1. The only general history of California transportation is Rockwell Dennis Hunt and William Sheffield Ament, Oxcart to Airplane (Los Angeles: Powell, 1929); it is engagingly written but thinly documented. H. Wilbur Hoffman, Sagas of Old Western Travel and Transport (San Diego: Howell-North, 1980), is well illustrated, readable, accurate, and enlivened with invented conversations; its scope is broader in time and space than this essay, but gold-rush California is included. Hubert Howe Bancroft, History of California, 7 vols. (1886-1890; reprint, Santa Barbara: Wallace Hebberd, 1970), weaves gold-rush transportation through other material in vols. 6 and 7; the only good index is Everett Gordon Hager and Anna Marie Hager, The Zamorano Index to 'History of California" by Hubert Howe Bancroft , 2 vols. (Los Angeles: University of Southern California, 1985). James D. Hart, Companion to California , rev. ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), is encyclopedic. Topical maps accompanied by well-researched text are in Warren A. Beck and Inez D. Haase, Historical Atlas of California (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1974). R. N. Preston, Early California Atlas Northern Edition and Early California Atlas Southern Edition (Portland: Binford and Mort, 1974) enable the reader to trace wagon roads and stagecoach routes with a magnifying glass, eyestrain, and some imagination.

2. T.H. Watkins, "The Revoloidal Spindle and the Wondrous Avitor," American West 4 (February 1967), and Kenneth Johnson, Aerial California (Los Angeles: Dawson's Book Shop, 1961).

3. Jessie Davies Francis, An Economic and Social History of Mexican California, 1822-1846 , vol. 1: Chiefly Economic (New York: Arno Press, 1976), 509-77, 713-41; Alfred Robinson, Life in California (1846; reprint, Santa Barbara: Peregrine Smith, 1970), 55-60; John Bidwell, "Life in California before the Gold Discovery," Century 61 (December 1890): 171.

4. John Haskell Kemble, The Panama Route (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1943; reprint, Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1999), chap. 7; James P. Delgado, To California by Sea: A Maritime History of the Gold Rush (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1990), chap. 2.

5. Ibid., 166-78.

6. John Haskell Kemble, "A Hundred Years of Pacific Mail," American Neptune 10 (April 1950): 130. For a biography of Pacific Mail founder William Aspinwall, see Col. Duncan S. Somerville, The Aspinwall Empire (Mystic, Conn.: Mystic Seaport Museum, 1983).

7. Kemble, Panama Route , 53-54, 116-21, app. I.

8. Ibid., 121-24, 156-63.

9. Ibid., 147-53.

10. Ibid., 134-39.

11. Kemble, "A Hundred Years," 126-29; Kemble, Panama Route , 86-87, chap. 3; David I. Folkman, Jr., The Nicaragua Route (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1972).

12. Lack of charts increased the hazards of navigation. Spanish coastal charts were unavailable to Americans; U.S. Coast Survey charts began appearing in 1855, and the first edition of the Coast Pilot was published in 1858, but the federal government was unwilling to chart foreign coasts on the Panama route. Oscar Lewis, George Davidson: Pioneer West Coast Scientist (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1954), 48-51; Kemble, "A Hundred Years," 127, 133-34, 143-44.

13. Kemble, Panama Route , 148, 174-75,197, apps. 2, 3; Kemble, "A Hundred Years," 131 ff.; Folkman, Nicaragua Route , app. B; Oscar Osburn Winther, Express and Stagecoach Days in California (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1936), 69-70.

14. In a sense, gold-rush demand returned California to a hunter-gatherer food economy, but on an international scale. Lary M. Dilsaver, "Food Supply for the California Gold Rush," California Geographer 23 (1983).

15. Delgado, To California by Sea , 43-44; Roger W. Lotchin, San Francisco, 1846-1856: From Hamlet to City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974), 10-11, 49, 57, 73-74, 166-69 , 172-73, 178, 181; Harold Kirker, California's Architectural Frontier (Santa Barbara: Peregrine Smith, 1973), 38-39, 79.

16. Sherwood D. Burgess, "The Forgotten Redwoods of the East Bay," California Historical Society Quarterly 30 (March 1951), and Frank M. Stanger, Sawmills in the Redwoods: Logging on the San Francisco Peninsula, 1849-1967 (San Mateo, Calif.: San Mateo County Historical Association, 1967). For North Coast lumbering, see Lynwood Carranco, Redwood Lumber Industry (San Marino, Calif.: Golden West, 1982); the gold-rush period is covered in chaps. 9, 11. Lynwood Carranco and John T. Labbe, Logging the Redwoods (Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton, 1979), covers the same material but in less detail and without documentation. The Pacific Northwest furnished about 60 percent of San Francisco's lumber by 1860; two regional histories of lurebering are Thomas R. Cox, Mills and Markets : A History of the Pacific Coast Lumber Business to 1900 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1974), and Edwin T. Co-man, Jr., and Helen M. Gibbs, Tide, Time and Timber: A Century of Pope and Talbot (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1949).

17. The dangers of the Humboldt Bar and historic efforts to tame it are described in Susan Pritchard O'Hara and Gregory Graves, Saving California's Coast (Spokane: Arthur H. Clark, 1991). For the hazards of navigating the Mendocino coast, see Karl Kortum and Roger Olmsted, "' . . . it is a dangerous looking place': Sailing Days on the Redwood Coast," California Historical Quarterly 50 (March 1971).

18. Thomas R. Cox, "Single Decks and Flat Bottoms: Building the West Coast's Lumber Fleet, 1850-1929," Journal of the West 20 (July 1981): 66-69; Coman and Gibbs, Time, Tide and Timber , 179-80; Carranco, Redwood Lumber Industry, 105 ; Kortum and Olmsted, " . . . it is a dangerous looking place," 43-45; Cox, Mills and Markets , 150-55.

19. Carl Cutler, Greyhounds of the Sea (Annapolis: U.S. Naval Institute, 1930); app. 7 shows hull lines and sail plans. K. Jack Bauer, A M aritime History of the United States (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1988), 89-92; Raymond A. Rydell, Cape Horn to the Pacific (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1952), 134-40, chaps. 7, 8. For crews, see Delgado, To California by Sea , 97-99; Cutler, Greyhounds of the Sea , 186, 222-23; Bauer, A Maritime History , 91; Rydell, Cape Horn , 148.

20. Frances Leigh Williams, Matthew Fontaine Maury: Scientist of the Sea (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1963), chap. 10; Cutler, Greyhounds of the Sea , 108, 217-19, 243-44, 259-61.

21. The last clipper was built in 1857, and few survived more than ten years of hard sailing because the leverage of wind against masts and braces damaged their hulls; Rydell, Cape Horn , 141, n. 26. The California grain trade began in the 1860s but reached its peak in the 1880s, well after the Gold Rush; Rodman W. Paul, "The Wheat Trade between California and the United Kingdom," Mississippi Valley Historical Review 45 (December 1958). Iron hulls were lighter, roomier, drier, and cheaper to insure, but America built few of them; Bauer, A Maritime History , 241-42, 256-58.

22. Early rivals for San Francisco's trade included Benicia and Vallejo; Lotchin, San Francisco, 1846-1856 , 31-39; for the growth of San Francisco's infrastructure see ibid., 41-44, 76, 236, and Delgado, To California by Sea , chap. 3. For patterns of bay and river transportation development, see Mel Scott, The San Francisco Bay Area: A Metropolis in Perspective , 2nd ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), and Joseph A. Mcgowan, History of the Sacramento Valley , 3 vols. (New York: Lewis, 1961. Also see Thor Severson, Sacramento, 1839 to 1874: An Illustrated History from Sutter's Fort to Capital City (n.p.: California Historical Society, 1973). For tonnages, Mcgowan, History of the Sacramento Valley , vol. 1, 63-67, 74, 79-82; Severson, Sacramento, 1839 to 1874 , 169; Bancroft, History of California , vol. 7, 466.

23. Firsthand accounts of early trips upriver are in Elisha Oscar Crosby, Memoirs: Reminiscences of California and Guatemala, 1849-1864 , ed. Charles Albro Barker (San Marino, Calif.: Huntington Library, 1945), 19-20; Adolphus Windeler, California Gold Rush Diary of a German Sailor , ed. W. Turrentine Jackson (Berkeley: Howell-North, 1969), 14, 28-31; Bayard Taylor, E1 Dorado, or Adventures in the Path of Empire (1850; reprint, New York: Knopf, 1949), 163. Before mining debris shoaled the rivers, ships drawing as much as ten feet could sail directly to Sacramento and Stockton, where many were recycled as improvised wharves and buildings; Severson, Sacramento, 1839 to 1874 , 50-55, 66, 75, 77, 84-87, 90-91; George P. Hammond, The Weber Era in Stockton History (Berkeley: Friends of the Bancroft Library, 1982), 94-95, 108.

24. A well-researched photographic essay with a strong text is Roger R. Olmsted, Square-Toed Packets: Scow Schooners of San Francisco Bay (Cupertino: California History Center, 1988); an introductory chapter describes the beginnings of navigation on the Sacramento River.

25. Jerry MacMullen, Paddlewheel Days in California (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1944); 19-21, 24-32, 68-71; detailed appendices list boats, river ports, and distances. See also Bancroft, History of California , vol. 7, 466.

26. MacMullen, Paddlewheel Days , 19-23; Mcgowan, History of the Sacramento Valley , vol. 1, 303.

27. John Haskell Kemble, "The Senator," California Historical Quarterly 16 (Part 1, 1932), and also his " Chrysopolis : The Queen of the Golden River," American Neptune 2 (October 1942); MacMullen, Paddlewheel Days , 35, 51-52. For a firsthand account of a trip to Stockton, see "The Great Yo-Semite Valley,'' Hutchings' California Magazine 4 (October 1859), reprinted in Roger Olmsted, ed., Scenes of Wonder and Curiosity (Berkeley: Howell-North, 1962). A well-researched photographic essay of the upriver boats, including construction details, is Edward Galland Zelinsky and Nancy Leigh Olmsted, "Upriver Boats—When Red Bluff Was the Head of Navigation," California History 64 (Spring 1985): 86-117.

28. Zelinsky and Olmsted, "Upriver Boats," 106-8. An evocative, firsthand account of the river landings is in Captain John Leale, Recollections of a Tule Sailor (San Francisco: George Fields, 1939), 46—51 Navigation on the upper Sacramento, Mcgowan, History of the Sacramento Valley , vol. 1, 78-81. For navigation on the San Joaquin and the lower Mokelumne, see MacMullen, Paddlewheel Days , chap. 11; app., 144-45. The silting problem was attributed to hydraulic mining; Robert Kelley, Gold vs. Grain: The Hydraulic Mining Controversy in California's Sacramento Valley (Glendale, Calif.: Arthur H. Clark, 1959) is an exhaustive political analysis; his Battling the Inland Sea: American Political Culture, Public Policy, and the Sacramento Valley, 1850-1986 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989) places the silting controversy in the broader context of ongoing attempts to control flooding.

29. A firsthand account is "Packing in the Mountains of California," Hutchings' California Magazine 1 (December 1856), reprinted in Olmsted, Scenes of Wonder . Details of the Army's adaptation of the aparejo are thoroughly illustrated in H. W. Daly, Manual of Pack Transportation (1916; reprint, Santa Monica, Calif.: Quail Ranch, 1981), chap. 7. See also McGowan, History of the Sacramento Valley , vol. 1, 88-89, 99.

30. "Packing in the Mountains," 117.

31. A scholarly but readable work that includes regional history, road, bridge, and ferry development south from Stockton is Irene Paden and Margaret Schlichtman, The Big Oak Flat Road to Yosemite (Oakland: Holmes Book Co., 1959). An article focused on the alignments of roads radiating from Stockton and the development of ferry crossings is Thor Breton, "The Old Mariposa Road," The Far Westerner 11 (April 1966); the journal is the publication of the Stockton Corral of Westerners. The road network centered on Shasta City is in part 3 of W. H. Colby, A Century of Transportation in Shasta County, 1821-1920 (n.p.: Association for Northern California Records and Research, 1982). For Marysville and northern Sierra roads, see Ernest Wiltsee, The Pioneer Miner and the Pack Mule Express (San Francisco: California Historical Society, 1931). For evolution of roads, McGowan, History of the Sacramento Valley , vol. 1, 18, 49, 79, 101, 112. County road appropriations were sometimes minimal (Colby, Shasta County , 28-29), but Sonoma, Napa, and Alameda counties levied taxes for road construction and created a network of roads around San Francisco Bay (Scott, Bay Area , 40-41). A cut through solid rock at San Fernando Pass in Los Angeles County was financed with a mixture of public and private funds; Vernette Snyder Ripley, "San Fernando Pass and the Traffic that Went over It, Part 2," The Quarterly of the Historical Society of Southern California 29 (September-December 1947), and "Part 3," 30 (March 1948). Also see John W. Robinson, "The Taming of San Fernando Pass,'' The Branding Iron 208 (Summer 1997); the journal is published by the Los Angeles Corral of Westerners. The gold-rush wagon road network is charted in Beck and Haase, Historical Atlas of California , map 51. Contemporary photographs showing cuts, fills, and hairpin turns are in Irving Wills, "The Jerk Line Team," The Westerners Brand Book Nine (n.p.: Los Angeles Corral of Westerners, 1961). For snow-plowing, see Lyndall Baker Landauer, The Mountain Sea (Honolulu: Flying Cloud, 1996), 70, and Colby, Shasta County, 37 . For number of bridges, see Bancroft, History of California , vol. 7, 143n. For width of roads, see McGowan, History of the Sacramento Valley , vol. 1, 48; rules of the road, 48. For tuned bells, see Wills, "Jerk Line Team," 51-52.

32. For a firsthand description of ferry construction and operation, see Samuel Ward, Sam Ward in the Gold Rush , ed. Carvel Collins (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1949), 121-29. Kramer Adams, Covered Bridges of the West (Berkeley: Howell-North, 1963), 13-20, and Colby, Shasta County , 21-24, 61-62.

33. McGowan, History of the Sacramento Valley , vol. 1, 89; Hoffman, Sagas , 46-47, 61, and Wills, "Jerk Line Team," 33, 38-46, 55. Wagon running gear is depicted with wonderful clarity in Nick Eggenhofer, Wagons, Mules and Men: How the Frontier Moved (New York: Hastings, 1961), 38-42; California freight wagons were not the Conestogas that Eggenhofer illustrates and discusses, but the wheels and running gear were constructed on the same principles.

34. For trans-Sierra emigrant roads, see George R. Stewart, California Trail: An Epic with Many Heroes (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1962); 206-7, 304-6, and map, 300; and Stewart Mitchell, "Crossing the Sierra," California Highways and Public Works 29, nos. 9-10 (1949). For a trans-Sierra road that became important in Chico's development see Anita L. Chang, The Historical Geography of the Humboldt Wagon Road (Chico: Association for Northern California Records and Research, 1992). An excellent geographical study of trans-Sierra roads is Thomas Frederick Howard, Sierra Crossing (Berkeley: University, of California Press, 1998).

35. For a thorough account of trans-Sierra road surveys, see Chester Lee White, "Surmounting the Sierra," Quarterly of the California Historical Society 7 (March 1928); Mitchell, "Crossing the Sierra," 61, has a detailed and annotated but difficult map showing how the Placerville-Lake Tahoe road evolved. In 1857, federal legislation appropriated money for three wagon roads to the California boundary: one to Honey Lake, another along the 35th parallel to the Mojave River, and a third to Yuma. For Pacific wagon road legislation, see W. Turrentine Jackson, Wagon Roads West (New Haven:' Yale University Press, 1964; reprint, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979), 161-74. Tolls and freight charges, Bancroft, History of California , vol. 7, 541. Road construction is treated briefly in Francis P. Farquhar, History of the Sierra Nevada (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965), chap. 11. Farquhar's book is a good regional history; so is Landauer, Mountain Sea . See also Edward B. Scott, The Saga of Lake Tahoe (Crystal Bay: Sierra Tahoe, 1956), 364-72. The Placerville, Humboldt, and Salt Lake Telegraph Company strung its wires along the Placerville Road to reach Carson City in 1858 and Salt Lake City in 1861; for an overview of northern California telegraph construction, see McGowan, History of the Sacramento Valley , vol. 1, 167-70.

36. Mercantilist urban rivalries stimulated road building but hindered railroad construction; see Ward McAfee, California's Railroad Era, 1850-1911 (San Marino, Calif.: Golden West, 1973), chaps. 3, 4, 5. For the Dutch Flat wagon road, see McAfee, California's Railroad Era , 61, and John Hoyt Williams, A Great and Shining Road (New York: Times Books, 1988), 59-60, 91, 135.

37. Winther, Express and Stagecoach Days is well documented and readable. His Via Western Express and Stagecoach (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1945) is a more popular treatment, without scholarly apparatus. A handsomely illustrated philatelic treatment of the gold-rush expresses is L. Coburn, Leaves of Gold (Canton: U.S. Philatelic Classics Society, 1984); Wiltsee, Pioneer Miner , has a similar focus. There is a good discussion of the one-man express companies in Winther, Express and Stagecoach Days , chap. 1. On snowshoes, see Landauer, Mountain Sea , 66-67.

38. Robert J. Chandler, "Integrity Amid Tumult: Wells, Fargo & Co.'s Gold Rush Banking," California History 70 (Fall 1991); Winther, Express and Stagecoach Days , 42-48, 51-75; for the causes and course of the panic of 1855, chap. 4. See also Edward Hungerford, Wells Fargo: Advancing the American Frontier (New York: Random House, 1949) and Noel D. Loomis, Wells Fargo: An Illustrated History (New York: Bramhall House, 1968), which is mostly text, despite the title, and well documented. For Wells Fargo first-class mail service, see Wiltsee, Pioneer Miner , chap. 9.

39. Winther, Express and Stagecoach Days , 91-96, 158-60. Captain William Banning and George Hugh Banning, Six Horses (New York: Century, 1930), 47; Harlan Boyd, Stagecoach Heyday in the San Joaquin Valley (Bakersfield: Kern County Historical Society, 1983), 16-18, 35-36, 44-46, 48; maps, xii, 17. See also McGowan, History of the Sacramento Valley , vol. 1, 87-89, 93, and Bancroft, History of California , vol. 7, 151, and n. 46.

40. W. Turrentine Jackson, "A New Look at Wells Fargo, Stagecoaches, and the Pony Express," California Historical Society Quarterly 45 (December 1966), and also his "Wells Fargo Staging over the Sierra," California Historical Society Quarterly 49 (June 1970). These articles are in part refutations of Waddell Smith, "Stage Lines and Express Companies in California," The Far Westerner 6 (January 1965). Smith argues that Wells Fargo never operated its own stagecoaches in California and did not operate the Pony Express; Jackson is convincing.

41. LeRoy R. Hafen, The Overland Mail, 1849-1869 (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark, 1926; reprint, New York: AMS Press, 1969) is a classic account that includes the ocean mail, the Butterfield Overland Mail, the Pony Express, and the complex history of the central route. Ralph Moody, Stagecoach West (n.p.: Promontory Press, 1967) is engagingly written and quotes primary sources, but needs to be read with some caution for accuracy. Another classic work is Roscoe P. Conkling and Margaret B. Conkling, The Butterfield Overland Mail, 1857-1869 , 3 vols. (Glendale, Calif.: Arthur H. Clark, 1947); vol. 3 is the atlas. The Overland's reliability reflects its interlocking directorate with Wells Fargo, which underwrote the initial cost; Jackson, "A New Look at Wells Fargo," 295-303. Omitting the dogleg to Los Angeles would have been shorter and easier, but Angelenos anxious for better service underwrote the extra expense; Ripley, "San Fernando Pass, Part 3," 43-45. A journalist's firsthand account of the first trip west on the Overland Mail is Waterman L. Ormsby, The Butterfield Overland Mail , ed. Lyle H. Wright and Josephine Bynum (San Marino, Calif.: Huntington Library, 1942).

42. Charles Outland, Stagecoaching on El Camino Real.' Los Atngeles to San Francisco, 1861-1901 (Glendale, Calif.: Arthur H. Clark, 1973) is opinionated, exhaustive, and carefully documented. Outland argues persuasively, against other sources, that there was no staging over the coast route prior to 1861, chap. 1; for development of the route, chaps. 3, 4, 5. See also Walker Tompkins, Stagecoach Days in Santa Barbara County (Santa Barbara: McNally & Loftin, West, 1982). For an account of the dangers of contemporary travel along the central coast, see J. Ross Browne, At Dangerous Journey (1862; Palo Alto: Arthur Lites, 1950). For San Diego staging see Richard F. Pourade, The Silver Dons (San Diego: Union-Tribune, 1963), 172, and also his The Glory Years (San Diego: Union Tribune, 1964), 46-49.

43. Hafen, Overland Mail , 110-13, 169-87. The Central Overland and California Pike's Peak was overextended even before it undertook the expense of the Pony Express, and was soon auctioned to stagecoaching magnate Ben Holladay (pp. 227-28). Holladay in turn sold all of his stagecoaching operations to Wells Fargo in 1866 (p. 319). For other pony expresses within California, see Jackson, "A New Look at Wells Fargo," 317.

44. Winther, Express and Stagecoach Days , 81-86. For Concord coach and mud wagon anatomy, see Eggenhofer, Wagons, Mules and Men , 145-76.

45. Banning and Banning, Six Horses , 361-73.

46. Firsthand accounts of stage travel are in "A Stage Incident," Hutchings' California Magazine 3 (July 1958), reprinted in Olmsted, Scenes of Wonder , 236; McGowan, History of the Sacramento Valley , vol. 1, 93; Winther, Express and Stagecoach Days , 83, 102-5; Banning and Banning, Six Horses , 29-30, 31-32 and n.2; and Boyd, Stagecoach Heyday , 22, 40.

47. Three good southern California regional histories that discuss transportation are Joseph S. O'Flaherty, An End and a Beginning: The South Coast and Los Atngeles, 1850-1887 (Jericho: Exposition-Lochinvar, 1972), Henry P. Silka, San Pedro: At Pictorial History (n.p.: San Pedro Bay Historical Society, 1984), and George William Beattie and Helen Truitt Beattie, Heritage of the Valley (Pasadena, Calif.: San Pasqual, 1939). The Beatties' book is a history of the San Bernardino area. For San Diego, see Pourade's Silver Dons and Glory Years . Harris Newmark, Sixty Years in Southern California , 4th ed. (Los Angeles: Dawson's Book Shop, 1984) is a detailed but not always accurate reminiscence first published in 1916; W. W. Robinson's informed notes are an asset to the fourth edition. Robert Glass Cleland, "Transportation in California before the Railroads, with Especial Reference to Los Angeles," Annual Publication of the Historical Society of Southern California 11 (Part 1, 1918); Frank Rolfe, "Early Day Los Angeles: A Great Wagon Train Center," Historical Society of Southern California Quarterly 35 (December 1953); and W. Turrentine Jackson, "Stages, Mails and Express in Southern California: The Role of Wells, Fargo & Co. in the Pre-Railroad Period," Historical Society of Southern California Quarterly 56 (Fall 1974). Ripley, "San Fernando Pass,'' and Robinson, "Taming of San Fernando Pass," are also relevant here. Milton R. Hunter, "Via Mormon Corridor," Pacific Historical Review 8 (June 1939) puts the corridor into the larger picture of Mormon history; a firsthand account with a good introductory essay is William B. Rice, "Early Freighting on the Salt Lake-San Bernardino Trail," Pacific Historical Review 7 (1937).

48. Silka, San Pedro , 22-29, 30-31; Rolfe, "Early Day Los Angeles," 306-7. John W. Robinson, Southern California's First Railroad (Los Angeles: Dawson's Book Shop, 1978).

49. Hunter, "Via Mormon Corridor," 184, 188-92, 198-99; Rolfe, "Early Day Los Angeles," 310-13; Jackson, Wagon Roads West , 140-41; Beattie and Beattie, Heritage of the Valley , 335-37, 400.

50. Military supply routes are in Rolfe, "Early Day Los Angeles," 314-15; for the Bradshaw road, see Beattie and Beattie, Heritage of the Valley , 398-400; for more detail, see Francis J. Johnston, The Bradshaw Trail (Riverside, Calif.: Riverside Parks Department, 1987). Johnston loves his subject, but his speculations need to be treated with caution.

51. As transportation history, the camels are colorful rather than significant. For the Army's camel experiment, see Harlan D. Fowler, Camels to California (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1950); Fowler's sequel, Three Caravans to Yuma: The Untold Story of Bactrian Cameh in the West (Glendale, Calif.: Arthur H. Clark, 1980) describes the civilian experiment. See also A. A. Gray, "Camels in California," Quarterly of the California Historical Society 9 (December 1930), and Deane Robertson and Peggy Robertson, Camels in the West (Sacramento: Arcade House, 1979). For contemporary enthusiasm for camels, see "The Bactrian Camel," Hutchings' California Magazine 5 (November 1860), reprinted in Olmsted, Scenes of Wonder , 335.

52. Scott, Bay Area , 46-47, and Robert A. Ford, Red Trains in the East Bay (Glendale, Calif.: Interurbans, 1977), chaps. 1, 2.