1. Noel Deerr, The History of Sugar , 2 vols. (London: Chapman and Hall, 1949-50), 2:532; Sugar.' Facts and Figures . . . 1952 (Washington, D.C.: United States Cuban Sugar Council, 1952), p. 44.

2. Antonio M. Regidor y Jurado and J. Warren Mason, Commercial Progress in the Philippine Islands (London: n.p., 1905), p. 39.

3. Under Four Flags: The Story of Smith, Bell and Company in the Philippines (Great Britain: n.p., n.d.), chaps. 3, 5; SN 9 (1928):649, 1 (1919):42; Benito Legarda, Jr., "Foreign Trade, Economic Change and Entrepreneurship in the Nineteenth-Century Philippines" (Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 1955), pp. 345-46; Edgar Wickberg, The Chi-

nese in Philippine Life, 1850-1898 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965), pp. 84-88.

4. Wallace R. Aykroyd, Sweet Malefactor: Sugar, Slavery and Human Society (London: Heinemann, 1967), pp. 82-85, 106; Vladimir P. Timoshenko and Boris C. Swerling, The World's Sugar: Progress and Policy (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1957), p. 17; SN 6 (1925):471; A Britisher in the Philippines or the Letters of Nicholas Loney (Manila: National Library, 1964), p. 71; Alfred S. Eichner, The Emergence of Oligopoly: Sugar Refining as a Case Study (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1969), pp. 38-42, 230-50; W&G, January 9, 1902, p. 8.

5. Bill Albert and Adrian Graves, eds., Crisis and Change in the International Sugar Economy, 1860-1914 (Norwich and Edinburgh, UK: ISC Press, 1984); C. J. Robertson, World Sugar Production and Consumption: An Economic-Geographical Survey (London: John Bale, Sons, and Danielsson, 1934), pp. 2, 63-64; Jack T. Turner, Marketing of Sugar , Indiana University School of Business, Bureau of Business Research Study, no. 38 (Homewood, Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, 1955), p. 10; Handbook of the Philippine Sugar Industry , 2d ed. (Manila: Sugar News Press, 1929), pp. 39-42.

6. Deerr, History of Sugar 2:490-491, 531; Philippine Islands, Bureau of Customs, Annual Report of the Insular Collector of Customs for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1913 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1913), pp. 15-16. The 1887 consolidation of American eastern refineries into the Sugar Refineries Company allowed tycoon Henry O. Havemeyer to control raw sugar prices (Luzviminda Bartolome Francisco and Jonathan Shepard Fast, Conspiracy for Empire; Big Business, Corruption and the Politics of Imperialism in America, 1876-1907 [Quezon City: Foundation for Nationalist Studies, 1985], p. 30).

7. John Foreman, The Philippine Islands , 3d ed. (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1906), pp. 640-41; MT , October 1, 1900, p. 8; April 3, 1901, p. 4; W&G, February 9, 1905, p. 7; PAR 8 (1915): 152; John A. Larkin, The Pampangans: Colonial Society in a Philippine Province (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1972), chap. 5; Alfred McCoy, "Ylo-ilo: Factional Conflict in a Colonial Economy, Iloilo Province, Philippines, 1937-1955" (Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University, 1977), pp. 92-102.

8. PAR 15 (1922): 205-8; Prospectus of the San Carlos Milling Company, Limited (Honolulu: n.p., 1912), p. 4; letter from J. D. Fauntleroy, Supervisor of Negros Occidental, to the President of the Provincial Board, Bacolod, August 25, 1903, BMR; Census: 1903 4:226-28. Rinderpest led to increased cattle rustling in Negros (Philippine Islands, Bureau of Constabulary, Annual Report of the Director of Constabulary for the Fiscal Year 1909 [Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1909], p. 8).

9. Memo from Jose R. Luzuriaga to William H. Taft, Philippine Commission, Manila; February 1904, BIA, File 4122, incl. 7; John A. R. Newlands and Benjamin E. R. Newlands, Sugar: A Handbook for Planters and Refiners (London and New York: Spon, 1909), chap. 25.

10. Report of Jose R. Luzuriaga to the Philippine Commission (ca. 1904), BIA, File 4122, incl. 10; W&G, March 29, 1906, p. 6; April 19, 1906, p. 6; Under Four Flags , chap. 7; Charles Burke Elliott, The Philippines to the End of the Commission Government: A Study in Tropical Democracy (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1917), pp. 370-72; PFP , January 25, 1913, p. 6; MT , May 27, 1914, p, 1.

11. U.S. Congress, Senate, Loss of Spanish Markets for Philippine Sugar and Tobacco by Reason of American Occupation , S. Doc. 484, 60th Cong., 1st. sess., 1908, pp, 1-10; Bonifacio S. Salamanca, The Filipino Reaction to American Rule, 1901-1913 (Hamden, Conn.: Shoe String Press, 1968), pp. 121-39; SN 9 (1928): 651. Congress gave the Philippines tariff concessions only after the U.S. treaty with Spain expired, for it allowed the latter free entry into the American market via the Philippines.

12. Cleve W. Hines, Cane Production and Sugar Manufacture in the Philippine Islands , Government of the Philippine Islands, Bureau of Agriculture, Bulletin 33 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1919), pp. 105-202; Deerr, History of Sugar 2:559-77; Eichner, Oligopoly , pp. 31-36; G. H. Jenkins, Introduction to Cane Sugar Technology (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1966), pp. 5-6, 283, 286-87, 325; V. E. Baikow, Manufacture and Refining of Raw Cane Sugar (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1967), pp. 4-6. The cost, for example, of the machinery and railway for the first central constructed at San Carlos, Negros Occidental, in 1910 came to $700,000 ( Prospectus of the San Carlos Milling Company , p. 2).

13. Francisco Gutierrez Creps, Memoria sobre el cultivo, beneficio y comercio del azúcar (Manila: Celestino Miralies, 1878), pp. 60-74; Paul de la Gironière, Aventures d'un gentilhomme breton aux Iles Philippines (Paris: Firmin Didot Frères, Fils et Cie, 1857), pp. 432-33; Rafael Díaz Arenas, Memoria sobre el comercio y navegacion de las Islas Filipinas (Cádiz: Imp. de D. Domingo Féros, 1838), pp. 49-50; Jean Mallat de Bassilan, Les Philippines: Histoire, géographie, moeurs, agriculture, industrie et commerce des colonies espagnoles dans l'Océanie , 2 vols. (Paris: Arthus Bertrand, 1846), 1:132-33; A Gathering of the Descendants of Yves Leopold Germain Gaston, Hda. Sta. Rosalia, Manapla, Neg. Occ., Philippines (souvenir program; n.p.: n.p., 1981), pp. 9-11; Henry T. Ellis, Hong Kong to Manilla and the Lakes of Luzon, in the Philippine Isles, in the Year 1856 (London: Smith, Elder, 1859), p. 96; G. E. Nesom and Herbert S. Walker, Handbook on the Sugar Industry of the Philippine Islands (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1912), pt. 1, p. 14; letter of the Luzon Sugar Refining Co. [Smith, Bell and Company, Agents] to the Philippine Commission, Manila, May 27, 1907, BIA, File C-1275, incl. 4.

14. Chamber of Commerce of the Philippine Islands, Yearbook of the Philippine Islands (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1920), p. 156; Philippine Commercial Agencies, comp., Economic Resources and Development in the Philippine Islands (Manila: Philippine Commercial Agencies, 1920), pp. 52-53; PAR 3 (1910): 731, 6 (1913): 76; SN 1 (1919): 13. Carlos Ledesma confirmed the lack of planter interest in farming (interview, Makati, Metro Manila, March 12, 1986).

15. M. J. Lannoy, Iles Philippines (Brussels: Delevingne et Callewaert, 1849), p. 127; Ramon González Fernández and Federico Moreno y Jeréz, Anuario filipino para 1877 (Manila: Est. tip. de Plana, 1877), p. 46; Roy A. Ballinger, A History of Sugar Marketing , Economic Research Service, Agricultural Economic Report, no. 197 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1971), pp. 9-15; Deerr, History of Sugar 2:441-43.

16. RF 2 (May 1877), 225, 230-32; Alexander R. Webb, "The Sugar Industry of the Philippines," U.S. Consular Reports 31 (1889): 375-76; idem, "Sugar and Rice Culture in the Philippine Islands," U.S. Consular Reports 27 (1888): 242. On the classification of Philippine sugar see SN 1 (1919): 18; 1 (1920): 13-15. Manila shipped 19,104 metric tons of pilon sugar to Asian ports in 1906; 19,458 in 1907; 37,734 in 1908; and 20,861 in 1909 (W&G, December 13, 1906, p. 6; February 13, 1908, p. 59; March 4, 1909, p. 86; March 3, 1910, p. 87).

17. SN 4 (1923): 7-15; Philippine Commercial Agencies, Economic Resources , p. 54; Philippine Islands, Bureau of Science, Press Bulletin No. 73 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1917), p. 3; Carlos Quirino, History of the Philippine Sugar Industry (Manila: Kalayaan, 1974), pp. 61-62. The local Pampangan cottage industry of making clay pilones died out at this time as well (HDP, San Fernando). See also SN 7 (1926): 286; PAR 10 (1917): 97; Philippine Sugar Handbook, 1972 Edition (Manila: Sugar News Press, 1972), p. 20; MT , November 6, 1919, p. 8; March 13, 1920, p. 8; March 24, 1920, p. 6; PFP , September 27, 1919, p. 9. The shortage of wartime shipping curtailed the ability of exporters to reach markets other than those in Asia (letter from Alfred D. Cooper, Agent for San Carlos Milling Company, to Governor-general Francis Burton Harrison, Manila, July 2, 1918, QP; MDB , March 1, 1918, pp. 1, 4; Philippine Islands, Bureau of Commerce and Industry, Statistical Bulletin No. 3, of the Philippine Islands, 1920 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1921), p. 218; letter from George Fairchild, Manila, to George M. Rolph, Sugar Equalization Board, Washington, D.C., ca. September 1918, BIA, File 4122, incl. 165).

18. John R. Hanson, III, Trade in Transition: Exports from the Third World, 1840-1900 (New York: Academic Press, 1980), pp. 119, 124-25; Creps, Memoria , p. 78. After more than three decades of relative stability, from 1870 to 1902 the peso fell in relation to the dollar from 1.0435 to .4152 ( Census: 1903 4:563n).

19. Each large Philippine central during the 1923-24 milling season required, on average, more than 5,000 hectares of cane to meet its production needs ( SN 6 [1925]: 529). Richard John Gilbert, ''The Introduction of American Capital into the Sugar Industry of the Philippines and Its Impact on the Pre-Existing Patterns of Land" (M.A. thesis, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1967), pp. 30-31, 43, 47-49; Mark Aaron Glago, "American Private Capital in the Philippines, 1898-1941" (M.A. thesis, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1966), pp. 16-18; W. Cameron Forbes, The Philippine Islands , 2 vols. (Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1928), 2:58-60; Elliott, Tropical Democracy , p. 358; Dean C. Worcester, The Philippines Past and Present , ed. Ralston Hayden (New York: Macmillan, 1930), pp. 590-96.

20. Prospectus of the San Carlos Milling Company , p. 1.

21. Letter from George Fairchild, Manila, to Manuel Luis Quezon, Washington, D.C., May 23, 1917; letter from Charles Willis, New York, to Manuel Luis Quezon, New York, June 15, 1917; letter from George Ross, Pacific Commercial Company, New York, to Manuel Luis Quezon, Manila, March 17, 1918, QP.

22. Glago, "American Private Capital," pp. 18, 25-26, 30-31; Quirino, Philippine Sugar Industry , pp. 49-66; Yoshiko Nagano-kano, The Structure of the Philippine Sugar Industry at the End of the American Colonial Period and After 1974 , Third World Studies Center, Commodity Series, no. 3 (Quezon City: Third World Studies Center, University of the Philippines, 1981), pp. 9-10.

23. Nagano, Structure , pp. 7-11; letter from George Fairchild to Governor-general Francis Burton Harrison, Manila, October 9, 1919; letter from General Venancio Concepcion, President of PNB, to the Board of Directors of PNB, June 21, 1920, QP; PFP , March 22, 1913, p. 8; April 26, 1913, p. 8; M , September 15, 1917, p. 4.

24. MT , February 11, 1919, p. 1; May 25, 1919, p. 2; September 9, 1919, p. 3; August 20, 1968, p. 13; letter from Ernest J. Westerhouse, General Manager of the Manila Railroad Company, to Speaker of the House Sergio Osmeña, Manila, August 2, 1918, QP; First Report of the Hawaiian-Philippine Co., Philippine Islands, Fiscal Years Ended September 30, 1921 and September 30, 1922 (Honolulu: Hawaiian-Philippine Co.), p. 16; PFP , March 8, 1919, p. 19; April 19, 1919, p. 27; MDB , August 25, 1921, p. 19; Compilation of Committee Reports for the Fourth Annual Convention of the Philippine Sugar Association, Manila, P.I., September Sixth to Tenth, 1926 (Manila: Philippine Sugar Association, 1926), p. 2.

25. On the worldwide frontier phenomenon see William H. McNeill, The Great Frontier: Freedom and Hierarchy in Modern Times (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983); and Walter Prescott Webb, The Great Frontier (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1951), chaps. 1-6. See also

John A. Larkin, "Philippine History Reconsidered: A Socioeconomic Perspective," American Historical Review 87 (June 1982): 612-24.

26. HDP, Hinigaran, pp. 2, 87, 117; HDP, San Carlos, pp. 17-18; HDP, Pontevedra, pp. 1-2, 4; HDP, Saravia, pp. 2, 26, 37-38; McCoy, "Ylo-ilo," p. 81; RF 2 (1875): 146; letter from Acting Consul Nicholas Loney, Manila, to Foreign Secretary Lord Edward Stanley, London, January 31, 1867, PRO, F.O. 72/1155; A Britisher , p. 109; letter from A. A. Forshee, Bacolod, to T. S. Barbour, Boston, February 9, 1909, BMR.

27. Robustiano Echaúz, Apuntes de la Isla de Negros (Manila: Chofré y Cia, 1894), pp. 15-17; Angel Martinez Cuesta, O.A.R., History of Negros , trans. Alfonso Felix, Jr. (Manila: Historical Conservation Society, 1980), p. 222; Francisco Varona, Negros: historia anecdótica de su riqueza y sus hombres (Manila: General Printing Press, 1938), p. 27; Loney to Farren, July 10, 1861, p. 25; Marcelino Simonena, O.A.R., Father Fernando Cuenca of St. Joseph, Augustinian Recollect , trans. Ma. Soledad L. Locsin (Bacolod: Negros Occidental Historical Commission, 1974), pp. 14-16, 21-28; Rafael Díaz Arenas, Memorias históricas y estadísticas de Filipinas y particularmente de la grande isla de Luzon (Manila: Imp. del Diario de Manila, 1850), cuaderno 17, no. 6.

28. Alfred W. McCoy, "A Queen Dies Slowly: The Rise and Decline of Iloilo City," in Philippine Social History: Global Trade and Local Transformations , ed. Alfred W. McCoy and Ed. C. de Jesus (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1982), pp. 303-7; Wickberg, The Chinese, p. 77; John T. Omohundro, Chinese Merchant Families in Iloilo: Commerce and Kin in a Central Philippine City (Quezon City and Athens, Ohio: Ateneo de Manila University Press and Ohio University Press, 1981), p. 16; Varona, Negros , pp. 27-31; Proclamation and Inauguration of the City of Cadiz (Cadiz, Negros Occidental: n.p., 1966), p. 34; Saravia Centennial Anniversary and Inauguration of the New Town Hall (Saravia, Negros Occidental: n.p., 1959), p. 1.

29. McCoy, "Queen," pp. 308-9; Demy P. Sonza, Sugar Is Sweet: The Story of Nicholas Loney (Manila: National Historical Institute, 1977), pp. viii, 138; A Britisher , pp. 66-67. Annual sugar exports from Iloilo rose from 759 metric tons in 1855 to 141,614 in 1920 (McCoy, "Ylo-ilo," p. 26).

30. Martinez Cuesta, History of Negros , pp. 231-32; HDP, San Carlos, pp. 31, 41, 53-54, 57; W&G, December 23, 1908, p. 448; M , May 15, 1918, p. 3; July 31, 1918, p. 3. In 1918, 6.5 percent of land in Negros Occidental devoted to agriculture was still classified as public lands, meaning, presumably, land recently homesteaded (Census: 1918 3:218-19).

31. Information on property ownership comes in large part from notarial registers in the Philippine National Archives, Manila. Until 1902, they were called protocolos , thereafter notarios . They contain lists and descriptions of notarized documents including a wide variety of contracts relating to real estate and agricultural matters. The books I consulted do

not constitute even a third of those available for the period, but they do appear to be representative of the whole. The numbers of the books used, which do not refer to dates, are Protocolos , 1723-49, 1806-10, 1815-19; Norarios , 7545, 7548, 7550, 7551, 7552, 7555, 7562, 7564, 7585, 7586, 8170-72, 8179, 8195, 8855, 8857, 10320, 15580, 15631.

Of those names on the list of gobernadorcillos of Hinigaran in the period 1806 to 1844, only two, Mongcal and Grijaldo, appear on the 1896 list of Negros sugarland owners or in the protocolos ; see HDP, Hinigaran, p. 3; Estadisticas , Negros Occidental, 1896, PNA; Protocolo , 1874, Negros Occidental, PNA. On Valderrama and Juan Araneta, see Modesto P. Sa-onoy, Valderrarna (Bacolod: Negros Historical Commission, 1979), chaps. 1, 2; SN 13 (1932): 698-99; "Negros News" by W. O. Valentine, ca. 1923, W. O. Valentine file, BMR; Varona, Negros , p. 75; Protocolos , 1808, 1818, Negros Occidental, PNA.

32. Estadisticas , Negros Occidental, 1896, PNA; Census: 1918 2:380; Census: 1939 , 1, pt. 3, pp. 7-8; Martinez Cuesta, History of Negros , pp. 255, 376; Simonena, Father Fernando , p. 7; M , July 31, 1915, p. 3; "History of Silay" (Silay: n.p., ca. 1959), p. 1. (mimeo); Protocolos , 1738, 1739, 1746, Negros Occidental, PNA.

The Clavaria Law of 1849 stipulated that all native Filipinos had to have last names, and for those who did not, mostly the poor, a list of names was supplied from an alphabetical roster of some sixty thousand Spanish names. Towns were supplied sections of the list, and people in a given locality tended to be assigned surnames beginning with the same letter. In numerous barrios in Negros, this phenomenon of a common first letter occurs, heuristic evidence of a common place of origin on a neighboring island. See, for example, HDP, Pontevedra, p. 9. See also McCoy, "Queen," pp. 317-22; McCoy, "Ylo-ilo," p. 72; Loney to Farren, July 10, 1861, p. 10; John R. White, Bullets and Bolos (New York: Century, 1928), pp. 55-56.

33. Protocolos, Notarios , Negros Occidental, PNA; White, Bullets , pp. 40-41, 44; Webb, "Sugar industry," p. 375; SN 12 (1931): 283-84; 14 (1933): 92-93, 622-24; HDP, San Carlos, p. 23; Simonena, Father Fernando , p. 23; Rámon Martínez Vigil, O.P., Elementos de geografía descriptiva particularmente de las Islas Filipinas (Manila: El Colegio de Sto. Tomás, 1895), p. 89; Radicaciones de Estranjeros, Aleman , January 29, 1857, PNA; Martinez Cuesta, History of Negros , p. 255; Manuel Azcarraga y Palermo, La Libertad de cornercio en las Islas Filipinas (Madrid: José Noguera, 1871), pp. 168-69; Sonza, Sugar Is Sweet , chap. 18; letter from Nicholas Loney, Madrid, to James Murray, Foreign Office, London, December 31, 1862, p. 3, PRO, F.O. 72/1042; SN 12 (1931): 283-84; 14 (1933): 92-93; PFP , September 18, 1909, p. 6; July 25, 1914, p. 5.

34. Oscar Lopez, ed., The Lopez Family: Its Origins and Genealogy , 4 vols. (Manila: Eugenio Lopez Foundation, 1982), provides information on 2,676 heirs of Basilio and Maria Sabina Jaranilla Jalandoni through seven generations. See also McCoy, "Ylo-ilo," pp. 65-72.

35. Annual Report of the Governor of Negros Occidental, 1901, BIA, sec. vii; HDP, Hinigaran, p. 83; Martinez Cuesta, History of Negros , pp. 261-62; White, Bullets , p. 180.

36. The usual equivalents were as follows: One ganta of rice or corn seedlings plants 20 ares of land. Five gantas of rice or corn seedlings plant 1 hectare of land. One cavan of rice or corn seedlings plants 5 hectares of land. One lacsa equals 10,000 cane points, and 2 lacsas and a fraction plant 1 hectare, the exact amount dependent on the quality of the land; the better the land, the more points could be planted. As late as 1886, farmers in Negros were complaining about the lack of a land registration system (Miguel Pérez et al., "Crónica semihistoria de Filipinas yen especial de las Islas Visayas desde 1877 a 1887" [ms., Newberry Library], p. 3).

37. Martinez Cuesta, History of Negros , pp. 378-87; Notarios , 7562, 7564, Negros Occidental, PNA; M , December 15, 1917, p. 3; letter from G. Seaver, Field Investigator, Manila, to Archibald Harrison, Secretary of the PNB, August 15, 1918, QP. On colonial land laws see Vicente J. Francisco, The Cadastral Act, Public Land Act, and Laws on Mortgages (Manila: East Publishing, 1938).

38. Martinez Cuesta, History of Negros , p. 387; Karl J. Pelzer, Pioneer Settlement in the Asiatic Tropics (New York: American Geographical Society, 1948), pp. 108-10; "The Torrens Title System of Registration in the Philippines," June 25, 1915, BIA, File 1762, incl. 47-a; Vicente Mills, Planned Surveys , Philippine Commonwealth, Department of Agriculture and Commerce, Technical Bulletin, no. 8 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1937), pp. 138-41; MT , March 28, 1920, p. 13; M , May 6, 1915, p. 2; May 20, 1915, p. 3; Notarios , Negros Occidental, PNA.

39. McCoy, "Queen," pp. 320-22; Martinez Cuesta, History of Negros , p. 297; White, Bullets , pp. 156-57; HDP, Victorias, p. 51; M , July 10, 1920, p. 1; July 21, 1920, p. 4. In Negros in 1970, the biggest scandal was the use of bulldozers by the mayor of Cadiz to drive swidden farmers off upland portions of that municipality so he could plant sugar.

40. Echaúz, Apuntes , pp. 94-101; PFP , August 14, 1920, p. 38; Philippine Islands, Bureau of Constabulary, Annual Report . . . 1913 , p. 4; letter concerning the Dacongcogon Settlement Farm School, from Secundino M. Amantoy, Kabankalan, September 18, 1982, to the author; Niall O'Brien, Seeds of Injustice: Reflections on the Murder Frame-up of the Negros Nine in the Philippines (Dublin: O'Brien Press, 1985).

41. RF 2 (1875): 146; Estadisticas , Negros Occidental, 1896, PNA;

Protocolos , Negros Occidental, PNA; Varona, Negros , p. 155. Newspapers listing haciendas for sale included El Eco de Panay (Iloilo), March 8, 1887, p. 4; LI , April 6, 1907, p. 2; M , June 19, 1920, p. 2. The twelve families with the largest land holdings in 1896 were Yulo, 3,453 hectares; Lacson, 1,883 hectares; de la Rama, 1,663 hectares; Lopez, 1,440 hectares; Locsin, 1,258 hectares; Benedicto, 1,139 hectares; Montilla, 1,116 hectares; de Luzuriaga, 1,113 hectares; Ledesma, 1,067 hectares; Ardosa, 1,028 hectares; Gonzaga, 939 hectares; and de Canete, 900 hectares.

42. Varona, Negros , pp. 69-72, 110-13, 125-26, 134-35; Felix B. Regalado and Quintin B. Franco, History of Panay (Jaro, Iloilo City: Central Philippine University, 1973), pp. 474-76.

43. Loney to Farren, April 12, 1857, pp. 64-65; Varona, Negros , pp. 84, 147-49; Nesom and Walker, Handbook , pt. 1, p. 14; McCoy, "Queen," p. 310; Legarda, "Foreign Trade," pp. 466-74; Pérez et al., "Crónica," p. 3; A Gathering , pp. 13-14, 34; M , June 5, 1913, p. 2; December 27, 1913, p. 4; May 11, 1915, p. 3; May 8, 1918, p. 3; LI , June 11, 1906, p. 1; Protocolos, Notarios , Negros Occidental, PNA. Even the PNB, on occasion, gave anticipatory crop loans to bad risks. On the wide range of creditors of Russell, Sturgis, see E. H. Green vs. Estate of Jonathan Russell, ms. 1247, Baker Library, Harvard University.

44. M , August 12, 1915, p. 2.

45. Jaime Escobar y Lozano, El indicador del viajero en las Islas Filipinas (Manila: Chofré, 1885), p. 137; John Foreman, The Philippine Islands (London: Sampson Low, Marston, 1892), pp. 474-75; Henry Savage Landor, The Gems of the East , 2 vols. (London: Macmillan, 1904), 2:272; William Thomas Townsend, Personal Diary, December 13, 1903-May 2, 1907, Houghton Library, Harvard University; LL , October 3, 1899, p. 3; April 7, 1900, p. 3; LI , May 1906-April 1907; Philippine Islands, Bureau of Education, Local Geographical and Historical Notes: Province of Occidental Negros (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1915), pp. 3-4; Annual Report of the Governor of Negros Occidental, 1916, BIA, pp. 7, 11; M , October 1917-October 1920; Varona, Negros , pp. 76-77; White, Bullets , p. 118; Manuscript Report of the Taft Commission, Trip to Negros Occidental, 1901, BIA, p. 38; SN 1 (1919): frontispiece; Felicidad A. Jugo, "Classes of Society in Occidental Negros," BS, p. 1; Echaúz, Apuntes , pp. 30-31.

46. A Gathering , pp. 15-16; Varona, Negros , pp. 149-50, 156-58; Francisco Sádaba del Carmen, O.R.S.A., Catálogo de Los religiosos agustinos recoletos de la Provincia de San Nicolás de Tolentino de Filipinas . . . (Madrid: Imp. del Asilo de Huérfanos del Sagrada Corazún de Jesús, 1906), pp. 862-63, 865; Cavada, Historia 2:327; Melecio B. Lamayo, "Social and Economic Condition of My' Town," BS, pp. 1-4; Doreen Fernandez, The Iloilo Zarzuela: 1903-1930 (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1978), p. xii; El Eco de Panay , March 8, 1887, p. 3; MT , September

11, 1901, pp. 2-3, 6; M , 1913-1920; White, Bullets , p. 27; HDP, Bacolod, p. 10; PFP , July 18, 1914, p. 5; June 12,1920, p. 36; John Arnold, ed., The Philippines: The Land of Palm and Pine (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1912), p. 143.

47. "Relacion de las Haciendas en la jurisdiccion de este pueblo [Eustaquio Lopez] con Los nombres de Los propietarios y de Los encargados y numero de jornaleros que trabajan en cada una de ellos," Record Group 395, 2620 Division of Visayas, U.S. National Archives. See also Edith Steinmetz, Report, Bacolod, 1907, BMR; Echaúz, Apuntes , p. 43; Foreman, Philippine Islands (1892), p. 442; Pérez et al., "Crónica," p. 1. The Annual Report of the Governor, Negros Occidental, 1908, BIA, p. 7, notes a drop in the number of sugar plantations, from 678 in 1905 to 326 in the current year, a result of harsh economic conditions.

48. PFP , February 3, 1912, p. 30. In 1903, of 2,013 farms 10 hectares or larger (not specifying crop, but probably including the bulk of the sugar farms), 160 were operated by cash tenants and 241 by share tenants. In 1918, the figures were 3,322 farms, 275 cash tenants and 430 share tenants. In both years almost all the other farms were owner operated or managed by salaried workers ( Census: 1903 4:273; Census: 1918 3:107). See also M , October 18, 1917, p. 1; January 12, 1918, p. 2; Loney to Farren, July 10, 1861, pp. 9, 14-15; Memoria, Negros Occidental, 1890, PNA, pp. 18-19; Echaúz, Apuntes , pp. 43-45; Foreman, Philippine Islands (1892), p. 315; Protocolo , 1817, Notarios , 7550-52, 7555, 7564, 7585-86, 8171-72, 8195, 10320, 10362, Negros Occidental, PNA.

49. Renacimiento Filipino , September 14, 1911, pp. 328-30; Echaúz, Apuntes , chap. 9; Webb, "Sugar Industry," pp. 375-76.

50. Tomas Concepcion, "Native Marriage Customs in Occidental Negros [ca. 1918]," BS, p. 7; M , November 4, 1916, p. 3; Romualdo M. Araneta, "Social Classes and Beliefs of the People in Bago, Occ. Negros," BS, pp. 1-4; mission letter of Archibald A. Forshee, Bacolod, March 11, 1903, BMR.

51. Echaúz, Apuntes , pp. 160-63.

52. Renacimiento Filipino , November 7, 1911, pp. 580-81; Echaúz, Apuntes , pp. 61-63, 160-63; Foreman, Philippine Islands (1892), p. 317; M , October 3, 1920, p. 3; the tax list shows 805 Chinese in Negros in 1894, about 90 percent of whom worked as "jornaleros," perhaps in sugar mills (Gobierno Politico Militar de la Provincia de Negros Occidental, "Empadronamiento general de Los Chinos de esta provincia . . . fecha 16 de Marzo ultimo," PNA).

53. "Relacion de las haciendas enclavadas en la jurisdiccion de este pueblo . . . [Silay]," December 12, 1900; "Relacion de Los Hacenderos dentro de la jurisdiccion de este pueblo [Guimbalaon] y el numero total de sus operarios," January 17, 1901, Record Group 395, 2620 Division of the Visayas, U.S. National Archives; Edith Steinmetz, "A Short Trip in the

Philippines," Bacolod, 1908, BMR; Renacimiento Filipino , September 14, 1911, p. 329; November 7, 1911, p. 580; Yves Henry, Technical and Financial Conditions of the Production of Sugar in the Philippines , trans. Irwin McNiece (Manila: Philippine Sugar Association, 1929), pp. 53-54; Landor, Gems 2:274; MT , December 12, 1919, p. 2; letter from Stephen Hise, Bacolod, to F. P. Haggard, Boston, April 21, 1902, BMR; Protocolos , 1817, 1818, Negros Occidental, PNA.

54. Notario , 7564, Negros Occidental, PNA; José Felipe del Pan, Las Islas Filipinas, progresos en 70 años (Manila: Imp. de la Oceania Española, 1878), p. 379; M , December 27, 1913, p. 1; November 13, 1920, pp. 1-2; Foreman, Philippine Islands (1892), p. 449; SN 1 (1920): 3-4; PFP , February 6, 1915, p. 7; Gobierno P.M. del Distrito de Isla de Negros, "Novedades, Varias Provincias," April 30, 1875 [Bacolod], Legajos de Negros, PNA.

55. White, Bullets , pp. 160-61; U.S. War Department, U.S. Philippine Commission, Annual Report of the Philippine Commission, 1903 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1904), pt. 3, p. 122; Martinez Cuesta, History of Negros , p. 200; Philippine Islands, Constabulary, Annual Report . . . 1911 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1911), p. 6.

56. Protocolos , 1807, 1817, 1818, Negros Occidental, PNA; Martinez Cuesta, History of Negros , p. 232; M , 1913-20, passim; White, Bullets , pp. 52-53, 110-14, 117-18; U.S. War Department, U.S. Philippine Commission, Annual Report . . . 1905 , pt. 3, p. 88; Emilio Tarrosa, "The Life of the People of Negros Occidental in the Last Half of the Nineteenth Century as Told by the Traditions," BS, pp. 10-11; Memoria 1890, Negros Occidental, PNA; Annual Report of the Governor of Negros Occidental, 1906, BIA, p. 6; Díaz Arenas, Memorias , "Suplemento y Adiciones", BIA, File 1184, incls. 14, 28. Information on appointed and elected officials in Negros can be found in Elecciones , Negros, PNA, various guias , and most twentieth-century Philippine newspapers.

57. Ignacio Villamor, Criminality in the Philippine Islands, 1903-1908 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1909), p. 75.

58. Memoria 1890, Negros Occidental, PNA; Pérez et al., "Crónica," pp. 3-4; PFP , October 3, 1908, p. 3; June 18, 1910, p. 12; March 30, 1918, pp. 18, 20-21; SN 1 (1919): 26-27; 1 (1920): 3-4; 2 (1921): 486-87. Gilbert ("American Capital," p. 16) asserts that competition from a rising number of hemp and coconut plantations caused a shortage of migrant labor in Negros in the 1890s.

59. Letterbook, 1900, Record Group 395, 4340 Manapla Detachment, U.S. National Archives; Annual Report of the Governor of Negros Occidental, 1903, BIA, p. 13; Annual Report of the Governor of Negros Occidental, 1910, BIA, p. 4.

60. MT , August 28, 1919, p. 5; Circular 21, Philippine Constabulary, BIA, File 1184, incl. 132; the Insular Lumber Company, BIA File 11457;

Negros-Philippine Lumber Company, BIA, File 27419. Extensive information exists on public and private education on Negros; see, for example: Evergisto Bazaco, O.P., History of Education in the Philippines , 2d ed. (Manila: University of Santo Tomas Press, 1953), pp. 305-11; Guía oficial de Filipinas, 1889 , 2 vols. (Manila: M. Pérez, 1888), 2:274; LI , May 9, 1906-July 26, 1906; M , April 24, 1918, p. 4; June 2, 1918, p. 4.

61. Tarrosa, "The Life," p. 10.

62. Capagmasusian Qñg Aldo Pañgasilang Ning Magalang [The Souvenir Program on the Founding Day of Magalang, December 13, 1863-December 13, 1954] (Magalang, Pampanga: n.p., 1954), pp. 19-33. See also Larkin, Pampangans , chaps. 4-8.

63. "Datos historicos de este municipio de Mexico, provincia de la Pampanga, Islas Filipinas," LPC, pp. 3-4; Macario G. Naval, "Pottery and Pilon-Making in Santo Tomas, Pampanga," BS; Philippine Islands, Bureau of Education, Local Geographical and Historical Notes: Province of Pampanga (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1915), pp. 4-6.

64. Tarlac Province: 100th Year Anniversary, December 25-30, 1974, souvenir program (n.p.: n.p., 1974); Census: 1903 2:203-4; Census: 1918 2:249-251; Protocolos, Notarios , Pampanga, PNA. Nineteenth-century Capampangan pioneers into southern Tarlac included Braulio Aquino and Pablo Quiambao, great-grandfathers of Senator Benigno Aquino, Jr. (Nick Joaquin, The Aquinos of Tarlac: An Essay on History as Three Generations [Mandaluyong, Metro Manila: Cacho Hermanos, 1983], pp. 26-30).

65. Yldefonso de Aragon, Descripción geográfica y topográfica de la ysla de Luzon ó Nueva Castilla con las particulates de las diez y seis provincias ó partidos que comprehende (Manila: Imp. de D. Manuel Memije, por D. Anastacio Gonzaga, 1819), pt. 4, pp. 2-17; Alfred Marche, Luçon et Palaouan: Six Années de Voyages aux Philippines (Paris: Librairie Hachette et Cie, 1887), pp. 180-81; "Gobierno Municipal de Floridabianca, Provincia de la Pampanga, I.F.," LPC, p. 2; Cavada, Historia , 1:162; Census: 1903 4:235.

66. Gonzá1ez Fernández and Moreno, Anuario . . . 1877, advertisement section, Almacen Santo Cristo, n.p.; Notario 10818, entry for January 15, 1915, Pampanga, PNA; interviews with three former workers at Joven's factory, Bacolor, August 11, 1964.

67. Provincia de la Pampanga, Padron, 1887-88, Serie la, Españoles, PNA; Terrenos de la Pampanga, Expedientes Nos. 31, 39, 40, 42, PNA; Mariano A. Henson, A Brief History of the Town of Angeles in the Province of Pampanga, Philippines (San Fernando, Pampanga: Ing Kati-wala Press, 1948), p. 10n; Edith Moses, Unofficial Letters of an Official's Wife (New York: D. Appleton, 1908), p. 62. Pardo de Tavara owned the farm in Floridablanca from 1901 until 1908 and also held a big agricultural property in Tarlac, Tarlac, until July 1920 (Larkin, Pampangans , p. 191n; Notario 21068, entry of July 16, 1920, Pampanga, PNA). His active in-

volvement in extending spurs of the Manila-Dagupan Railroad toward both Floridablanca and Magalang hints that he may have profited handsomely from his ownership of these properties of more than 100 hectares each.

68. Information on the commercial agricultural activities in Pampanga comes from the notarial registers in the Philippine National Archives. See Larkin, Parnpangans , pp. 72-73n, 211n, 279n; John A. Larkin, "The Causes of an Involuted Society: A Theoretical Approach to Rural Southeast Asian History," Journal of Asian Studies 30 (1971): 793.

69. Rural Credit Associations, BIA, File 26692, incls. 26-a, 47; LI , May 25, 1906-October 26, 1906; PFP , March 20, 1909, p. 12; February 13, 1915, p. 1; November 21, 1914, p. 30; M , May 4, 1918, p. 2.

70. Marshall S. McLennan, The Central Luzon Plain: Land and Society on the Inland Frontier (Quezon City: Alemar-Phoenix, 1980), pp. 94-95; letter concerning the application of Don Roberto Toledo y Gil to reside in Pampanga, October 16, 1854, Radicaciones de Españoles , PNA; "Gobierno Municipal de Floridablanca . . . ," pp. 1-4; SN 1 (1920), frontispiece to no. 15; PFP , October 24, 1908, p. 4; Nesom and Walker, Handbook , pt. 1, p. 19.

71. Manuel Buzeta, O.S.A., and Felipe Bravo, O.S.A., Diccionario geográfico, estadístico, histórico de las lslas Filipinas , 2 vols. (Madrid: José C. de la Peña, 1851), 1:190; Frederic H. Sawyer, The Inhabitants of the Philippines (London: Sampson Low, Marston, 1900), pp. 239-40; Foreman, Philippine Islands (1906), pp. 273-74; "A Report on Economic Conditions, Pampanga Province, San Fernando, Mexico, Minalin, Guagua, Lubao and Arayat. Prepared by the Class in Economics and Mrs. Lois Stewart Osborn, [of Pampanga High School]," San Fernando, ca. 1915. (typewritten), BIA, File 363, incl. 296, Exhibit L.

72. Letter from Agricultural Supervisor N. P. Creager, Bacolor, to Chief of the Bureau of Agriculture F. Lamson, Manila, August 14, 1903, BIA, File 2403, incl. 27; PFP , July 1, 1911, pp. 18, 20, 29; MT October 12, 1919, p. 4; letter from Director of the Bureau of Labor Faustino Aguilar, Manila, to Senate President Manuel Quezon, August 2, 1918, QP; Philippine Islands, Bureau of Labor, Labor: Bulletin of the Bureau of Labor (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1920), 2, no. 5, p. 10; no. 6, p. 28.

73. Will of Jose Mariano Panlilio executed in 1852; will of Vicente Lim-Ongco executed in 1854; Protocolo , 1847, Pampanga, PNA. On the business dealings of Jose Puig, see Protocolos , 1920, 1921, 1923, 1929, 1931, 1932, 1933 for the years 1890-94, Pampanga, PNA. Though a Spaniard, Puig remained a farmer in Pampanga after the coming of the American regime; see U.S. War Department, U.S. Philippine Commission, Annual Report . . . 1907 , Appendix, 810. On Pamintuan see Notario 21090, entry of November 19, 1918, Pampanga, PNA. On the other magnates see Larkin, Parnpangans , p. 212n; Notario 12225, entry of July 29, 1919, Pampanga, PNA.

74. Jose Rizal, The Lost Eden ( Noli me Tangere ), trans. Leon Ma. Guerrero (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1961), p. 28; Soledad Borromeo-Buehler, "The Inquilinos of Cavite: A Social Class in Nine-teenth-Century Philippines," Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 16 (March 1985): 80-81; will of Don Florentino Dayrit executed September 2, 1897, Protocolo 1944, Pampanga, PNA.

75. U.S. War Department, U.S. Philippine Commission, Annual Report . . . 1907 , Appendix, 800, 810-12; U.S. War Department, U.S. Philippine Commission, Annual Reports of the War Department for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1901. Report of the Philippine Commission (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901), pt. 2, p. 16; Forbes, Philippine Islands , 1:300.

76. "A Report on Economic Conditions."

77. Larkin, Pampangans , pp. 97,118n, 185-200, 263-69; MT , July 27, 1964, p. 19.

78. Buzeta and Bravo, Diccionario ; Bazaco, Education , pp. 230, 305-10; Mills, Planned Surveys , pp. 148-51, 272-73.

79. José Fernández Giner, Filipinas: Notas de viaje y de estancia (Madrid: Administración, 1889), pp. 76-88; PFP , July 11, 1914, p. 26. The practice of using intermarriage, even first cousin marriage, to ensure continued family ownership of property is widely employed in the Philippines among both Christians and Muslims; see, for example, Thomas M. Kiefer, The Tausug: Violence and Law in a Philippine Moslem Society (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972), p. 40.

80. John A. Larkin, "The Capampangan Zarzuela: Theater for a Provincial Elite," in Southeast Asia Transitions: Approaches through Social History , ed. Ruth T. McVey (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1978), 158-90; Ramon C. Aquino, A Chance to Die: A Biography of Jose Abad Santos, Late Chief Justice of the Philippines (Quezon City: Alemar-Phoenix, 1967), pp. 8-10; Guía de forasteros en Filipinas, para el año de 1865 (Manila: Los Amigos del Pals, 1865), p. 88.

81. Memoria de Pampanga, 1890, PNA; PAR 15 (Summer 1927): 93-94; MDB , April 21, 1920, p. 6; MT , April 25, 1920, p. 6.

82. In addition to signing contracts with Toledo and Gonzalez (2,500 hectares), Pasumil also acquired contractual rights to the cane of the Dinalupihan estate of neighboring Bataan Province, and these three holdings provided a strong base of lands upon which the Canlubang interests could construct their central; see MDB , December 1, 1919, p. 5; November 12, 1920, p. 4; June 13, 1921, p. 2; SN 1 (1920), frontispiece to no. 16.

83. SN 32 (1956): 1-3; Notarios 12229, 21069, 21209, 23602, Pampanga, PNA.

84. Notarios , Pampanga, PNA.

85. Some farmers in Magalang tried to convert their tenants into wage laborers at this time (interview with planter Alfredo Ganzon, Angeles,

June 21, 1964). The notion of using tenants in depressed periods was confirmed in the March 12, 1986, interview with Mr. Carlos Ledesma.

86. The imbalance in favor of sugar reached a crisis between 1918 and 1920, when natural calamities and the World War I-induced shortage of ship bottoms led to a scarcity of imported grain that caused extensive starvation and rioting in sugar-prosperous Negros and Pampanga (M, March 6, 1918-January 14,, 1920; MT , January 2, 1919-May 18, 1920; ''Synopsis of Constabulary ' Reports of Food Shortage and Help Afforded by Constabulary," Memorandum to the Chief of Constabulary, Manila, September 20, 1919, QP).

87. Willem Wolters, "A Comparison Between the Taxation Systems in the Philippines Under Spanish Rule and Indonesia Under Dutch Rule During the 19th Century," Asian Studies 21 (April, August, December 1983): 79-106; Frank H. Golay, "The Search for Revenues," in Reappraising an Empire: New Perspectives on Philippine-American History , ed. Peter W. Stanley (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984), pp. 231-60; PAR 1 (1908): 432-37.

88. The following quotation reveals in a noneconomic context the difficulty Negrense planters had in organizing:

Nearly every haciendero (in Negros) is possessed of rifles and shot-guns, ranging in number from one to ten or a dozen. They are not to be relied upon as an adjunct to the constabulary or municipal police, for each haciendero looks out for his own first and the public welfare afterwards. There is no such thing, as we have in the States, of the people of a locality arming themselves to resist the raids of outlaws or to form a posse to go to the assistance of their neighbors or to aid municipal police or the constabulary.

(U.S. War Department, U.S. Philippine Commission, Sixth Annual Report of the Philippine Commission, 1906 [Washington: Government Printing Office, 1906], pt. 3, p. 88)