1. For typical examples of the formalist approach to autobiography, see Fleishman, Hart, Lejeune (in his early books and essays), May, Pascal, and Spengemann.

2. For some idea of the volume and the variousness of the production of autobiographical texts in France alone, see the biennial bibliographies edited by Lejeune.

3. Germaine Brée spotted this discrepancy between theory and practice ten years ago. She discerned in Roland Barthes, André Malraux, and Michel Leiris, all three would-be practitioners of a new mode of "anti-autobiography," a counter-current or resistance linking them to a line of traditional autobiographers of the self stretching back to Montaigne. break

4. The situation is politicized, moreover, by the implication of these theories of personality in thinking about social order in the West. To read Lang on Olney and Spengemann, or Ryan on Lejeune ("Self-evidence"), or Olney on French poststructuralism ("Autobiography" 22-23), is to recognize the extent to which there is a veritable politics of identity informing the study of autobiography today.

5. See Gusdorf and Weintraub for further commentary on the cultural conditions favoring the rise of autobiography.

6. In recent years a remarkable number of autobiographies by Indians have appeared--by N. Scott Momaday, Leslie Marmon Silko, Gerald Vizenor, and others. Brian Swann and Krupat himself have promoted the development of this new phase of autobiographical writing by Native Americans in their collection I Tell You Now .

7. For insight into the relativity of cultural models of identity, see Olney ( Tell Me Africa ), M. Brewster Smith, Gusdorf, and Weintraub.

8. Krupat's new book, A Voice in the Margin: Native American Literature and the Canon , is forthcoming from the University of California Press.

9. The play of cultural politics uncovered in Krupat's investigation of Native American autobiography is strikingly confirmed by William L. Andrews's account of the constraints imposed on slave narratives by white northern editors and sponsors. In her reconstruction of Saint Teresa of Avila's struggle with her male confessors for the right to tell the story of her religious experiences in her own way, Kathleen Myers demonstrates that gender must be included alongside factors of class and race in our understanding of the influence of a dominant culture on any act of autobiographical self-expression. Collaborative autobiography, facilitated by the technology of the cassette recorder, is, of course, widely practiced today by journalists, oral historians, and ethnographers, and Daphne Patai's interviews with contemporary Brazilian women have prompted her to recognize the inevitable implication of even the most apparently disinterested and well-intentioned scholar in the exercise of power that characteristically structures bicultural autobiographical collaborations. The most comprehensive articulation of the theory and practice of collaborative autobiography today is Philippe Lejeune's study "L'autobiographie de ceux qui n'écrivent pas" ( Je 229-316). break

1. Dell Hymes, "Reading Clackamas Texts," in Traditional American Indian Literatures: Texts and Interpretations , ed. Karl Kroeber (Lincoln, Nebr., 1981), p. 117.

2. See Dennis Tedlock, ed. and trans., Finding the Center: Narrative Poetry of the Zuni Indians (New York, 1972; rpt. Lincoln, Nebr., 1978); and Tedlock, "Toward an Oral Poetics," New Literary History 8 (Spring 1977):507-519.

3. Walter J. Ong, S.J., Interfaces of the Word (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977), p. 9.

4. Gayatri Chakravorti Spivak, "Revolutions That As Yet Have No Model: Derrida's Limited Inc," Diacritics 10 (Winter 1980):36.

5. Dennis Tedlock, "On the Translation of Style in Oral Narrative," Journal of American Folklore 84 (Jan.-Mar. 1971):118.

6. Ibid., p. 114.

5. Dennis Tedlock, "On the Translation of Style in Oral Narrative," Journal of American Folklore 84 (Jan.-Mar. 1971):118.

6. Ibid., p. 114.

7. Mary Austin, The American Rhythm: Studies and Reëxpressions of Amerindian Songs (Boston, 1923; rpt. New York, 1980).

8. See William Brandon, ed., The Magic World: American Indian Songs and Poems (New York, 1971); Jerome Rothenberg, ed., Technicians of the Sacred: A Range of Poetries from Africa, America, Asia & Oceania (Garden City, N.Y., 1968); and Rothenberg, ed., Shaking the Pumpkin: Traditional Poetry of the Indian North Americas (Garden City, N.Y., 1972). Rothenberg and Tedlock edit Alcheringa , a journal of ethnopoetics. Although received favorably at first, Rothenberg's practice has increasingly been criticized, most tellingly by William Bevis ("American Indian Verse Translations," College English 35 [Mar. 1974]:693-703), and most recently by William M. Clements ("Faking the Pumpkin: On continue

Jerome Rothenberg's Literary Offenses," Western American Literature 16 [Nov. 1981]:193-204).

9. Richard Ohmann, "The Shaping of a Canon: U.S. Fiction, 1960-1975," Critical Inquiry 10 (September, 1983):199-223, quotation from p. 204.

10. Jack Goody, The Domestication of the Savage Mind (Cambridge, 1977), p. 158.

11. Fredric Jameson, "Marxism and Historicism," New Literary History 11 (Autumn 1979):70.

12. Michel Foucault, "What Is an Author?" Language, Counter-Memory, Practice: Selected Essays and Interviews , ed. Donald F. Bouchard (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977), p. 124.

13. Ibid., p. 123.

12. Michel Foucault, "What Is an Author?" Language, Counter-Memory, Practice: Selected Essays and Interviews , ed. Donald F. Bouchard (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977), p. 124.

13. Ibid., p. 123.

14. John Bierhorst, introduction to In the Trail of the Wind: American Indian Poems and Ritual Orations , ed. Bierhorst (New York, 1971), pp. 4-5.

15. Dennis Tedlock, "The Spoken Word and the Work of Interpretation in American Indian Religion," in Traditional American Indian Literatures , ed. Karl Kroeber, pp. 47-48.

16. One reason why Indian oratory was initially easier for Euramericans to preserve was that the particular speech seemed to be the discourse of a single prominent individual. Meanwhile, the notion of the great power of the individual Indian orator coexisted all through the nineteenth century with the exasperated recognition of the traditional and formulaic nature, the inevitably social and conventional nature, of any rhetorical act. Thus many of the old Indian fighters recorded their exasperation that one or another "chief" could not come to what they felt was the point without recapitulating the history of his people or invoking the earth as our common mother.

17. Dell Hymes, "Some North Pacific Coast Poems: A Problem in Anthropological Philology," American Anthropologist 67 (1965):336. This essay is reprinted with some changes and additions in Hymes's In Vain I Tried to Tell You: Essays in Native American Ethnopoetics (Philadelphia, 1981).

18. Frank Kermode, The Genesis of Secrecy: On the Interpretation of Narrative (Cambridge, Mass., 1979), p. 99; see also pp. 125-126. break

19. Dell Hymes, "Discovering Oral Performance and Measured Verse in American Indian Narrative," New Literary History 8 (Spring 1977):443. See also Hymes's comments on the Indian "author" in his "Breakthrough into Performance,'' in Folklore: Performance and Communication , eds. Dan Ben-Amos and Kenneth S. Goldstein (The Hague, 1975), pp. 11-74.

20. Edward Said, "Reflections on Recent American 'Left' Literary Criticism," Boundary 2 8 (Fall 1979):26.

21. Raymond Williams, "Base and Superstructure in Marxist Cultural Theory," in Problems in Materialism and Culture (London, 1980), p. 48; all further references to this work will be included in the text.

22. On this, see Tedlock's comments in his introduction to Finding the Center , pp. xxv-xxvi, as well as in his "The Spoken Word and the Work of Interpretation," in Traditional American Indian Literatures , ed. Karl Kroeber, pp. 48-57.

23. Paul de Man, "The Epistemology of Metaphor," Critical Inquiry 5 (Autumn 1978):30.

24. See Lewis Henry Morgan, Ancient Society; or, Researches in the Lines of Human Progress from Savagery, through Barbarism to Civilization (1877; New York, 1963).

25. Margot Liberty, "Francis La Flesche: The Osage Odyssey," in American Indian Intellectuals , ed. Liberty, Proceedings of the American Ethnological Society, 1976 (Saint Paul, Minn., 1978), p. 52.

26. Raymond Williams, Marxism and Literature (London, 1977), p. 46.

27. This account is indebted to Marvin Harris's development of "cultural materialism" in The Rise of Anthropological Theory (New York, 1979), and in Cultural Materialism: The Struggle for a Science of Culture (New York, 1979) which, with Raymond Williams's "cultural materialism" (as developed particularly in Marxism and Literature ), has been of great use to me. Neither Harris nor Williams has anything to say about Native American literature nor, to my knowledge, has either commented in print on the other's use of the term "cultural materialism." Addendum: Since the above was written, I have read Terry Eagleton's Literary Theory: An Introduction (Minneapolis, 1983), and it occurs to me, as a result, that my call for "science" and "law" may sound either continue

naive or bloodless or both, leaving only implicit, as it does, what should not only have been explicit but forceful: it is not the theory or law as an end in itself that interests me but its "nontrivial effectivity"--the determination of which involves questions of morality, ideology or, in Eagleton's broad and accurate use of the term, politics. Although I retain the conventional construction, "literary criticism," what I mean by it, as the specific analyses which follow should demonstrate, is consistent with Eagleton's "discourse analysis," or "rhetoric."

28. Fredric Jameson, The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act (Ithaca, N.Y., 1981), p. 107; hereafter cited in text as TPU .

29. Leslie Fiedler, "Literature as an Institution: the View from 1980," in Leslie Fiedler and Houston Baker, Jr., eds., English Literature: Opening Up the Canon: Selected Papers from the English Institute , 1979 (Baltimore, 1981), p. 73.

30. Roland Barthes, "Reflexions sur un Manuel," in Serge Doubrovski and Tzvetan Todorov, eds., L'Enseignement de la Littérature (Paris, 1971), p. 170, my translation.

31. Raymond Williams, Marxism and Literature , p. 116.

32. Antonio Gramsci, quoted by Evan Watkins in "Conflict and Consensus in the History of Recent Criticism," New Literary History 12 (Winter 1981):359.

33. Fredric Jameson, "Marxism and Historicism," p. 57.

1. James M. Cox, "Autobiography and America," in Aspects of Narrative: Selected Papers from the English Institute , ed. J. Hillis Miller (New York, 1971), p. 145.

2. George and Louise Spindler, "American Indian Personality Types and Their Sociocultural Roots," quoted by Harold E. Driver, Indians of North America , 2d ed., rev. (Chicago, 1975), p. 434.

3. Tzvetan Todorov, The Fantastic: A Structural Approach to a Literary Genre , trans. Richard Howard (Ithaca, N.Y., 1975), p. 3.

4. James Axtell, "The Ethnohistory of Early America: A Review Essay," The William and Mary Quarterly 35 (Jan. 1978):116. break

5. Edward Said, "The Problem of Textuality: Two Exemplary Positions," Critical Inquiry 4 (1978):675, and 709n.

6. See Francis Jennings, The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest (New York, 1976).

7. See Roy Harvey Pearce, Savagism and Civilization (Baltimore, 1967), originally published in 1953 as The Savages of America: A Study of the Indian and the Idea of Civilization , chap. 4, "The Zero of Human Society: The Idea of the Savage."

8. Ambrose Bierce, The Devil's Dictionary (New York, 1958), p. 7. Bierce wrote his definitions between 1881 and 1906.

9. Quoted by Marjorie Halpin in her introduction to Catlin's Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs, and Conditions of North American Indians (New York, 1973), I:ix. Catlin's work was first published in London in 1841.

10. A. D. Coleman in an introduction to Edward S. Curtis, Portraits from North American Indian Life (n.p., 1972), p. v. Curtis's work was originally published in a limited edition of five hundred sets (priced at $3,000 each) in 1907-1908.

11. William Fenton in his introduction to B. B. Thatcher's Indian Biography (Glorieta, N.M., 1973), unpaged. This is a reprint of the New York edition of 1832; an edition appeared in Boston in the same year.

12. Thatcher, Indian Biography , unpaged. Further quotations from Thatcher are taken from this preface.

13. See Richard Slotkin, Regeneration Through Violence: The Mythology of the American Frontier, 1600-1860 (Middletown, Conn., 1974), especially chaps. 9 and 10.

14. Louis O. Mink, "Narrative Form as a Cognitive Instrument," in The Writing of History: Literary Form and Historical Understanding , eds. R. H. Canary and Henry Kozicki (Madison, 1978), p. 138.

15. Quoted in John Bakeless, Daniel Boone: Master of the Wilderness (New York, 1939), passim.

16. David Crockett, in the preface to his A Narrative of the Life of David Crockett of the State of Tennessee, Written by Himself , ed. Joseph J. Arpad (New Haven, 1972), p. 47. Crockett's Narrative was originally published in Philadelphia in 1834.

17. Louis P. Renza, "The Veto of the Imagination: A Theory of continue

Autobiography," New Literary History 9 (1977):2. Renza's sentence concludes, autobiography "is definable as a form of 'prose fiction.'"

18. Ibid.

17. Louis P. Renza, "The Veto of the Imagination: A Theory of continue

Autobiography," New Literary History 9 (1977):2. Renza's sentence concludes, autobiography "is definable as a form of 'prose fiction.'"

18. Ibid.

19. Crockett, A Narrative , pp. 47-48.

20. In his introduction to Kit Carson's Autobiography , edited by Quaife (Chicago, 1935; rpt. Lincoln, Nebr., n.d.), pp. xvii-xxviii. The Autobiography was originally published in late 1858 or early 1859 in New York.

21. See the Life of Sam Houston of Texas (New York, 1855), unsigned, by Charles Edward Lester, under Houston's supervision; also the Life of General Sam Houston: A Short Autobiography (Austin, Tex., 1964), originally published in 1855; and T. D. Bonner, The Life and Adventures of James P. Beckwourth (New York, 1969), originally published in New York in 1856.

22. William T. Hagan, American Indians , rev. ed. (Chicago, 1979), p. 72.

23. Translator's preface to Black Hawk: An Autobiography , ed. Donald Jackson (Urbana, 1964), unpaged. The full title of the original 1833 edition published at Cincinnati is the Life of Ma-Ka-Tai-Me-She-Kia-Kiak or Black Hawk, embracing the Tradition of his Nation--Indian Wars in which he has been engaged--Cause of joining the British in their late War with America, and its History--Description of the Rock-River Village--Manners and Customs--Encroachments by the Whites, Contrary to Treaty--Removal from his Village in 1831. With an Account of the Cause and General History of the Late War, his Surrender and Confinement at Jefferson Barracks, and Travels through the United States. Dictated by Himself. All quotations are from Jackson's edition in which the translator's preface, Black Hawk's dedication, and the editor's "Advertisement" are unpaged. Page references will be given in the text.

24. Quoted by Donald Jackson in his introduction to Black Hawk: An Autobiography , p. 28.

25. Ibid., p. 26.

24. Quoted by Donald Jackson in his introduction to Black Hawk: An Autobiography , p. 28.

25. Ibid., p. 26.

26. Thatcher, preface to Indian Biography , unpaged.

27. Slotkin, Regeneration Through Violence , p. 426.

28. John Filson, The Discovery, Settlement and Present State of Kentucke , which includes as an appendix "The Adventures of Col. Daniel continue

Boon, one of the first settlers, containing a 'Narrative of the Wars of Kentucke'" (Gloucester, Mass., 1975), pp. 81-82. Filson's book was originally published in Wilmington, Delaware, in 1784.

29. Emplotment is Hayden White's term for the large structures Frye would probably call "myths," as they appear in the narratives of "history." See Hayden White, Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Europe (Baltimore, 1973), and "The Historical Text as Literary Artifact," in The Writing of History , eds. Canary and Kozicki. The quotations from Frye are from the Anatomy of Criticism (New York, 1965), pp. 169ff.

30. Benjamin F. Drake, The Life and Adventures of Black Hawk (Cincinnati, 1838), pp. 20-21.

31. From the title page of the first edition, Boston, 1832.

32. Two editions in Boston in 1834; one in Philadelphia in 1834, together with an account of "a Lady who was taken prisoner by the Indians"; and one in New York in 1834. Other editions: London, 1836; Cooperstown, 1842; Boston, 1845; Leeuwarden, Netherlands, 1847--this is listed in Sabin, Bibliotheca Americana: Dictionary of Books Relating to America from its Discovery to the Present Time (New York, 1868; rpt. New York, n.d.) under LeClair's pseudonym, "R. Postumus"; Cincinnati, 1858; St. Louis, 1882; Chicago, 1916; and Iowa City, 1932.

1. In Florida, however, the Seminole continued to resist American aggression, at least until the death of Osceola in 1838.

2. Henry Nash Smith, Virgin Land: The American West as Symbol and Myth (Cambridge, Mass., 1950), pp. 123-132.

3. Hagan, American Indians , p. 112.

4. Chief Joseph White Bull, allegedly "the warrior who killed Custer," was prevailed upon to write the story of his life in 1931, more than a half century after the Custer battle. White Bull, like his uncle Sitting Bull (q.v.), also drew pictorial representations of his coups. See James H. Howard, trans. and ed., The Warrior Who Killed Custer (Lincoln, Nebr., 1968) and, for an account that includes White Bull's comments in a 1932 interview, Stanley Vestal, "The Man Who Killed Custer," continue

American Heritage 8 (1957):4-9, 90-91, and also Vestal's Warpath: The True Story of the Fighting Sioux, Told in a Biography of Chief White Bull (Boston, 1934).

5. Quoted in Virginia I. Armstrong, ed., I Have Spoken: American History through the Voices of the Indians (New York, 1972), p. 146.

6. Lynne Woods O'Brien, Plains Indian Autobiographies (Boise, 1973), p. 12.

7. Ibid.

8. Ibid., pp. 12-13.

6. Lynne Woods O'Brien, Plains Indian Autobiographies (Boise, 1973), p. 12.

7. Ibid.

8. Ibid., pp. 12-13.

6. Lynne Woods O'Brien, Plains Indian Autobiographies (Boise, 1973), p. 12.

7. Ibid.

8. Ibid., pp. 12-13.

9. Quoted as an "oversimplification" by Merrill D. Beal in the preface to his "I Will Fight No More Forever": Chief Joseph and the Nez Perce War (New York, 1971), p. xv.

10. Francis Paul Prucha, S.J., ed., Americanizing the American Indians: Writings by the "Friends of the Indian," 1880-1900 (Cambridge, Mass., 1973), p. 6.

11. Hagan, American Indians , p. 141.

12. S. M. Barrett, ed., "Introductory" to Geronimo's Story of His Life (Williamstown, Mass., 1973), p. xiii. This is a reprint of the original edition published in New York by Duffield and Co. in 1906. Further references are to this edition and will be documented in the text.

13. Geronimo: His Own Story , edited by S. M. Barrett, newly edited with introduction and notes by Frederick W. Turner III (New York, 1971), p. 46.

14. Turner writes, "The materials related to the surrender of Geronimo and the Chiricahua originally followed Chapter xvi but more properly belong in an appendix" (p. 185). This is mistaken on two counts: first, the materials belong "properly" wherever Barrett put them; additional interpretive adjustments only move us further from historical accuracy. Second, "These materials" originally followed chapter xvii, not chapter xvi; they appear in chapter xviii of the original.

15. Henry David Thoreau, Walden and Civil Disobedience (New York, 1966), p. 1.

16. Edward B. Tylor, Primitive Culture , quoted in A. L. Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn, Culture: a Critical review of concepts and definitions (New York, 1953), p. 81. Kroeber and Kluckhohn give the edition continue

as Boston, 1871. The first edition of Tylor's important work was published by J. Murray in London in 1871, and the National Union Catalog indicates the first American edition to be Boston (Estes and Luriat) and New York (Henry Holt), 1874. I have found no reference to a Boston edition of 1871. I may have overlooked something of course, but if not, this seems worth mentioning in specific relation to the rather widespread disregard by anthropologists for such things as the original dates and places of publication of books, as if these were not potentially useful bits of information. Kroeber and Kluckhohn note that " . . . American anthropologists were using both the concept and the word culture fairly freely in the eighteen-nineties, perhaps already in the eighties . . ." (p. 296), but that they do not define it until the 1920s--and that this may well be a result of Boas's (q.v.) antitheoretical stance.

17. Quoted by Perry Miller, "The Marrow of Puritan Divinity," in Errand Into the Wilderness (Cambridge, Mass., 1956), p. 60.

18. The best general account of these matters and of the terms I have enclosed within quotation marks is Harris's The Rise of Anthropological Theory .

19. Hayden White, Metahistory , passim. White's characterization of ironic historiography in Metahistory notes that it marks an ending, serving to "undermine confidence in history's claim to 'objectivity,' 'scienticity,' and 'realism'" (p. 41). But the ironic mode in anthropology coincides with a pronounced sense of beginning and thus more nearly defines rather than undermines a particular kind of commitment to "objectivity," "scienticity," and "realism." All of Metahistory can stand as a critique of the ''fact"/"interpretation" opposition.

20. Alfred Kroeber's Gros Ventre war narratives, obtained in 1901 (in Ethnology of the Gros Ventre , Anthropological Papers, American Museum of Natural History, vol. 1, part 4, 1908), as an attempt to "give a truer sample of the nature of the average Gros Ventre war exploit, of the average war participation, and the like . . ." [Alfred Kroeber, "A Yurok War Reminiscence: The Use of Autobiographical Evidence," Southwestern Journal of Anthropology I (1945):318-332, quotation from pp. 321-322, my emphasis], may, strictly speaking, have been the first "professional" writing of "life history," or Indian autobiography. Radin's were by far the more influential. break

21. Jackson, introduction to Black Hawk , p. 27.

22. That Barrett could write about Indians differently--for better or for worse--is suggested by the following passages from his Mocco, An Indian Boy (New York, 1911):

He seated himself where his enemy had been lying in wait for him and pondered long. He could form no definite plan, but mechanically he turned toward home, or at least toward where home had been. It was a long fifteen miles he had come, and it seemed longer when without purpose or hope he turned, weak from hunger, worn from loss of sleep, and exhausted by prolonged excitement, back to the old camp.

At the camp he was leaving were fragments of food he would fain have eaten, but they were the leavings of his enemies, and he spurned to eat what was cast away by the Comanches. (Pp. 98-99)

Mocco is baptized; finally, he dies of yellow fever. The book ends:

In spite of this illness Mocco rode on, but the heat of the sun and absence of water rendered him unable to ride far. Soon he was lying delirious on the plains. A rain in the afternoon drenched him and cooled his fever so that consciousness was restored. He called his horse to him but was unable to mount. On the next day he became delirious again, and in his delirium often spoke Fawn's name.

That night he feebly placed his hands to his mouth and gave the lion's call four times. As he waited, listening for the answer, he came to the end of the "Long Trail," and his soul passed on into spirit land to be judged by a merciful Father.

A few years later some Pawnee Indians captured a fine black horse on their hunting grounds. Near where they first saw him they found a rusty rifle, a curious dagger, and a little black cross lying among scattered bones. (Pp. 190-191)

The frontispiece to the book is a photograph of Fawn. Whether this text is based on historical material or is purely invented, whether it is intended for an adult or a juvenile audience, I have been unable to discover.

23. Frye, Anatomy of Criticism , p. 167.

24. See James Kaywaykla, In the Days of Victorio, Recollections of a Warm Springs Apache , ed. Eve Ball (Tucson, 1970); Samuel Kenoi, continue

"A Chiricahua's Account of the Geronimo Campaign of 1886," ed. Morris Opler, New Mexico Historical Review 13 (1938):360-386; and Jason Betzinez, I Fought with Geronimo , with Wilber S. Nye (New York, 1959).

25. Fredric Jameson, "Marxism and Historicism," p. 69.

1. The major attack on Boas remains that of Leslie White in The Ethnography and Ethnology of Franz Boas , Austin Texas Memorial Museum, The Museum of the University of Texas, bulletin no. 6, 1963. Marvin Harris, in The Rise of Anthropological Theory , is also quite critical. The comments of Boas's first students, over the years and in a variety of contexts, are too diverse to characterize simply as positive or negative, although in the main they are overwhelmingly praising of the man and his work. Boas's reputation continues to inspire interest. See for example a defense of his ethnography by one of his last students, Irving Goldman, "Boas on the Kwakiutl: The Ethnographic Tradition," in Theory and Practice: Essays Presented to Gene Weltfish , ed. Stanley Diamond (The Hague, 1979), and Karl Kroeber's comments in his exchange with David Brumble, in "Reasoning Together," The Canadian Review of American Studies 11 (1981):253-270.

2. Goody, Domestication of the Savage Mind , pp. 147-162ff.

3. Marvin Harris, Rise of Anthropological Theory , p. 282.

4. Ibid.

3. Marvin Harris, Rise of Anthropological Theory , p. 282.

4. Ibid.

5. Marvin Harris, Rise of Anthropological Theory , p. 316.

6. Marvin Harris, Cultural Materialism , p. 316.

7. Paul Radin, preface to "The Personal Reminiscences of a Winnebago Indian," Journal of American Folklore 26 (1913):293; hereafter cited in text as PR .

8. Franz Boas, "Recent Anthropology II," Science 98 (1943):335.

9. Paul Radin, preface to The Winnebago Tribe , Thirty-Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 1915-1916 (Washington, 1923), p. 47; hereafter cited in text as WT .

10. Paul Radin, introduction to The Autobiography of a Winnebago Indian (New York, 1963), p. 2; hereafter cited in text as A. Original continue

publication of the Autobiography , as noted, was in the University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 16 (April 15, 1920):381-473.

11. Elsie Clews Parsons, preface to American Indian Life (Lincoln, Nebr., 1967), p. 2. Original publication was in 1922.

12. A. L. Kroeber, introduction to Parsons, American Indian Life , p. 13.

13. For the real subjects of these anthropologists' fictions, see H. David Brumble, An Annotated Bibliography of American Indian and Eskimo Autobiographies (Lincoln, Nebr., 1981), #462.

14. In his introduction to The Road of Life and Death: A Ritual Drama of the American Indian (New York, 1945), Radin tells of pursuing the reluctant Jasper Blowsnake with a horse and wagon (pp. 44ff); hereafter cited in text as RLD . Later, Radin visited Nancy O. Lurie and Mountain Wolf Woman when they were at work on the latter's autobiography in 1958. According to Lurie, " . . . Paul Radin questioned [Mountain Wolf Woman] about peyote before we reached this point in her account. Since he spoke of her brother's first vision in what she considered an offhand manner, she did not want to speak of a matter of such deep emotional significance to herself. Dr. Radin expressed mild amusement that her brother's first vision had included frightening snakes, so she confined herself to telling him a funny incident in regard to an early peyote experience," Nancy O. Lurie, ed., Mountain Wolf Woman: Sister of Crashing Thunder, the Autobiography of a Winnebago Indian (Ann Arbor, 1961), p. 127. All further references to this work, abbreviated MWW , will be included in the text. Working some thirty years after Radin, Lurie was herself particularly sensitive to and aware of the complexities of "influence." Radin's own sensitivity to this issue, such as it may have been, seems fairly illustrated by some remarks he made only a year after the publication of Crashing Thunder . In his preface to Primitive Man as Philosopher (New York, 1927), he acknowledged that, for all their commitment to objectivity, " . . . ethnologists often find it necessary to give what are simply their own impressions and interpretations.'' But this seemed to him not fit subject for concern, for, as he continued, "I must confess myself to have had frequent recourse to impressions and interpretations, which I have then sought to illustrate by appropriate examples. continue

But I realize quite clearly how easy it is to obtain appropriate examples , and mine, I hope, have been chosen judiciously" (p. xi, my emphasis).

15. Paul Radin's introduction to Crashing Thunder: The Autobiography of an American Indian (New York, 1926), p. xi; hereafter cited in text as CT .

16. Nancy Lurie's comments on these matters are particularly valuable. According to Lurie:

. . . Radin was inspired to try to capture more of the eloquence of the Winnebago text in the "liberties" he took with the translation as received from La Mere. Gazing probably comes closer than looking, e.g. The "would I", in the example you [A.K.] give, might be a better choice than "I would." Pronouns are all bound forms, infixed into the verb and even the word "sit" in the first version is a bound form of the verb, in effect gazing-while-sitting, all one verb with the pronoun and mood also infixed. At this time, of course, it would be hard to say whether Radin was being more ''literary" in somewhat outmoded Euramerican terms or more "literary" in trying to convey the Winnebago delight in speech as an art. . . . "it is said" is probably closer to the Winnebago original than "I have been told." The sentence in Winnebago probably was boy, good tempered, I was, it is said. Even that doesn't do it literally because of the pronouns. (Personal communication)

17. Ruth Underhill, foreword to Lurie's Mountain Wolf Woman , p. ix.

18. L. L. Langness, The Life History in Anthropological Science (New York, 1965), p. 7, and L. L. Langness and Gelya Frank, Lives: An Anthropological Approach to Biography (Novato, Calif., 1981), p. 18. Just how "rigorous" Radin actually was we shall soon examine.

19. George E. Marcus and Dick Cushman, "Ethnographies as Texts," Annual Review of Anthropology 11 (1982):56n.

20. Underhill, Mountain Wolf Woman , p. ix.

21. Brumble, "Reasoning Together," p. 269.

22. Underhill, Mountain Wolf Woman , p. ix. break

1. Marvin Harris, The Rise of Anthropological Theory , p. 422.

2. Claude Lévi-Strauss, review of Leo Simmons's Sun Chief, The Autobiography of a Hopi Indian , in Social Research 10 (1943):516.

3. Ibid.

2. Claude Lévi-Strauss, review of Leo Simmons's Sun Chief, The Autobiography of a Hopi Indian , in Social Research 10 (1943):516.

3. Ibid.

4. Leo W. Simmons, Sun Chief, The Autobiography of a Hopi Indian (New Haven, 1942), p. 401.

5. In "The Use of Personal Documents in History, Anthropology, and Sociology," Social Science Research Bulletin , no. 53 (1945):77-173.

6. Franz Boas, "Recent Anthropology II," Science 98 (October 15, 1943):335.

7. Marvin Harris, The Rise of Anthropological Theory , p. 393.

8. This is not at all to say these warriors would readily have provided such information or understood how it might seem important. But the anthropologists of the day were quite adept at overcoming initial Native reluctance; had they so desired, they might well have elicited this sort of material.

9. H. David Brumble, "Sam Blowsnake's Invention of Autobiography: Crashing Thunder and the History of American Indian Autobiography," paper presented at the Modern Language Association Convention, December 1983.

10. Clyde Kluckhohn, "The Personal Document in Anthropological Science," in The Use of Personal Documents in History, Anthropology, and Sociology , p. 91.

11. Gilbert Wilson, ed., Goodbird the Indian (New York, 1914), pp. 79-80.

12. Simmons, Sun Chief , p. 381.

13. Ibid.

12. Simmons, Sun Chief , p. 381.

13. Ibid.

14. Inasmuch as the salvage anthropologists were committed to the ongoing existence of the Indian, one can understand easily enough why tragic stories of decline and fall or of defeat and death were not attractive to them. The comic mode is most readily applicable to a preservationist perspective, whereas the ironic at least permits continuation--if to no particular point. break

15. Lucullus Virgil McWhorter, Yellow Wolf: His Own Story (Caldwell, Idaho, 1940), unpaged. Further references will be documented in the text.

16. See Kluckhohn, chap. 3, "Field Techniques and Methods," in Use of Personal Documents , pp. 109-132.

17. McWhorter's procedure had to some extent been anticipated by Frank Bird Linderman in his biographies or, perhaps, they are autobiographies of Plenty-Coups [ American: The Life Story of a Great Indian (New York, 1930); rpt. Plenty-Coups, Chief of the Crows (Lincoln, Nebr., 1962)] and Pretty Shield [ Red Mother (New York, 1932); rpt. Pretty-Shield: Medicine Woman of the Crows (Lincoln, Nebr., 1974)].

18. See F. H. Matthews, "The Revolt against Americanism: Cultural Pluralism and Cultural Relativism as an Ideology of Liberation," Canadian Review of American Studies (Spring 1970):4-31.

19. Neither Kluckhohn in his survey of "personal documents" in anthropology, nor Louis Gottschalk in his "The Historian and the Historical Document" in the same volume, refers to McWhorter or to Yellow Wolf, however.

20. Hear Me, My Chiefs: Nez Perce History and Legend, ed. Ruth Bordin (Caldwell, Idaho, 1952), p. 2. This volume also contains an extended autobiographical narrative of the Nez Perce, Two Moons.

21. Frye, Anatomy of Criticism , p. 208.

22. Cyrus Townsend Brady, Northwestern Fights and Fighters (New York, 1907; rpt. Williamstown, Mass., 1974). Brady's book is dedicated to "the peace loving, hard working, honor seeking, duty following, never failing, hard fighting ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES."

23. See Nelson A. Miles, Personal Recollections (Chicago, 1897); O. O. Howard, Nez Perce Joseph (Boston, 1881) and My Life and Experiences Among our Hostile Indians (Hartford, 1907).

24. Mary Austin, "The Path on the Rainbow," Dial 31 (May, 1919):569.

25. See Robert F. Sayre, "Vision and Experience in Black Elk Speaks ," College English 32 (February, 1971):509-535; Sally McCluskey, "Black Elk Speaks: And So Does John Neihardt," Western American Literature 6 (1972):231-242; Michael Castro, ''John G. Neihardt," in Interpreting the Indian: Twentieth Century Poets and the Native Amer- soft

ican (Albuquerque, 1983), pp. 79-99; Clyde Holler, "Lakota Religion and Tragedy: The Theology of Black Elk Speaks ," Journal of the American Academy of Religion , forthcoming.

26. Black Elk Speaks , ed. John G. Neihardt, with an introduction by Vine Deloria (Lincoln, Nebr., 1979), p. 270. This University of Nebraska Press edition, to which I shall refer, documenting further page references in the text, is a reprint of the original 1932 edition.

27. Quoted by Sally McCluskey, "Black Elk Speaks," pp. 238-239.

28. Clyde Holler, "Lakota Religion and Tragedy," p. 39. All further references to this work will be documented in the text.

29. See Lucille F. Aly, "Poetry and History in Neihardt's Cycle of the West ," Western American Literature 16 (Spring 1981):3-18; and David C. Young, "Crazy Horse on the Trojan Plain: A Comment on the Classicism of John G. Neihardt," Classical and Modern Literature 3 (1982):45-53.

30. Inasmuch as the modes of emplotment are culturally determined they are not therefore susceptible of subversion by the practice of a single author or the example of a single text. Indeed, any apparently openended, unemplotted narrative--Kafka's The Castle , for example--does not evade structural typing but, rather, becomes inevitably an example of ironic emplotment.

31. Michael Castro, Interpreting the Indian , p. 86, my emphasis.

32. Ibid., p. 89.

31. Michael Castro, Interpreting the Indian , p. 86, my emphasis.

32. Ibid., p. 89.

33. Frye, Anatomy of Criticism , p. 187.

34. Ibid.

35. Ibid., p. 33.

33. Frye, Anatomy of Criticism , p. 187.

34. Ibid.

35. Ibid., p. 33.

33. Frye, Anatomy of Criticism , p. 187.

34. Ibid.

35. Ibid., p. 33.

36. There is no date given for Deloria's introduction although the flap copy refers to it as an Introduction to "this special edition." Deloria himself is obviously more interested in eternity than time.

37. Frye, Anatomy of Criticism , p. 186.

38. See Thomas E. Mails, Fools Crow (Garden City, N.Y., 1979); Richard Erdoes and John (Fire) Lame Deer, Lame Deer: Seeker of Visions (New York, 1972); Charlotte J. Frisbie and David P. McAllester, Navajo Blessingway Singer: The Autobiography of Frank Mitchell, 1881-1967 (Tucson, 1978). break