4 The Intellectual's International
1. Sigmund Freud, "Thoughts for the Times on War and Death" (1915), The Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud , standard ed., trans. James Strachey, 24 vols. (London, 1953-1974) 14:274-302.
2. Benedict de Spinoza, A Political Treatise , in The Chief Works of Benedict de Spinoza , trans. R. H. M. Elwes (London, 1883), 314.
3. Romain Rolland, "Pour l'Internationale de l'esprit" (1918) in L'Esprit libre (Geneva, 1971), 322-331; for other perspectives on Romain Rolland's pacifist intellectual stance, see David James Fisher, "Pacifism and the Intellectual: The Case of Romain Rolland," Peace and Change 7, no. 1-2 (Winter 1981): 85-96; René Cheval, Romain Rolland, l'Allemagne et la guerre
(Paris, 1963), 681-699; William T. Starr, Romain Rolland and a World at War (Evanston, Ill., 1956), 162-169, 173-174, 207-208.
4. Letters, Rolland to Maxim Gorky, 18 March 1917, 27 January 1919, ARR; JAG , 1052; Jean Perus, Romain Rolland et Maxim Gorki (Paris, 1968), 45-52.
5. Letter from Rolland to Rabindranath Tagore, 26 August 1919, RTRR , 27-28; JAG , 1272-1273; letter from Rolland to Paul Vaillant-Couturier, 30 March 1919, JAG , 1777.
6. Romain Rolland, "Romain Rolland et l'Espéranto," La Vie ouvrière , 6 August 1919; Rolland, "L'Opinion de Romain Rolland sur l'Espéranto," La Vie ouvrière , 23 April 1920.
7. Letter from Rolland to Upton Sinclair, 22 August 1919, Upton Sinclair MSS, Lilly Library, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana.
8. Romain Rolland, "Pour bâtir la cité libre de l'esprit" (1 November 1918), JAG , 1637.
9. JAG , 242, 699, 1113.
10. Ibid., 1129-1131, 558, 644-645; for Henri Guilbeaux's attitude toward Romain Rolland, see his "L'Age nouveau et les intellectuels," Demain , August-September 1918, 198; on Guilbeaux, see Alfred Senn, The Russian Revolution in Switzerland (Madison, Wis., 1971), 37, 141, 162, 174, 180, 213, 227-228.
9. JAG , 242, 699, 1113.
10. Ibid., 1129-1131, 558, 644-645; for Henri Guilbeaux's attitude toward Romain Rolland, see his "L'Age nouveau et les intellectuels," Demain , August-September 1918, 198; on Guilbeaux, see Alfred Senn, The Russian Revolution in Switzerland (Madison, Wis., 1971), 37, 141, 162, 174, 180, 213, 227-228.
11. Romain Rolland, "Journal inédit (1919-1920)," Europe , November-December 1965, 201-204, 207; and Journal intime , carnet 32, May 1920-July 1920, 28, 56-57, 74, 183, ARR.
12. Romain Rolland, "A la Russie libre et libératrice" (1 May 1917) in L'Esprit libre , 205-206; first published in Demain , 1 May 1917; republished in Le Populaire , 22 July 1919.
13. JAG , 1227-1228, 1366, 1426, 1537, 1547-1548, 1577; letter, Rolland to Jean-Richard Bloch, 24 October 1918, JRB-RR , 375-380; letter from Rolland to Monsieur B., 26 January 1919, JAG , 1700.
14. Romain Rolland, "Pour nos frères de Russie. Contre le blocus affameur" (23 October 1919), QAC , 31-32; first published in L'Humanité , 26 October 1919.
15. Romain Rolland, untitled article, La Vie ouvrière , 22 October 1919.
16. JAG , 915, 1010, 1131, 1139, 1167-1168, 1183, 1365, 1784.
17. For Lenin's views on imperialism, see Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, Imperialism, The Highest Stage of Capitalism (1917; Moscow, 1964), 185-304; for his views on pacifism, see Lenin, "Bourgeois Pacifism and Socialist Pacifism" (1917), Collected Works (Moscow, 1964), 23:177-194.
18. JAG , 1342, 1366, 1367, 1426-1427, 1537, 1547-1548, 1577.
19. Ibid., 1700, 1782, 1784; letter from Rolland to Bloch, 24 October 1918, JRB-RR , 375-380.
18. JAG , 1342, 1366, 1367, 1426-1427, 1537, 1547-1548, 1577.
19. Ibid., 1700, 1782, 1784; letter from Rolland to Bloch, 24 October 1918, JRB-RR , 375-380.
20. JAG , 152, 766, 802, 1205, 1343, 1524, 1661-1662; letter from Rolland to Jean Longuet, 22 August 1918, BV , 158-159; letter from Rolland to Bloch, 24 November 1918, JRB-RR , 380; also see Peter Nettl, Rosa Luxemburg (Oxford, 1969), 486-489.
21. Romain Rolland, "Janvier sanglant à Berlin," QAC , 11-30; first published in L'Humanité , 16-18 February 1919; also see Romain Rolland, "Sur un martyr," L'Avenir international , no. 13 (January 1919): 36-39; JAG , 1704.
22. JAG , 1704.
23. Rolland, "Janvier sanglant à Berlin," QAC , 27-29.
24. Ibid., 11, 12, 15.
25. Ibid., 27.
26. Ibid., 30.
23. Rolland, "Janvier sanglant à Berlin," QAC , 27-29.
24. Ibid., 11, 12, 15.
25. Ibid., 27.
26. Ibid., 30.
23. Rolland, "Janvier sanglant à Berlin," QAC , 27-29.
24. Ibid., 11, 12, 15.
25. Ibid., 27.
26. Ibid., 30.
23. Rolland, "Janvier sanglant à Berlin," QAC , 27-29.
24. Ibid., 11, 12, 15.
25. Ibid., 27.
26. Ibid., 30.
27. Romain Rolland, "Journal inédit (1919-1920)," Europe , November-December 1965, 181-182.
28. JAG , 66, 969, 1002, 1053-1054, 1368, 1431, 1537, 1654; for Romain Rolland's public positions on Wilson, see Romain Rolland, "Lettre ouverte au présidente Wilson" (November 1918), L'Esprit libre , 332-333; and Rolland, "Une Lettre de Romain Rolland à Jean Longuet," ibid., 334; the letters were published in Le Populaire , 18 November 1918 and 4 December 1918, respectively.
27. Romain Rolland, "Journal inédit (1919-1920)," Europe , November-December 1965, 181-182.
28. JAG , 66, 969, 1002, 1053-1054, 1368, 1431, 1537, 1654; for Romain Rolland's public positions on Wilson, see Romain Rolland, "Lettre ouverte au présidente Wilson" (November 1918), L'Esprit libre , 332-333; and Rolland, "Une Lettre de Romain Rolland à Jean Longuet," ibid., 334; the letters were published in Le Populaire , 18 November 1918 and 4 December 1918, respectively.
29. JAG , 1661, 1665; also see 1696-1697, 1738, 1776, 1799, 1822, 1828-1829, 1832.
30. Romain Rolland, "Une Lettre de Romain Rolland à Jean Longuet" (4 December 1918), L'Esprit libre , 334 n. 1 (dated June 1919); also see Romain Rolland, QAC , 186; Journal intime , carnet 30, July 1919-October 1919, ARR. Romain Rolland refused to contribute an article to L'Art libre on Wilson in 1924, accusing the ex-president of profound insincerity and "failure of internal truth"; see letter from Rolland to Paul Colin, 6 February 1924, ARR.
31. Nicole Racine, "The Clarté Movement in France, 1919-1921," Journal of Contemporary History 2, no. 2 (April 1967): 195-208; Annie Kriegel, "Naissance du mouvement Clarté," Mouvement social , no. 42 (January-March 1963): 117-135.
32. JAG , 1824.
33. Ibid., 1272, 1273, 1777.
32. JAG , 1824.
33. Ibid., 1272, 1273, 1777.
34. Letter from Rolland to Henri Barbusse, 23 June 1919, JAG , 1831-1832.
35. Letter from Rolland to Barbusse, 14 June 1919, JAG , 1828.
36. JAG , 1826; also see the letters of collective resignation from seven Rollandists to the Clarté group, 18 June 1919, signed by Charles Vildrac, Georges Chennevière, F. Crucy, Léon Werth, Albert Doyen, L. Bazalgette, Paul Signac; ibid., 1830.
35. Letter from Rolland to Barbusse, 14 June 1919, JAG , 1828.
36. JAG , 1826; also see the letters of collective resignation from seven Rollandists to the Clarté group, 18 June 1919, signed by Charles Vildrac, Georges Chennevière, F. Crucy, Léon Werth, Albert Doyen, L. Bazalgette, Paul Signac; ibid., 1830.
37. JAG , 1824-1825; letters from Rolland to Marcel Martinet, 10 July 1919; to Edouard Dujardin, 10 July 1919; to Edouard Dujardin, 4 September 1919, ARR.
38. Letters from Rolland to Barbusse, 17 June 1919; 23 June 1919, JAG , 1829, 1831-1832.
39. Romain Rolland, "Journal inédit (1919-1920)," entry of 14 December 1919, Europe , November-December 1965, 185.
40. Ibid., 184-185, 187-188; Romain Rolland, Henri Barbusse, Georges Duhamel, "Appel pour le premier Congrès de l'Internationale intellectuelle," L'Humanité , 23 January 1920; Clarté , 24 January 1920. See also letters from Rolland to Raymond Lefebvre, 31 December 1919, 4 January 1920, 15 January 1920, 19 February 1920, ARR; Shaul Ginsburg, Raymond Lefebvre et les origines du communisme français (Paris, 1975), 114-116, 119-122; Racine, "The Clarté Movement in France, 1919-1921," 203.
39. Romain Rolland, "Journal inédit (1919-1920)," entry of 14 December 1919, Europe , November-December 1965, 185.
40. Ibid., 184-185, 187-188; Romain Rolland, Henri Barbusse, Georges Duhamel, "Appel pour le premier Congrès de l'Internationale intellectuelle," L'Humanité , 23 January 1920; Clarté , 24 January 1920. See also letters from Rolland to Raymond Lefebvre, 31 December 1919, 4 January 1920, 15 January 1920, 19 February 1920, ARR; Shaul Ginsburg, Raymond Lefebvre et les origines du communisme français (Paris, 1975), 114-116, 119-122; Racine, "The Clarté Movement in France, 1919-1921," 203.
41. JAG , 1726-1727, 1744-1748; on Morel, see Sheldon Spear, "E. D. Morel's U.D.C. International," Peace and Change 7, no. 1-2 (Winter 1981): 97-108.
42. Letter from Rolland to E. D. Morel, 30 March 1919, JAG , 1778.
43. Letters from Rolland to Amédée Dunois, 6 January 1919, 24 June 1919, ARR; Pierre-Jean Jouve, Romain Rolland vivant (Paris, 1920), 217-219n.1.
The Declaration first appeared as "Fière déclaration d'intellectuels," L'Humanité , 26 June 1919, 1; it was also published in L'Art libre , June 1919; La Feuille , June 1919; Rassegna internazionale , July 1919; Forum , August 1919; Demokratie , 18 July 1919; Foreign Affairs , August 1919; New York Times Current History Magazine , October 1919; and The Liberator , December 1919. It was reprinted in Romain Rolland's Les Précurseurs (1919), in L'Esprit libre , 337-342; and his QAC , 1-6. For contemporary echoes, see Paul Souday, "Une Déclaration d'intellectuels," Le Temps , 27 June 1919; Marcel Martinet, "Les Intellectuels et la guerre," La Vie ouvrière , 2 July 1919; F. Vandérem, Le Miroir de lettres (Paris, 1919), 112-116. The following is a national breakdown of those who signed the Declaration:
France: Alain, Raoul Alexandre, René Arcos, Henri Barbusse, Charles Baudouin, Léon Bazalgette, Edouard Bernaert, Lucien Besnard, Jean-Richard Bloch, Louise Bodin, Samuel Buchet, Dr. E. Burnet, Alphonse de Chateaubriant, Georges Chennevière, François Crucy, Paul Desanges, Fernard Després, Albert Doyen, Georges Duhamel, Edouard Dujardin, Amédée Dunois, Gustave Dupin, Dr. Joseph Fiévez, Waldemar George, G. Georges-Bazile, Jean Guéhenno, Augustin Hamon, Pierre-Jean Jouve, C. A. Laisant, A. M. Labouré, Raymond Lefebvre, Marcel Martinet, Emile Masson, Alexandre Mercereau, Luc Mériga, Mathias Morhardt, Georges Matisse, Madeleine Matisse, A. Pierre, August Prenant, Gabriel Reuilland, Romain Rolland, Jules Romains, Nelly Roussel, Han Ryner, Dr. Schirardin, Edouard Schoen, P. Schultz, Edouard Schneider, Séverine, Paul Signac, Dr. Robert Sorel, Gaston Thiesson, Jules Uhry, Paul Vaillant-Couturier, Charles Vildrac, Dr. Wacker, Léon Werth.
Germany: G. van Arco, Albert Einstein, W. Foerster, Leonard Frank, H. von Gerlach, Ivan Goll, Wilhelm Herzog, Hermann Hesse, David Hilbert, Käthe Kollwitz, Max Lehmann, Heinrich Mann, A. Moissi, Paul Natorp, Georg F. Nicolai, Nithack-Stahn, H. Paasche, Hélène Stoecker, Fritz von Unruh, H. Wehberg, Franz Werfel.
Italy: Enrico Bignami, Roberto Bracco, Benedetto Croce, Amaldo Lucci, Attilio Cimbro, Marie Cimbro-Bonnet, Confucio Cotti, Dino Muratore, Dr. Enrico Lenzi, Dr. Elsa Castagneri.
Belgium: Paul Colin, Georges Eekhound, J. F. Eslander, Frans Hellens, Georges Khnopff, Frans Masereel, Mélot du Dy, Jacques Mesnil, Edmond Picard, Henry van de Velde.
Switzerland: Ernst Bloch, Dr. Robert Eder, August Forel, Charles Hofer, Professor Ragaz, H. Roorda van Eysinga.
England: Edward Carpenter, Lowes Dickinson, Roger Fry, Bertrand Russell, Israel Zangwill.
Sweden: Verner von Heidenstam, Ellen kay, Selma Lagerlöf, Carl Lindhagen.
Catalonia: M. Lopez-Pico, Alfons Maseras, Eugenio d'Ors, Paul M. Turull, Emilio H. del Villar.
Holland: Dr. L.-G. Brouwer, Dr. Frederick van Eeden, J. C. Kapteyn.
Austria: Dr. A. H. Fried, Stefan Zweig.
Russia: Paul Birukof, Maxim Gorky, Nicolas Rubakin, L. de Wiskovatov.
Hungary: Monseigneur Alexandre Giesswein, Andreas Latzko.
Poland: Dr. M. de Rusiecka.
Greece: Georges Donvalis, Yannios.
United States: Jane Addams, Sherwood Anderson, Van Wyck Brooks, Waldo Frank, Frederick P. Hier, B. W. Huebsch, John Haynes Holmes, Horace B. Liveright, Edgar Lee Masters, Scott Nearing, Upton Sinclair, Alfred Stieglitz, Louis Untermeyer, Oswald Garrison-Villard.
India: Ananda Coomaraswamy, Rabindranath Tagore.
Argentina: Dr. Manuel Galvez.
Brazil: Benedicta Costa.
The appeal was also signed by over 100 Spanish writers and scholars, the signatures collected by Emilio H. del Villar; 28 professors from the University of Turin; 56 professors and students from Piedmont; and 617 individuals from central Europe, whose signatures were collected by Georg F. Nicolai and published in his brochure, Romain Rollands Manifest und die deutschen Antworten (Charlottenburg, 1919).
44. Romain Rolland, "Déclaration de l'Indépendance de l'Esprit," L'Esprit libre , 337-338.
45. JAG , 16 March 1919, 1769-1771.
46. Ibid., 1770.
45. JAG , 16 March 1919, 1769-1771.
46. Ibid., 1770.
47. Romain Rolland, "The Intellectuals: Their Failure—Their Opportunity," Foreign Affairs 1, no. 2 (August 1919): 5-6; this was reprinted in QAC as "Pour l'union des travailleurs des mains et de l'esprit (commentaire à la Déclaration de l'Indépendance de l'Esprit)," 7-10.
48. Rolland, "The Intellectuals," 5.
49. Ibid., 6.
50. Ibid., 5.
51. Ibid., 6.
52. Ibid.
48. Rolland, "The Intellectuals," 5.
49. Ibid., 6.
50. Ibid., 5.
51. Ibid., 6.
52. Ibid.
48. Rolland, "The Intellectuals," 5.
49. Ibid., 6.
50. Ibid., 5.
51. Ibid., 6.
52. Ibid.
48. Rolland, "The Intellectuals," 5.
49. Ibid., 6.
50. Ibid., 5.
51. Ibid., 6.
52. Ibid.
48. Rolland, "The Intellectuals," 5.
49. Ibid., 6.
50. Ibid., 5.
51. Ibid., 6.
52. Ibid.
53. Romain Rolland, "Déclaration de l'Indépendance de l'Esprit," L'Esprit libre , 342.
54. Perus, Romain Rolland et Maxime Gorki , 53, 57-64, 73.
55. Romain Rolland, Dedication to Les Précurseurs (1919) , in L'Esprit libre , 175.
56. Letter from Rolland to George Bernard Shaw, 25 April 1919, JAG , 1796.
57. JAG , 1771; Jouve, Romain Rolland vivant , 218 n. 1.
58. JAG , 126, 1007.
59. Letter from Rolland to Shaw, 25 April 1919, JAG , 1796.
60. Letter from Shaw to Rolland, 7 May 1919, JAG , 1815.
61. Ibid.
60. Letter from Shaw to Rolland, 7 May 1919, JAG , 1815.
61. Ibid.
62. Letter from Rolland to Shaw, 28 May 1919, JAG , 1817.
63. Letter from Shaw to Rolland, 27 June 1919, cited in PRP , 13-14.
64. Letter from Rolland to Shaw, 29 June 1919, PRP , 14.
65. Letter from Shaw to Rolland, 10 July 1919, PRP , 14 n. 1.
66. QAC , lxiv; PRP , 14-15.
67. Max Eastman, ''A Letter to Romain Rolland," The Liberator , December 1919, 24-25; for Romain Rolland's relations with Eastman during the war, see Romain Rolland, "Voix libres d'Amérique" (August 1917), L'Esprit libre , 222-234.
68. Eastman, "Letter to Romain Rolland," 24.
69. Ibid., 25.
68. Eastman, "Letter to Romain Rolland," 24.
69. Ibid., 25.
70. Letter from Rolland to Max Eastman, 5 December 1919, BV , 161-162; Rolland, "Journal inédit (1919-1920)," 183-184.
71. Rolland, "Journal inédit (1919-1920)," 183.
72. Letter from Rolland to Waldo Frank, 21 March 1920, ARR.
73. JAG , 510-515, 1284-1286, 1762, 1771.
74. Ibid., 1820.
73. JAG , 510-515, 1284-1286, 1762, 1771.
74. Ibid., 1820.
75. Letters from Albert Einstein to a colleague in Breslau, 17 August 1919, and to a liberal professor in Potsdam, 18 August 1919, cited in Einstein on Peace , ed. Otto Nathan and Heinz Norden (New York, 1965), 31-32.
76. JAG , 1817.
77. Romain Rolland, "Un Grand Européen: G. F. Nicolai" (15 October 1917), L'Esprit libre , 262-297; JAG , 802, 1600-1602, 1607-1609, 1756-1769, 1771.
78. Nicolai, Romain Rollands Manifest , 27. Some of the signers included Alfred Adler, Johannes R. Becher, Edouard Bernstein, Max Brod, Martin Buber, Richard Dehmel, Kasimir Edschmid, Albert Einstein, August Forel, Wilhelm Foerster, Leonard Frank, Ivan Goll, Walter Gropius, Wilhelm Herzog, Hermann Hesse, Kurt Hiller, Hermann Kantorowicz, Karl Kautsky, Annette Kolb, Käthe Kollwitz, Andreas Latzko, Carl Lindhagen, Emil Ludwig, Heinrich Mann, Walter Rathenau, Arthur Rosenberg, René Schickele, Artur Schnabel, Arthur Schnitzler, Wilhelm Steckel, Hélène Stocker, Ernst Toller, Kurt Tucholsky, Fritz von Unruh, Franz Werfel, Kurt Wolff, Stefan Zweig.
79. Karl Kraus, in Nicolai, Romain Rollands Manifest , 54-56.
80. JAG , 574, 606; also see Roland N. Stromberg, Redemption by War: The Intellectuals and 1914 (Lawrence, Kans. 1982), 74-75, 150.
81. Letter from Benedetto Croce to Rolland, 9 April 1919, JAG , 1792, 1864.
82. Letter from Rolland to Croce, 18 April 1919, BV , 160.
83. Letter from Charles Gide to Rolland, May 1919, JAG , 1817-1818.
84. Letter from Charles Richet to Rolland, May 1919, JAG , 1818.
85. QAC , lxiv, n. 1; also see JAG , 1814.
86. For a sample of the positive responses, see letter from Israel Zangwill to Rolland, May 1919, JAG , 1818-1819; E. D. Morel, "Contributions from Abroad," Foreign Affairs , 1 (August 1919): 5; letters from Louis Untermeyer to Rolland, 28 September 1919, ARR; from Stefan Zweig to Rolland, 20 March 1919, 23 March 1919, 7 April 1919, 14 April 1919, ARR; Hermann Hesse to Rolland, 2 May 1919, HH-RR , 61; Alain to Rolland, 29 June 1919, Salut et fraternité. Alain et Romain Rolland (Paris, 1969), 79-80; Jean Guéhenno to Rolland, 4 July 1919, JG-RR , 15; August Prenant to Rolland, June 1919, JAG , 1820; Rabindranath Tagore to Rolland, 24 June 1919, 4 October 1919, RT-RR , 25-26, 29-30.
87. Letter from Bertrand Russell to Rolland, 7 April 1919, JAG , 1790.
88. Ibid., 1791.
87. Letter from Bertrand Russell to Rolland, 7 April 1919, JAG , 1790.
88. Ibid., 1791.
89. JAG , 1792.
90. Ibid., 1814.
91. Letter from Rolland to Russell, 4 June 1919, JAG , 1819; Russell had proposed on 4 May 1919 to revise paragraph 3 of the Declaration, ibid., 1818.
89. JAG , 1792.
90. Ibid., 1814.
91. Letter from Rolland to Russell, 4 June 1919, JAG , 1819; Russell had proposed on 4 May 1919 to revise paragraph 3 of the Declaration, ibid., 1818.
89. JAG , 1792.
90. Ibid., 1814.
91. Letter from Rolland to Russell, 4 June 1919, JAG , 1819; Russell had proposed on 4 May 1919 to revise paragraph 3 of the Declaration, ibid., 1818.
92. Letter from Rolland to Russell, 4 June 1919, JAG , 1819.
93. Ibid.
94. Ibid., 1820.
92. Letter from Rolland to Russell, 4 June 1919, JAG , 1819.
93. Ibid.
94. Ibid., 1820.
92. Letter from Rolland to Russell, 4 June 1919, JAG , 1819.
93. Ibid.
94. Ibid., 1820.
95. Letter from Rolland to Russell, 23 June 1919, ARR.
96. Letter from Rolland to Russell, 16 March 1920, BV , 162-163.
97. Letter from Rolland to Pierre-Jean Jouve, 9 June 1919, cited in Jouve, Romain Rolland vivant , 263.
98. Ibid., 262-263.
97. Letter from Rolland to Pierre-Jean Jouve, 9 June 1919, cited in Jouve, Romain Rolland vivant , 263.
98. Ibid., 262-263.