

203. Ibid., 113.

204. Ibid., 111.

205. Ibid., 95.

206. Ibid., 35.

207. Ibid., 26.

208. Ibid., 122.

209. Ibid., 107.

191. Carter, Pathology and Treatment of Hysteria , 17.

192. Ibid., 2.

193. Ibid., 43.

194. Ibid.

195. Ibid., 46.

196. Ibid.

197. Ibid., 51.

198. Ibid., 56.

199. Ibid., 96.

200. Ibid., 129.

201. Ibid., 67.

202. Ibid., 106.

203. Ibid., 113.

204. Ibid., 111.

205. Ibid., 95.

206. Ibid., 35.

207. Ibid., 26.

208. Ibid., 122.

209. Ibid., 107.

191. Carter, Pathology and Treatment of Hysteria , 17.

192. Ibid., 2.

193. Ibid., 43.

194. Ibid.

195. Ibid., 46.

196. Ibid.

197. Ibid., 51.

198. Ibid., 56.

199. Ibid., 96.

200. Ibid., 129.

201. Ibid., 67.

202. Ibid., 106.

203. Ibid., 113.

204. Ibid., 111.

205. Ibid., 95.

206. Ibid., 35.

207. Ibid., 26.

208. Ibid., 122.

209. Ibid., 107.

191. Carter, Pathology and Treatment of Hysteria , 17.

192. Ibid., 2.

193. Ibid., 43.

194. Ibid.

195. Ibid., 46.

196. Ibid.

197. Ibid., 51.

198. Ibid., 56.

199. Ibid., 96.

200. Ibid., 129.

201. Ibid., 67.

202. Ibid., 106.

203. Ibid., 113.

204. Ibid., 111.

205. Ibid., 95.

206. Ibid., 35.

207. Ibid., 26.

208. Ibid., 122.

209. Ibid., 107.

191. Carter, Pathology and Treatment of Hysteria , 17.

192. Ibid., 2.

193. Ibid., 43.

194. Ibid.

195. Ibid., 46.

196. Ibid.

197. Ibid., 51.

198. Ibid., 56.

199. Ibid., 96.

200. Ibid., 129.

201. Ibid., 67.

202. Ibid., 106.

203. Ibid., 113.

204. Ibid., 111.

205. Ibid., 95.

206. Ibid., 35.

207. Ibid., 26.

208. Ibid., 122.

209. Ibid., 107.

191. Carter, Pathology and Treatment of Hysteria , 17.

192. Ibid., 2.

193. Ibid., 43.

194. Ibid.

195. Ibid., 46.

196. Ibid.

197. Ibid., 51.

198. Ibid., 56.

199. Ibid., 96.

200. Ibid., 129.

201. Ibid., 67.

202. Ibid., 106.

203. Ibid., 113.

204. Ibid., 111.

205. Ibid., 95.

206. Ibid., 35.

207. Ibid., 26.

208. Ibid., 122.

209. Ibid., 107.

191. Carter, Pathology and Treatment of Hysteria , 17.

192. Ibid., 2.

193. Ibid., 43.

194. Ibid.

195. Ibid., 46.

196. Ibid.

197. Ibid., 51.

198. Ibid., 56.

199. Ibid., 96.

200. Ibid., 129.

201. Ibid., 67.

202. Ibid., 106.

203. Ibid., 113.

204. Ibid., 111.

205. Ibid., 95.

206. Ibid., 35.

207. Ibid., 26.

208. Ibid., 122.

209. Ibid., 107.

191. Carter, Pathology and Treatment of Hysteria , 17.

192. Ibid., 2.

193. Ibid., 43.

194. Ibid.

195. Ibid., 46.

196. Ibid.

197. Ibid., 51.

198. Ibid., 56.

199. Ibid., 96.

200. Ibid., 129.

201. Ibid., 67.

202. Ibid., 106.

203. Ibid., 113.

204. Ibid., 111.

205. Ibid., 95.

206. Ibid., 35.

207. Ibid., 26.

208. Ibid., 122.

209. Ibid., 107.

191. Carter, Pathology and Treatment of Hysteria , 17.

192. Ibid., 2.

193. Ibid., 43.

194. Ibid.

195. Ibid., 46.

196. Ibid.

197. Ibid., 51.

198. Ibid., 56.

199. Ibid., 96.

200. Ibid., 129.

201. Ibid., 67.

202. Ibid., 106.

203. Ibid., 113.

204. Ibid., 111.

205. Ibid., 95.

206. Ibid., 35.

207. Ibid., 26.

208. Ibid., 122.

209. Ibid., 107.

191. Carter, Pathology and Treatment of Hysteria , 17.

192. Ibid., 2.

193. Ibid., 43.

194. Ibid.

195. Ibid., 46.

196. Ibid.

197. Ibid., 51.

198. Ibid., 56.

199. Ibid., 96.

200. Ibid., 129.

201. Ibid., 67.

202. Ibid., 106.

203. Ibid., 113.

204. Ibid., 111.

205. Ibid., 95.

206. Ibid., 35.

207. Ibid., 26.

208. Ibid., 122.

209. Ibid., 107.

191. Carter, Pathology and Treatment of Hysteria , 17.

192. Ibid., 2.

193. Ibid., 43.

194. Ibid.

195. Ibid., 46.

196. Ibid.

197. Ibid., 51.

198. Ibid., 56.

199. Ibid., 96.

200. Ibid., 129.

201. Ibid., 67.

202. Ibid., 106.

203. Ibid., 113.

204. Ibid., 111.

205. Ibid., 95.

206. Ibid., 35.

207. Ibid., 26.

208. Ibid., 122.

209. Ibid., 107.

191. Carter, Pathology and Treatment of Hysteria , 17.

192. Ibid., 2.

193. Ibid., 43.

194. Ibid.

195. Ibid., 46.

196. Ibid.

197. Ibid., 51.

198. Ibid., 56.

199. Ibid., 96.

200. Ibid., 129.

201. Ibid., 67.

202. Ibid., 106.

203. Ibid., 113.

204. Ibid., 111.

205. Ibid., 95.

206. Ibid., 35.

207. Ibid., 26.

208. Ibid., 122.

209. Ibid., 107.

191. Carter, Pathology and Treatment of Hysteria , 17.

192. Ibid., 2.

193. Ibid., 43.

194. Ibid.

195. Ibid., 46.

196. Ibid.

197. Ibid., 51.

198. Ibid., 56.

199. Ibid., 96.

200. Ibid., 129.

201. Ibid., 67.

202. Ibid., 106.

203. Ibid., 113.

204. Ibid., 111.

205. Ibid., 95.

206. Ibid., 35.

207. Ibid., 26.

208. Ibid., 122.

209. Ibid., 107.

210. It would be intriguing, for example, to examine Judge Schreber in this light. See Ida Macalpine and Richard Hunter, eds., Memoirs of My Nervous Illness, by Daniel Paul Schreber (London: William Dawson & Sons, 1955).

211. For discussion of mind and body as theorized within the intellectual framework of psychoanalysis, see Sander Gilman's essay (chap. 5) and also his The Jewish Body (London: Routledge, 1991). It would, of course, be desirable to extend the discussion in the present essay further than the threshold of psychoanalysis, up toward the present day, but that would be a gigantic undertaking. On hysteria within psychoanalysis itself, the items cited in the following note offer a helpful way in. On the broader developments and debates within twentieth-century psychiatry, see nn. 8 and 30 above.

212. Monique David-Ménard, Hysteria from Freud to Lacan: Body and Language in Psychoanalysis (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1989); John Forrester, The Seductions of Psychoanalysis: Freud, Lacan and Derrida (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).