1. Z. Chafee, FREE SPEECH IN THE UNITED STATES 79 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1941).

2. R. Wiebe, THE OPENING OF AMERICAN SOCIETY 3-125 (New York: Random House, 1984); J. Miller, THE FEDERALIST ERA 84-125 (New York: Harper and Row, 1960).

3. Wiebe, OPENINGS OF AMERICAN SOCIETY at 67-89; R. Buel, SECURING THE REVOLUTION 93-135 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1972).

4. Buel, SECURING THE REVOLUTION at 37; Wiebe, OPENING OF AMERICAN SOCIETY at 72, 87; R. Buel, Freedom of the Press in Revolutionary America , in B. Bailyn and J. Hench, eds., THE PRESS AND THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION at 82-83 (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1981).

5. Wiebe, OPENING OF AMERICAN SOCIETY at 73; P. Foner, ed., THE DEMOCRATIC- REPUBLICAN SOCIETIES, 1790-1800: A Documentary Sourcebook 64 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1976); D. Rabban, Ahistorical Historian , 37 Stanford Law Review 795, 844 (1985).

6. Foner, DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN SOCIETIES at 64; E. Link, DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN SOCIETIES, 1790-1800, at 162 (New York: continue

      Columbia University Press, 1942); Buel, SECURING THE REVOLUTION at 103-04; Rabban, Ahistorical Historian at 845.

7. Wiebe,  OPENING OF AMERICAN SOCIETY at 72-73; Rabban, Ahistorical Historian at 845; N. Rosenberg, PROTECTING THE BEST MEN 73 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986).

8. Rosenberg, PROTECTING THE BEST MEN at 71-73; Buel, SECURING THE REVOLUTION  at 99-101.

9. J. Appleby, CAPITALISM AND A NEW SOCIAL OREDER 77 (New York: New York University Press, 1984).

10. Rosenberg, PROTECTING THE BEST MEN at 74-78; Appleby, CAPITALISM AND A NEW SOCIAL OREDER at 75-76; J. Smith, Freedom's Fetters 14, 21 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1956).

11. Smith, FREEDOM'S FETTERS at 5-6.

12. Id. at 7.

13. Id. at 14.

14. Id. at 102-03, 193-95; J. Miller, CRISIS IN FREEDOM 63-64 (Boston: Atlantic-Little, Brown, 1951).

15. Miller, CRISIS IN FREEDOM at 69; Miller, Federalist Era at 231; L. Levy, EMERGENCE OF A  FREE PRESS 297 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985). The Sedition Act, 1 US Statutes at Large 596-97 (1798), is reprinted in Smith, FREEDOM'S FETTERS at 441-42.

16. D. Anderson, The Origins of the Press Clause , 30 UCLA Law Review 455, 516-19 (1983).

17. Otis stated that the objections to the Act "might be reduced to two inquiries. In the first place, had the Constitution given Congress cognizance over the offences described in this bill prior to the adoption of the amendments of the Constitution? and, if Congress had that cognizance before that time, have those amendments taken it away?" THE DEBATES AND PROCEEDINGS IN THE CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES [Annals], 5th Cong. 2145-46 (1798).

18. J. Cooke, ed., THE FEDERALIST no. 84 (A. Hamilton) at 579 (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1961).

19. ANNALS, 5th Cong. at 2146.

20. Id. at 2165, 2167.

21. United States v. Worrell , 2 U.S. (2 Dall.) 384 (1798); United States v. Hudson , 11 U.S. (7 Cranch) 32 (1812); C. Warren, 1 THE SUPREME COURT IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 434-35 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1922).

22. Alexander Addison quoted in Buel, SECURING THE REVOLUTION at 256 (emphasis in original); Levy, EMERGENCE OF A FREE PRESS at 305-08. break

23. Rabban, Ahistorical Historian at 850-51; Smith, FREEDOM'S FETTERS at 324-25, 153-55; Cooke, FEDERALIST no. 71 at 483-84.

24. Miller, CRISIS IN FREEDOM at 137; Smith, FREEDOM'S FETTERS  at 101; Harper: ANNALS, 5th Cong. at 1179, 2102-03; Allen: id. at 2093-2100.

25. Smith, FREEDOM'S FETTERS at 130; Miller, Federalist Era at 234.

26. Smith, FREEDOM'S FETTERS at 21, 26; ANNALS, 5th Cong. at 2110; Buel, SECURING THE REVOLUTION at 235; Miller, Federalist Era at 235; Anderson, Origins of the Press Clause at 515-16; ANNALS, 6th Cong. at 93, 922, 952 (1801).

27. Miller, CRISIS IN FREEDOM at 85; ANNALS, 5th Cong. at 2162.

28. Wiebe, OPENING OF AMERICAN SOCIETY at 94-95. The Virginia Resolutions, the Kentucky Resolutions, and Madison's Report on the Virginia Resolutions are reproduced in Volume 4 of the enlarged edition of J. Elliot's DEBATES ON THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION at 528 (Philadelphia.: J. B. Lippincott, 1907).

29. Elliot, 4 DEBATES at 569.

30. Id. at 569-70.

31. Id. at 569; ANNALS, 5th Cong., 2nd sess. at 2160-61, ANNALS, 5th Cong., 3rd sess. at 3003-14; Levy, EMERGENCE OF A FREE PRESS at xii, 284-349; Rabban, Ahistorical Historian at 851-54; Anderson, Origins of the Press Clause at 529-33.

32. S. Levinson, CONSTITUTIONAL FAITH 9-11 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1988); Rosenberg, PROTECTING THE BEST MEN at 80; H. Powell, The Original Understanding of Original Intent , 98 Harvard Law Review 885 (1985).

33. ANNALS, 1st Cong., 1st sess. at 456. The more common phrase "parchment barriers" appears in Federalist no. 48, but it refers to provisions regarding separation of powers and not, as too commonly assumed, to a bill of rights.

34. Elliot, 4 DEBATES at 578 (Madison's Report ), 545 (Kentucky Resolution of 1799).

35. Madison to Edward Everett, August 30, 1830, published in the October 30, 1830, North American Review , reprinted in M. Meyers, ed., THE MIND OF THE FOUNDER at 532-44 (Indianapolis: Bobbs—Merrill, 1973).

36. Elliot, 4 DEBATES at 568.

37. Gitlow v. New York , 268 U.S. 652, 672 (1925) (dissenting); Abrams v. United States , 250 U.S. 616, 624 (1919) (dissenting); Schenck v. United States , 249 U.S. 47 (1919); Patterson v. Colorado , 205 U.S. 454, 462 (1907); Holmes to Zechariah Chafee, June 12, 1922, quoted in continue

      D. Rabban, The Emergence of Modern First Amendment Doctrine , 50 University of Chicago Law Review at 1265 (1983).

38. Quoted in H. Peterson and G. Fite, OPPONENTS OF THE WAR, 1917-18, at 14 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1957).

39. T. Gregory, Suggestions of Attorney—General Gregory to the Executive Committee in Relation to the Department of Justice , 4 American Bar Association Journal 305, 306 (1918); Z. Chafee, FREE SPEECH IN THE UNITED STATES 37 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948); J. O'Brian, Civil Liberty in War Time , 42 Report of the New York State Bar Association 275, 277 (1919).

40. S. 2, 65th Cong. 1st sess. § 4 (1917); Title 1, § 3 of the Espionage Act, 40 US Statutes at Large 217 (1917); Title 12, id.; H. R. Report no. 69, 65th Cong., 1st sess. 19 (1917); H. Edgar and B. Schmidt, The Espionage Statutes and Publication of Defense Information , 73 Columbia Law Review 929, 946-66 (1973).

41. Gregory, Suggestions at 306; Wilson to Representative Edwin Webb, Chairman of the Judiciary Committee, May 22, 1917, read by Webb on the House floor, 55 Congressional Record 3144 (1917); T. Carroll, Freedom of Speech and of the Press in War Time 17 Michigan Law Review 621, 624 (1919).

42. Rabban, Emergence of Modern First Amendment Doctrine at 1218-19; Edgar and Schmidt, Espionage Statutes at 941.

43. 55 Congressional Record 1594, 1595 (1917).

44. Debs v. United States , 249 U.S. 211 (1919).

45. H. Nelson, D. Teeter, and D. Le Duc, LAW OF MASS COMMUNICATIONS 331-33 (Westbury, N.Y.: Foundation Press, 6th ed. 1989); Rabban, Emergence of Modern First Amendment Doctrine at 1219-23; Peterson and Fite, OPPONENTS OF THE WAR at 95.

46. Rabban, Emergence of Modern First Amendment Doctrine at 1223; 55 Congressional Record 1822 (1917).

47. P. Murphy, THE MEANING OF FREEDOM OF SPEECH 18 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing, 1972); R. Wiebe, THE SEARCH FOR ORDER: 1877-1920 at 287-88 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967); B. Bailyn, D. Davis, D. Donald, J. Thomas, R. Wiebe, and G. Wood, THE GREAT REPUBLIC 1024 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1977); M. Graber, TRANSFORMING FREE SPEECH (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1991).

48. Schenck; Debs , 249 U.S. at 214; D. Rabban, The First Amendment in Its Forgotten Years , 90 Yale Law Journal 514 (1981).

49. Frohwerk v. United States , 249 U.S. 204 (1919); Brief for Plaintiff in Error at 1-4, Frohwerk .

50. Schenck , 249 U.S. at 51, 52. break

51. Frohwerk , 249 U.S. at 209.

52. Id. at 208; Schenck , 249 U.S. at 52; Rabban, Emergence of Modern first Amendment Doctrine at 1261.

53. Rabban, Emergence of Modern first Amendment Doctrine at 1232; Alfred Bettman to Zechariah Chafee, October 27, 1919, quoted in id. at 1296.

54. J. Daniels, THE WILSON ERA 116 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1944); Josephus Daniels, Diary, August 7 and 16, 1917, in A. Link, ed., 43 THE PAPERS OF WOODROW WILSON (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1983).

55. Max Eastman, Amos Pinchot, and John Reed to Woodrow Wilson, July 12, 1917, in Link, 43 PAPERS OF WOODROW WILSON (listing twelve excluded publications); S. Miller, VICTOR BERGER AND THE PROMISE OF CONSERVATIVE SOCIALISM 194 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1973) ("fifteen major socialist publications").

56. Wilson to Burleson, September 4 and 24, October 11, 18, and 30, in Link, 44 PAPERS OF WOODREW WILSON; Burleson's notation is at the bottom of Wilson's letter of September 24; R. Baker, ed., 7 WOODROW WILSON: LIFE AND LETTERS 165 n. 1 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1939).

57. Burleson to Wilson, July 16, 1977, in Link, 43 PAPERS OF WOODROW WILSON.

58. Burleson to Wilson, October 16, 1917, in Link, 44 PAPERS OF WOODROW WILSON; Wilson to Arthur Brisbane, September 24, 1917, in id.; Wilson to Herbert Croly, October 22, 1917, in id.

59. 20 US Statutes at Large 355 (1879); Lewis Publishing v. Morgan , 229 U.S. 288, 304 (1913).

60. The circulation figure comes from Justice Brandeis's dissent in United States ex rel. Milwaukee Socialist Democratic Publishing Co. v. Burleson , 255 U.S. 407, 418 (1921). Surprisingly, Miller in Victor Berger does not provide circulation figures for the paper.

61. Miller, VICTOR BERGER at 198.

62. Id. at 199, 201, 202, 205; Peterson and Fite, OPPONENTS OF THE WAR at 164-65.

63. Milwaukee Socialist Democratic Publishing , 255 U.S. at413, 414, 436. Chafee, FREE SPEECH IN THE UNITED STATES at 303, brought my attention to the Food Control Act decision, United States v. L. Cohen Grocery Co , 255 U.S. 81 (1921).

64. L. Powe, Justice Douglas After Fifty Years: The First Amendment, McCarthyism and Rights , 6 Constitutional Commentary 269 (1989); V. Blasi, The Pathological Perspective and the first Amendment , 85 Columbia Law Review 449 (1985). break

65. Gilberts. Minnesota , 254 U.S. 325, 327, 333 (1920).

66. Chafee, FREE SPEECH IN THE UNITED STATES at 56-57; Rabban, Emergence of Modern First Amendment Doctrine at 1232. The latter notes that even jury instructions "unusually sensitive to free speech" generally resulted in jury verdicts to convict.

67. Milwaukee Socialist Democratic Publishing , 255 U.S. at 414.