1. G. Muriuki, A History of the Kikuyu: 1500-1900 (Nairobi: Oxford University Press, 1974), pp. 155-56.

2. M. F. Hill, Permanent Way: The Story of the Kenya and Uganda Railway (Nairobi: East African Literature Bureau, 1976; reprint), p. 161.

3. Colin Leys, Underdevelopment in Kenya (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1974), p. 28; Hill, Permanent Way , pp. 34, 49, 65. Other reasons, among them suppression of the slave trade and economic development, were offered at the time as well, but Leys rightly sees the strategic motives as primary.

4. Leys, Underdevelopment in Kenya , p. 28.

5. Roger van Zwanenberg with Anne King, An Economic History of Kenya and Tanzania: 1800-1970 (London: Macmillan, 1975), pp. 25-27, 147-51.

6. E. A. Brett, Colonialism and Underdevelopment in East Africa: The Politics of Economic Change: 1919-1939 (New York: NOK Publishers, 1973), pp. 122-23, 146-47, 218-19.

7. Jomo Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya (London: Heinemann, 1961; first published 1938), chap. 9.

8. Lucy Mair, Primitive Government: A Study of Traditional Political Systems in Eastern Africa (London: Scholar Press, 1977), pp. 12, 69.

9. Leys, Underdevelopment in Kenya , p. 31.

10. Van Zwanenberg, Economic History of Kenya and Tanzania , p. 30, 37.

11. Helge Kjekshus, Ecology Control and Economic Development in East African History: The Case of Tanganyika: 1850-1950 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977), pp. 126-37.

12. Carl G. Rosberg and John Nottingham, The Myth of Mau Mau: Nationalism in Kenya (Nairobi: East African Publishing House, 1966), pp. 4-7; Leys, Underdevelopment in Kenya , pp. 40-50; Brett, Colonialism and Underdevelopment in East Africa , pp. 172-73; van Zwanenberg, An Economic History of Kenya and Tanzania , pp. 9-12.

13. Bruce F. Johnston and William C. Clark, Redesigning Rural Development: A Strategic Perspective (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982).

14. Y. P. Ghai and J. P. W. B. McAuslan, Public Law and Political Change in Kenya (Nairobi: Oxford University Press, 1970), p. 97. Also, Leys, Underdevelopment in Kenya , pp. 39-40.

15. Leys, Underdevelopment in Kenya , p. 31.

16. Brett, Colonialism and Underdevelopment in East Africa , pp. 186-91; Ghai and McAuslan, Public Law and Political Change in Kenya , pp. 83-84, 94-97.

17. Leys, Underdevelopment in Kenya , p. 40.

18. Rosberg and Nottingham, The Myth of Mau Mau , pp. 243, 249-51.

19. Ibid., pp. 80, 86, 112, 113.

18. Rosberg and Nottingham, The Myth of Mau Mau , pp. 243, 249-51.

19. Ibid., pp. 80, 86, 112, 113.

20. Judith Mbula, "The Impact of Christianity on Family Structure and Stability: The Case of the Akamba of Eastern Kenya" (Ph.D. diss., Department of Sociology, University of Nairobi, 1977), pp. 69-70. Dr. Mbula is a daughter of Philip Mule and a sister of Harris Mule.

21. See the discussion of the asomi in Gideon-Cyrus Makau Mutiso, Kenya continue

Politics, Policy and Society (Kampala: East African [Kenyan] Literature Bureau, 1975). This pattern is also the point of Chinua Achebe's novel, Things Fall Apart (London: Heinemann, 1962).

22. Republic of Kenya, Central Bureau of Statistics, Ministry of Economic Planning and Community Affairs, Statistical Abstract: 1978 (Nairobi: Government Printer, 1978), p. 16, table 19(a). For this age group educational opportunities were apparently relatively equally distributed between men and women. Republic of Kenya, Central Bureau of Statistics, Ministry of Finance and Planning, Women in Kenya (Nairobi, July 1978), p. 21.

23. Thomas S. Weisner and Susan Abbott, "Women, Modernity, and Stress: Three Contrasting Contexts for Change in East Africa," Journal of Anthropological Research 33, no. 4 (Winter 1977): 412-51; Thomas Weisner, "The Structure of Sociability: Urban Migration and Urban-Rural Ties in Kenya," Urban Anthropology 5 (1976): 199-223.

24. Robert A. and Barbara B. LeVine, Nyansongo: A Gusii Community in Kenya (New York: John Wiley, 1966), p. 71.

25. Rosberg and Nottingham, Myth of Mau Mau , pp. 30-31.

26. William R. Ochieng, "Colonial African Chiefs--Were They Primarily Self-Seeking Scoundrels?" in Politics and Nationalism in Colonial Kenya , ed. Bethwell A. Ogot (Nairobi: East African Publishing House, 1972), p. 59.

27. Sarah LeVine, Mothers and Wives: Gusii Women of East Africa (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), pp. 43, 46, 59, 60-61.

28. LeVine, Nyansongo , pp. 66-71. B. A. Ogot, ed., Kenya Before 1900 (Nairobi: East African Publishing House, 1976). W. R. Ochieng-Opondo, A Traditional History of the Gusii of Western Kenya from Ca. 1500-1914 (Ph.D. dissertation, Department of History, University of Nairobi, 1971).

29. The point that the role of chief was an artificial, British-created one in Kenya is also made in Robert L. Tignor, The Colonial Transformation of Kenya: The Kamba, Kikuyu and Maasai from 1900-1939 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976).

30. Silas Ita, "The Changing Role Expectations of the Chiefs in Mbere Division: 1900-1971" (B.A. diss., Department of Government, University of Nairobi, 1972, Mimeo.).

31. Ochieng, "Colonial African Chiefs," pp. 47, 59-60.

32. Ita, "Changing Role Expectations."

33. Ochieng, "Colonial African Chiefs," pp. 59-60, 64.

34. Robert Maxon, "The Years of Revolutionary Advance, 1920-1929," in A Modern History of Kenya: 1895-1980 , ed. W. R. Ochieng (Nairobi: Evans Brothers [Kenya], 1989), pp. 103-4.

35. LeVine, Nyansongo , pp. 75-76.

36. Arthur Stinchcombe, Constructing Social Theories (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1968), pp. 150-51, 162.

37. Ita, "Changing Role Expectations."

38. Ochieng, "Colonial African Chiefs," pp. 47, 59-60.

39. Gavin Kitching, Class and Economic Change in Kenya: The Making of An African Petit Bourgeoisie (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1980), pp. 307-8.

40. LeVine, Nyansongo , p. 75. break

41. Cherry Gertzel, The Politics of Independent Kenya: 1963-8 (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1970), p. 33.

42. LeVine, Nyansongo , p. 76.

43. Ita, "Changing Role Expectations."

44. David K. Leonard, Reaching the Peasant Farmer (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977), pp. 197-200.

45. Thomas Mulusa, "Central Government and Local Authorities," in Development Administration: The Kenyan Experience , ed. G. Hyden, R. Jackson, and J. Okumu (Nairobi: Oxford University Press, 1970), pp. 234-36, 239-40.

46. James C. Scott, The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Rebellion and Subsistence in Southeast Asia (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976); Peter Blau, Exchange and Power in Social Life (New York: John Wiley, 1964).

47. David Leonard, "Class Formation and Agricultural Development," in Politics and Public Policy in Kenya and Tanzania , 2d ed., ed. Joel Barkan (New York: Praeger, 1984), pp. 142-45.

48. Kitching, Class and Economic Change in Kenya , pp. 309-11, 438-55.

49. This figure is based on an unpublished sample survey taken at the University of Dar es Salaam by the author in 1975. Similar demonstrations of the advantaged character of university students is contained in Joel D. Barkan, An African Dilemma: University Students, Development and Politics in Ghana, Tanzania and Uganda (Nairobi: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp. 27, 28, 30.

50. Ghai and McAuslan, Public Law and Political Change , pp. 109-21.

51. John P. Powelson, Institutions of Economic Growth (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972).