1. Territory of Hawaii v. I. Sato et al., Circuit Court of the First Circuit Court, Territory of Hawaii (February 2, 1922).

2. Tobei , November 12, 1907.

3. E. Alexander Powell, "Are We Giving Japan a Square Deal?" Atlantic Monthly , no. 1281 (December 1921): 536-544.

1. Edward D. Beechert, Working in Hawaii: A Labor History (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1985), 159-169.

2. Nippu jiji , May 31, 1909.

3. Labor World changed its name to Shakaishugi (Socialism), and would later be reissued as Tobeikyokai * kikanshi (Going to America Society Magazine).

4. Foreign Ministry Archives, Tokubetsu yoshisatsunin * josei * ippan , August 31, 1909.

5. The Tokubetsu yoshisatsunin josei ippan described the IWW as "established in 1905 in the Northern United States [ sic ] with the aim of improving the status of workers, its headquarters are in Chicago with branches in the U.S. as well as in newly settled areas such as Australia and it engages in extremely radical activities."

6. Hikari , March 28, 1906.

7. Ibid.

8. Berkeley Daily Gazette , December 16, 1906.

9. Nichibei , June 28, 1909.

1. Here is the information regarding persons with the name "Tsutsumi" to be found in roll numbers 919, 921, 945, and 949 of the Investigative Case Files of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (1908-1922), National Archives:

H. Tsutsumi; subject Yoshie Takahashi is connected with above.—subject is engaged in business in New York. (October 1, 1921)

Hideo Tsutsumi; subject age 32 arrival in San Francisco. Is Professor of Electricity and Engineering at Waseda University, Tokio. Will remain in U.S. 3 months. Information on back of photo. (February 25, 1921) [Prof. Hideo Tsutsumi was renowned in the field of electrical physics and nuclear engineering.]

M. Tsutsumi; subject registered at William Penn Hotel (N.Y.) on 5-26-21.

H. Tsutsumi; Suzuki Tadashi is connected with the above Japanes. . . . (illegible) organization. (October 1, 1921)

All of these men entered the United States on the mainland.

2. National Archives, Investigative Case Files of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, January 28, 1921, report on Japanese Affairs (Honolulu and Hawaii Islands); referring to Los Angeles Weekly Intelligence Report for January 13, 1921, pp. 26, 27, 28.

3. Yasujiro * Tsutsumi, the founder of the Seibu group of companies, hailed from a nearby village. Though unrelated, he was of the same generation as Noboru Tsutsumi and his brothers.

4. The character Noboru can also be pronounced "Ryu * ," a homophone for the word "dragon."

5. Interview, Kimiko Kurokawa.

6. Honolulu Star Bulletin , June 22, 1918.

7. Hawaii kyoikukai * hensanbu, ed., Hawaii Nihongo kyoikushi * (Honolulu, 1937), 6.

1. "Nyu * Yoriku yori," Shin shakai , February 18.

2. Beechert, Working in Hawaii , 196-197.

3. Hawaii hochi * , November 10, 1919.

4. Ibid., November 4, 1919.

5. By the beginning of the strike one additional plantation was included.

6. Honolulu Advertiser , December 13, 1919.

7. Nippu jiji , December 15, 1919.

8. National Archives, Investigative Files of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Japanese Affairs (Honolulu and Hawaiian Islands), Report dated February 5, 1921.

9. Hawaii hochi , January 5, 1920.

10. Hawaiian Annual , 1910.

11. Hawaii hochi * , January 30, 1920.

1. Jiji shinpo * , January 31, 1920.

2. The Jiji shinpo reported on February 11, 1920, "Korean and Chinese were called in as replacements for Japanese on strike." Rather than stress the fact that Japanese laborers had caused disturbances in American territory, the Japanese press focused on the actions of the Koreans to the disadvantage of Japanese.

3. National Archives, Investigative Files of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Japanese Affairs (Honolulu and Hawaiian Islands), Washington, D.C., Report dated January 18, 1921.

4. Nippu jiji , October 28, 1919.

5. Sam Nishimura, Oral History Project, University of Hawaii.

6. National Archives, Investigative Files of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Japanese Affairs (Honolulu and Hawaiian Islands), Report dated January 22, 1921.

7. Interview, Tsuneichi Yamamoto.

8. Interview, Ryokin * Toyohira, former Nippu jiji reporter.

9. Interview, Takeshi Haga.

10. Foreign Ministry Archives, Kurusu to Uchida, March 22, 1920.

11. Oral History Project, University of Hawaii.

12. Oral History Project, University of Hawaii.

13. Interview, Violet Fujinaka.

14. Serphine Robello, fifteen at the time, later an electrician. Oral History Project, University of Hawaii.

15. Sam Nishimura, Oral History Project, University of Hawaii.

16. Antone Camacho, Oral History Project, University of Hawaii.

17. Seiichi Miyasaki, seventeen years old at the time, later a physician. Oral History Project, University of Hawaii.

18. Hawaii hochi , February 4, 1920.

19. Nippu jiji , February 23, 1920.

20. Ibid., February 25, 1920.

21. Ibid., November 8, 1919.

22. John E. Reinicke, Feigned Necessity (San Francisco: Chinese Materials Center, 1974), 40.

23. Foreign Ministry Archives, Furuya to Uchida, February 26, 1920.

24. Pacific Commercial Advertiser , February 28, 1920.

25. Honolulu Star Bulletin , February 24, 1920.

26. S. Robello, Portuguese at Waialua Plantation, Oral History Project, University of Hawaii.

27. Pacific Commercial Advertiser , February 14, 1920; March 3, 1920.

28. Interview, Ryokin Toyohira.

29. Hawaii hochi , March 23, 1920.

30. Ibid.

31. Foreign Ministry Archives, Ueno to Foreign Minister, July 14, 1909.

32. Ibid.

33. Ibid., June 17, 1909.

34. Foreign Ministry Archives, Arita to Kato * , July 23, 1915.

35. Honolulu Advertiser , April 2, 1920.

36. Hawaii hochi * , April 4, 1920.

37. Foreign Ministry Archives, Furuya to Uchida, April 6, 1920.

38. Hawaii hochi April 3, 1920.

39. Hawaii shinpo * , April 4, 1920.

40. Honolulu Star Bulletin , April 4, 1920.

41. Foreign Ministry Archives, Furuya to Uchida, April 6, 1920.

42. Jiji shinpo , May 2, 1920.

43. Ibid.

44. Hawaii Star Bulletin , May 20, 1920.

45. Federation of Japanese Labor, Tsutsumi benmeibun (Honolulu, 1920).

46. Sotoshu * Hawaii kaikyo * sohonbu * , ed., Sotoshu Hawaii kaikyo nanajugonenshi * (Honolulu: Hawaii Sotoshu kyokai * , n.d.).

47. Foreign Ministry Archives, Furuya to Uchida, July 3, 1920. Emphasis added.

48. Ibid.

49. An English translation may be in Pacific Commercial Advertiser , July 2, 1920.

50. Nippu jiji , August 16, 1920.

51. Honolulu Star Bulletin , July 10, 1920.

52. San Francisco Chronicle , August 20, 1920.

53. Honolulu Star Bulletin , July 10, 1920.

54. Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association, Proceedings of the Fortieth Meeting (Honolulu: Honolulu Star Bulletin, 1921). Waterhouse spoke on November 29, 1920.

55. Hawaii hochi , August 14, 1920.

56. Ibid., September 2, 1920.

57. Ibid., August 27, 1920.

58. The Soto * sect's history gives an example of his expansive personality: Isobe, during his later posting in Los Angeles, invited a parishioner to a restaurant. The parishioner had only $20 and caused a commotion when he found that Isobe had splurged and the bill came to $60. Sotoshu Hawaii kaikyo nanajugonenshi , 6.

59. Foreign Ministry Archives, Yada to Uchida, August 20, 1920.

60. Hawaii Sugar Planters' Association, Proceedings , 1920.

61. Hawaii hochi , October 16, 1920.

62. Ibid., October 20, 1920.

63. Ibid., October 23, 1920.

64. Honolulu Advertiser , January 1, 1921.

65. Hawaiian Annual , 1921.

66. Interview, Tazuko Iwasaki.

67. Foreign Ministry Archives, Yada to Uchida, October 20, 1921.

68. Norio Koga, Oral History Project, University of Hawaii.

69. Oral History Project, University of Hawaii.

70. Foreign Ministry Archives, Yada to Uchida, March 9, 1921.

1. Honolulu Advertiser , August 1, 1921.

2. Honolulu Star Bulletin , August 2, 1921.

3. Hawaii hochi * , August 2, 1921.

4. The first names of these Japanese defendants were not used in the trial records. All of the defendants are identified only by first initial from the time of the indictment. Of the 21 men charged, 15, including N. (at times referred to as "T.") Tsutsumi, appeared for the arraignment. Three of the absent men (Y. Sato * , K. Miyamura, E. Yokoo) had already returned to Japan, and Jinbo's whereabouts were unknown.

5. The testimony quoted is from the transcript of the Sakamaki house dynamiting case trial. Contemporary newspaper articles were referred to for the portions indicating the atmosphere of the courtroom. Territory v. I. Sato et al .

6. Prosecution exhibits (A-D)—the plan of the Sakamaki house, which was the site of the crime, the photograph of the side of the house that had been destroyed (the same one printed in the Advertiser at the time of the indictment), an enlargement of a portion of it, and a map of Olaa Plantation—had already been submitted by H. T. Lake, a detective detailed to the legal department of the city and county of Honolulu.

Detective Lake, who went to the Sakamaki house on the morning after the incident to investigate the premises, had later been transferred to the Honolulu police department but had been sent to Olaa just before the indictment to gather details about the case from Sakamaki. The map of Olaa and the plan of the Sakamaki house had been prepared by Lake with Sakamaki's help at the time of this reinvestigation one year after the crime. Lake testified, "I first met him (Sakamaki) when I was senior captain of police of the Island of Hawai. . . . about twenty-two years" ago. This meant that the prosecution had gathered the facts of the case by sending to the scene of the crime a detective who was acquainted with the victim.

7. Eldest son, Paul (Fukuo), 18 (ages were given in the traditional Japanese method of counting the first year as age 1); second son, George (Joji * ), 16; third son, Shunzo (Shunzo * ), 13; eldest daughter, Masa, 8; fifth son, Uuroku (Urio in the transcript; actually Yuroku * ), 4. Of his last child, Noboru, he said only that he was a one-year-old boy.

Including his seventh son, Ben, who was born after the incident, Sakamaki eventually was able to send all of them to the University of Hawaii. For a time three of his sons were boarding in Honolulu at once. For the Japanese immigrants the education of children was a paramount concern, but most were barely able to send their children through local public high school. This put Sakamaki in the position of being envied and resented by other Japanese.

8. Interview, Masao Koga; from Olaa, graduated from the University of Hawaii.

9. Although the name had already been changed to the Hawaii Laborers' Association, the court used "Federation" throughout, so Federation will be used here.

10. Ryugai * Aoki, Hawaii jinbutsu hyoron * (Hilo: Seikisha, 1914).

11. Matsumoto was mistaken about these figures also. The amounts announced by the federation were $1,328 for newspapers and magazines and $9,045 for printing and advertisements.

12. Honolulu Star Bulletin , August 2, 1921.

13. National Archives, Office of the Assistant Chief of Staff, Military Intelligence, Headquarters, Hawaii Department, Report dated October 2, 1922.

14. Ibid.

15. University of Hawaii, Sinclair Library, Teisuke Terasaki, "Terasaki Teisuke nisshi," 1917-1956, entry dated December 13, 1920. Hereafter cited as Terasaki diary.

16. Hawaii nenkan , 1929, lists in the Wainaku district of Hilo "Okinawa, car business, Ineushi Aragaki"—who is most likely the same person.

17. Then Furusho * said to him, "'I may have to ask you some other things.'" Saito * said, "He told me that, 'That Hosen * Isobe went in as a go-between to have the strike settled, but he is not speeding the thing up, that we are going to ask him to withdraw from this matter, and I want you to go along with us to his place.'" (There is no testimony as to what happened.)

18. The August 2, 1921, Honolulu Advertiser speculated, "One Jinbo, whose full and true name is to the grand jurors unknown, might have been Y. Kosaki who had already went back to Japan." August 2, 1921.

19. Honolulu Advertiser , February 16, 1922.

20. Ibid.

21. Honolulu Star Bulletin , August 25, 1920.

22. Hawaii hochi * , March 5, 1920.

23. From the material at the archives of the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association, it is clear that at the time of the strike the HSPA had an exceedingly high fire insurance coverage—$20 million.

24. National Archives, Investigative Files of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Japanese Affairs (Honolulu and Hawaiian Islands), Report dated February 5, 1921.

25. Ibid.

26. An article in the Nippu jiji of that date noted, "Baba's frail figure looked miserable as he weakly waved his hat in encouragement."

27. The Honolulu Advertiser published as front page headlines: "Labor Official Is Witness, In the Olaa Dynamite Trial: His Testimony Not Shaken" and "Secretary of Japanese Federation, Enters Complete Denial of State's Witnesses' Stories on Stand."

28. After confirming that it was Tsutsumi who had written the Federation of Japanese Labor report on the strike (prosecution exhibit J), Lymar asked Tsutsumi to read a portion of it. Interpreter Maruyama was unable to interpret this, so Tsutsumi left the witness stand while S. Shirai, an interpreter assisting the defense, took the stand to interpret the text.

29. Hawaii hochi * , April 24, 1920.

30. Ibid., December 23, 1920.

31. Ibid.

32. Honolulu Advertiser , March 4, 1922.

33. National Archives, Investigative Files of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Japanese Affairs (Honolulu and Hawaiian Islands), Report dated February 5, 1921.

34. Instruction No. 25.

35. National Archives, Investigative Files of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Japanese Affairs (Honolulu and Hawaiian Islands), Report dated February 25, 1922.

36. Hyoron-no * Hyoron * , October 2, 1922.

37. National Archives, February 18, 1922.

1. U.S. House of Representatives, Labor Problems in Hawaii, Hearing. . . . on H. J. Res. 158 and H. J. 171, pt. 1 , 67th Cong., 1st sess. (1921).

2. Foreign Ministry Archives, Moroi to Motono, December 4, 1917.

3. Honolulu Advertiser , January 24, 1920.

4. U.S. Senate, Japanese in Hawaii, Hearings on S. 3206  . . . , 66th Cong., 2d sess. (1920).

5. In chapter 3, on the Japanese conspiracy, I mentioned that Senator Phelan gave a speech that seemed to predict war between the United States and Japan. This speech was delivered ten days after he met with Governor McCarthy.

6. Los Angeles Examiner , March 20, 1921.

7. Ibid., March 25, 1921.

8. Foreign Ministry Archives, Transcript, Shidehara 'Morris' Conference.

9. Kijuro * Shidehara, Gaiko * gojunen * (Fifty Years of Diplomacy) (Tokyo: Yomiuri shinbunsha, 1951).

10. National Archives, Investigative Files of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Japanese Affairs (Honolulu and Hawaiian Islands), Report dated January 22, 1921.

11. Hawaii hochi , April 30, 1921.

12. Foreign Ministry Archives, Kawahara to Foreign Minister, July 3, 1920.

13. Reinicke, Feigned Necessity , 80.

14. Honolulu Advertiser , May 23, 1921.

15. Hawaii hochi , October 18, 1920.

16. Honolulu Advertiser , June 22, 1921.

17. Kokumin shinbun , November 5, 1920.

18. Foreign Ministry Archives, Yada to Uchida, iNovember 13, 1920.

19. Honolulu Advertiser , June 30, 1921.

20. Reinicke, Feigned Necessity , 202-204.

21. U.S. House of Representatives, Labor Problems in Hawaii . Other material quoted in this section is taken from this source.

22. Honolulu Advertiser , April 1, 1920; Honolulu Star Bulletin , July 10, 1920.

23. U.S. House of Representatives, Labor Problems in Hawaii .

24. Foreign Ministry Archives, Yamakazi to Uchida, June 15, 1922.

25. Reinicke, Feigned Necessity , 224.

26. Yuji Ichioka, The Issei: The World of the First-Generation Japanese Immigrants, 1885-1924 (New York: Free Press, 1988), 102.

27. U.S. House of Representatives, Labor Problems in Hawaii .

28. Ibid.

29. Reinicke, Feigned Necessity , 237-244.

30. Honolulu Advertiser , August 2, 1921.

31. San Francisco Chronicle , August 3, 1921.

32. U.S. Senate, Immigration into Hawaii. Hearings on S. J. Res. 8. . . . , Pt . 2, 67th Cong., 2d sess. (1922). Other material quoted in this section comes from the same source.

33. Reinicke, Feigned Necessity , 305.

34. Honolulu Star Bulletin , November 16, 1921.

35. National Archives, Assistant Chief of Staff, Military Intelligence, Hawaii Department, Report dated February 18, 1922.

36. Foreign Ministry Archives, Uchida to Shidehara, March 25, 1922.

37. National Archives, Investigative Files of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Japanese Affairs (Honolulu and Hawaiian Islands), Report dated January 16, 1922.

38. It has already been mentioned that in the immigration card file preserved at the Consulate the cards for Kan'ichi Takizawa and Chuhei * Hoshino were marked in red ink: "Warning: dangerous person who attempted to bring charges against Consul General Yada." Although the specific details cannot be known, it appears that the "attitude of the Consul General" seen as problematic by the federation representatives at this meeting with Shibusawa was not unrelated to the incident with Takizawa and Hoshino.

39. National Archives, Investigative Files of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Japanese Affairs (Honolulu and Hawaiian Islands), Report dated January 16, 1922.

40. Tokyo asahi , January 30, 1922.

41. Thereafter, the Sakamaki house dynamiting case was handled as Territory of Hawaii v. I. Goto et al .

42. James Phelan, "The Hawaiian Situation," Congressional Record , April 13, 1922.

43. Foreign Ministry Archives, Saburi to Uchida, April 24, 1922.

44. U.S. Senate, Immigration into Hawaii, Pt . 2. Other material quoted in this section comes from the same source.

45. Nippu jiji , June 28, 1922.

46. Reinicke, Feigned Necessity , 462. Judging that Japanese were incapable of becoming assimilated, the commission report also warned: "Commission fully appreciates dangers of menace of alien domination by one race and strongly rec- soft

ommends question of national defense should receive prompt remedial legislation." As the report dealt with foreign policy matters, it was classified top secret.

47. National Archives, Investigative Files of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Japanese Affairs (Honolulu and Hawaiian Islands), Report dated August 7, 1922.

48. Message of the Honorable W. R. Farrington, Governor of Hawaii, to the Legislature, Territory of Hawaii, February 21, 1923, 13.

49. National Archives, Investigative Files of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Japanese Affairs (Honolulu and Hawaiian Islands), Report dated August 6, 1923.

50. Yasutaro * Soga * of the Nippu , who had been sent to the same prison some ten years earlier due to his actions in the first Oahu strike, noted in his reminiscences: "Although I had resigned myself, it was still with a sense of unutterable loneliness that I first entered prison." Gojunenkan * no Hawaii kaiko .

51. Hawaii hochi * , March 14, 1924.

52. Ibid.

1. Reinicke, Feigned Necessity , 481.

2. U.S. Senate, Japanese Immigration Legislation. Hearing. . . . on S. 2576 . 68th Cong., 1st sess. (1924).

3. Foreign Ministry Archives, Oyama * to Shidehara, August 3, 1924.

4. Honululu Advertiser , June 26, 1923.

5. Foreign Ministry Archives, Hanihara to Shidehara, June 10, 1924.

6. Yasutaro Soga, Gojunenkan no Hawaii kaiko (Recollections of Fifty Years in Hawaii) (Honolulu, 1953).

7. Tokyo * , September 1924.

8. Ichioka, The Issei , 250-251.

9. Tokyo , September 1924.

10. Leading the protest were Kokuryukai * (Black Dragon Society; Amur River Society), Zuihokai, Okoku * seinendan (Imperial Youth Group), Shishinto * , Kinnoresshito * , Asia kyokai * , Yukoku * seishinkai, Taibei doshikai * , Toyo * renmei kyokai, and Dainihon rokuji gun.

11. Soga, Gojunenkan no Hawaii kaiko .

12. Tsutsumi and Hoshino had begun serving their sentences a year before Goto * and the others who had appealed, so their release was earlier as well. This meant that Tsutsumi and Manlapit, president of the Filipino Labor Union, the two leaders who had struggled together against the HSPA, had overlapped at the Oahu prison for three months.

13. Soga, Gojunenkan no Hawaii kaiko .

14. Foreign Ministry Archives, Sato * to Shidehara, July 12, 1931.

15. Gojunenkan no Hawaii kaiko is meaningful to read to observe Soga's experiences and impression of events but is problematical as a record of fact.

16. Soga, Gojunenkan no Hawaii kaiko .

17. Hawaii Nihonjin iminshi kanko * iinkai, ed., Hawaii Nihonjin iminshi (Honolulu: Hawaii Nihonjin rengo * kyokai, 1964).