1. M. Ullman, S. Krippner, and A. Vaughan, Dream Telepathy (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1973), p. 24.

2. E.g., C. S. Hall, "Diagnosing Personality by the Analysis of Dreams," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 42 (1947):68-79; C. S. Hall, "What People Dream About," Scientific American 184 (1951):60-63; C. S. Hall, The Meaning of Dreams (New York: Harper & Row, 1953); C. S. Hall and R. L. Van de Castle, The Content Analysis of Dreams (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1966); C. S. Hall and V.J. Nordby, The Individual and His dreams (New York: New American Library, 1972).

3. S. Freud, Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis (1915-16), The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, 24 vols., trans. James Strachey (London: Hogarth Press, 1963), 15:86-87.

4. F. Crick and G. Mitchison, "The Function of Dream Sleep," Nature 304 (1983):111-44; C. Evans, Landscape of the Night: How and Why We Dream (New York: Viking Press, 1984).

5. D. Bryant, The Kin of Ata Are Waiting for You (Berkeley: Moon Books, 1971); U. K. Leguin, The Word for World Is Forest (New York: Berkley Publishing, 1972).

6. N. Kleitman, Sleep and Wakefulness (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963), ch. 11; W. Dement, Some Must Watch While Some Must Sleep (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman & Co., 1974).

7. Jungian-Senoi Institute, Berkeley, Calif., Introductory Pamphlet, 1982, p. 1.

8. K. R. Stewart, "Dream Theory in Malaya," Complex, no. 6 (1951):21-33; K. R. Stewart, "Culture and Personality in Two Primitive Groups," Complex, no. 9 1953-54):3-23; K. R. Stewart, "Mental Hygiene and World Peace," Mental Hygiene 38 (1954):387-407; K. R. Stewart, "The Dream Comes of Age," Mental Hygiene 46 (1962):230-37.

9. S. Krippner and W. Hughes, "Genius at Work," Psychology Today, June 1970, pp. 40-43; K. Goodall, "Dream and Tell for the Fuller Life," Psychology Today, June 1972, p. 32; R. D. Cartwright, "Happy Endings for Our Dreams," Psychology Today, December 1978, pp. 66-67.

10. Stewart, "Dream Theory in Malaya," pp. 33, 28.

11. P. Garfield, Creative Dreaming (New York: Ballantine Books, 1974) p. 83.

12. Ibid., p. 84.

13. Stewart, "Mental Hygiene and World Peace," p. 396.

14. Garfield, Creative Dreaming, p. 81.

15. Stewart, "Dream Theory in Malaya," p. 27.

16. Ibid., pp. 26-27; Garfield, Creative Dreaming, pp. 84-87.

17. Stewart, "Dream Theory in Malaya," pp.22, 21-22.

1. R. K. Dentan, The Semai: A Nonviolent People of Malaya (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1968), ch. 1; R. K. Dentan, "Senoi Dream Praxis," Dream Network Bulletin 2 (5) (May 1983):1-3; G. Benjamin, "Themes in Malayan Cultural Ecology," paper presented at the Conference on Cultural Values and Tropical Ecology, East-West Environment and Policy Centers, Honolulu, June 2-10, 1983; K. Endicott, Bateg Negrito Religion (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979).

2. "Malaysia, Federation of," New Columbia Encyclopedia (New York: Columbia University Press, 1975), pp. 1670-71.

3. Dentan, The Semai, p. 1.

4. H. D. Noone, "Report on the Settlements and Welfare of the Ple-Temiar Senoi of the Perak-Kelantan Watershed," Journal of the Federated Malay States Museums 19, pt. 1 (December 1936):26.

5. Dentan, The Semai, p. 31.

6. P. D. R. Williams-Hunt, An Introduction to the Malayan Aborigine (Kuala Lumpur: Government Press, 1952), pp. 49-50; Dentan, The Semai, pp. 31-33, 44-45, 50-53.

7. Dentan, The Semai, pp. 21, 69, 80-81, 93-95, 103; C. Robarchek, "Learning to Fear: A Case Study of Emotional Conditioning," American Ethnologist 6 (1979):556.

8. R. K. Dentan, "A Dream of Senoi," Special Studies Series, Council on International Studies, State University of New York at Buffalo (1984), p. 9.

9. R. Noone, with D. Holman, In Search of the Dream People (New York: William Morrow, 1972).

10. R. K. Dentan, "Notes on Childhood in a Nonviolent Context: The Semai Case," in Learning Non-Aggression, ed. A. Montague (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), p. 95.

11. R. Noone, In Search of the Dream People, pp. 169ff.

12. Ibid., p. 23.

13. Dentan, "Notes on Childhood," p. 98.

14. R. Noone, In Search of the Dream People, p. 39.

15. A. G. Fix, The Demography of the Semai Senoi (Ann Arbor: Museum of Anthropology, No. 62, 1977), pp. 60-62; Dentan, "Notes on Childhood," p. 111.

16. Dentan, "Dream of Senoi," p. 9.

17. J. D. Kinzie and J. M. Bolton, "Psychiatry with the Aborigines of West Malaysia," American Journal of Psychiatry 130 (1973): 767-73.

18. Dentan, "Notes on Childhood," p. 128.

19. Robarchek, "Learning to Fear," p. 560.

20. Dentan, The Semai, p. 22; Robarchek, "Learning to Fear," p. 558.

21. Dentan, The Semai, p. 23; Robarchek, "Learning to Fear," p. 5.

22. Robarchek, "Learning to Fear," pp. 558, 563.

23. Dentan, The Semai, p. 60; Robarchek, "Learning to Fear," pp. 560-62.

24. Robarchek, "Learning to Fear," p. 556.

25. Dentan, The Semai, p. 55.

26. Dentan, "Dream of Senoi," pp. 21-23; Dentan, "Senoi Dream Praxis," pp. 2-3.

27. Geoffrey Benjamin, pers. com., June 16, 1983.

28. Ibid.

29. Dentan, "Dream of Senoi," pp. 26, 39; Dentan, "Senoi Dream Praxis," pp. 2-3.

30. J. S. Lincoln, The Dream in Primitive Cultures (Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1935). For a recent account of a tribal dream theory with many parallels to that of the Senoi, see T. Gregor, "Far Far Away My Shadow Wandered ...: The Dream Theories of the Mehinaku Indians of Brazil," American Ethnologist 8 (1981):709-20.

31. Dentan, The Semai, p. 19; for other evidence on the role of dreams in Senoi culture, see ibid., pp. 41, 61, 68, 83-85, 88, and 94. Dentan also mentions the role of dreams in "Notes on Childhood," pp. 100-101, 121.

32. C. G. Jung, "On the Nature of Dreams," in C. G. Jung, Dreams (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974), pp. 290-91; E. R. Dodds, The Greeks and the Irrational (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1951), p. 107; D. M. Guss, "Steering for Dream: Dream Concepts of the Makiritare Indians of Venezuela," Journal of Latin American Folklore 6 (1980):28.

33. Dentan, "Senoi Dream Praxis," p. 2.

34. Dentan, "Dream of Senoi," p. 33.

35. Ibid., pp. 34-35, 28-29.

36. Clayton Robarchek, personal communication, June 10, 1983.

37. Dentan, "Dream of Senoi," p. 33.

38. Robarchek, "Learning to Fear," p. 561.

39. Ibid.

40. Dentan, "Senoi Dream Praxis," p. 2.

41. Dentan, The Semai, p. 85.

42. Williams-Hunt, Introduction to the Malayan Aborigine, pp. 49-50.

43. Dentan, "Senoi Dream Praxis," p. 3; Benjamin, personal communication, June 16, 1983; Robarchek, personal communication, June 10, 1983.

44. Dentan, "Senoi Dream Praxis," p. 12.

45. C. Robarchek, "Conflict, Emotion, and Abreaction," Ethos 7 (1979):198.

46. Ibid., p. 112.

47. Benjamin, personal communication, June 16, 1983.

48. Dentan, The Semai, p. 3; Dentan, "Notes on Childhood," p. 129.

49. I. Carey, Tenleg of Kui Serok (Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa, 1961), p. 2.

50. G. Benjamin, "Temiar Social Groupings," Federation Museums Journal 11, n. s. (1966):7.

51. G. Benjamin, ''Temiar Kinship," Federation Museums Journal 12, n.s. (1967):20.

52. Dentan, letter to the author, May 19, 1983; Benjamin, personal communication, June 16, 1983.

53. Noone, In Search of the Dream People, p. 28.

54. A. Faraday and J. Wren-Lewis, "The Selling of the Senoi," Dream Network Bulletin 3-4 (March-April 1984):2.

55. E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, 2 vols. (New York: Harper & Row, 1958), 2:22ff.; this book was first published in 1871.

56. G. Roheim, The Gates of the Dream (New York: International Universities Press, 1952).

57. For information on the role of dreams in healing practices in tribal societies, see Lincoln, Dream in Primitive Cultures; G. Roheim, The Eternal Ones of the Dream (New York: International Universities Press, 1945); R. G. D'Andrade, "Anthropological Studies of Dreams," in Psychological Anthropology, ed. F. L. K. Hsu (Homewood, Ill.: Dorsey Press, 1961); C. W. O'Nell, Dreams, Culture, and the Individual (San Francisco: Chandler & Sharp, 1976); W. Kracke, "Dreaming in Kagwahiv; Dream Beliefs and Their Psychic Uses in an Amazonian Culture," Psychoanalytic Study of Society 8 (1979):119-71; B. Tedlock, "Quiche Maya Dream Interpretation," Ethos 9 (1981):313-30; L. G. Peters, "Trance, Induction, and Psychotherapy in Nepalese Tamang Shamanism," American Ethnologist 9 (1982): 21-46.

1. C. Parsons, Vagabondage (London: Chatto & Windus, 1941), p. 151.

2. Ibid., pp. 152-53.

3. Ibid., pp. 157-58.

4. Ibid., p. 178.

5. Ibid., p. 233.

6. Interview with Omer C. Stewart, Boulder, Colorado, July 1, 1983.

7. Interview with Dorothy Nyswander and Margaret Nyswander Manson, Kensington, Calif., July 27, 1983.

8. S. D. Porteus, Primitive Intelligence and Environment (New York: Macmillan, 1937), ch. 27.

9. K. R. Stewart, "Journey of a Psychologist," unpublished manuscript (1936), p. 337; this manuscript was kindly provided by Omer C. Stewart.

10. Ibid., p. 338.

11. Letter to the author from Omer C. Stewart, June 12, 1983.

12. Interview with Dorothy Nyswander, Kensington, Calif., July 27, 1983.

13. Telephone interview with John Wires, Plainfield, Vt., December 18, 1983.

14. E. Perry, "Dr. Kilton Stewart Says Dreams Have Meaning," Cliff Dweller 1 (August 1964):4.

15. Interview with Omer C. Stewart, Boulder, Colorado, July 1, 1983; Omer is six years younger than Kilton.

16. Letter from Sir Edmund R. Leach, June 11, 1983.

17. Stewart, "Journey of a Psychologist," p. 467.

18. Ibid., p. 471.

19. H. D. Noone, "Report on the Settlements and Welfare of the Ple-Temiar Senoi of the Perah-Kelantan Watershed," Journal of the Federated Malay States Museums 19, pt. 1 (1936):13; see p. 8 for information on the expeditions.

20. Stewart, "Journey of a Psychologist," p. 507.

21. Ibid., p. 506.

22. E. Menaker, Otto Rank: A Rediscovered Legacy (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982); O. Rank, Will Therapy (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1936).

23. J. Taft, Otto Rank (New York: Julian Press, 1958), pp. 180-97, 205; P. Bailey, "The Psychological Center, Paris, 1934," Journal of the Otto Rank Association 2 (1967):10-25.

24. E. James Lieberman, author of a good and detailed account of Rank's life, Acts of Will: The Life and Work of Otto Rank (New York: Free Press, 1985), told me in a telephone interview on July 25, 1984, that Bailey was the only person close to Rank who might have been practicing in Paris in the summer of 1935. Information in Who's Who In America in the fifties and in "Pearce Bailey, Neurologist," New York Times, June 28, 1976, shows that Bailey remained in Paris until 1936.

25. This account of Stewart's travel schedule in 1935 is based upon correspondence from the time that was provided by Omer C. Stewart.

26. Parsons, Vagabondage, p. 179.

27. Ibid.

28. Ibid.

29. The information on plans to pursue a Ph.D. and the change in schools was found in correspondence from the time provided by Omer C. Stewart.

30. In a letter dated June 28, 1983, Sir Edmund R. Leach very kindly provided me with this information about the change in Noone's dissertation title. He obtained it from the official records of Cambridge University.

31. H. D. Noone, "Chinchem: A Study of the Role of Dream Experience in Culture-Contact Amongst the Temiar Senoi of Malaya," Man, April 1939, p. 57; my thanks to Sir Edmund R. Leach for providing this reference.

32. W. LaBarre, The Ghost Dance (New York: Doubleday, 1970), p. 13.

33. K. R. Stewart, "A Psychological Analysis of the Negritos of Luzon, Philippine Islands," Man, January 1939, p. 10; my thanks to Sir Edmund R. Leach for providing this reference.

34. For many similar romantic illusions by other American visitors to the USSR and other communist countries, see Paul Hollander, Political Pilgrims: Travels of Western Intellectuals in the Soviet Union, China, and Cuba, 1928-1978 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981).

35. K. R. Stewart, "The Yami of Botel Tobago," Philippine Magazine, July 1937, p. 304.

36. Ibid., p. 323.

37. R. Noone, with D. Holman, In Search of the Dream People (New York: William Morrow, 1972); quotes from letters Pat Noone wrote to his parents that suggest his early interest in Senoi mental health and their ideas about dreams; see pp. 22-36.

38. A letter to the author from Claudia Parsons, July 30, 1983, provided this information on how Stewart's data were preserved and retrieved.

39. This information comes from two sources, a written chronology of Kilton Stewart's life provided by Omer C. Stewart and an interview with Omer C. Stewart, July 1, 1983.

40. Interview with Clara Flagg, November 26, 1983.

41. K. R. Stewart, "Magico-Religious Beliefs and Practices in Primitive Society—A Sociological Interpretation of Their Therapeutic Aspects," unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, London School of Economics, 1946, p. 71.

42. Ibid., p. 244.

43. Ibid., p. 118.

44. Information on how Stewart collected dreams among the Yami comes from letters to the author from Sir Edmund R. Leach, June 11, 1983, and from Nancy Grasby, August 8, 1983.

45. Stewart, "Magico-Religious Beliefs," pp. 92, 118, 140.

46. Evidence on how Stewart collected dreams among natives in the Philippines comes from two sources. First, on pp. 255-56 of the dissertation Stewart writes that he lived for a month at the Bataan Farm School and another month at the Zambales Negrito Farm School. Second, there are numerous mentions of schools and English-speaking natives in his Pygmies and Dream Giants (New York: W. W. Norton, 1954). This book is a novellike account of his adventures in the Philippines. Omer Stewart believes it is an amalgamation of his several visits to the Philippines and that it is based in part on his 1936 autobiography, "Journey of a Psychologist." The evidence on how Stewart collected dreams while in the Philippines can be found on pp. 29-31, 101, 121, 129, 173, 206-11, and 255.

47. G. W. Domhoff, "Night Dreams and Hypnotic Dreams: Is There Evidence That They Are Different?" International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis 12 (1964):159-68; C. Tart, "A Comparison of Suggested Dreams Occurring in Hypnosis and Sleep," International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis 12 (1964):263-80; D. Barrett, "The Hypnotic Dream: Its Relation to Nocturnal Dreams and Waking Fantasies," Journal of Abnormal Psychology 88 (1979):584-91. For a reprinting of the classic studies on hypnotic dreams and a good commentary on the issue by the editor, see C. S. Moss, ed., The Hypnotic Investigation of Dreams (New York: John Wiley, 1967).

48. The information concerning Stewart's membership in the Royal Anthropological Institute came to me in a letter from the secretary to the director, Windsor Sylvester, dated September 2, 1983.

49. The fact that Stewart was not a research fellow of the Rockefeller Institute was communicated to me in a letter from J. William Hess, associate director of the Rockefeller Archive Center, July 18, 1983. The actual nature of Stewart's employment in Peking was explained to me by Professor Francis L. K. Hsu, who was a social worker there at the time, in a telephone interview on August 29, 1983. However, S. D. Porteus did use a grant he obtained from the Rockefeller Foundation to pay for part of Stewart's travels for a year or two, which may have been the basis for Stewart's larger claim.

50. Stewart, "Magico-Religious Beliefs," pp. 1, 52-53, 83, 92; K. R. Stewart, "Dream Theory in Malaya," Complex, no. 6 (1951):23.

51. Stewart, "Dream Theory in Malaya," p. 25.

52. Ibid., pp. 25-26.

53. Ibid., pp. 25, 26.

54. Stewart, "Magico-Religious Beliefs," p. 476 (dream no. 193).

55. Ibid., p. 475 (dream no. 190).

56. Ibid., p. 460 (dream no. 95); p. 462 (dream no. 109); p. 467 (dream no. 143), and p. 477 (dream no. 195).

57. Stewart, "Dream Theory in Malaya," p. 27.

58. Stewart, "Magico-Religious Beliefs," pp. 151-52.

59. Stewart, "Yami of Botel Tobago"; K. R. Stewart, "Education and Split Personalities," Mental Hygiene 27 (1943):430-38; K. R. Stewart, "Mental Hygiene and World Peace," Mental Hygiene 38 (1954):387; and K. R. Stewart, ''The Dream Comes of Age," Mental Hygiene 46 (1962):230-37.

1. This information on how Senoi dream theory came to Esalen comes from telephone interviews with Tom Allen, Joe Kamiya, George Leonard, Edward Maupin, Michael Murphy, and Charles Tart in the fall of 1983.

2. W. T. Anderson, The Upstart Spring: Esalen and the American Awakening (Menlo Park, Calif: Addison-Wesley, 1983), p. 122.

3. Ibid., chs. 8, 9, 10.

4. B. F. Skinner, Walden Two (New York: Macmillan, 1948). Much of the information in this paragraph comes from a telephone conversation with George Leonard on November 28, 1983. The serialized material appeared in an article entitled "Visiting Day in the Year 2001 A.D.," Look, October 1, 1968, p. 47. Leonard received about 5,000 letters in response to the Look serialization and the book.

5. G. B. Leonard, Education and Ecstasy (New York: Delacorte Press, 1968), p. 194. Maslow may have revised his opinion considerably. When he came to Esalen in 1966 to give a series of seminars on his concept of "being language," he was taunted unmercifully by Fritz Perls. Perls began by challenging Maslow's claim that his massage in the Esalen hot spring baths by female masseuses was a "peak experience." "Bullshit," said Perls, "you are just turned on.'' When Maslow began his formal discussion using a question-and-answer approach, Perls interrupted by saying: "This is just like school. Here is the teacher, and there is the pupil, giving the right answer." Later, at the evening session, Perls began to crawl around on the floor, and Maslow told him he was being childish. So Perls made whining sounds and hugged Maslow's knees, as though Perls were at one of his own gestalt therapy sessions. Walter Anderson, who tells the story in his history of Esalen, then writes: "There sat kindly Maslow, a professor at Brandeis, the father of humanistic psychology, rigid as a rock in his crew cut and cashmere sweater while this crazy old man in a jump suit hugged his knees and made baby noises. 'This begins to look like sickness,' Maslow said." For the full account of this incredible encounter between Perls and Maslow, see Anderson, Upstart Spring, pp. 133-37.

6. Leonard, Education and Ecstasy, pp. 210, 196.

7. C. Tart, ed., Altered States of Consciousness (New York: John Wiley, 1969), p. 115.

8. K. Goodall, "Dream and Tell for a Fuller Life," Psychology Today, June 1972, p. 32; J. Latner and M. Sabini, "Working the Dream Factory: Social Dreamwork," Voices 18 (1972):38-43.

9. For a compilation of all the detailed evidence from journalists and anthropologists that Don Juan does not exist and that Carlos Castenada fabricated his account, see R. DeMille, ed., The Don Juan Papers (Santa Barbara: Ross-Erikson Publishers, 1980).

10. T. Roszak, Where the Wasteland Ends (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1972), ch. 1.

11. Ibid., p. 83.

12. A. Faraday, Dream Power (New York: Coward, McCann, & Geoghegan, 1972), pp. 297-98; A. Faraday, The Dream Game (New York: Harper & Row, 1974), pp. 258-66.

13. P. Garfield, Creative Dreaming (New York: Ballantine Books, 1974), p. ix.

14. Ibid., p. 84.

15. "An Illusion Destroyed," Human Nature, June 1978, p. 12.

16. D. Meyer, The Positive Thinkers (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1975); P. Rieff, The Triumph of the Therapeutic (New York: Harper & Row, 1966); B. Zilbergeld, The Shrinking of America: Myths of Psychological Change (Boston: Little, Brown, 1983).

17. J. T. Clifford, "On Ethnographic Allegory," in The Making of Ethnographic Texts , ed. J. T. Clifford and G. Marcus, School of American Research Publications, Santa Fe, N.M., forthcoming. See also J. T. Clifford, "On Ethnographic Authority," Representations 1 (1983):118-47.

18. E. Evans-Pritchard, The Nuer (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1960), quoted in Clifford, "On Ethnographic Allegory," pp. 27-28.

19. M. Mead, Coming of Age in Samoa (New York: William Morrow, 1928), quoted in Clifford, "On Ethnographic Allegory," p. 9.

20. Clifford, "On Ethnographic Allegory," p. 9.

21. Ibid., p. 32.

1. C. S. Hall, "Ethnic Similarities in Manifest Dream Contents: A Modest Confirmation of the Theory of University Man," Institute of Dream Research (1967); T. Gregor, "A Content Analysis of Mehinaku Dreams," Ethos 9 (1981):353-90.

2. E. G. Werlin, "An Experiment in Elementary Education," in Contemporary Educational Psychology, ed. R. M. Jones (New York: Harper & Row, 1966), p. 233.

3. Jones, in ibid., pp. 248-49.

4. Ibid., p. 237.

5. Ibid., p. 238.

6. E. Greenleaf, "'Senoi' Dream Groups," Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, and Practice 10 (1973):218.

7. E.g., J. R. Gibb, "Effects of Human Relations Training," in Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavior Change, ed. A. E. Bergin and S. L. Garfield (New York: John Wiley, 1971); J. Bebout and B. Grodon, "The Value of Encounter," in Perspectives on Encounter Groups, ed. L. Solomon and B. Berzon (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1972); M. A. Lieberman, I. D. Yalom, and M. Miles, Encounter Groups: First Facts (New York: Basic Books, 1973); P. B. Smith, ''Controlled Studies of the Outcomes of Sensitivity Training," Psychological Bulletin 82 (1974):597-622; A. Zander, "The Psychology of Group Processes," Annual Review of Psychology 30 (1979):417-51.

Most of these studies also show the importance of the leader in determining how members view the experience. A study by Dane Archer, "Power in Groups: Self-Concept Changes of Powerful and Powerless Group Members," Journal of Applied Behavioral Sciences 10 (1975):208-20, shows that the mixed results within some groups can be explained by power differentials within the group itself. Those who are perceived as powerful members of the group, as measured by a questionnaire about group interaction patterns, are the ones most likely to improve in self-concept from the group experience.

8. B. Zilbergeld, The Shrinking of America: Myths of Psychological Change (Boston: Little, Brown, 1983), pp. 114-21.

9. Greenleaf, "'Senoi' Dream Groups," p. 221.

10. Jones, in Werlin, "Experiment in Elementary Education," p. 237.

11. C. Tart, "From Spontaneous Event to Lucidity: A Review of Attempts to Consciously Control Nocturnal Dreaming," in Handbook of Dreams, ed. B. B. Wolman (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1979), p. 239.

12. These findings and many others from a variety of studies are summarized in A. M. Arkin and J. S. Antrobus, "The Effects of External Stimuli Applied Prior to and During Sleep on Sleep Experience," in The Mind in Sleep, ed. (A. M. Arkin, J. S. Antrobus, and S.J. Ellman (Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1978); the phrase "richly represented" appears on p. 65.

13. J. Stoyva, "Posthypnotically Suggested Dreams and the Sleep Cycle," Archives of General Psychiatry 12 (1965):287-94; C. Tart, "The Control of Nocturnal Dreaming by Means of Posthypnotic Suggestions," International Journal of Parapsychology 9 (1967):184-89; C. Tart and L. Dick, "Conscious Control of Dreaming: I. The Posthypnotic Dream," Journal of Abnormal Psychology 76 (1970):304-15.

14. T. X. Barker, P. C. Walker, and H. W. Hahn, Jr., "Effects of Hypnotic Induction and Suggestions on Nocturnal Dreaming and Thinking," Journal of Abnormal Psychology 82 (1973):414-27.

15. C. C. Hiew, "The Influence of Pre-Sleep Suggestions on Dream Content," paper presented to the New Brunswick Psychological Association Convention, October 24-25, 1974.

16. C. C. Hiew, "Individual Differences in the Control of Dreaming," paper presented to the Association for the Psychophysiological Study of Sleep, 1976.

17. C. C. Hiew and P. Short, "Emotional Involvement and Auditory Retrieval Cues in Pre-Sleep Dream Suggestion," paper presented to the Association for the Psychophysiological Study of Sleep, 1977.

18. R. Brunette and I. DeKonick. "The Effect of Pre-Sleep Suggestions Related to a Phobic Object on Dream Affect," abstract, Association for the Psychophysiological Study of Sleep, 1977.

19. P. Garfield, Creative Dreaming (New York: Ballantine Books, 1974), pp. 100-101; A. Faraday, Dream Power (New York: Coward, McCann, & Geoghegan, 1972), pp. 297-98; A. Faraday, The Dream Game (New York: Harper & Row, 1974), p. 260.

20. Tart, "From Spontaneous Event to Lucidity," p. 262.

21. B. L. Wollmering, "Dream Control for Behavioral Change," unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Arizona, 1978.

22. R. D. Cartwright, "The Influence of a Conscious Wish on Dreams: A Methodological Study of Dream Meaning and Function," Journal of Abnormal Psychology 82 (1974):387-93.

23. R. D. Cartwright, "Happy Endings for Our Dreams," Psychology Today, December 1978, p. 66.

24. Tart, "From Spontaneous Event to Lucidity," pp. 259, 256-57.

25. Ibid., p. 259.

26. S. LaBerge, L. Nagel, W. Dement, and V. Zarcone, "Lucid Dreaming Verified by Volitional Communication During REM Sleep," Perceptual and Motor Skills 52 (1981):727-32.

27. K. Hearne, "Effects of Performing Certain Set Tasks in the Lucid-Dream State," Perceptual and Motor Skills 54 (1982):259-62.

28. K. Hearne, "Lucid Dream Induction," Journal of Mental Imagery 7 (1983):19-24; P. Tholey, "Techniques for Inducing and Manipulating Lucid Dreams," Perceptual and Motor Skills 57 (1983): 79-90.

29. J. Latner and M. Sabini, "Working the Dream Factory: Social Dreamwork," Voices 18 (1972):43.

30. P. Garfield, "Self-Conditioning of Dream Content," paper presented to the Association for the Psychophysiological Study of Sleep, 1974, as reported in Tart, "From Spontaneous Event to Lucidity," p. 241.

31. D. Foulkes and M. L. Griffin, "An Experimental Study of 'Creative Dreaming,'" Sleep Research 5 (1976):129.

32. M. L. Griffin and D. Foulkes, "Deliberate Presleep Control of Dream Content: An Experimental Study," Perceptual and Motor Skills 45 (1977):660-62.

33. R. Ogilvie, K. Belicki, and A. Nagy, "Voluntary Control of Dream Affect?" Waking and Sleeping 2 (1978):189-94.

34. K. R. Stewart, "The Dream Comes of Age," Mental Hygiene 46 (1962):235.

35. C. S. Hall and R. L. Van de Castle, The Content Analysis of Dreams (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1966).

36. Tart, "From Spontaneous Event to Lucidity," p. 262.

37. E.g., Michael J. Harner, The Jivaro (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1972), pp. 136-38; W. Kracke, "Dreaming in Kagwahiv: Dream Beliefs and Their Psychic Uses in an Amazonian Culture," Psychoanalytic Study of Society 8 (1979):163-64. I am grateful to Professor Kracke for providing these anthropological examples of attempts at dream or vision control.

1. S. Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams (1900), vols. 4-5, The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud (London: Hogarth Press, 1953), pp. 233-34, 578.

2. R. D. Cartwright, Night Life (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1977), chs. 4-7; F. Crick and G. Mitchison, "The Function of Dream Sleep," Nature 304 (1983):111-14; C. Evans, Landscape of the Night: How and Why We Dream (New York: Viking Press, 1984).

3. W. R. Ashby, Design for a Brain (New York: John Wiley, 1960), p. 14.

4. E.g., R. Schonbar, "Some Manifest Personality Characteristics of Recallers and Non-Recallers," Journal of Consulting Psychology 23 (1959):414-18; C. Tart, "Frequency of Dream Recall and Some Personality Measures," Journal of Consulting Psychology 26 (1962):467-70; G. W. Domhoff and A. Gerson, "Replication and Critique of Three Studies on Personality Correlates of Dream Recall," Journal of Consulting Psychology 31 (1967):431; A. B. Hill, "Personality Correlates of Dream Recall,'' Journal of Consulting Psychology 42 (1974):766-73.

5. M. Hiscock and D. B. Cohen, "Visual Imagery and Dream Recall," Journal of Research in Personality 7 (1973):179-88; T. L. Cory, D. W. Ormiston, E. Simmel, and M. Dainoff, "Predicting the Frequency of Dream Recall," Journal of Abnormal Psychology 84 (1975):261-66; D. B. Cohen, "Toward a Theory of Dream Recall," Psychological Bulletin 81 (1974):138-54.

6. C. S. Hall and R. Raskin, "Do We Dream During Sleep?" privately printed monograph distributed to members of the Association for the Psychophysiological Study of Sleep, March 1980.

7. E.g., J. Kamiya, "Behavioral, Subjective, and Physiological Effects of Drowsiness and Sleep," in Functions of Varied Experience, ed. D. Fiske and S. Maddi (Homewood, Ill: Dorsey Press, 1961); D. Foulkes, "Dream Reports from Different Stages of Sleep," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 65 (1962):14-25. For a summary of several studies, see C. S. Hall, "Caveat Lector!" Psychoanalytic Review 54 (1967):655-61.

8. E. Aserinsky and N. Kleitman, "Regularly Occurring Periods of Eye Motility and Concomitant Phenomena During Sleep," Science 118 (1953):273-74.

9. W. Dement, "Dream Recall and Eye Movements During Sleep in Schizophrenics and Normals," Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 122 (1955):262-69; W. Dement and N. Kleitman, "Relation of Eye Movements During Sleep to Dream Activity: Objective Method for Study of Dreaming," Journal of Experimental Psychology 53 (1957):339-46; W. Dement and N. Kleitman, "Cyclic Variations in EEG During Sleep and Their Relation to Eye Movements, Body Motility, and Dreaming," Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 9 (1957):673-90.

10. I was among those caught up in the excitement; my dissertation is entitled "A Quantitative Study of Dream Content Using an Objective Indicator of Dreaming," University of Miami, 1962.

For the early eye movement studies, see W. Dement and E. Wolpert, "The Relationship of Eye Movements, Body Motility, and External Stimuli to Dream Content," Journal of Experimental Psychology 55 (1958):543-53; H. Roffwarg, W. Dement, J. N. Muzio, and C. Fisher, "Dream Imagery: Relationship of Rapid Eye Movements of Sleep," Archives of General Psychiatry 7 (1962):235.

11. E. Diamond, The Science of Dreams (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1962), p. 17.

12. Ibid., p. 158.

13. Kamiya, "Effects of Drowsiness"; Foulkes, "Dream Reports from Different Stages of Sleep"; A. Rechtschaffen, P. Verdone, and G. Wheaton, "Reports of Mental Activity During Sleep,'' Journal of the Canadian Psychiatric Association 8 (1963):490-514.

14. D. Foulkes and M. Schmidt, "Temporal Sequence and Unit Composition in Dream Reports from Different Stages of Sleep," Sleep 16 (1983):277-80.

15. E. Moskowitz and R.J. Berger, "Rapid Eye Movements and Dream Imagery: Are They Related?" Nature 224 (1969):613-14.

16. L. D. Jacobs, M. Feldman, and M. B. Bender, "The Patterns of Eye Movements During Sleep," Transactions of the American Neurological Association 95 (1970):114-19; L. D. Jacobs, M. Feldman, and M. B. Bender "Eye Movements During Sleep," Archives of Neurology 25 (1971):151-59.

17. See Hall, "Caveat Lector!" for a summary of the various kinds of evidence against the "scanning hypothesis." For summaries of the animal evidence, see F. Snyder, "Sleep and Dreaming: Progress in the New Biology of Dreaming," Association Journal of Psychiatry 122 (1965):377-91; Crick and Mitchison, "Function of Dream Sleep," p. 112.

18. D. Foulkes and G. Vogel, "Mental Activity and Sleep Onset," Journal of Abnormal Psychology 70 (1965):231-43; T. Pivak and D. Foulkes, " NREM Mentation: Relation to Personality, Orientation Time, and Time of Night," Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 32 (1968):144-51; J. Brown and R. D. Cartwright, "Locating NREM Dreaming Through Instrumental Responses," Psychophysiology 15 (1978):35-39.

19. C. S. Hall, unpublished quantitative content analysis of REM and NREM reports, provided by David Foulkes, University of California, Santa Cruz, 1969.

20. Foulkes and Schmidt, "Temporal Sequence"; J. S. Antrobus, " REM and NREM Sleep Reports: Comparisons of Word Frequencies by Cognitive Classes," Psychophysiology 20 (1983):562-68.

21. A. Kales, F. Hoedemaker, and E. Lichtenstein, "Dream Deprivation: An Experimental Reappraisal," Nature 204 (1964): 1337-38; H. Sampson, "Deprivation of Dreaming Sleep by Two Methods," Archives of General Psychiatry 13 (1965):79-86; R. D. Cartwright and L. Monroe, "The Relation of Dreaming and REM Sleep: The Effects of REM Deprivation," Archives of General Psychiatry 16 (1967):227-80.

22. H. W. Agnew, W. B. Webb, and R. L. Williams, "The Effect of Stage Four Sleep Deprivation," Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 18 (1965):131-39; W. B. Webb, Sleep: An Experimental Approach (New York: Macmillan, 1968).

23. Cartwright, Night Life; Snyder, "Sleep and Dreaming"; B. Domhoff and J. Kamiya, "Problems in Dream Content Study with Objective Indicators I. A Comparison of Home and Laboratory Dreams," Archives of General Psychiatry 11 (1964):519-24; B. Domhoff and J. Kamiya. "Problems in Dream Content Study with Objective Indicators III. Changes in Dream Content Throughout the Night," Archives of General Psychiatry 11 (1964):529-32; C. S. Hall and R. L. Van de Castle, "Studies of Dreams Reported in the Laboratory and at Home," Institute of Dream Research, Monograph Series, no. 1 (1966); B. Domhoff, ''Home Dreams and Laboratory Dreams: Home Dreams Are Better," in Dream Psychology and the New Biology of Dreaming, ed. M. Kramer (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, 1969); D. Foulkes, "Home and Laboratory Dreams: Four Empirical Studies and a Conceptual Reevaluation," Sleep 2 (1979):233-51.

24. D. Foulkes, Children's Dreams (New York: John Wiley, 1982).

25. C. A. Meier, H. Ruf, A. Zeigler, P. Schellenberg, and C. S. Hall, "Forgetting of Dreams in the Laboratory," Perceptual and Motor Skills 26 (1968):551-57; J. Trinder and M. Kramer, "Dream Recall," American Journal of Psychiatry 128 (1971):296-301.

26. C. S. Hall and B. Domhoff, "A Ubiquitous Sex Difference in Dreams," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 66 (1963):278-80; C. S. Hall and B. Domhoff, "Aggression in Dreams," International Journal of Social Psychiatry 9 (1963):259-67; C. S. Hall and B. Domhoff, "Friendliness in Dreams," Journal of Social Psychology 62 (1964):309-14; C. S. Hall, "A Ubiquitous Sex Difference in Dreams Revisited," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 46 (1984): 1109-17.

27. R. L. Van de Castle, The Psychology of Dreaming (New York: General Learning Corporation, 1971), p. 37.

28. C. S. Hall, G. W. Domhoff, K. A. Blick, and K. E. Weesner, "The Dreams of College Men and Women in 1950 and 1980: A Comparison of Dream Contents and Sex Differences," Sleep 5 (1982):188-94.

29. C. S. Hall and V.J. Nordby, The Individual and His Dreams (New York: New American Library, 1972), pp. 19-22, 86-87; R. L. Van de Castle, "Animal Figures in Fantasy and Dreams," in New Perspectives on Our Lives with Companion Animals, ed. A. H. Katcher and A. M. Beck (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1983).

30. Hall and Nordby, Individual and His Dreams, pp. 82-83.

31. Ibid.; M. E. Smith and C. S. Hall, "An Investigation of Regression in a Long Dream Series," Journal of Gerontology 19 (1964):66-71.

32. C. S. Hall, "Ethnic Similarities in Manifest Dream Contents: A Modest Confirmation of the Theory of Universal Man," Institute of Dream Research (1967); Hall and Nordby, Individual and His Dreams, ch. 2. For evidence of other cross-cultural similarities in dream content, see R. M. Griffith, M. Miyagi, and A. Tago, "The Universality of Typical Dreams: Japanese Versus American," American Anthropologist 60 (1958):1173-79.

33. Hall and Nordby, Individual and His Dreams, pp. 108-9; for full details, see C. S. Hall and R. Lind, Dreaming, Life, and Literature: A Study of Franz Kafka (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1970).

34. Brod, quoted in Hall and Nordby, Individual and His Dreams, p. 109.

35. Ibid.

36. The study reveals nothing about Kafka's creativity as a writer. As with the psychoanalytic method, the sources of creativity are not revealed by quantitative content analysis. What Freud wrote in the early thirties in the introduction to a colleague's study of Edgar Allan Poe also applies to this study of Kafka: "Investigations of this kind are not intended to explain an author's genius, but they show what motive forces aroused it and what material was offered to him by destiny." Freud then notes that "there is a particular fascination in studying the laws of the human mind as exemplified in outstanding individuals"; S. Freud, Preface to Marie Bonaparte, The Life and Works of Edgar Allan Poe, The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud (London: Hogarth Press, 1964), 22:254.

37. C. S. Hall and B. Domhoff, "The Dreams of Freud and Jung," Psychology Today, June 1968, pp. 42-45, 64-65.

38. C. G. Jung, Memories, Dreams, Reflections (New York: Pantheon Books, 1961), quoted in Hall and Domhoff, "Dreams of Freud and Jung," p. 44.

39. E. Jones, The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud, 3 vols. (New York: Basic Books, 1955), 2:420-21.

40. Freud, Interpretation of Dreams .

41. Jung, Memories, Dreams, Reflections; C. G. Jung, Dreams (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974).

42. M. Boss, The Analysis of Dreams (New York: Philosophical Library, 1958); M. Boss, "I Dreamt Last Night ..." (New York: Gardner Press, 1977).

43. J. Downing and R. Marmorstein, Dreams and Nightmares: A Book of Gestalt Therapy Sessions (New York: Harper & Row, 1973).

44. E. Fromm, The Forgotten Language (New York: Grove Press, 1951).

45. N. Fodor, New Approaches to Dream Interpretation (New York: Citadel Press, 1962); A. Garma, The Psychoanalysis of Dreams (New York: Quadrangle Books, 1966); T. French and E. Fromm, Dream Interpretation (New York: Basic Books, 1964).

46. For recent representatives of this viewpoint, see Crick and Mitchison, "Function of Dream Sleep"; and Evans, Landscape of the Night .

47. C. S. Hall, "A Cognitive Theory of Dream Symbols," Journal of General Psychology 48 (1953):169-86; C. S. Hall, "A Cognitive Theory of Dreams," Journal of General Psychology 49 (1953):273-82; C. S. Hall, The Meaning of Dreams (New York: Harper & Row, 1953).

48. Hall and Nordby, Individual and His Dreams, p. 146.

49. A. Arkin, Sleep- Talking: Psychology and Physiology (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1981).

50. C. B. Brenneis, "Differences in Male and Female Ego Styles in Manifest Dream Content," unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1967; Hall and Nordby, Individual and His Dreams, pp. 14, 194.

51. E. Aronson, "Research in Social Psychology as a Leap of Faith," in Readings About The Social Animal, 4th ed., ed. E. Aronson (New York: W. H. Freeman, 1984). In calling for a social psychology that gets new ideas into the field, Aronson writes: "Since I believe that science is a self-correcting enterprise, I would prefer to be provocative than right. Of course, it goes without saying that I do not attempt to be wrong or sloppy. I attempt to do the best I can at the moment and share that less than perfect product with you—my colleagues and critics" (p.6).