1. Figures compiled by Joan Connelly Ullman from Anuario estadístico de la ciudad de Barcelona: 1905 , vol. 4, in La Semana Trágica. Estudio sobre las causas socioeconómicas del anticlericalismo en España (1898-1912) , trans. Gonzalo Pontón (Barcelona: Ediciones Ariel, 1972), 127. All writers depend on those who came before them. This study—and most social histories of early-twentieth-century Catalunya—owe a huge debt to Professor Ullman. Unfortunately, because the American edition of her book appeared in 1968, just before women's studies emerged as a discipline in the United States, she has never received the recognition she deserves as a pioneer in women's studies. Although I refer mostly to the vastly expanded 1972 Spanish edition of her book, the American edition, The Tragic Week: A Study of Anticlericalism in Spain, 1875-1912 (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1968), remains one of the best studies of women's political mobilization and ought to be reissued.

2. Gary Wray McDonogh, in his superb study of the Barcelona middle class in the mid-nineteenth century, Good Families of Barcelona: A Social History of Power in the Industrial Revolution (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986), 188, portrays the Lyceum theater and concert hall as Barcelona's preeminent elite cultural institution.

3. Luis Cabañas Guevara, Biografía del Paralelo, 1894-1934. Recuerdos de la vida teatral, mundana y pintoresca del barrio mas jaranero y bullicioso de Barcelona (Barcelona: Ediciones Memphis, 1945), 7, 16-21.

4. These figures were secured from the local doctors by José Elías de Molins and published in his La obrera en Cataluña, en la ciudad y en el campo. Orientaciones sociales (Barcelona: Imprenta Barcelonensa, [1915]), 34.

5. Jaime Alzina Caules, "Investigación analítica sobre la evolución demográfica de Cataluña," Cuadernos de información económica y sociológica (Barcelona) 1, no. 7 (June 1965): 33, cited in Ullman, Semana Trágica , 128; McDonogh, Good Families of Barcelona , 21; José Reig y Vilardell, Barcelona en el siglo XIX (Dietario de la ciudad) , 4 vols. (Barcelona: Imprenta de La Publicidad , 1898); Elisa Vives de Fabregas, Vida femenina barcelonesa en el ochocientos (Barcelona: Librería Dalmau, 1945), 219.

6. Andre Barey, Barcelona: De la ciutat pre-industrial al fenomen modernista , trans. Joaquim Martí (Barcelona: La Gaya Ciencia, n.d.).

7. I learned about how Josep Puig i Cadafalch used medieval Catalan paintings as inspirations for building designs from art historian Judith Rohrer (private communication, June 9, 1989).

8. E. Casanelles, Antonio Gaudí (Greenwich, Conn.: New York Graphic Society, 1965), 31-32.

9. For the seventeenth-century uprisings against Castile, see J.H. Elliott, The Revolt of the Catalans (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1963). For the Revolution of 1868 and the First Spanish Republic, see Friedrich Engels, "The Bakuninists at Work: Notes on the Spanish Uprising in the Summer of 1873," in Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Revolution in Spain (New York: International Press, 1939); C. A.M. Hennessy, The Federal Republic in Spain: Pi y Margall and the Federal Republican Movement, 1868-74 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962); and Miguel González Sugrañes, La república en Barcelona. Apuntes para una crónica , 2d ed. (Barcelona: Imprenta de Henrich, 1903).

10. Alzina Caules, "Investigación analítica," 28, chart 4, cited in Ullman, Semana Trágica , 128; Molins, Obrera en Cataluña , 17.

11. Figures compiled by Ullman from Anuario estadístico: 1905 , vol. 4, in Semana Trágica , 127.

12. Ullman, Semana Trágica , 130.

1. For considerations of the political importance of rituals, see David I. Kertzer, Ritual, Politics, and Power (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988). My thinking about how ritualized patterns of behavior helped workers organize has been influenced by the works of Eric J. Hobsbawm; see especially Primitive Rebels (New York: W.W. Norton, 1964); Labouring Men: Studies in the History of Labour (New York: Doubleday/Anchor Books, 1967); and "Mass-producing Traditions: Europe, 1870-1914," in The Invention of Tradition , ed. Eric J. Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 263. Although I make no direct references to the works of Eric R. Wolf, his insights about how political organization is generated and sustained among rural revolutionaries has influenced the way I have come to understand the formation of a culture of resistance in Barcelona; see especially Peasants (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1966); Peasant Wars of the Twentieth Century (New York: Harper & Row, 1969); and Europe and the People Without History (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982).

2. Surveys of the development of Spanish anarchism can be found in Diego Abad de Santillán [Sinesio Garcia Delgado], Contribución a la historia del movimiento obrero español. Desde sus orígenes hasta 1905 (Mexico City: Editorial Cajica, 1962); José Álvarez Junco, La ideología política del anarquismo español (1868-1910) (Madrid: Siglo Veintiuno Editores, 1976); Manuel Buenacasa, El movimiento obrero español. Historia y crítica, 1886-1926. Figuras ejemplares que conocí (Paris, privately printed, 1966); Clara Lida, Anarquismo y revolución en la España del XIX (Madrid: Siglo Veintiuno Editores, 1972); Clara Lida, Antecedentes y desarrollo del movimiento obrero español (1835-1888). Textos y documentos (Madrid: Siglo Veintiuno Editores, 1973); Max Nettlau, La première Internationale en Espagne, 1868-1888 , 2 vols., ed. Renée Lamberet (Dordrecht, Neth.: D. Reidel, 1969); Josep Termes, Anarquismo y sindicalismo en España. La primera International (1864-1881) (Esplugues de Llobregat: Editorial Ariel, 1973); Jordi Piqué i Padró, Anarco-col.lectivisme i anarco-comunisme. L'oposició de dues postures en el moviment anarquista català (1881-1891) (Montserrat: Publicacions de l'Abadia de Montserrat, 1989).

3. Kertzer, Ritual, Politics, and Power , 78.

4. Jaume Fabre and Josep M. Huertas, Barcelona, 1888-1988. La construcció d'una ciutat (Barcelona: Diari de Barcelona , Publicacions de Barcelona, 1988), 21-34; Marilyn McCully, "Introduction," in Homage to Barcelona: The City and Its Art, 1888-1936 (Barcelona and London: Arts Council of Great Britain, 1985), 16; and Judith Rohrer, "The Universal Exhibition of 1888," in Homage to Barcelona , 96-99.

5. For more on this period of history, see Elliott, Revolt of the Catalans .

6. See the displays listed in Barcelona, Museo Provincial de Antigüedades, Catálogo del Museo Provincial de Antigüedades , ed. Antonio Elías de Molins (Barcelona: Imprenta Barcelonensa, 1888).

7. Marina Warner, Monuments and Maidens: The Allegory of the Female Form (New York: Atheneum, 1985).

8. José Sanabre Sanromá, "La ocupación de Barcelona por las tropas Napoleónicas e el templo de Nstra. Sra. de la Merced," Miscellanea barcinonensia 4, no. 11 (1965): 8-11.

9. Ibid., 17.

10. Enric Jardí, Puig i Cadafalch: Arquitecte, politic i historiador de l'art (Mataró: Ediciones "La Caixa" d'Estalvis Laietana, 1975).

11. Julia Engelhardt, Michael Raeburn and Pilar Sada, "Chronology," in Homage to Barcelona , 288-289.

12. Robert Anthony Orsi, The Madonna of 115th Street: Faith and Community in Italian Harlem, 1880-1950 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), 60.

13. Francesc Carreras Candi, "Les processions de Captius a la Ciutat," in Llibre de la Mare de Déu de la Mercè , ed. Marià Manent (Barcelona: Editorial Selecta, 1950), 135-140, Josep Massot i Muntaner, L'església de Catalunya al segle XX (Barcelona: Curial Edicions Catalans, 1975), 22.

14. Claudi Ametlla, Memòries polítiques, 1890-1917 (Barcelona: Editorial Pòrtic, 1963), 96.

15. Carles Cardó, "La obra," in Manent, Llibre , 55-127; 126.

16. "Barcelona," Diario de Barcelona , October 21, 1888, 13019-13020; ibid., October 22, 1888, 13067.

17. Ibid., October 21, 1888, 13020.

18. Ibid., October 23, 1888, 13083.

19. Jacint Verdaguer, "Coronació de la Verge de la Mercè," in Manent, Llibre , 192.

20. Joan Amades, Gegants, nans i altres entremesos (Barcelona: Imprenta la Neotipia, 1934), 68-69, 77.

21. Joan Amades, Custumari català , vol. 3: El curs de l'any. Corpus-primavera (Barcelona: Editorial Salvat, 1952), 78-81.

22. "Barcelona," Diario de Barcelona , October 22, 1888, 13066.

23. John Berger, "The Nature of Mass Demonstrations," New Society , May 23, 1968, 754-755; for the role of pageantry in an early-twentieth-century American movement, see Linda Nochlin, "The Paterson Strike Pageant of 1913," Art in America , May-June, 1974, 64-68.

24. Republicans, who wanted separation of church and state, repeatedly asked that religious pageants take place inside churches behind closed doors rather than in the streets. Although they and leftists took to the streets for their own pageants, they viewed the streets as political arenas, not to be given over to the church by the city. For one republican demand that the city stop subsidizing church ceremonies, see "Cartas de fora," Campana de Gracia (Barcelona), June 14, 1902.

25. Records of the cost of religious festivals can be found in the City Registry, Depósito Secre 184-92: Gracia. Expediente referente a la asistencia del Ayuntamiento constitucional de la Villa de Gracia, Gobernación 1892, núm. 987-214; Expediente "Procesión del Corpus de este año." This annex to Institut Municipal d'Història is uncatalogued and rarely open to the public.

26. Fabre and Huertas, "Cronología," in Barcelona, 1888-1988 , 35.

27. "Barcelona," Diario de Barcelona , September 17, 1888, 11478.

28. Ibid.

29. In addition to sources mentioned in note 2 above, see Murray Book-chin, The Spanish Anarchists: The Heroic Years, 1868-1936 (New York: Harper & Row, 1977); Gerald Brenan, The Spanish Labyrinth: An Account of the Social and Political Background of the Spanish Civil War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, [1943] 1967), 131-169; Jordi Castellanos, "Aspectes de les relacions entre intel.lectuals i anarquistes a Catalunya al segle XIX (A pròposit de Pere Coromines)," Els maigs (Barcelona) 6 (1976): 7-28; Temma Kaplan, Anarchists of Andalusia, 1868-1903 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977); Joaquín Romero Maura, "La rosa de fuego." El obrerismo barcelonés de 1899 a 1909 (Barcelona: Editorial Grijalbo, 1975); and Ullman, Semana Trágica .

30. P. K., "La manifestació obrera," Campana de Gracia , April 26, 1890, 2.

31. "Barcelona," Diario de Barcelona , May 2, 1890, 5476.

32. "La manifestación obrera," Imparcial , May 2, 1890, 2; Joaquim Ferrer, El primer "Ier de Maig" a Catalunya. Documents a la Recerça (Barcelona: Editorial Nova Terra, 1972), 85-91. For a discussion of the development of May Day, see Michelle Perrot, "The First of May 1890 in France: The Birth of a Working-Class Ritual," in The Power of the Past: Essays for Eric Hobsbawm , ed. Pat Thane, Geoffrey Crossick, and Roderick Floud (Cambridge and Paris: Cambridge University Press and Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l'Homme, 1984), 143-171; Trabajo (Sabadell), April 28, 1899, reviews the origins of May Day in Catalunya, as does Miguel Izard, Industrialización y obrerismo. Tres clases de vapor, 1869-1913 (Barcelona: Ariel, 1973), 173-183.

33. "Barcelona," Diario de Barcelona , May 2, 1890, 5477.

34. Ibid., 5478.

35. Ferrer, Primer "Ier de Maig," 101; "Barcelona," Diario de Barcelona (morning edition), May 3, 1890, 5499.

36. "Barcelona," Diario de Barcelona (morning edition), May 3, 1890, 5498-5500.

37. Ibid., May 4, 1890, 5538.

38. Ferrer, Primer "Ier de Maig," 105.

39. "Barcelona," Diario de Barcelona (evening edition), May 5, 1890, 5578.

40. Ibid. (morning edition), May 6, 1890, 5602.

41. Ibid., 5603.

42. Ibid. (afternoon edition), May 7, 1890, 5689-5690; ibid., May 10, 1890, 5786; Piqué i Padró, Anarco-col.lectivisme i anarco-comunisme , 122-123.

43. This was also true in Germany, where the Social Democratic party promoted festivals, including May Day celebrations; see Vernon L. Lidtke, The Alternative Culture: Socialist Labor in Imperial Germany (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 77-84.

44. "Batalladas," Campana de Gracia , April 28, 1900, 2.

45. Enric Jardí, La ciutat de les bombes. El terrorism anarquista a Barcelona (Barcelona: Librería Dalmau, 1964), 24.

46. Miguel Izard, El movimiento obrero en Cataluña (1888-1891) (Barcelona: Editorial Ariel, 1978); Helena Rotes, "Anarquismo y terrorismo en Barcelona, 1888-1902" (mem. lic., University of Barcelona, 1981), chap. 4.

47. Productor (Barcelona), May 5, 1892.

48. Quoted in Jardí, Puig i Cadafalch , 27.

49. Gaziel [Augustí Calvet i Pasqual], Tots els camins duen a Roma. Història d'un destí (1893-1914). Memòries , vol. 1 (Barcelona: Ediciones "La Caixa" d'Estalvis Laietana, 1977), 32-33.

50. Ibid., 37.

51. Diario de Barcelona (first of two editions, unmarked), September 25, 1893, 11097-11099.

52. For a detailed description of the violence, see Rafael Núñez Florencio, El terrorismo anarquista, 1888-1909 (Madrid: Siglo Veintiuno Editores, 1983), 51-60.

53. Less than a month after Pallás's execution, a bomb went off during opening night of the opera at the Lyceum Theater; the police arrested and tortured numerous anarchists before apprehending and executing Santiago Salvador. The best recent account can be found in ibid., 53-57.

54. Descriptions of Corpus Christi can be found in Antonio Aragón Fernández, La festividad del Corpus Christi en Barcelona (Barcelona: Librería de la Tipografía Católica Pontificia, 1925); José Aymar y Puig, Memorias inéditas de la procesión de Corpus (Barcelona, 1900); and Aurelio Capmany, Calendari de llegendes, costums i festes tradicionals catalanes. Juny, juliol, agost (Barcelona: Editorial Laia, 1978). The way celebrations and their folk figures became emblems is dealt with in Jordi Catalá, "La revetlla de Sant Joan," Esquella de la Torratxa (Barcelona), June 21, 1918, 402-403.

55. Amades, Custumari català 3:73.

56. Ibid., 93-95.

57. "L'atentat del Carrer de Cambis Nous," Campana de Gracia , June 13, 1896, 2; see a drawing of the procession in Amades, Custumari català 3:16.

58. A description of the Corpus Christi Day bombing can be found in Núñez Florencio, El terrorismo anarquista , 57; see also "Última hora," Diario de Barcelona , June 8, 1896, 6879-6883.

59. "Barcelona," Diario de Barcelona (morning edition), June 10, 1896, 6939; "L'atentat del Carrer de Cambis Nous," Campana de Gracia , June 13, 1896, 2.

60. Diario de Barcelona (morning edition), June 10, 1896, 6940.

61. The foreign campaign was largely the work of F. Tárrida del Mármol, a republican activist who was arrested and released; see his Les inquisiteurs d'Espagne , 2d ed. (Paris: Stock, 1897). The unfolding of the case the government constructed can be seen in "Del foch a las brasas," Campana de Gracia , June 27, 1896, 4; "L'atentat del Carrer de Cambis Nous," Campana de Gracia , September 12, 1896, 4. The republican journal Campana de Gracia , which at first denounced the terrorists, later proclaimed: "Supporters of modern liberty, lovers of humanity equally abhor bombs and inquisitorial tactics that secure confessions through torture. They are two roads that lead to the same point—barbarism, extinction of liberty, [and the] triumph of brute force" ("Lo procés de Montjuich," Campana de Gracia , January 23, 1898, 4).

1. Anyone investigating the Four Cats and Picasso's early life in Barcelona owes enormous debts to Alejandro Cirici Pellicer, Enric Jardí Casany, Marilyn McCully, Josep Palau i Fabre, and, most recently, John Richardson. The earliest studies of the influence that Barcelona's cultural life had on Picasso are Cirici Pellicer's Picasso antes Picasso (Barcelona: Ediciones Iberia, 1946) and its French translation, Picasso avant Picasso , trans. Marguerite de Floris y Ventura Gasol (Geneva: P. Cailler, 1950). Anthony Blunt and Phoebe Pool shifted the focus in 1962 to emphasize the French influences on Picasso's work in their study Picasso: The Formative Years—A Study of His Sources (Greenwich, Conn.: New York Graphic Society, 1962). The seventies saw a rebirth of interest in Picasso's Barcelona days, owing largely to Enric Jardí Casany's study Història de els Quatre Gats (Barcelona: Editorial Aedos, 1972) and Marilyn McCully, whose exhibits, catalogues, and anthologies made clear for an English-speaking audience how important Catalan friends and their work had been for Picasso; see her catalogue Els Quatre Gats: Art in Barcelona Around 1900 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978); her collection A Picasso Anthology: Documents, Criticism, Reminiscences (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982); and her introduction to the catalogue entitled Homage to Barcelona: The City and Its Art, 1888-1936 . Of the Catalans, no one has done more than Josep Palau i Fabre to trace Picasso's earliest work; see his Picasso in Catalonia , trans. Kenneth Lyons (Secaucus, N.J.: Chartwell Books, 1974); Picasso i els seus amics catalans (Barcelona: Editorial Aedos, 1971); and Picasso: The Early Years, 1881-1907 (Barcelona: Ediciones Polígrafa, 1985). John Richardson's A Life of Picasso , vol. 1: 1881-1906 , prepared with the collaboration of Marilyn McCully (New York: Random House, 1991), appeared just as my book was going to press. By synthesizing all that has been written about Picasso's early life and dispelling many of the myths to which Picasso happily contributed, Richardson has set a new standard for biographies of Picasso and for studies of the cultural life surrounding him.

2. The monumental show on primitivism at the Museum of Modern Art in New York in 1985 acknowledged the impact of non-Western art on Picasso, Matisse, Derain, and other French artists; see the two-volume catalogue edited by William Rubin, "Primitivism" in 20th Century Art (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1984). One issue that deserves study is the way artists from Ensor and Picasso to Miró and Kandinsky drew on European folk art.

3. For a contemporary account of the 1888 exhibition, with its medieval tiles, paintings, and sculpture, see P. del O., "Excursions per l'Exposició—Palau de Bellas Artes—Secció Arqueológica," Esquella de la Torratxa , December 1, 1888, 770-774.

4. Rubén Darío, España contemporánea (Paris: Garnier, 1901), 23.

5. For reference to Alberto Russinyol's activities in 1909, see Albert Balcells, "La mujer obrera en la industria catalana durante el primer cuarto del siglo XX," in Trabajo industrial y organización obrera en la Cataluña contemporánea (1900-1936) (Barcelona: Editorial Laia, 1974), 62-63.

6. Diccionari biogràfic (Barcelona: Editorial Albertí, 1970), 4:172-173.

7. McCully, Quatre Gats , 14.

8. P.C. y G., "Luis Labarta's Hierros Artísticos , 2 Vols.," Revista de la Asociación Artístico-Arqueológica-Barcelonesa (Barcelona) 3 (1901-1902): 506-508.

9. McCully, Quatre Gats , 62.

10. M.T. y A., "La Festa Modernista a Sitges," Veu de Catalunya (Barcelona), November 11, 1894, 523; P. del O., "Crónica Forastera," Esquella de la Torratxa , November 9, 1894, 706.

11. M.T. y A., "Festa Modernista," 522-523; Josep Pla, Santiago Rusiñol i el seu temps (Barcelona: Edicions Destino, 1981), 121. There is some confusion about the date of the festival.

12. John Richardson, "Picasso's Apocalyptic Whorehouse," New York Review of Books 34, no. 7 (April 23, 1987): 40-47. The bibliography on El Greco is enormous, but it is worth singling out Jonathan Brown et al., El Greco of Toledo (Exhibition organized by the Toledo Museum of Art with the Museo del Prado, the National Gallery of Art, and the Dallas Museum of Fine Arts) (Boston: Little, Brown, 1982).

13. Pla, Santiago Rusiñol , 123.

14. Festa Modernista del Cau Ferrat. Tercer any (Certamen literari celebrat a Sitges el 4 [9?] de noviembre de 1894) (Barcelona: Tipografía L'Avenç , 1895), 8-15.

15. Carles Capdevila, "Santiago Rossinyol," Revista de Catalunya 13, no. 70 (June 1931): 490-491.

16. McCully, Quatre Gats , 112.

17. My reflections about the importance of darkness and the somnambulant state of the movie viewer derive from Stanley Cavell, The World Viewed: Reflections on the Ontology of Film (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979).

18. Joan Amades, Titelles i ombres xineses , Biblioteca de Tradicions Populars, sér. A, vol. 8 (Barcelona: Imprenta la Neotipia, 1933); the first half of Titelles has been translated by H.V. Tozer as "The Catalan Puppets," in Catalan Puppetry (Columbus, Ohio: Puppeteers of America, 1944), 1-17. See also Arturo Masriera, "El Senyor Nevas, sombrista," in ibid., 18-20.

19. Masriera, "Senyor Nevas," 18.

20. J.E. Varey, "Los títeres en Cataluña en el siglo XIX," in Estudios escénicos, Cuadernos del Instituto del Teatro , no. 5 (Barcelona: Diputación Provincial de Barcelona, 1960), 54.

21. Ibid., 48-51.

22. Ibid., 53, 61.

23. A. Serrano Victori, "De Pedro Romeu al 'Didó,' o la resurreción de 'Els Quatre Gats,'" Día gráfico , March 13, 1932, 7.

24. Quoted in Jardí, Història de els Quatre Gats , 64.

25. McCully, Quatre Gats , 70.

26. Ibid., 32, 40.

27. Quoted in ibid., 20.

28. Paul McPharlin, The Puppet Theatre in America; with a Supplement: Puppets in America Since 1948, by Marjorie Batchelder McPharlin (Boston: Plays, [1949] 1969), 288.

29. McCully, Quatre Gats , 70, 140; Serrano Victori, "De Pedro Romeu al 'Didó,'" Día gráfico , March 13, 1932, 7.

30. See Palau i Fabre, Picasso i els seus amics catalans —for Soler: 66, 83, 84, 135, 136, 232; for González: 67, 68, 74, 130; for Juli Pi: 50; for Pi and Bonnin, see McCully, Quatre Gats , 22-23 and 44, respectively.

31. McCully, Quatre Gats , 20-21.

32. Quoted in Jardí, Història de els Quatre Gats , 66.

33. Marilyn McCully ( Quatre Gats , 16; illus., 19) thinks the scene is an allegory or a "dream sequence" of Romeu's, which may be true. But the presence of stock figures from puppet shows leads me to believe the joke is that once again Romeu himself is being cast as a character.

34. Josephine de Boer, "Rusinyol, the Writer," Spanish Review 4, nos. 3-4 (March 1936-April 1937): 16; Amades, Titelles , 37-38; Amades, "Catalan Puppets," 16.

35. For shared traditions, see Joan Amades, El carnestoltes a Barcelona el segle XIX , Biblioteca de Tradicions Populars, sér. A, vol. 12 (Barcelona: Imprenta la Neotipia, 1934). H.V. Tozer, "El titella catalá vist per un anglés," in M.R. Contractor, Les grans tradicions populars. Ombres i titelles (Paris: Arthaud, 1977), 140; Pierre Louis Duchârtre, The Italian Comedy (New York: Dover, [1929] 1966), 221.

36. Quote from Tozer, "Titella catalá," 140.

37. Jardí, Història de els Quatre Gats , 63.

38. Ibid., 64.

39. Tozer, "Titella catalá," 140; Jardí, Història de els Quatre Gats , 64.

40. Amades, "Catalan Puppets," 14-15; Palau i Fabre, Picasso: The Early Years , 157.

41. Varey, "Títeres en Cataluña," 73.

42. Tozer, "Titella catalá," 140.

43. Santiago Rusiñol, "El Titella pròdig. Comèdia de Putxinel.lis en un acte i quatre quadros," in Obres completes. Novel.lis i teatres , 3d ed., ed. Donald Samuel Abrams (Barcelona: Editorial Selecta, 1973), 1:479-490.

44. Xavier Fàbregas, "Teatre: Titelles i titellaires," Serra d'or (Barcelona), 1971, 55.

45. Institut del Teatre, Palau Güell, Barcelona, Puppet belonging to Jaume Anglés from about 1913, reg. no. 26215.

46. Jardí, Història de els Quatre Gats , 63.

47. Amades, Titelles i ombres xineses , 40; McCully, "Introduction," in Homage to Barcelona , 39; Palau i Fabre, Picasso i els seus amics , 78-79.

48. Fàbregas, "Teatres," 55.

49. Varey, "Títeres en Cataluña," 69.

50. Ibid., 72; Tozer, "Titella catalá," 143.

51. Tozer, "Titella catalá," 142.

52. Varey, "Títeres en Cataluña," 71.

53. Varey, "Títeres en Cataluña," 74-75.

54. Tozer, "Titella catalá," 140-141.

55. Amades, Titelles i ombres xineses , 24.

56. Amades, "Catalan Puppets," 12.

57. McCully, Quatre Gats , 70.

58. For consideration of the role of popular devotion in the lives of ordinary people, see William Christian, Jr., Apparitions in Late Medieval and Renaissance Spain (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981) and Local Religion in Sixteenth-Century Spain (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981); Robert J. Orsi, Madonna of 115th Street and "'He Keeps Me Going': Women's Devotion to Saint Jude Thaddeus and the Dialectics of Gender in American Catholicism, 1926-1965," in Belief in History: Innovative Approaches to European and American Religion , ed. Thomas Kaselman (South Bend, Ind.: Notre Dame Press, 1991), 137-169.

59. Santiago Rusiñol, "El pintor de miracles. Sainet en un acte," Obres completes. Novel.lis i teatres , 1:757-769.

60. C. Gumá, "Un escultor de sants," in Fruyta agre-dolsa , 3d ser. (Barcelona: Llibrería de I. López. [1895?]), 78. Gumá, who wrote his doggerel for the republican weekly Campana de Gracia , also published dozens of pamphlet-sized volumes of his poetry organized more or less topically. His work, though lacking in artistic value, is an excellent source for the study of popular consciousness in late-nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century Barcelona.

61. A superb recent study of votive paintings can be found in Fina Parés i Rigau, Els ex-vots pintats. Coneguem Catalunya (Barcelona: Llibres de la Frontera, n.d.).

62. Joan Amades, Els ex-vots (Barcelona: Editorial Orbis, 1952), 20.

63. Fortià Solà, El Santuari de la Mare de Déu del Coll , 39, cited in ibid., 21.

64. Amades, Els ex-vots , 148.

65. Ibid., 147.

66. Ibid., 147-148.

67. Ibid., 151.

1. This entire book draws on studies about how cultural traditions changed and new traditions developed in the late nineteenth century as classes formed in opposition to one another. A brief cross-section of the works that contribute to this line of thinking include Benedict Andersen, Invisible Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (New York: Penguin Books, 1986); Hobsbawm, "Mass-producing Traditions," 263; Lidtke, Alternative Culture ; Perrot, "First of May 1890 in France." E.P. Thompson's The Making of the English Working Class (New York: Vintage Books, 1966) can be considered the progenitor of the line of thought that views culture as a crucible for the formation of classes.

2. Figures from Alzina Caules, "Investigación analítica," 33, in Ullman, Semana Trágica , 128; Vives de Fabregas, Vida femenina barcelonesa , 219.

3. Bookchin, Spanish Anarchists , 139-140; Xavier Cuadrat, Socialismo y anarquismo en Cataluña (1899-1911). Los orígenes de la CNT (Madrid: Ediciones de la Revista de Trabajo , 1976), 57-68; Romero Maura, "Rosa de fuego," 203-204.

4. Cuadrat, Socialismo y anarquismo , 68-77.

5. Reference to the Belgian general strike of 1893 can be found in Ullman, Semana Trágica , 132.

6. Considerations of the theory of the general strike can be found in Cuadrat, Socialismo y anarquismo , 96-101. Rosa Luxemburg's The Mass Strike, the Political Party, and the Trade Union , trans. Patrick Lavin (New York: Harper Torchbooks, [1906] 1971), provides a contemporary analysis of the significance of general and mass strikes.

7. I explored how an alternative, revolutionary society rooted in a tradition of resistance developed through informal neighborhood associations, unions, and cultural groups in southwestern Spain in Anarchists of Andalusia , 84-91.

8. Ibid., 166-167.

9. An interview with Federica Montseny about Teresa Claramunt appears in Carmen Alcalde, La mujer en la guerra civil española (Madrid: Cambio 16, 1976), 179-180.

10. "La anarquía a Barcelona," Veu de Catalunya (Barcelona) (evening edition), February 23, 1902.

11. The daily description comes from an unidentified, moderately conservative eyewitness whose account is in the archives of the Institut Municipal d'Història, Casa de l'Ardiaca; see La huelga general de Barcelona. Verdadera relación de los sucesos desarrollados con motivo del paro general en Barcelona durante la octava semana de este año por un testigo ocular (Barcelona: Imprenta de Pedro Toll, 1902), 5; for detailed accounts and analysis of the 1902 strike, see Cuadrat, Socialismo y anarquismo , 80-106.

12. Huelga general , 8-9.

13. Ibid., 9-15.

14. Ibid., 11, 16, 20.

15. "La anarquía a Barcelona," Veu de Catalunya (evening edition), February 23, 1902.

16. P.K., "Durant la huelga general. Impresions," Campana de Gracia , February 22, 1902; Huelga general , 16; Emili Salut, Vivers de revolucionaris. Apunts històrics del districte cinquè (Barcelona: Llibreria Catalònia, 1938), 61. Salut, whose book combines an ethnography of the Parallel at the turn of the century with a biography of the syndicalist leader Salvador Seguí, was rediscovered by Magdalena Fernández Cervantes; see her article "Una nueva fuente histórica sobre la formación de la ideología anarquista barcelonesa: Emili Salut y su obra Vivers de revolucionaris," Convivium. Filosofia, psicología, humanidades 1-2, nos. 44-45 (1975): 101-122.

17. Huelga general , 18-19.

18. Ibid., 21-25.

19. Ibid., 25-27.

20. Cuadrat, Socialismo y anarquismo , 88; Huelga general , 25-30.

21. Romero Maura ( "Rosa del fuego," 216-217) gives low figures on casualties; Cuadrat ( Socialismo y anarquismo , 82) provides higher figures but settles for lower ones. The best discussion about casualty figures can be found in José Álvarez Junco, El emperador del paralelo. Lerroux y la demagogia populista (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1990), 270n.11 (which arrived just as my book was going to press). Estimates of the numbers killed and wounded ranged from a low of twelve dead and forty-four wounded to a high of one hundred dead and three hundred wounded; in the end, there is no way to know for sure.

22. Cuadrat, Socialismo y anarquismo , 76-77, 86-87; Romero Maura, "Rosa del fuego," 211; Ullman, Semana Trágica , 123.

23. Sr. F. Pujola y Vallés, "Contra las festas" (reproduced from El programa ), in Veu de Catalunya (evening edition), September 27, 1902, 4.

24. "Barcelona de festa. Funcions religiosas," Veu de Catalunya (evening edition) September 24, 1902, 2.

25. Jardí Casany, Història de els Quatre Gats , 122.

26. "La exposició d'art antich," Veu de Catalunya (evening edition), September 15, 1902, 1-2; "Programa oficial y detallat de las Festas de la Mercé," ibid., September 16, 1902, 1-2; "La exposició d'art antich," ibid., September 25, 1902, 3.

27. "La exposició d'art antich," Veu de Catalunya (morning edition), September 15, 1902, 3.

28. "Festas de la Mercé," Veu de Catalunya (evening edition), September 23, 1902, 3.

29. "Barcelona de festa," Veu de Catalunya (evening edition), September 24, 1902, 2.

30. "La cabalgata artística industrial," Liberal (Barcelona), October 5, 1902, 2.

31. "La cavalcada histórica, artística y industrial," Veu de Catalunya (morning edition), October 4, 1902, 4-5; and "Festas de la Mercé: La cavalcada," ibid., October 6, 1902, 2-3.

32. Amades, Gegants, nans i altres entremesos , 77; "La festa dels gegants," Veu de Catalunya (evening edition), September 27, 1902, 3.

33. "Festa de la Mercé," Veu de Catalunya (evening edition), September 22, 1902, 3.

34. "Las festas de la Mercé," Veu de Catalunya (morning edition), September 30, 1902, 2-4.

35. "Las festas de la Mercé," Veu de Catalunya (evening edition), September 25, 2.

36. Kaplan, Anarchists of Andalusia , 201.

37. "L'estat de guerra," Veu de Catalunya (evening edition), October 10, 1902, 2.

38. "La cavalcada prohibida," Veu de Catalunya (evening edition), October 11, 1902, 2.

39. Domingo Carles, "La obra de Isidro Nonell," in Memorias de un pintor (Barcelona: Ediciones Destino), 87-90; Enric Jardí, Nonell (Barcelona: Editorial Polígrafa, n.d.), 66, 92, 102, 106, 110, 114; Enric Jardí, Nonell i altres assaigs (Barcelona: Editorial Selecta, 1957), 11; Carles Capdevila, "Joaquim Mir," Art (Barcelona) 2 (1935): 97; José Pla, El pintor Joaquín Mir (Barcelona: Ediciones Destino, 1944), 33.

40. Portraying people only as victims robs them of their potential political autonomy, an issue I explore in "Women and Spanish Anarchism," in Becoming Visible: Women in European History , ed. Renate Bridenthal and Claudia Koonz (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977), 400-421.

41. Art historian Patricia Leighten has demonstrated that Picasso was aware of political struggles going on in Barcelona at the turn of the century and that he even signed a letter along with Spaniards living in Paris calling for an amnesty for Spanish political prisoners; see "Manifiesto de la colonia española residencia en Paris," Publicidad (Barcelona), December 29, 1900, cited in Leighten's "Picasso's Collages and the Threat of War, 1912-1913," Art Bulletin 67 (December 1985): 659n.40. By placing Picasso in a historical and political context among intellectual anarchists in Paris and Barcelona, Leighten has introduced another dimension to the studies of Picasso's work. Her pathbreaking book Re-Ordering the Universe: Picasso and Anarchism, 1897-1914 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989) will help shape debate about Picasso's early political ideas for some time to come.

42. Paolo Lecaldano, La obra pictórica completa de Picasso azul y rosa (Barcelona: Editorial Noguer, 1980), 89-90.

43. I agree with Patricia Leighten ( Re-Ordering the Universe , 19-47, especially 38) that insofar as anarchism constituted an antiauthoritarian state of mind shared by many pioneers in art, literature, and philosophy of the time, Picasso was sympathetic, but I am not convinced that Picasso's portrayal of poverty was overtly political.

44. A rare photograph of Claramunt from the twenties can be found in Lola Iturbe, La mujer en la lucha social y en la guerra civil de España (Mexico City: Editores Mexicanos Unidos, 1974), 50. A useful debate about how the working class was represented can be found in Eric J. Hobsbawm, "Man and Woman in Socialist Iconography," History Workshop 6 (Autumn 1978): 121-138; and in the response by Sally Alexander, Anna Davin, and Eve Hostettler, "Labouring Women: A Reply to Eric Hobsbawm," History Workshop 8 (Autumn 1979): 174-182.

1. N. Bas y Socias, "La dona en el traball," Campana de Gracia , October 10, 1908, 3.

2. Although I do not refer directly to Mary Douglas in my analysis of purification rituals in Barcelona, I cannot overemphasize my debt to her; see her Purity and Danger: An Analysis of the Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (Boston: Arc, [1966] 1984).

3. "La dinamita en Barcelona," Imparcial , September 4, 5, 9, 11, 1905; "Barcelona," Diario de Barcelona , September 4-9, 1905; Núñez Florencio, Terrorismo anarquista , 76.

4. Joaquín Romero Maura, "Terrorism in Barcelona and Its Impact on Spanish Politics, 1904-1909," Past and Present 41 (1968): 130-183; Joaquín Romero Maura, The Spanish Army and Catalonia: The Cu-Cut! Incident and the Law of Jurisdictions, 1905-1906 (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1976). For anarchist charges that police had planted the bombs, see "Mitin Importante," Tierra y libertad (Madrid), September 7, 1905, 3.

5. Jordi Solé-Tura, Catalanismo y revolución burguesa (Madrid: Editorial Cuadernos para el Diálogo, 1970), 125-127.

6. Ibid., 127-128.

7. Ibid., 266.

8. Ibid., 31.

9. Ibid., 249, 256, 258.

10. For a description of New Cemetery, see A. Gelée-Bertal, Guide à Barcelone (Barcelona: Librairie Française, 1896), 184. See also Gary Wray McDonogh's analysis of the place of the Old Cemetery in the cultural identity of Barcelona in Good Families of Barcelona , 172-188.

11. "Después de la explosión," Imparcial , September 6, 1905.

12. Teresa Claramunt, "La bomba de Barcelona," Porvenir del obrero (Mahón), September 15, 1905.

13. For a discussion of immorality, including the frequency of co-ed nudity on the beach at Barceloneta, see the letter from a friend of Portuguese Prime Minister Hintze-Ribeiro, Barcelona, July 24, 1904 (translated into Spanish by the Spanish embassy in Lisbon), cited in Joaquín Romero Maura, "Rosa de fuego," 263n.189. The figures on prostitution come from Juan de Paulis, Las obreras de la aguja. Feminismo. Discurso leído en la sesión celebrada el 26 de enero de 1913 en el Ateneo Barcelonés (Barcelona, 1913), 79, cited in Balcells, "Mujer obrera," 95, 117.

14. Balcells, "Mujer obrera," 95.

15. The life history of one such woman is told in Don Prudencio Sereñana y Partagás, La prostitución en la ciudad de Barcelona, estudiada como enfermedad social y considerada como orígen de otras enfermedades dinámicas, orgánicas y morales de la población barcelonesa (Barcelona: Imprenta de los Sucesores de Ramierez, 1882), 165-167.

16. Ibid., 136-137.

17. Figures on child labor are compiled from Anuario estadístico: 1905 , vol. 4, in Ullman, Semana Trágica , 127.

18. A. Sartoris, "El problema de la prostitución," Porvenir del obrero , July 29, 1903.

19. Francisco Madrid, Sangre en Atarazanas (Barcelona: Antonio López, n.d.), 101-117.

20. For one attack on leftist men for their reactionary view about women, see María, "El grito de la mujer esclava," La cuña. Trabajo, solidaridad, federación. Periódico defensor de los obreros del ramo de elabora madera de España (Barcelona), February 21, 1907. The account of the life of María Rosa can be found in Salvador Seguí, "Escuela de rebeldía," in J.M. Huertas Clavería, Salvador Seguí "El noi del sucre." Materiales para una biografía (Barcelona: Editorial Laia, 1976), 103-132, especially 113-116.

21. Museu Picasso. Catàleg de pintura i dibuix , by Jaime Barrachina et al. (Barcelona: Ajuntament de Barcelona Museus, 1984), 426.

22. Guillermo López blames "the decline in marriage and consequently the fall in population and the rise in the incidence of tuberculosis, cancer, syphilis, and alcoholism on the café cantants "; see his Barcelona sucia. Artículos de malas costumbres. Registro de higiene (Barcelona: Tipográfico Sucesores de F. Sánchez, n.d.), 54-55. A description of the way Chinatown, or the Barrio Chino, developed as a center of the underworld can be found in Dorsey Boatwright and Enric Ucelay Da Cal, "La dona del 'Barrio Chino,'" L'avenç (Barcelona), no. 76 (November 1984): 26(870)-34(878). Among the people cited by Boatwright and Ucelay is the republican journalist, Francisco Madrid. Madrid and his colleagues Lluís Capdevila and José Samblancat were grub-street journalists who wrote about prostitution, homosexual life, drug addiction, and conditions of the poor in Barcelona. Although knowledgeable about anarcho-syndicalists and sympathetic to them, Madrid, who frequently lived in flophouses and even went to jail himself, was more concerned with Barcelona's underworld life than with politics. An excellent view of the relationship between prostitution and the life in the cafés can be found in his Sangre en Atarazanas , 18-23, 71-74, 155-172. I am extremely grateful to Susana Tavera of the Universidad Central, Barcelona, for introducing me to the work of Madrid; see her article "La Barcelona obrera 1900-1939" (manuscript copy).

23. See a reproduction of the painting in Palau i Fabre, Picasso in Catalonia , 90.

24. Lluís Capdevila, De la Rambla a la presó (Barcelona: Edicions la Paraula Viva, 1974), 22-23.

25. R. Cubero, "Prostitución," Cuña , August 30, 1906.

26. Sereñana y Partagás, "Prostitución en Barcelona," 184. For additional material on the organization of prostitution, see Madrid, Sangre en Atarazanas , 151-153, 156.

27. See a description of appalling conditions of life in the brothels in Justo Sencillo, "Nuestras esclavas," Porvenir del obrero , January 11, 1907.

28. Salut, Vivers de revolucionaris , 62; Leo Steinberg, "The Philosophical Brothel, Parts 1 and 2," Art News 71, no. 5 (September 1972): 20-29; no. 6 (October 1972): 38-47. Steinberg was the first art historian to make the connection between Avinyo Street and Les demoiselles d'Avignon .

29. Capdevila, De la Rambla , 124.

30. Madrid, Sangre en Atarazanas , 84.

31. Reproduced in Museu Picasso. Catàleg de pintura i dibuix , 638.

32. The following consideration of Tragic Week and the events leading to it depends on Ullman, Tragic Week , and on her substantially revised Spanish edition of the book, Semana Trágica . I have also consulted La época (Madrid), El poble català, Diario de Barcelona, Almanaque del "Diario de Barcelona," and El imparcial (Madrid) for July 9-August 30, 1909.

33. Ullman, Semana Trágica , 274-275.

34. Ibid., 295; Imparcial , July 12, 1909.

35. Ullman, Semana Trágica , 296.

36. Ibid., 303.

37. "Para las familias de los reservistas," Imparcial , July 24, 1909.

38. Ullman, Semana Trágica , 319.

39. Ibid., 320; "La campaña de Melilla," Imparcial , July 23, 1909, 1.

40. Ullman, Tragic Week , 87.

41. Most of the material on women's involvement in Tragic Week in this chapter is from Ullman; see especially Tragic Week , 91-92, 136, 151, 170-173, 180-181, 196-197, 208-215, 226-227, 232-236, 241, 244, 247-249, 281, 292-293; and Semana Trágica , 130, 159-161, 205, 313, 320-321, 343-344, 347-352, 396, 409-416, 430-431, 437-438, 442, 448-449, 452, 455-458, 519-520.

42. Ullman, Semana Trágica , 344.

43. Ibid., 347-348, 351.

44. "Crónica: Los últimos sucesos," Diario de Barcelona (evening edition), August 1, 1909, 10421-10426, especially 10422.

45. Ullman, Tragic Week , 180-182.

46. Ibid., 187.

47. Ibid., 196-197.

48. A major work of cultural and political history, El emperador del paralelo by José Álvarez Junco, appeared just as my book was being typeset. Even cursory reading reveals that this monographic study of Lerroux and the Radical party describes the political phenomena of anticlericalism and late-nineteenth-century republicanism better than any previous work.

49. Alejandro Lerroux, in La rebeldía , September 1, 1906, cited in Brenan, Spanish Labyrinth , 30.

50. Ullman, Tragic Week , 207-208.

51. Ibid., 210-211.

52. The Catholic reformer José Elías de Molins reported in 1915 that the rates paid to women at home were starvation wages. For example, they received 65 céntimos for a dozen collars and cuffs, 15 céntimos for a dozen embroidered handkerchiefs, 1.50 pesetas for a dozen women's underpants, and 2.75 pesetas for a dozen men's shirts. See his Obrera en Cataluña , 30-31.

53. Ullman, Tragic Week , 211.

54. Ibid., 211-212.

55. Ibid., 236.

56. "La sedición en Barcelona," Imparcial , August 8, 1909.

57. Ullman, Tragic Week , 227.

58. Ullman, Semana Trágica , 456.

59. "Los sucesos de Barcelona," Época , August 5, 1909, 1; Adolfo Bueso, Recuerdos de un cenetista. De la Semana Trágica (1909) a la Segunda República (1931) (Barcelona: Editorial Ariel, 1976), 36.

60. "Los sucesos de Barcelona," Época , August 5, 1909, 1.

61. "Barcelona," Hormiga de oro. Ilustración católica 26, no. 24 (June 12, 1909): 389. This issue is filled with articles about and pictures of funerals. Republicans were especially scornful of death rituals. In early 1909, a republican journalist had denounced the Catholic church for forbidding cremations even though the Inquisition had burned many live bodies; see El Frare Tacas [Carmelita ben calsat (A well-heeled Carmelite)], "Platicas religiosas," Campana de Gracia , January 23, 1909, 2. Another republican scorned Ash Wednesday as the Day of the Good Death and called instead for days and years of good life; see "La professó de la Bona Mort," Campana de Gracia , February 27, 1909, 2.

62. Studying carnivals in relation to social movements has become a popular enterprise over the past two decades. Owing largely to the work of Natalie Zemon Davis in "The Reasons of Misrule," in Culture and Society in Seventeenth-Century France (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1975), 97-123; and E.P. Thompson in "'Rough Music': Le charivari anglais," Annales E.S.C. , no. 27 (1972): 285-312, Anglo-American historians have become interested in the political impact of folk practices. A more recent study in this tradition appears in Peter Stallybrass and Allon White, The Politics and Poetics of Transgression (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1986).

Pioneering work on carnival in Barcelona was done by Joan Amades in El carnestoltes a Barcelona and Custumari catalá , vol. 2: Les carnestoltes-la quaresma (Barcelona: Editorial Salvat, 1951). For a nostalgic reflection on what carnival was like in nineteenth-century Barcelona, see Santiago Rusiñol, "La muerte de carnaval," in Obres completes. Novel.lis i teatres , 2d ed., ed. Donald Samuel Abrams (Barcelona: Editorial Selecta, 1953), 1:1945-1947. For references to the death of Carnestoltes and the burial of the sardine, see Francesc Curet, "Carnestoltes a Barcelona en el segle XIX," Teatre català (Barcelona) 4, no. 155 (February 13, 1915): 119-124, especially 121; the whole issue of this journal is dedicated to a discussion of carnival in Barcelona and its history. Theodore Reff, in "Themes of Love and Death in Picasso's Early Work," in Picasso in Retrospect , ed. Roland Penrose and John Golding (New York: Harper & Row, 1973), 5-30, shows how Picasso put carnival imagery from Spain and France to work in his art.

63. Ullman, Semana Trágica , 517; Bueso, Recuerdos de un cenetista , 36.

64. R. Stamm, "On the Carnivalesque," Wedge 1 (1982): 47, 55; cited in Stallybrass and White, Politics and Poetics of Transgression , 18-19.

65. Ullman, Tragic Week , 281; "Los últimos sucesos," Diario de Barcelona (evening edition), August 2, 1909, 10454.

66. Ullman, Tragic Week , 215.

67. Bueso, Recuerdos de un cenetista , 35-36.

68. Ullman, Tragic Week , 241.

69. Ibid., 226; "Los últimos sucesos," Diario de Barcelona (morning edition), August 7, 1909, 10693-10694; "Datos por la historia," Hormiga de oro 26, no. 33 (August 14, 1909): 514; Almanaque del "Diario de Barcelona " (1910), 124. A journalist reported in "Aquella reclusa," Diluvio (morning edition), September 1, 1910, 8-9, that a girl had escaped from the convent of the Adorers of the Blessed Sacrament and had been returned against her wishes.

70. Ullman, Semana Trágica , 140.

71. "Datos por la historia," Hormiga de oro , August 14, 1909, 514.

72. Ullman, Semana Trágica , 455-456.

73. Josep Benet, Maragall i la Setmana Trágica (Barcelona: Edicions 62, 1965), 55.

74. Carmen Karr, "Carta abierta a Mossen Ricardo Aragó," Diario de Barcelona (evening edition), August 14, 1909, 11014.

75. The way one working-class community (in Portsmouth, England) viewed attacks on prostitutes as attacks on the entire working class can be seen in Judith M. Walkowitz, Prostitution and Victorian Society: Women, Class, and the State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980).

76. "Gobierno civil," Diario de Barcelona (morning edition), August 11, 1909, 10833.

77. Neil Hertz, "Medusa's Head: Male Hysteria Under Political Pressure," Representations 4 (Fall 1983): 27-50. In God's Bits of Wood (New York: Doubleday/Anchor Books, 1970), Ousmane Sembene's fictional account of a 1947 railroad strike in Senegal, and in The Women Incendiaries , trans. James Starr Atkinson (New York: Braziller, 1966), Edith Thomas's account of the Paris Commune, working-class women mobilize with prostitutes as their leaders.

78. E. Armand, La prostitution et ses multiples aspects (Paris: Editions de l'En Dehors, 1933), 16.

79. Stallybrass and White, Poetics and Politics of Transgression , 137-138.

80. Drs. Anguera de Sojo and Umberto Verderau y Vellvé, Bases para la redacción de un reglamento de la prostitución en España. Presentadas á la Academia de Higiene de Cataluña (Barcelona: Imprenta F. Badia Cantens, 1911).

1. This chapter draws heavily on my article "Female Consciousness and Collective Action: The Case of Barcelona, 1910-1918," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 7, no. 3 (1982): 545-566; I am grateful to the University of Chicago Press for permission to re-incorporate material I used there when I first developed the concept of "female consciousness."

2. Molins, Obrera en Cataluña , 6.

3. In 1908, the civil governor of Barcelona founded a Committee for the Protection of Children and the Suppression of Begging to supplement the work done by the church. The problem of abandoned children (known as trinxeraires ) remained, however, and was considered a social disease. Molins said poor parents had the impossible choice of abandoning their children or sending them to work at an early age; he also feared that juvenile delinquents "filled the jails and then nurtured anarchism" ( Obrera en Cataluña , 53).

4. Revelations about the rape, the convent's defense, and the trials of the child and her family begin with "Violación, estrupo y corrupción en un convento de Gracia," Diluvio (Barcelona) (morning edition) October 14, 1910, 12-15; and go through "Lo del convento de Gracia," ibid. (afternoon edition), October 31, 1910, 8.

5. "Un convento de Gracia," Diluvio (morning edition), October 14, 1910, 14-15.

6. "Lo del convento de Gracia," Diluvio (afternoon edition), October 24, 1910, 8.

7. "Lo del convento de Gracia," Diluvio (morning edition), October 18, 1910, 8.

8. "Lo del convento de Gracia," Diluvio (morning edition), October 30, 1910, 15.

9. "La semana clerical," Diluvio (morning edition), October 22, 1910, 20.

10. Quoted in Adolfo Bueso, Como fundamos la CNT (Barcelona: Editorial Avance, 1976), 30.

11. See Anselmo Lorenzo, Las olimpiadas de la paz y el trabajo de mujeres y niños (Madrid: Imprenta de Antonio Marzo, 1900), for one of his speeches about female and child labor in 1900.

12. Anarchist thought, devoted as it was to human liberation, was always concerned with the need to transform the condition of women. In practice, however, it was far more difficult. The most extensive history of women in the anarchist and anarcho-syndicalist movements can be found in the work of Mary Nash, especially the following: "La problemática de la mujer y el movimiento obrero en España," in Teoría y práctica del movimiento obrero en España (1900-1936) , ed. Albert Balcells (Valencia: Fernando Torres, 1977), 241-279; Mujer y movimiento obrero en España, 1931-1939 (Barcelona: Editorial Fontamara, 1981); and Mujer, familia y trabajo en España, 1875-1936 (Barcelona: Anthropos, Editorial del Hombre, 1983). Mary Nash and the Centre d'Investigació Històrica de la Dona, Barcelona, which she directs, have been pivotal in the development of women's history in Spain.

13. Bueso, Como fundamos la CNT , 73-75.

14. Balcells, "Mujer obrera," 11-12. The price list was conveyed by a seamstress who testified before the bishop of Barcelona and was reported by Dolors Moncerdà de Macià, a leading Catholic philanthropist. In a March 16, 1910, address to the Catholic group Popular Social Action, she called on Catholics to improve the plight of working women; the lecture was reprinted as a pamphlet, Conferencia sobre l'Acció Católica social femenina (Barcelona: L'Acció Católica, 1910); see 13-14. In 1918, Catholic feminists were instrumental in persuading the government to try to regulate home work; see "Preparación de un proyecto de ley sobre el trabajo a domicilio," in Instituto de Reformas Sociales: Secciones técnicos administrativas (Madrid: Sobrinos de las Sucesores de los Rios, 1918).

15. Balcells, "Mujer obrera," 12.

16. Molins, Obrera en Cataluña , 23; Balcells, "Mujer obrera," 41.

17. Molins, Obrera en Cataluña , 17. "Sucesos," Publicidad (Barcelona), January 28-30, February 5, and April 21, 1913, provides just a few examples of how common foundlings and dead fetuses were in the streets of working-class neighborhoods. The labor situation was covered in "Vida sindicalista," Voz del pueblo (Tarrasa), February 22, 1913; "La vida obrera en Barcelona," Socialista (Madrid), April 18, 1913; and "Contra el trabajo nocturno," ibid., July 19, 1913. A. Lopez Baeza, "Acción social: El trabajo nocturno," ibid., November 25, 1913, publicized the statistical unreliability of Anuari d'estatistica social de Catalunya , edited by the Museo Social de Barcelona. Most Spanish statistics should be regarded as approximations.

18. There was good reason for female factory workers and women in the community, most of whom earned a living in cottage industry at some time in their lives, to unite as they did in 1913. The most complete consideration of the Constancy strike of 1913 and its social background appears in Balcells, "Mujer obrera," 9-121. For a schematic outline of the strike, see Miguel Sastre, Huelgas de 1910, 1911, 1912, 1913, 1914 (Barcelona: Establecimento Tipográfico La Hormiga de Oro , 1914), 209-225. See also Molins, Obrera en Cataluña , 36-63, on Catholic social services to working women.

19. "Las huelgas," Socialista , July 26, 1913; "De la vaga textil. El Seny," Campana de Gracia , August 9, 1913.

20. "Las huelgas de Barcelona," Imparcial , July 30, August 1, 1913; "El conflicto del arte fabril en Cataluña," Socialista , July 31, 1913; quotation appears in "Contra la violencia," Imparcial , August 2, 1913.

21. Tomás Caballé y Clos, Costumbres y usos de Barcelona. Narraciones populares (Barcelona: Editorial Seguí, 1947), 416; Jacques Valdour, La vie ouvrière. L'ouvrier espagnol, vol. 1: Catalogne (Paris: Arthur Rousseau, 1919), 21-22.

22. "Huelgas en el arte fabril," Diario de Barcelona (evening edition), August 5, 1913, 10603.

23. "Gobierno civil: Cuestiones obreras," Publicidad , April 12, 1913; "Las operarias en seda en Barcelona: Las batallas del proletariado; ecos de la lucha," Socialista , April 10, 1913; and "Las obreras triunfan," ibid., August 11, 1913.

24. "De la vaga textil: El Seny," Campana de Gracia , August 9, 1911; Diario de Barcelona (morning edition), August 4, 1913, 10532-10534; ibid., August 7, 1913, 10653; ibid., August 8, 1913, 10712-10713; ibid., August 9, 1913, 10796.

25. T. Herreros, "Feminismo en actividad," Almanaque de "Tierra y Libertad" para 1914 , 98-99; Diario de Barcelona (morning edition), August 11, 1913, 10837-10838; ibid., August 12, 1913, 10873.

26. Diario de Barcelona (evening edition), August 12, 1913, 10904.

27. Ibid., 10905.

28. Ibid., August 20, 1913, 11238.

29. Ibid. (morning edition), August 21, 1913, 11245.

30. Bulletí de l'Institut d'Investigacions Econòmiques (Generalitat de Catalunya) 2 (1933): 277, cited in Balcells, "Indice ponderado del precio de las subsistencias en Barcelona entre 1911 y 1933," in Cataluña contemporánea II (1900-1939) (Madrid: Siglo Veintiuno Editores, 1979), 88; Jacinto Martin Maestre, Huelga general de 1917 , Colección Lée y Discute, 15, ser. Roja (Madrid: ZYX, 1966), 48.

31. See my discussion of how women in Russia, Italy, Spain, and Mexico resisted war and speculators in "Women and Communal Strikes in the Crisis of 1917-1922," in Becoming Visible: Women in European History , 2d ed., ed. Renate Bridenthal, Claudia Koonz, and Susan Mosher Stuard (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1987), 429-449.

32. Veu de Catalunya , January 2-12, 1918; Diario de Barcelona (evening edition), January 10, 1918, 459. For the pathbreaking discussion of modern food riots and how crowds applied a system of "moral economy" to impose what they considered a "just price," see E.P. Thompson, "The Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Eighteenth Century," Past and Present 50 (February 1971): 76-136.

33. "Aumenta la excitación entre las clases populares," Sol (Madrid), January 13, 1918.

34. Diario de Barcelona (evening edition), January 11, 1918, 467-468; Diluvio (morning edition), January 11, 1918, 7; ibid. (afternoon edition), January 11, 1918, 2; "La región catalana," Sol , January 11, 1918; Veu de Catalunya , January 12, 1918.

35. Quoted in "La región catalana," Sol , January 11, 1918.

36. Diario de Barcelona (evening edition), January 12, 1918, 505.

37. "La región Catalana," Sol , January 11, 1918; a later article, "La situación en Barcelona," ibid., January 23, 1918, discusses the rift between Alegre and Barrios.

38. Diluvio (evening edition), January 13, 1918.

39. Joan Manent i Pesas, Records d'un sindicalista llibertari català, 1916-1943 (Paris: Edicions Catalanes de París, 1976), 29.

40. "Graves sucesos en Barcelona: Se va el lunes a la huelga general?" Sol , January 12, 1918.

41. "La región catalana," Sol , January 15, 1918.

42. Diario de Barcelona (morning edition), January 14, 1918, 516; ibid. (evening edition), January 14, 1918, 573.

43. Ibid. (evening edition), January 14, 1918, 573-574; ibid. (morning edition), January 15, 1918, 586; ibid. (evening edition), January 15, 1918, 621-622; Diluvio (morning edition), January 15, 1918, 7; Hormiga de oro: Ilustración católica , January 19, 1918, 31; "La región catalana," Sol , January 15, 1918.

44. Diluvio (morning edition), January 16, 1918, 7-8.

45. Diario de Barcelona (morning edition), January 18, 1918, 769; "Acuerdo de huelga general: La vida en Barcelona," Sol , January 16, 1918.

46. Diluvio (morning edition), January 18, 1918, 9.

47. "La situación en Barcelona," Sol , January 23, 1918.

48. "Nuevos sucesos en Barcelona," Sol , January 24, 1918.

49. "Mas información de Cataluña," Sol , January 25, 1918.

50. "Después de la suspensión de garantias," Sol , January 27, 1918.

51. Almanaque del "Diario de Barcelona" para el año 1919 , 24-25; Sol , February 12, 1918.

52. Bueso, Recuerdos de un cenetista , 86.

1. Luis Araquistáin, editor of España , quoted in Antonio Elorza, Luis Arranz, and Fernando del Rey, "Liberalismo y corporativismo en la crisis de la Restauración," in La crisis de la Restauración. España entre la primera guerra mundial y la II República , ed. J.L. García Delgado, Second Segovian Colloquium on the Contemporary History of Spain, dir. M. Tuñón de Lara (Madrid: Siglo Veintiuno Editores, 1986), 9.

2. Ángel Pestaña, Terrorismo en Barcelona (Memorias inéditas) , ed. Xavier Tusell and Genoveva García Queipo de Llano (Barcelona: Editorial Planeta, 1979), 10-11; "En casa de Ángel Pestaña," Diluvio (morning edition), August 27, 1922, 15.

3. Joan del Pí, Interpretació llibertaría del moviment obrer català (Paris: Ediciones Tierra y Libertad , 1946), 22.

4. In Vivers de revolucionaris , Emili Salut describes District V and provides a biography of Seguí. See also Fernández Cervantes, "Nueva fuente histórica." Seguí's rather pedestrian novel Escuela de rebeldía: Historia de un sindicalista (Madrid: Rivadeneyra, 1923) provides valuable insights about the daily life of syndicalist workers.

5. Pierre Cabanne, Pablo Picasso: His Life and Times , trans. Harold J. Salemson (New York: William Morrow, 1977), 15-20; Mary Mathews Gedo, Picasso: Art as Autobiography (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), 7-19; Patrick O'Brian, Pablo Ruiz Picasso: A Biography (London: Colins, 1976); Roland Penrose, Picasso: His Life and Work (New York: Harper, 1959), 20; Jaime Sabartés, Picasso: An Intimate Portrait , trans. Angel Flores (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1948), 3-12.

6. Balcells, "Indice ponderado del precio de las subsistencias," in Cataluña contemporánea II , 87-88; Juan Antonio Lacomba Avellán, La crisis española de 1917, Colección "Los Contemporáneos," 19 (Madrid: Editorial Cuenca Nueva, 1970), 28, claims the value of the peseta dropped 50 percent.

7. Pestaña, Terrorismo en Barcelona , 13.

8. Bueso, Recuerdos de un cenetista , 70.

9. Joaquín Edwards-Ballo, El nacionalismo continental. Crónicas chilenas (Madrid: Imprenta Hernández y Gallo Sáez, 1925), 167.

10. Sempronio [Andrés Aveleno Artis], "L'Español, un café unic," Aquella entremaliada Barcelona (Barcelona: Editorial Selecta, 1978), 121.

11. Victor Serge, The Birth of Our Power , trans. Richard Greenman (London: Writers and Readers Publishing Cooperative, [1931] 1977), 29.

12. Ibid.

13. Balcells, "Introduction," Cataluña contemporánea II , 15.

14. Valdour, La vie ouvriére , 123, 261.

15. Art historian Patricia Leighten discusses Guitar only cursorily, since it was the only collage of Picasso's that used a Spanish newspaper. But her discussion of his use of the French Republican mass-circulation newspaper Journal reinforces my own view that Picasso was certainly sympathetic to republican ideas in France and Barcelona. See Re-Ordering the Universe , 130, 177, n. 31.

16. Palau i Fabre, Picasso in Catalonia , 199.

17. Balcells, "Mujer obrera," 80; Balcells, "Introduction," Cataluña contemporánea II , 22, 24.

18. Balcells, "La población catalana en el siglo XX," in Cataluña contemporánea II , 61.

19. "Toros," Diluvio (morning edition), March 31, 1913, 19-24; ibid., April 28, 1913, 18-22.

20. Serge, Birth of our Power , 75; Paul Morand, "Catalan Nights," in Fancy Goods: Open All Night , preface and 1st intro. by Marcel Proust, 2d intro. by Breon Mitchell; trans. Ezra Pound (New York: New Directions [1921] 1984), 65-95.

21. "Madrid teatral. Blanquita Suárez," Liberal (evening edition), February 6, 1917, 2. Palau i Fabra ( Picasso in Catalonia , 208) believes that the painting was done when both Picasso and Suárez were back in Barcelona in June. At that time, however, Picasso's somewhat prudish fiancée was with him; it seems unlikely that he would have taken her to see Suárez perform such skits as "The Island of Pleasures," "The Wonder of Damascus," and "The White Kitten." For work on English music halls and their role in shaping views about gender and society, see Judith R. Walkowitz, "Science and the Seance: Transgressions of Gender and Genre in Late Victorian London," Representations , no. 22. (Spring 1988): 3-22.

22. The revival of carnival as an important tourist attraction was newsworthy in Barcelona; see "El próximo carnaval," Liberal (evening edition), January 20, 1917, 1. Since Picasso's old friend Carles Junyer-Vidal published the Liberal and Picasso had done several drawings for it in 1902, he might well have glanced at it when he was in Barcelona. For a fuller discussion of carnival, see chapter 4, note 62.

23. "Fiestas de carnaval: Los bailes de máscaras, el del círculo artístico," Liberal , February 14, 1917, 1.

24. For discussions of the place of Parade in the development of avantgarde dance and modernism, see Lynn Garafola, Diaghilev's Ballets Russes (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 76, 93.

25. J. Sacs, "Picasso tuvo ayer un éxito: Sorprendió a todos; tal vez no maravilló a muchos," Publicidad , November 1, 1917, 3.

26. Richard Hayden Axom, " Parade : Cubism as Theater" (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1974); Douglas Cooper, Picasso's Theatre (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1968), nos. 91-96; William Rubin, ed., Picasso: A Retrospective (Museum of Modern Art, New York) (Boston: New York Graphic Society, 1980), 197-198; P., "El cubismo en escena," Publicidad , November 1, 1917, 3; Joan Josep Tharrats, Picasso i els artistes catalans en el ballet (Barcelona: Edicions del Cotal, 1982), 38-39.

27. Jaime Brossa, "Pablo Picasso," Diluvio (morning edition), June 12, 1917, 9-10.

28. Sacs, "Picasso tuvo ayer un éxito . . . ," Publicidad , November 11, 1917, 3.

29. Serge, Birth of Our Power , 33.

30. Brossa, "Pablo Picasso," Diluvio (morning edition), June 12, 1917, 9.

31. "La fiesta de San Jorge," Diluvio (morning edition), April 24, 1917, 7; "Procesión de Corpus," Diluvio (morning edition), June 6, 1917, 8; "Procesiones," Diluvio (morning edition), June 17, 1917, 7.

32. "Movimiento obrero," Diluvio (morning edition), April 25, 1917, 7. The play appears in Santiago Rusiñol, Teatre , ed. Carme Arnau (Barcelona: Edicions 62, 1981), 127-201.

33. Gerald Meaker, The Revolutionary Left in Spain , 1914-1923 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1974), 65-70; for detailed accounts of the rumblings in June 1917 by workers and the army defense committees, see "Movimiento obrero," Diluvio , June 2, 1917, 9; ibid. (morning edition), June 15, 1917, 10; ibid., June 23, 1917, 2; ibid., June 26, 1917, 10; ibid. (afternoon edition), June 26, 1917, 1.

34. Meaker, Revolutionary Left , 71-72.

35. Ametlla, Memóries polítiques , 380.

36. For coverage of the parliamentary assembly revolt, see Imparcial , July 1-August 4, 1917; "La actitud del gobierno frente a los asambleístas catalanes," ibid., July 10, 1917, 1; "El gobierno y los parlamentarios: La jornada política de ayer," ibid., July 20, 1917, 1; Meaker, Revolutionary Left , 73. There is a slight discrepancy between the newspaper accounts and the one Meaker offers, but since he has the benefit of hindsight, I have accepted his narrative of events.

37. A group picture taken at the reunion can be seen in Palau i Fabre, Picasso in Catalonia , 202.

38. "Barcelona," Imparcial , July 13, 1917, 2; ibid., July 20, 1917, 1.

39. Serge, Birth of Our Power , 55-56.

40. "Graves complicaciones: Sin previo aviso se acuerda para hoy la huelga general," Imparcial , August 13, 1917, 1.

41. Bueso, Recuerdos de un cenetista , 89.

42. Ibid., 80-84.

43. "En Barcelona," Imparcial , August 17, 1917, 2; "En provincias: Barcelona," ibid., August 18, 1917, 2; "Después de la huelga general: El día en provincias," ibid., August 19, 1917, 1; "En provincias: Barcelona," ibid., August 24, 1917, 2.

44. Cited in translation in Meaker, Revolutionary Left , 88.

45. "Prisión del diputado Marcelino Domingo," Imparcial , August 16, 1917, 1-2; Martín Maestre, Huelga general , 42.

46. See Luis Almeric [Clovis Eiméric], La Rambla de Barcelona, su historia urban y sentimental , Monografias históricas de Barcelona, no. 4 (Barcelona: Ediciones Millá, 1945); and Sempronio [Andrés Aveleno Artis], Sonata a la Rambla (Barcelona: Editorial Barna, 1961), for accounts of the downtown neighborhood during 1917.

47. Number designations in the following discussion are to Christian Zervos, "Courses de taureaux, Barcelone, 1917," in Pablo Picasso: Oeuvres , vol. 3: 1917-1919 (Paris: Editions Cahiers d'Art , 1949), 22-24. The following articles provide extraordinary insights about the place of the bullfight in Picasso's work: M.G., "Picasso taurómaco," Du. Kulturelle Monatsschrift (Zurich) 18, no. 8 (August 1958): 11-29; Henry de Montherlant, "Der erste Plan einer von Picasso illustrierten Luxusausgabe der 'Tauromaquia,'" ibid., 34-38, 58-60; and P.F. Allthaus, "Der Stierkampf," ibid., 55-56.

48. Morand, "Catalan Night," 85.

49. Meaker, Revolutionary Left , 94.

50. Ibid., 92; Bueso, Recuerdos de un cenetista , 101.

51. The statement was made by one of Barcelona's civil governors in a newspaper interview and cited in Joan del Pí, Interpretacióllibertaría , 27.

52. The best account in English of how Spain responded to the Russian Revolution can be found in Meaker, Revolutionary Left , 99-132.

1. Sempronio [Andrés Aveleno Artís], "La reforma," in Aquella entremaliada Barcelona , 44-51, 49, 50.

2. Sempronio, "Santa Madrona de les drassanes," in ibid., 170-178. Francisco Madrid first gave the name Barrio Chino to the district, which runs roughly from the Rambla to the Parallel, in his collection Sangre en Atarazanas .

3. R. Draper Miralles, Guía de la prostitución femenina en Barcelona (Barcelona: Editorial Martínez Roca, 1982), 19-21.

4. Meaker, Revolutionary Left , 159.

5. Albert Balcells, El sindicalisme a Barcelona (1916-1923) (Barcelona: Editorial Nova Terra, 1966), 67-119; Brenan, Spanish Labyrinth , 70-75; and Bueso, Recuerdos de un cenetista , 109-114.

6. Correspondencia de España , March 18, 1919, 4; Meaker, Revolutionary Left , 159-160.

7. Salut, Vivers de revolucionaris , 130-131.

8. Balcells, Sindicalisme , 76-78; Correspondencia de España , March 22, 1919, 5-6; Meaker, Revolutionary Left , 161-165.

9. Balcells, Sindicalisme , 74; Enric Ucelay Da Cal, La Catalunya populista. Imatge, cultura i política en Petapa republicana (1931-1939) (Barcelona: Edicions de la Magrana, 1982), 70, stresses that the conflict was about the degree to which the state could intervene in disputes between workers and employers and whether the government could effectively force employers to recognize the union and its strike committee's right to negotiate for it.

10. Meaker, Revolutionary Left , 165-167. Despite this statement, Meaker blames revolutionaries in the CNT for the resumption of the strike, claiming that they were not content with the settlement and therefore decided to resume the work stoppage. Balcells and Brenan, however, disagree with Meaker about the CNT and what its goals were in early 1919. According to them, the CNT was remarkably disciplined and peaceful. See Balcells, Sindicalisme , 88-89; and Brenan, Spanish Labyrinth , 71.

11. Correspondencia de España , March 13, 1919, 4; ibid., March 17, 1919, 5.

12. Ibid., March 25, 1919, 6.

13. Historian Colin M. Winston has done much to dispel the belief that the Free Unions were merely the tools of employers. Many workers, including former CNT members, were genuinely opposed to the revolutionary tack of the CNT and wanted to defend their economic rights. Nevertheless, as Winston admits, the leadership of the Free Unions was always in the hands of right-wing critics of capitalism, if not directly in the employ of conservatives of the Regionalist League. See Winston, "Apuntes para la historia de los sindicatos libres de Barcelona (1919-1923)," Revista estudios de historia social 2-3 (1981): 119-139; his arguments are more fully developed in Workers and the Right in Spain, 1900-1936 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985).

14. "La cuestion social," Diario de Barcelona (morning edition), September 13, 1920, 6247; Sempronio, "Intermedí de la bomba del Pompeia," in Barcelona era una festa (Barcelona: Editorial Selecta, 1989), 103.

15. Diario de Barcelona (morning edition), September 16, 1920, 6256-6257.

16. Ibid. (afternoon edition), September 16, 1920, 6273.

17. "Entierro de las primeras victimas de la bomba," Diario de Barcelona (morning edition), September 17, 1920, 6282.

18. "La cuestion social," Diario de Barcelona , no. 262 (morning edition), September 19, 1920, 6336.

19. Ibid., September 20, 1920, 6356.

20. Ibid. (afternoon edition), September 16, 1920, 6273.

21. Ibid. (morning edition), September 21, 1920, 6364.

22. Meaker, Revolutionary Left , 334-35; "Atentado contra D. Francisco Layret," Día gráfico , December 1, 1920, 3.

23. "La ciudad del crimen," Día gráfico , December 1, 1920, 3.

24. "Enterrament d'en Layret," Veu de Catalunya (morning edition), December 3, 1920, 7.

25. There is no definitive biography of Salvador Seguí, but useful sources can be found in Huertas Clavería, Salvador Seguí . See also Salvador Seguí, Escrits , ed. Isidre Molas (Barcelona: Edicions 62, 1975).

26. "El atentado contra Ángel Pestaña," Diluvio , August 26-29, 1922.

27. Details about Seguí's last days and the response to his death can be found in "Últimos noticias—Atentado—Un muerto y dos heridos," Diario de Barcelona (morning edition), March 11, 1923, 1198; "Sigue la tragedia: Salvador Seguí cae muerto a balazos en la calle de la Cadena," Diluvio , March 11, 1923, 25-26; "El sábado fué a balazos," Sol (Madrid), March 12, 1923, 1; and "La muerte del 'Noy del sucre'," ibid., March 15, 1923, 3.

28. "La cuestion social: Paro general de 24 horas," Diario de Barcelona (morning edition), March 14, 1923, 1125-1126; Manent i Pesas, Records d'un sindicalista , 100-101.

29. Quoted in "Sigue la tragedia: El cadaver de Salvador Seguí es conducido inesperadamente, en un burgon, al cemeterio . . . ," Diluvio (morning edition), March 13, 1923, 15.

30. "Sigue la tragedia," Diluvio (morning edition), March 13, 1923, 14.

31. Ibid., 14-15; "Las luchas obreras," Sol , March 13, 1923, 1.

32. "La cuestion social," Diario de Barcelona (morning edition), March 14, 1923, 1226; Manent i Pesas, Records d'un sindicalista , 101-102.

33. "Sigue la tragedia," Diluvio (morning edition), March 14, 1923, 12.

34. Manent i Pesas, Records d'un sindicalista , 103-104; "Entierro de Francisco Comas (a) Peronas," Diluvio (morning edition), March 20, 1923, 11; "Los atentados obreros: Un documento de la Confederación Nacional del Trabajo," Sol , March 20, 1923.

35. Josep María Poblet, El moviment autonomista a Catalunya dels anys 1918-1919 (Barcelona: Llibre de Butxaca, 1977), 21.

36. Ibid., 22.

37. Ibid., 72.

38. Ibid.

39. Ibid., 84.

40. Ferran Mascarell, "Conversa amb Enric Ucelay Da Cal: Macià, un politic sorprenent," L'avenç , no. 66 (December 1983): 33. Enric Ucelay Da Cal, the editor of L'avenç , Catalunya's leading popular historical journal, completed his doctorate at Columbia University in 1979 with a dissertation on Catalan nationalism in the period 1919-1933; see his "Estat català: The Strategies of Separation and Revolution of Catalan Radical Nationalism (1919-1933)" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1979), some material of which has been incorporated into the introduction of his Catalunya populista .

41. Poblet, Moviment autonomista , 84.

42. This is a gloss on the argument Ucelay Da Cal presents in Mascarell, "Conversa," 33.

43. Shlomo Ben-Ami, The Origins of the Second Republic in Spain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978), 7-8; Raymond Carr, Modern Spain, 1875-1980 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980), 107-108. There has always been the suspicion that many conservative Catalan nationalists, Puig i Cadafalch among them, actually conspired with Primo to seize power; see Melchor Fernández Almagro, Catalanismo y la república española (Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, 1932), 116-117.

44. Santiago Alba, L'Espagne et la dictature. Bilan-prévisions-organisation de Pavenir (Paris: Libraire Valois, 1930), 73-79; Fernández Almagro, Catalanismo y la república española , 118.

45. Carr, Modern Spain , 568-569.

46. Bueso, Recuerdos de un cenetista , 203.

47. Francesc Cambó was a Catalan with his eye clearly on national rather than regional power. He achieved even greater prominence in the Franco regime for helping bring the regime to power. See his Memories (1876-1936) (Barcelona: Editorial Alpha, 1981).

48. Bueso, Recuerdos de un cenetista , 213-214.

49. Ibid., 236-239, 244-246. For a summary of the testimonies and sentences in the Garraf trial, see "Vista de la causa por el atentado de las estación Garraf," Sol , April 30, 1926.

50. Quote appears in a flyer protesting against the Garraf trial, found in a collection of clandestine materials in the Historical Archive of the City of Barcelona (Institut Municipal d'Història, Casa de l'Ardiaca [hereafter cited as IMH]) in the album labeled Col.lecció de fulls volanders (1926).

51. Of the fifty handbills, clippings, and letters from this period that were being catalogued in 1980, most appear in the Col.lecció de fulls volanders (1925-1929) at the IMH. The tissue-paper messages, originally in a file labeled "Documentos clandestinos de la dictadura de Primo de Rivera," have been misplaced since 1980, when I saw them.

52. Tanyus, "La nit de Sant Joan," Esquella de la Torratxa , June 25, 1926, 426.

53. For further material on the planned uprising for Saint John's Day, see Manent i Pesas, Records d'un sindicalista , 106-109; Bookchin, Spanish Anarchists , 210-211.

54. Col.lecció de fulls volanders (1926); Bueso, Recuerdos de un cenetista , 239-40; Diego Abad de Santillán [Sinesio García Delgado], Alfonso XIII, la II República, Francisco Franco (crónica general de España) (Madrid: Ediciones Júcar, 1979), 109. For a recent analysis of the anarcho-syndicalist position under the dictator, see Susana Tavera, "Els anarchosindicalistes catalans i la dictadura," L'avenç , no. 72 (June 1984): 62-67.

55. Notices about the religious ceremonies associated with the Virgin of Mercy celebration can be found in Diario de Barcelona (morning edition), September 23, 1926, 5; and ibid. (morning edition), September 24, 1926, 5.

56. Bueso, Recuerdos de un cenetista , 240-241; Mascarell, "Conversa," 34-35.

57. Engelhardt, Raeburn, and Sada, "Chronology," Homage to Barcelona , 304. The German Pavilion and the Barcelona chair that Mies van der Rohe designed for it have had a lasting effect on the world of architecture and design.

58. Bookchin, Spanish Anarchists , 211-212.

59. The anagram, a typed three-inch-by-two-inch thin sheet of paper, without annotation, appeared in "Documentos clandestinos" in 1980.

1. For a discussion of intellectual life among Barcelona's artists at the turn of the century, see Leighten, Re-Ordering the Universe , 19-47; and John Richardson's Life of Picasso , vol. 1: 1881-1906, which appeared too late to be thoroughly assimilated in this book.

2. An unsurpassed analysis of the mural Guernica and Picasso's political views with respect to it can be found in Herschel B. Chipp, Picasso's "Guernica": History, Transformations, Meanings (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1989). Chipp, Leighten, and Richardson, covering different periods of Picasso's work, are sure to establish models for research on Picasso for some time to come.

3. José Antonio González Casanova, Federalismo y autonomía. Cataluña y el estado español, 1868-1938 (Barcelona: Editorial Crítica, 1979), 258.

4. John Brademas, Anarco-sindicalismo y revolución en España, 1930-1937 , trans. Joaquín Romero Maura (Barcelona: Editorial Ariel, 1974), 87-91; Bookchin, Spanish Anarchists , 244. The two writers disagree about the level of violence used in the repression of the miners.

5. "El estatuto de Cataluña de septiembre de 1932," in Balcells, Cataluña contemporánea II , 103-107.

6. For a truly humane and thrilling evocation of a revolutionary time and place, see Jerome R. Mintz, The Anarchists of Casas Viejas (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982). The eyewitness accounts of the massacre that overthrew the local commune can be found on pages 213-225.

7. Bookchin, Spanish Anarchists , 249-250.

8. Xavier Fàbregas' prologue to Ezequiel Vigués ["Didó"], Teatre de putxinel.lis , 61 Monografies de Teatre (Barcelona: Ediciones 62, 1975), 11-15.

9. Serrano Victori, "De Pedro Romeu al 'Didó,'" 7.

10. Joaquín de la Puente, El "Guernica." Historia de un cuadro (Madrid: Silex, 1985), 46.

11. Quoted and cited in Chipp, Picasso's "Guernica," 87, 216.

12. Juan Ainaud de Lasarte, "Museu de arte de Cataluña," in Museos de Barcelona (Madrid: Patrimonio Nacional, 1972), 17. See drawings and descriptions in the Liberal , October 5, 1902, 2-3.

13. Lydia Gasman, "Mystery, Magic, and Love in Picasso, 1925-38: Picasso and the Surrealist Poets" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1981), 3: 1028.

14. Sir Anthony Blunt was one of the first critics to recognize the importance that Romanesque art had for Picasso; see Picasso's "Guernica" (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969), 29-31. The 1931 article on medieval Catalan manuscripts appeared in Folch i Torres et al., "Les miniatures des commentaires aux apocalypse de Gerona et Seu d'Urgell," Cahiers d'art 6 (1931): 330-334, cited in Chipp, Picasso's "Guernica," 216.

15. For discussions about the 1934 uprising, see Gabriel Jackson, The Span- soft

ish Republic and the Civil War, 1931-1939 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967), 153-161; Felix Morrow, Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Spain (New York: Pathfinder Press, [1938] 1974), 30-32; José Peirats, La CNT en la revolución españnola (Paris: Ruedo Ibérico, 1974), 1:93-104; Paul Preston, The Coming of the Spanish Civil War: Reform, Reaction, and Revolution in the Second Republic, 1931-36 (London: Macmillan, 1978), 127-132; Pamela Radcliff, "Community Politics: The Growth of Urban Radicalism in Gijón, 1900-1934" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1990), 649-670. As with other uprisings in Spain, it is hard to specify the number of those who participated or those who were wounded or died.

16. For assessments of the significance of Companys's declaration, see Fèlix Cucurull, Catalunya, republicana i autònoma (1931-1936) (Barcelona: Edicions de la Magrana/Institut Municipal d'Història, 1984), 234-250; Jackson, Spanish Republic and Civil War , 149-153; Edward E. Malefakis, Agrarian Reform and Peasant Revolution in Spain: Origins of the Civil War (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1970), 341-342; Hugh Thomas, The Spanish Civil War (New York: Harper/Colophon Books, 1961), 78-79; Ucelay Da Cal, Catalunya populista , 214-219.

17. Jackson, Spanish Republic and Civil War , 169-230; Preston, Coming of the Spanish Civil War , 169-172; Thomas, Spanish Civil War , 86-113.

18. A considerable amount of anecdotal information about Picasso's personal life can be found in the two books by Jaime Sabartés, Picasso. Documents iconographiques , trans. Felia Léal and Alfred Rosset (Geneva: Pierre Cailler, 1954), and Picasso: An Intimate Portrait . Sabartés's loyalty paid off in art. The secretary, always mindful of Barcelona, donated paintings from his personal collection to the city in 1968. The Picasso Museum, first officially known as the Sabartés Foundation, received the rest of Sabartés's collection at his death later that year; the collection has received additional donations from Picasso's family and collectors in Barcelona.

19. Cabanne, Pablo Picasso , 281; Rosa María Subiraná, "ADLAN and the Artists of the Republic," in Homage to Barcelona , 211-225.

20. Cabanne, Pablo Picasso , 282, 285.

21. Brenan, Spanish Labyrinth , 302, 309, 312; Stanley G. Payne, Falange: A History of Spanish Fascism (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1961), 116-119.

22. For the first year of the war, see Ucelay Da Cal, Catalunya populista , 289-323.

23. George Orwell, Homage to Catalonia (New York: Penguin Books, [1937] 1977), 8-9.

24. Joan Amades, Auques comentades (Tárrega: F. Camps Cálmet, 1950); Joan Amades, El pessebre (Barcelona: Les Belles Edicions, 1950), 57, 91; R. Violant Simorra, El arte popular español a través del Museo de Industrias i Artes Populares (Barcelona: Editorial Aymà, 1953), 129, 133.

25. Sabartés, Picasso. Documents iconographiques , no. 83.

26. Museu Picasso. Catàleg de pintura i dibuix , 657-658; Sabartés, Picasso: Documents iconographiques , no. 83.

27. Georges Bloch, Pablo Picasso: Catalogue of the Printed Graphic Work , 1904-1967 (Bern: Kornfeld & Klipstein, 1971), 45; Bernhard Geiser, Picasso. Peintre graveur (Bern, privately printed, 1933), no. 135.

28. The definitive study of Guernica and how the press was manipulated by the Nationalists can be found in Herbert Routledge Southworth, Guernica! Guernica! A Study of Journalism, Diplomacy, Propaganda, and History (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977). Additional material can be found in Chipp, Picasso's "Guernica," 38-43.

29. G.L. Steer, "From the Tree of Gernika," in And I Remember Spain , ed. Murray A. Sperber (New York: Macmillan, 1974), 271.

30. Chipp, Picasso's "Guernica," 40.

31. Penrose, Picasso , 266.

32. Josep María Brincall, Política económica de la Generalitat (1936-1939). Evolució i formes de la producció industrial (Barcelona: Edicions 62, 1970); Ronald Fraser, Blood of Spain: An Oral History of the Spanish Civil War (New York: Pantheon Books, 1979), 213-236; Frank Mintz, L'autogestion dans l'Espagne revolutionnaire (Paris: Editions Belibaste, 1970), 51-61, 78-91.

33. "International Committee for Application of the Agreement Regarding Non-Intervention in Spain. Resolution Relating to the Scheme of Observations of the Spanish Frontiers by Land and Sea, Adopted at London, March 8, 1937," American Journal of International Law (Concord, N.H.) 31 (1937), suppl., 163-179; Douglas Little, Malevolent Neutrality: The United States, Great Britain, and the Origins of the Spanish Civil War (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985).

34. Burnett Bolleten, The Grand Camouflage: The Communist Conspiracy in the Spanish Civil War (New York: Praeger, 1961), expanded as The Spanish Revolution: The Left and the Struggle for Power During the Spanish Civil War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1979); David Tredwell Cattell, Communism and the Spanish Civil War (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1955); David Tredwell Cattell, Soviet Diplomacy and the Spanish Civil War (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1957); Sam Dolgoff, The Anarchist Collectives: Workers' Self-Management in the Spanish Revolution, 1936-1939 (New York: Free Life, 1974); Morrow, Revolution and Counter-Revolution , 140-164; Bertram David Wolfe, The Civil War in Spain , with appendix by Andreas Nin (New York: Workers Age, 1937). A recent fictional account from an anti-Stalinist perspective can be found in Stephen Hunter, The Spanish Gambit (New York: Crown, 1985).

35. Manuel Azaña, Memorias políticas y de guerra , vol. 2 (Barcelona: Editorial Crítica, 1980), 23; Pierre Broue and Emile Temime, The Revolution and the Civil War in Spain , trans. Tony White (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1970), 282; Morrow, Revolution and Counter-Revolution , 142-159; Juan Augusto Marichal, La vocación de Manuel Azaña (Madrid: Alianza, 1982), 238-240, on the May Days; Peirats, La CNT 2:137-173.

36. "La Fiesta del Trabajo," Diluvio , May 1, 1931, 30.

37. Rudolf Arnheim, The Genesis of a Painting: Picasso's "Guernica" (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1980), 30-41; Blunt, Picasso's "Guernica," 29-31.

38. Arnheim, Genesis of a Painting , 42-45. See also Josep Palau i Fabre, El "Guernica" de Picasso (Barcelona: Editorial Blume, 1979); and Chipp, Picasso's "Guernica," for color prints of studies for Guernica .

39. For events leading up to the May Days and their aftermath, see Broue and Temime, Revolution and Civil War , 285; "Para ganar la guerra y hundir el fascismo," Día gráfico , May 6, 1937; Peirats, La CNT en la revolución española 2:137-173; and Josep María Solé i Sabaté and J. Villarroya i Font, La repressió a la reraguardia de Catalunya (1936-1939) (Barcelona: Publicaciones de l'Abadia de Montserrat, 1989), 1:204-206, 212-216.

40. Since Picasso was reading Ce soir and Figaro during the spring of 1937 (according to Chipp, Picasso's "Guernica," 40), he may have read in Figaro on May 6, 1937, that there had been extraordinary violence throughout the city, followed on May 9 with the information that all the barricades were down in Barcelona and the city was back to normal.

41. Blunt, Picasso's "Guernica," 33.

42. The May 9 sketch of the composition for Guernica was filled with clenched fists, which Chipp says Picasso rejected because they were emblematic Communist symbols. The Popular Front, though certainly dominated by Communists, commanded more widespread support. Not all of the people discussed here or those who voted for the Popular Front in France in 1935 or Spain in 1936 were Communists, but they did give the clenched fist as their salute. Even with this more ample view of what the fist stood for, there is reason, as Chipp claims, for Picasso to think that it was far too specific a symbol for his purposes. See Picasso's "Guernica," 96-98.

43. Arnheim, Genesis of a Painting , 80.

44. Blunt was the first to notice that the drawing of the bull Picasso did in May evoked images from an eleventh-century Romanesque manuscript of Saint Luke's bull; see Picasso's "Guernica," 54-55; also Chipp, Picasso's "Guernica," 87, 216.

45. Marcel Durliat, L'art catalan (Paris: Arthaud, n.d.), opp. 156; Zervos, Art de la Catalogue , pl. LXX.

46. See Zervos, Art de la Catalogne , pls. LXVI, for an apochryphal animal covered with eyes, and LXXIV, for the lamb with seven eyes.

47. Fernández Almagro, Catalanismo y la república española , 21.

48. Stephen Spender, "Guernica," in And I Remember Spain: A Spanish Civil War Anthology , ed. Murray A. Sperber (New York: Macmillan, 1974), 151-152.

1. Estimates of the numbers killed between 1939 and 1945 have varied widely. The most accurate figures appear in Josep M. Solé i Sabaté, La repressió franquista a Catalunya, 1938-1953 (Barcelona: Edicions 62, 1985), 530-536.

2. Quoted in Josep Benet, Cataluña bajo el regimen franquista (Barcelona: Editorial Blume, 1979), 243.

3. For the pall the threat of spying set over student life, see the recollection of Jacint Raventós, son of Picasso's friend Dr. Cinto Raventós, in José Yglesias, The Franco Years: The Untold Human Story of Life Under Spanish Fascism (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1977), 225-226.

4. Benet, Cataluña , 235-236.

5. Javier Villán and Felix Población, Culturas en lucha catalana (Madrid: Editorial Swan, 1980), 37.

6. Ibid., 38.

7. Jordi Borja de Riquer i Permanyer, "Rebuig, passivitat i suport: Actituds polítiques catalanes davant el primer Franquisme (1939-1950)," in Franquisme. Sobre Resistència i consens a Catalunya (1938-1959) , Centre de Treball i Documentació, Prologue by Ramon Garrabou, Joaquim Lleixà, and Octavi Pellissa (Barcelona: Editorial Crítica, 1990), 189.

8. Ibid., 192.

9. Nicolás Sartorius, El resurgir del movimiento obrero , Colección "Primero de Mayo," no. 2 (Barcelona: Editorial Laia, 1975).

10. Juan Pablo Fusi, "La reaparición de la conflictividad en la España de los sesenta," in España bajo el Franquismo , ed. Josep Fontana (Barcelona: Editorial Crítica, 1986), 167.

11. José-Francisco Ivars, "Arte," in La cultura bajo el Franquismo , ed. Carlos Castilla del Pino (Barcelona: Ediciones del Bolsillo, 1977), 208.

12. Quoted in Raymond Carr and Juan Pablo Fusi, Spain: Dictatorship to Democracy (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1979), 117.

13. Yglesias, Franco Years , 235-236.

14. Villán and Población, Culturas en lucha catalana , 59.

15. See especially Stuart Hall, "Notes on Deconstructing 'The Popular,'" in People's History and Socialist Theory , ed. Raphael Samuel (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1981), 227-240; and Raymond Williams's essays in Resources of Hope: Culture, Democracy, Socialism , ed. by Robin Gable (New York: Verso, 1989).