1. Frederick K. Goodwin and Kay Redfield Jamison, Manic-Depressive Illness (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 295. All citations from this massive (938 pages) and comprehensive book will be cited as MDI , with the name of the author of the passage and the page number.

1. Jamison ( MDI 347); Feinstein (334); Slavney and McHugh (31). Feinstein adds that Woolf's case history ''fulfills every criterion" for manic-depressive illness (339). Only Morizot has addressed manic-depressive illness squarely.

2. Q. Bell 1:44. On preoedipal attachment: Love ( Virginia Woolf 212-27); Kushen ( Virginia Woolf 2-4); Kenney and Kenney. On unconscious guilt: Lesser (50). On fiction as defense mechanism: DeSalvo ( Virginia Woolf's first Voyage 154-59); Spilka (6); Sherman. On "moments of being": Naremore (49-55).

3. Panken (4, 13, 68-71, 36).

4. Bond (23, 43, 38-39, 68).

5. DeSalvo ( Virginia Woolf xvi).

6. Poole (180, 130).

7. Wolf and Wolf (44); Panken (17); Kushen ( Virginia Woolf 165); Bond (152).

8. Spector; Segal ("Psycho-analytic Approach").

9. Crews (81).

10. Revisionists: Skura; S. Marcus; C. Bollas. Feminists: Abel; J. Marcus; Waugh.

11. Noble (63).

12. C. Bell (99).

13. Q. Bell (1: 171); L. Woolf ( Letters 169).

14. Jamison ( MDI 733).

15. Hyman ("Concealment" 128). Katherine Cecilia Hill makes a similar argument in her dissertation, focusing on Leslie's "unreasonable anger," excessive sensitivity, and melancholic mourning as evidence that he shared some of his daughter's manic-depression. I agree with Hill that Leslie's pronounced moodiness (cyclothymia) is related, both genetically and biochemically, to Virginia's psychotic illness, but, unlike his daughter, Leslie never broke down so severely that he became incapacitated. Cyclothymics do not lose self-control through failed reality testing (i.e., delusions and hallucinations), although they can alternate between excited "highs" and blue "lows." Symptoms are comparatively muted, and the periods of elation are short-lived. Cyclothymia is related genetically to manic-depressive illness (we find more incidence of it in the families of bipolar patients than we would in the general population), and sometimes it appears as a "premorbid" precursor of manic-depressive illness. It has not been determined positively whether cyclothymia is an independent entity or a mild form of manic-depressive illness (Keller), although current opinion favors the latter theory. I address Leslie's mood swings in more detail in the next chapter.

16. DSM-III-R (xxiv).

17. Goldstein (445).

18. Scull (19).

19. J. Marcus ("Virginia Woolf 35); Trombley (137).

20. Winokur (88); Wolpert (42). The following is only a partial list of somatic disturbances and drugs associated with depressive and manic states:

Studies by Pflug et al. have shown that mood swings are connected to higher mean bodily temperatures compared with normal states. In fact, the more severe the depression, the higher the temperature; moreover, in some patients, manic phases produced even higher oral temperatures than did depression. Perhaps this explains why Leonard kept such close track of Virginia's fevers, and why Woolf reassures herself that her "contraction" is not accompanied by a fever.

Wehr et al. consider it possible that breakdowns can be triggered or exacerbated by the physiological stresses associated with menstruation and menopause, as do Price and DiMarzio, and F. K. Goodwin ( MDI 458). Noting that Woolf's breakdowns may have coincided with the onset of menstruation—the first occurred when she was thirteen years old, after her mother's death—and menopause (she had several smaller breakdowns in her forties), Elaine Showalter speculates that Woolf's madness expressed her shame and anxiety over her femaleness ( Literature [268-69]). But the intense guilt and anxiety she exhibited are more likely the result of manic-depressive illness, not its cause, and the connection was probably hormonal.

21. Wehr et al. (61).

22. Pichot and Hassan.

23. Hollister (393).

24. Levy and Krueger; F. K. Goodwin ( MDI 533-34).

25. Panken (38-39, 36).

26. DeSalvo ( Virginia Woolf 111).

27. Trombley (115); J. Marcus ("Virginia Woolf" 33-35).

28. Bassuk (143); Skultans (14).

29. Love ( Virginia Woolf 161); Hyman ("Concealment" 126).

30. Spilka; Wolf and Wolf; Kenney and Kenney; Panken.

31. M. J. Clark (271-75).

32. Morizot (116).

33. Showalter ("Victorian Women" 321-23).

34. Bassuk (141); Trombley (150-51).

35. Showalter ("Victorian Women" 322-23).

36. Showalter ("Victorian Women" 330).

37. Scull (24).

38. Rapp (191).

39. Goldstein (447-50); Panken (5); DeSalvo ( Virginia Woolf 128-34); Trombley (175-82); Kushen ("Virginia Woolf" 37).

40. Panken (5); Kushen ("Virginia Woolf" 40).

41. Sprengnether; Collins et al.

42. Garrison.

43. F. K. Goodwin ( MDI 551).

44. F. K. Goodwin and Jamison ( MDI 635-36).

45. F. K. Goodwin ( MDI 554).

46. Wehr et al. (66-68); Georgotas and Cancro (312-31).

47. F. K. Goodwin and Jamison ( MDI 738).

48. Trombley (139-40).

49. On 1/10, 1/17, 1/24, 4/17, 5/15, 6/20, 7/19, and 7/22.

50. On 2/18, 2/22, 2/23, 2/24, 2/25, 2/26, 2/27, 2/28, 3/1, 3/5, 3/7, 3/9, 3/11, 3/13, 3/16, 3/17, 3/19.

51. DeSalvo ( Virginia Woolf 211).

52. Jamison ( MDI 223).

53. F. K. Goodwin and Jamison ( MDI 301, 83, 774).

54. Garnett (113).

55. Noble (158).

56. Noble (152).

57. Sparer and Parsons (73).

58. Jamison ( MDI 24, 39).

59. Witzel (386, 396, 397).

60. Rogat (112); Ozick (44).

61. Louise DeSalvo ( Virginia Woolf's First Voyage 154-59); Heine.

62. Spilka (18, 6, 8).

63. Cook.

64. J. Marcus ("Quentin's Bogey" 487-89); J. Marcus ("Tintinnabulations" 145).

65. Arieti and Bemporad (12-13); Braceland (872).

66. Arieti and Bemporad (14).

67. Goldberg (34, 37).

68. Cooper et al. (216).

69. Freud (21: 173-94).

70. Goldberg (47-49).

71. Stevens.

72. See especially Rice.

73. Gaylin (26-49, 108-53, 338-52, 154-81); Stern; Rado; Anthonisen.

74. Witzel (395).

75. Lesser (55).

76. Cade (350).

77. Fieve (211-12).

78. Fieve (11).

79. In 1987 the discovery of a second gene in an Amish family study was announced by Egeland et al., but the finding was later retracted when two more family members, who had not inherited that particular gene, subsequently developed manic-depression. Abundance is not necessarily a blessing in genetic studies. However, the Baron et al. finding of the first gene still stands.

80. Georgotas and Cancro (63-64, 410-38); Swann (36, 97); F. K. Goodwin and Roy-Byrne (82).

81. Davis and Maas (409); Jamison ( MDI 725-27).

82. Fieve (214).

83. Georgotas and Cancro (339); F. K. Goodwin and Jamison ( MDI 76).

84. Fieve (150); Jamison ("Psychotherapeuric Issues and Suicide Prevention" 121); Keller (22).

85. Jamison ("Psychotherapeutic Issues and Suicide Prevention" 109-10); Davis and Maas (409-18).

86. Jamison ( MDI 725).

87. Rush et al.; Ruehlman et al.; Beck and Greenberg.

1. Jamison ( MDI 336).

2. Bloom and Lazerson (330).

3. Fieve (17-18).

4. F. K. Goodwin ( MDI 135).

5. Angst.

6. F. K. Goodwin ( MDI 138).

7. F. K. Goodwin and Jamison ( MDI 82).

8. Secunda et al.

9. Feinstein.

10. Q. Bell (1: 165).

11. Jamison ( MDI 189).

12. Georgotas and Cancro (155).

13. Davis and Maas (197).

14. Georgotas and Cancro (39).

15. Dain.

16. Keller (21); F. K. Goodwin ( MDI 136-38).

17. Jamison ( MDI 295); Akiskal et al.

18. Jamison ( MDI 305).

19. DSM-III-R (214); Jamison ( MDI 31-34).

20. Keller (25); Q. Bell (1: 24).

21. Noble (20-21, 50).

22. Kenney (284).

23. Interview with Malcolm Muggeridge, broadcast 1966; BBC transcription housed in Monks House Papers Collection, University of Sussex library.

24. Georgotas and Cancro (58); Carlson and Goodwin.

25. Whybrow et al. (10).

26. DSM-III-R (215).

27. Q. Bell (1: 24); Noble (147, 47).

28. Gordon ( Virginia Woolf 180); Noble (171).

29. Gordon ( Virginia Woolf 180).

30. F. K. Goodwin and Jamison ( MDI 76-78).

31. Jamison ( MDI 251).

32. Jamison ( MDI 27).

33. Winokur et al. (65).

34. Jamison ( MDI 262-64).

35. Custance (31-32, 34).

36. Custance (35).

37. Oltmanns and Maher (167, ix, 20, 56).

38. Winokur et al. (65-68); Tyrer and Shopsin.

39. Whybrow et al. (7).

40. Fieve (51).

41. Winokur (14).

42. Jamison ( MDI 30, 48).

43. Q. Bell (1: 29).

44. Custance (13, 22).

45. Jamison ( MDI 26).

46. Packer.

47. A manic-depressive responding to my PMLA article in a personal letter (and wishing to remain anonymous) describes her manic fictions in similar terms:

I also loved what you had to say about the creativity of manic-depressive fictions. That is one of the strongest impressions I retain from my misadventures seven years ago. I don't know who put together my delusions, but whoever it was had been studying contrapuntal symbolism with Dante and the Joyce of Finnegan's Wake . Bits of things I'd read about in an LA Times headline, a dream I'd had when I was twelve, some footnote to a scholarly book, would all be woven together into a narrative that was completely convincing—not only to me, but frequently even to the other people I told my wild stories to. How could I make such things up? And of course, I didn't. At the high point and low point of my manic and depressive phases, the narrative would be revised so quickly and continuously that my memory felt as if it were watching a deck of cards being shuffled or one of those old trick books—where you flip the pages rapidly to produce the illusion of a moving picture—riffled through at top speed in my head. It was perfectly terrifying, because what is a self but a little organ of conscious perception and a vast memory bank? And when the memory bank goes bananas the little organ of conscious perception is simply left recording the breakdown. Your explanation helped explain something I had never understood—why I felt perfectly rational in one part of my mind even when I was perfectly psychotic somewhere else. When I came to read the various medical accounts of the illness—whether by [psycho] analysts or not—they seemed so crude and silly that I wanted to shake the authors and say "That is not it at all." This, I see, is where the alliance of neuropsychiatry and the humanities can be of some use.

48. Custance (38).

49. Custance (18).

50. Q. Bell (1: 89).

51. Panken (48-50).

52. Q. Bell (1: 148-49).

53. Spater and Parsons.

54. Noble (151).

55. Gordon ( Virginia Woolf 156 ).

56. Noble (16, 75, 51, 75).

57. Noble (128).

58. Noble (178).

59. Noble (109, 174, 113).

60. Jamison ( MDI 337).

61. Custance (151).

62. Styron (37-38).

63. Winokur et al. (86-88).

64. Cornell et al.; Jamison ( MDI 38).

65. Whybrow et al. (7).

66. See, for example, Nelson and Charney.

67. Jamison ( MDI 267).

68. Jamison ( MDI 40).

69. Q. Bell (1: 45).

70. Constipation: Georgotas and Cancro (71); Jamison ( MDI 39). Nail growth: Hershman and Lieb (29). "Vegetative" symptoms: Hamilton.

71. Styron (48).

72. DSM-III-R (219).

73. Wolpert (42).

74. Jamison ( MDI 36).

75. Custance (78-79).

76. Jamison ( MDI 39).

77. Georgotas and Cancro (55).

78. Marcia K. Johnson, "Discriminating the Origin of Information," in Oltmanns and Maher (57).

79. Joseph Westermayer, "Some Cross-Cultural Aspects of Delusions," in Oltmanns and Maher (212-29).

80. Beers (32-33).

81. Q. Bell (2: 15).

82. DeSalvo ( Virginia Woolf 254)

83. Styron (50).

84. Beers (14); Georgotas and Cancro (268-70); Jamison ( MDI 269).

85. Jamison ( MDI 270).

86. Whybrow et al. (9).

87. Custance (62).

88. Hamilton; Winokur (4-9).

89. Jamison ( MDI 227-28).

90. Winokur (71).

91. Jamison ("Psychotherapeutic Issues").

92. Jamison ( MDI 236).

93. Georgotas and Cancro (338); Jamison ( MDI 241-42).

94. Jamison ( MDI 39).

95. Bond (30, 36).

96. Bond (161).

97. Bond (19).

98. F. K. Goodwin ( MDI 136).

99. Wilberforce (178); Jamison ( MDI 213); Jamison ( MDI 765-77). But we must consider that Clive Bell insisted Virginia did not normally drink alcohol and had to be coaxed into drinking one or half a glass of wine (111). If his report is true, then she may have drunk only during breakdowns (when she was usually sequestered from her friends and so unobserved by Clive), or she may have developed a drinking habit fairly late in life. Since, as was said above, manic-depressive relapses often increase with age, Woolf may have felt driven to resort to this form of self-medication. Then age and alcohol would have combined to increase the likelihood of a severe breakdown.

100. Winokur (9).

101. John Milton, Paradise Lost , ed. Scott Elledge (New York: W. W. Norton, 1975), 1: 254-55.

102. Blaney.

103. Kinsbourne (117).

104. Jamison ( MDI 272).

105. Beers (17, 25).

106. Hamilton (5).

107. Winokur (8-9); Goodwin and Guze (15).

108. Georgotas and Cancro (68).

109. Gaylin (390-91).

110. Hamilton.

111. Gaylin (166).

112. Q. Bell (1: 162).

113. Winokur (33-34).

114. Dooley.

115. Milden.

116. Davenport et al.

117. Georgotas and Cancro (159).

118. Kraus; Jamison and Goodwin; Georgotas and Cancro (71).

119. M. J. Clark (299).

120. One patient, from K. R. Jamison's clinical files, reported asking the same questions from personal experience—and, coincidentally, anticipated my use of Woolf:

Madness carves its own reality. It goes on and on and finally there are only others' recollections of your behavior—your bizarre, frenetic, aimless behaviors—for mania has at least some grace in partially obliterating memories. . . . Then, too, are the annoyances. . . . Credit cards revoked, bounced checks to cover, explanations due at work, apologies to make, intermittent memories of vague men (what did I do?), friendships gone or drained, a ruined marriage. And always, when will it happen again? Which of my feelings are real? Which of the me's is me? The wild, impulsive, chaotic, energetic, and crazy one? Or the shy, withdrawn, desperate, suicidal, doomed, and tired one? Probably a bit of both, hopefully much that is neither. Virginia Woolf, in her dives and climbs, said it all: "How far do our feelings take their colour from the dive underground? I mean, what is the reality of any feeling?" ( MDI 18)

121. Jamison ( MDI 732).

1. Holland.

2. Alcorn and Bracher (342, 349 [quoting Georges Poulet]).

3. Alcom and Bracher (342).

4. Horner.

5. Jamison ( MDI 332-49).

6. Jamison ("Mood Disorders").

7. Andreasen (1292).

8. Jamison ("Mood Disorders").

9. Jamison ( MDI 22).

10. Hershman and Lieb (16); Kinsbourne (124); Alcom and Bracher.

11. Jamison ( MDI 338).

12. Guilford.

13. Summary of Wadeson and Bunney by Jamison ( MDI 286).

14. Jamison ( MDI 367).

15. Jamison ( MDI 337-38).

16. Jamison ( MDI 364).

17. Jamison ( MDI 366).

18. Andreasen and Glick (215).

19. Edelson (250).

20. Felman (120).

21. Roustang.

22. C. Bollas (67).

23. C. Bollas (203).

24. C. Bollas (204).

25. C. Bollas (204).

26. C. Bollas (204-6).

27. C. Bollas (2).

28. Marotti (473).

29. Manganyi (36). Ironically, Freud himself offered similar warnings to novelist Arnold Zweig in 1936 when Zweig asked Freud for permission to write a biography of him. Freud turned down the request, arguing, "Whoever undertakes to write a biography binds himself to lying, to concealment, to hypocrisy, to flummery and even to hiding his own lack of understanding, since biographical material is not to be had and if it were it could not be used. Truth is not accessible" (E. Jones [208]).

30. Spilka (16).

31. Kenney and Kenney (170).

32. Kenney and Kenney (174).

33. DeSalvo ( First Voyage 158-59); Panken (263).

34. Jamison ( MDI 733).

35. Jamison ("Psychotherapeutic Issues").

36. Jamison ( MDI 733).

37. Jamison ("Psychotherapeutic Issues").

38. Jamison ("Psychotherapeutic Issues").

39. Cooper et al. (211-12).

40. Lesser (59), seconded in Panken (72).

41. Goodwin and Guze (16).

42. Panken (72).

43. Keitel (5).

44. Keitel (29, 34).

45. Keitel (48).

46. Hunter.

47. Felman (187).

48. Felman (234).

49. Felman (64).

50. Panken (2).

51. Richter (5).

52. Mepham (139).

53. Goldberg (131-33).

1. Gershon ( MDI 377-98).

2. Georgotas and Cancro (200-202).

3. Keller (24).

4. Whybrow et al. (46).

5. Baron et al.

6. Hodgkinson et al.; Georgotas and Cancro (41).

7. Goodwin ( MDI 142).

8. Nurnberger et al.; Paykel (146-61); Goodwin and Guze (16).

9. Bond (75).

10. Panken (5).

11. Keller.

12. Unpublished letters by Leslie Stephen, Nov. 9, 1890, March 5, 1891; Harrison (157).

13. Harrison (243).

14. The quotations here and below concerning James's symptoms are taken from J. K. Stephen's medical records, which were made available by Dr. I. H. Henderson, medical director of St. Andrew's Hospital.

15. Jamison ( MDI 310-11).

16. F. K. Goodwin and Jamison ( MDI 39).

17. Derby

18. H. Stephen (ix); Harrison (241-42).

19. Clark and Davison.

20. Goodwin ( MDI 93-97); Georgotas and Cancro (88); Jamison ( MDI 53); Keller (13-14); DSM-III-R (227); F. K. Goodwin and Jamison ( MDI 74, 192); Georgotas and Cancro (88).

21. Maitland (23).

22. Love ( Virginia Woolf 89).

23. Annan (15).

24. Maitland (23-24).

25. Maitland (25-26).

26. Annan (63).

27. Love ( Virginia Woolf 150).

28. Annan (63-64).

29. L. Stephen ( Mausoleum Book 57).

30. Love ( Virginia Woolf 76, 90, 123).

31. Annan (50); Love ( Virginia Woolf 113).

32. Annan (51).

33. Love ( Virginia Woolf 144-48).

34. Love ( Virginia Woolf 19).

35. Gordon ( Virginia Woolf 26).

36. L. Stephen ( Mausoleum Book 89-90).

37. Q. Bell (1: 5).

38. Annan (14).

39. C. Stephen (61-62).

40. C. Stephen (165).

41. C. Stephen (79-81, 105, 131, 128).

42. Maitland (10).

43. C. Stephen (125-27).

44. Davis and Maas (165-81); Jamison ( MDI 38, 186).

45. L. Stephen ( Mausoleum Book 44, 91); Annan (122).

46. Q. Bell (1: 35).

47. L. Stephen ( Mausoleum Book 92).

48. Love ( Virginia Woolf 161-62).

49. Jamison ( MDI 186); Keller (25).

50. Thackeray (1: 463); Monsarrat (113).

51. Monsarrat (126).

52. Thackeray (2: 3, 23, 41; 1: 467-68, 462, 482; 2: 3; 1: 462; 2: 23; 1: 480).

53. Ray (253); Monsarrat (118).

54. Thackeray (1: 474).

55. Thackeray (2: 23).

56. Monsarrat (124, 426).

57. Goodwin ( MDI 143).

58. L. Stephen ( Mausoleum Book 103).

59. DeSalvo ( Virginia Woolf 26).

60. Trombley (116).

61. Schopler and Reichler.

62. Hyman ( To the Lighthouse 46).

63. Garnett (32).

64. Holliday.

65. Gershon (446); Georgotas and Cancro (204).

66. Morizot (77).

67. Goodwin ( MDI 397).

1. Keller (22).

2. Paykel (154).

3. Haynal (24).

4. L. Stephen ( Mausoleum Book 35-37).

5. Gillespie and Steele (245).

6. Love ( Virginia Woolf 65).

7. Love ( Virginia Woolf 83); L. Stephen ( Mausoleum Book 51).

8. L. Stephen ( Mausoleum Book 52).

9. Q. Bell (1: 39).

10. Love ( Virginia Woolf 136).

11. L. Stephen ( Mausoleum Book 82-83).

12. Mrs. L. Stephen ( Notes from Sick Rooms 3, 4-5).

13. L. Stephen ( Mausoleum Book 40).

14. L. Stephen ( Mausoleum Book 40).

15. Love ( Virginia Woolf 101).

16. L. Stephen ( Mausoleum Book 41).

17. L. Stephen ( Mausoleum Book 47).

18. Jamison ( MDI 309).

19. L. Stephen ( Mausoleum Book 56-57).

20. Love ( Virginia Woolf 83).

21. Maitland (287-88).

22. L. Stephen ( Social Rights and Duties 2: 254-56).

23. Atwood (195).

24. Garnett (23).

25. Garnett (113-14).

26. Love ( Virginia Woolf 88, 29-30).

27. L. Stephen ( Mausoleum Book 47).

28. Love ( Virginia Woolf 134, 87).

29. L. Stephen ( Mausoleum Book 40).

30. Houghton Library.

31. Goodwin ( MDI 398).

32. Love ( Virginia Woolf 98-100).

33. Noel Annan in L. Stephen ( Mausoleum Book xix).

34. Love ( Virginia Woolf 128-29, 111).

35. J. Marcus (''Woolf and Her Violin" 29).

36. Love ( Virginia Woolf 139).

37. Nancy Topping Bazin makes a similar point, arguing that Woolf associated her experiences during mania with her mother and the "feminine" side of her psyche, those of depression with her father and the "masculine" side, and that her quest for androgyny was also a quest for "equilibrium" between mania and depression. I contend that, although Woolf clearly associated a manic, oceanic bliss with childhood and the experience of mothering, she also used her mother as a model for depression, just as her father could, at various times, represent for her manic defensiveness or irritated depression. "Equilibrium," rebuilding an identifiable self-structure, is not accomplished simply by combining or reconciling masculine and feminine characteristics.

38. Pichot and Hassan; Kraus (204).

39. Custance (95, 102).

40. Paul (18-19).

41. L. Stephen ( Mausoleum Book 12-15).

42. Boyd (81).

43. H. Sitchie (215).

44. Annan (61-65); Q. Bell (1: 11).

45. Gerin (254).

46. Boyd (78); Gerin (254).

47. Goodwin ( MDI 453-54).

48. Gerin (219).

49. L. Stephen ( Mausoleum Book 23-24).

50. Q. Bell (1: 19).

51. Love ( Virginia Woolf 109).

52. Chodorow (58-59).

53. Pine (147, 155, 160, 164).

54. Kushen ( Virginia Woolf 13).

55. Love ( Virginia Woolf 309).

56. Q. Bell (1: 40-41).

57. Love ( Virginia Woolf 181).

58. Trombley (109).

59. J. Marcus ("Woolf and Her Violin" 30).

1. Klein settled in London the next year, 1926, and dominated the English school of psychoanalysis until well after the Second World War. She published several books through the Woolfs' Hogarth Press: The Psycho-Analysis of Children (1932), Love, Hate and Reparation (1937), Contributions to Psycho-Analysis, 1921-45 (1948), Developments in Psycho-Analysis (1952), and Narrative of a Child Analysis (1961). Although Virginia Woolf did not meet Klein until 1939, she was surrounded by people who enthusiastically adopted and propagated Klein's theories (Abel 13-14).

2. Feinstein (340). For Feinstein, Woolf's breakdown at age thirteen after the death of her mother was only the culmination of a mood-disorder instability that had been developing throughout childhood (336-37). It is reasonable to speculate that an inherited neurochemical disorder is present in some form from birth, even if it cannot be fully expressed until years later. One study reported that 39 percent of the children they studied who exhibited mood swings and polydrug abuse later developed bipolar disorder (Georgotas and Cancro 45).

3. Segal ( Introduction to Klein 68-69).

4. Gaylin (113).

5. Segal ( Introduction to Klein 69-70).

6. Chodorow (78).

7. Segal ( Introduction to Klein 75, 92, 82-84).

8. Dahl.

9. Hyman ("Autobiographical Present" 24).

10. Hyman ("Autobiographical Present" 24-25).

11. Hyman ("Autobiographical Present" 27-28).

12. Love ( Virginia Woolf 181).

13. Hyman ("Autobiographical Present" 28).

14. Bond (43).

15. Custance (79).

16. Love ( Virginia Woolf 208).

17. Q. Bell (2: 6).

18. Skura (17).

19. R. Jones (124).

20. C. Bollas (69).

21. McCaffrey (9, 121-23).

22. DeSalvo ( Virginia Woolf 105)

23. C. Bollas (60-62).

24. C. Bollas (31-32).

25. C. Bollas (32).

26. C. Bollas (33, 39).

27. Marotti (479).

28. Gaylin (151 [Fenichel], 344-45 [Jacobson]).

29. Horner.

30. Albright (10, 12, 13-14).

1. Woolf and Strachey ( Virginia Woolf 56).

2. Daiches (14-16).

3. Brown (71).

4. Neurosis: DeSalvo ( Varginia Woolf ). Plotting: Rosenthal (49); Naremore (8).

5. Q. Bell (1: 42).

6. Love ( Virginia Woolf 193).

7. Autobiographical fragment, in Gordon ( Virginia Woolf 50).

8. Guiguet (197).

9. Lyon (112).

10. McDowell (88-91).

11. Q. Bell (2: 8).

12. Love ( Virginia Woolf 16).

13. Naremore.

14. Atwood.

15. Schlack ( Continuing Presences 10-11).

16. Annan (125).

17. Hobson

18. Segal ( Introduction to Klein 83-84).

19. Gordon ("Silent Life" 82); Dick (178).

20. Love ( Worlds 94).

21. Schlack ( Continuing Presences 16).

22. Leaska (18).

23. Jamison ("Psychotherapeutic Issues" 111).

24. Schlack ( Continuing Presences 23 ).

25. Although unreliable as diagnostic tools, Rorschach tests do suggest that color reactivity is associated with the impulsive emotional discharges of bipolar illness and that manics attend selectively to the objective or formalistic characteristics of ink blots by associating colors, forms, and shadings in energetic and sometimes highly imaginative ways (Donnelly et al.). Sense of hearing can also be affected: acutely depressed patients suffer a six-decibel deficit in auditory sensitivity (Georgotas and Cancro 266).

26. Scherer.

27. John Rush notes that memory difficulties are common in severe depression, which interferes with recall not only of past experiences and interpretations but even of words and facts, thus complicating word-based psychotherapies. Since psychotherapists cannot assume that memory for events within the analytical session or for recent or past events is either complete or accurate. Rush advises, they should begin sessions with a review of events in previous sessions, correcting recall with audio recordings.

28. Wheare (81); Guiguet (203); Kelley (31-32); Bazin (57).

29. McDowell (84); Ruotolo (46).

30. Moody (12); Hafley (17); Pitt (146).

31. Lyon (114).

32. S. Bollas; Hyman ( To the Lighthouse ); DeSalvo ( First Voyage ); Neuman; Panken (85).

33. Leaska (38); Apter (16-17); Schlack ( Continuing Presences 20).

34. Lee (51); Ruotolo (43); M. Bell (671); Guiguet (198).

35. Fleishman (21).

36. Leaska (33-37).

37. L. Stephen (March 4, 1870, Houghton Library).

38. Panken (79).

1. Little.

2. Blain (131).

3. Ruotolo (73).

4. L. Stephen ( Mausoleum Book 40).

5. Alexander (79).

6. Morgenstern.

7. Leaska (62; my italics).

8. Bennett (95-96; my italics).

9. Rosenthal (83-84).

10. Hafley (52-53).

11. Ehrenzweig (3).

12. Leaska (35).

13. Ehrenzweig (4-5).

14. Ehrenzweig (19).

15. Ehrenzweig (32).

16. Ehrenzweig (39).

17. Custance (56-57).

18. Ehrenzweig (102-3).

19. Keitel (109-10).

20. Goodwin ( MDI 508-11).

21. Kinsbourne (103-6, 145).

22. Hoppe (229).

23. Tucker in Kinsbourne (110).

24. Goodwin ( MDI 509).

25. Jamison ( MDI 173).

26. Jamison ( MDI 278).

27. Jamison ( MDI 509).

28. Goodwin ( MDI 523).

29. Flor-Henry (694).

30. C. Bollas.

31. Springer and Deutsch (266-67).

32. Oakley and Eames, in Oakley.

33. Alcorn and Bracher.

1. Harper ("Mrs. Woolf" 227).

2. Hafley (52).

3. Custance (29).

4. F. K. Goodwin and Jamison ( MDI 3).

5. Anonymous letter from a patient to the author.

6. Ferguson (250).

7. Ferguson (245).

8. Harper ( Between Language 133-34).

9. Haring-Smith (145).

10. Naremore (80-82).

11. C. Bollas (42).

12. As Quentin Bell reports, one of Woolf's hypomanic "conversational excesses" was to "invent" highly imaginative characters for friends and strangers alike that ignored their actual personality:

It was never easy to know what to do with the image of oneself that Virginia could fabricate. . . . The image that she created was fanciful, but the victim—the slender basis upon which she built—could have dismissed such fancies easily enough had they not been advanced with such overwhelming force; and that force arose, not from a desire to misrepresent, but from conviction. (1: 147)

13. Harper ( Between Language 124); Leaska (96); Poresky (115).

14. Kelley (95); Rosenthal (97); Apter (62); Spilka (66).

15. Squier (280).

16. Winnicott (111-18).

17. Schlack ("Freudian Look" 50); Leaska (98); Poresky (113); S. Bollas (156).

18. Harper ( Between Language 123).

19. McLaurin. On July 3, 1924, as she was writing Mrs. Dalloway , Woolf used cutting in this nonsexual way:

Solid Lord Berners, who might have [been] cleft from an oak knot, had to tell stories, could not endure silence, & much preferred laughter to thought: amiable characteristics, Clive says. To me, after a time, laborious & depressing. Good prim priggish bright eyed Peter [F. L. Lucas] is a cut above that. I met him at Clive's, & he sliced English literature up very prettily, with a pocket knife. ( Diary 2: 305)

20. Alcorn and Bracher.

21. Oltmanns and Maher (15-33).

22. Oltmanns and Maher (54, 78).

23. Oltmanns and Maher (179).

24. Henke; Leaska (108); Bazin; Schlack ("Freudian Look" 52-53).

25. Custance (72).

26. Beers (22-25).

27. Jamison ( MDI 262-64).

28. Custance (45-46).

29. Custance (67).

30. Oltmanns and Maher (15-33, 52, 96).

31. Oltmanns and Maher (48).

32. C. Stephen (61-62).

33. Styron (64-65)

34. Harrow in Oltmanns and Maher (184-211).

35. Harper ("Mrs. Woolf" 229).

36. Oltmanns and Maher (46).

37. Page; Kreutz.

38. Schlack ("Freudian Look"); Jensen.

39. S. Bollas (143).

40. Creativity: Alexander (92, 103). Sensitivity: Apter (57). Dignity: Ames (364). Self-confidence: Poresky (102).

41. Beck and Greenberg.

42. Yost et al (66-79); Georgotas and Cancro (517-37).

43. Panken (125); Spilka (65-67); Harper ( Language 131); Schlack ("Freudian Look" 51).

44. Spilka (65); Rosenthal (97); Kelley (102-3); Leaska (112-14); S. Bollas (151, 156); Schlack ("Freudian Look" 49-51).

45. J. Marcus ( Virginia Woolf 8; my italics).

46. Harper ("Mrs. Woolf" 230).

47. Leaska (92n).

48. Ruotolo (112).

49. Lyon (119).

50. Woolf described her "screen making" in response to two hikers she and Leonard saw on a bicycle trip to Ripe:

Two resolute, sunburnt, dusty girls, in jerseys & short skirts, with packs on their backs, city clerks, or secretaries, tramping along the road in the hot sunshine at Ripe. My instinct at once throws up a screen, which condemns them: I think them in every way angular, awkward & self-assertive. But all this is a great mistake. These screens shut me out. Have no screens, for screens are made out of our own integument; & get at the thing itself, which has nothing whatever in common with a screen. The screen making habit, though, is so universal, that probably it preserves our sanity. If we had not this device for shutting people off from our sympathies, we might, perhaps, dissolve utterly. Separateness would be impossible. But the screens are in the excess; not the sympathy. ( Diary 3: 104)

51. Ruotolo (101), paraphrasing Woolf's A Room of One's Own .

1. Chodorow (59-70).

2. Rose.

3. Blotner (547); Hafley (80); Moody (42); Love ( Worlds 162).

4. Chodorow (81).

5. Chodorow (71).

6. Chodorow (86-87).

7. Chodorow (82).

8. E. Wolf and I. Wolf (39); Pederson; Proudfit.

9. Lilienfeld (12).

10. Pratt (428).

11. Apter (91).

12. Winnicott (2).

13. Squier (275).

14. Corsa (116).

15. Lidoff (46).

16. L. Stephen ( Mausoleum Book 83).

17. Rose (211).

18. Winnicott (88-93).

19. Mayo et al. ( MDI 313).

20. L. Stephen ( Mausoleum Book 90).

21. Chodorow (62; italics in original).

22. Milner (133).

23. Rose (202).

24. Lilienfeld (21).

25. Milner (89).

26. Apter (76).

27. Milner (142).

28. Milner (119).

29. Jamison ( MDI 314).

30. Consequently, I disagree with Ellen Bayuk Rosenman's conclusion that in Virginia's mind Julia remained an "idealized figure as if no other understanding other had intervened since childhood" (8). Woolf did doubt the "absolute, infantile desires" of preoedipal bliss. Rosenman employs Chodorow's argument on how the child's early subject-object relations establish gender identification, but traces Woolf's art as an attempt to recapture her mother from death. Since ''the 'centre' of the unifying maternal presence becomes a 'centre of complete emptiness' with her death" (16), art is both a substitute gratification and a failure because it can never attain its object. I think Woolf was not only aware of all this but thought beyond these terms. The unattainable object is intrasubjective completion, an immobilization of self Woolf neither desired nor thought desirable.

1. Beck and Greenberg.

2. Gordon ( Virginia Woolf 233).

3. Naremore (158).

4. Richter (129; italics in original).

5. Kelley (149).

6. Harper ( Between Language 221-22).

7. Jamison ( MDI 292).

8. Custance (37).

9. Custance (49).

10. Custance (49-50).

11. Harper ( Between Language 246).

12. Whybrow et al. (9).

13. Richardson (699); Gordon ( Virginia Woolf 222).

14. Webb.

15. Harper ( Between Language 246).

16. Oakley (233).

17. Hilgard (233, 185).

18. Holland.

19. C. Bollas (204).

20. Oltmanns and Maher (82).

21. Oltmanns and Maher (78-81).

22. Hilgard (195).

23. Oakley (247).

24. Hilgard (25).

1. Gazzaniga (4, 74, 124).

2. Gazzaniga (117).

3. Sacks (77-78).

4. Sacks (15).

5. Sacks (55-57; italics in original).

6. Gazzaniga and LeDoux; Marks.

7. Edelson (122-56).

8. Rescher.

9. Grunbaum.

10. Eagle.

11. Smalley et al.

12. Volkmar and Cohen; Courchesne.

13. Churchland.

14. Wing (31).

1. Virginia Woolf, The Diary of Virginia Woolf , ed. Anne Olivier Bell and Andrew McNeillie, 5 vols. (New York: Harcourt, 1976–84), vol. 2, 304.

2. Edward Thomas, "Old Man," in The Collected Poems of Edward Thomas , ed. and introduction by R. George Thomas (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978), 19–20.

3. Virginia Woolf, The Letters of Virginia Woolf , ed. Nigel Nicholson and Joanne Trautmann, 6 vols. (New York: Harcourt, 1975–80), vol. 4, 180.

4. From Baudelaire's Journals , quoted in W. H. Auden, The Enchafed Flood (London: Faber and Faber, 1951), 45.

5. Virginia Woolf, Moments of Being: Unpublished Autobiographical Writings . 2d. ed. Jeanne Schulkind (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1948), 81.

6. John Ruskin, Modern Painters , ed. and abridged by David Barrie (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1987), vol. 2, part 3, 256.

7. Virginia Woolf, "The Moment" and Other Essays (New York: Harcourt, 1948), 14.