1. Michael Burns, Rural Society and French Politics: Boulangism and the Dreyfus Affair, 1886-1900 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984); Tony Judt, Socialism in Provence, 1871-1914 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979); and Georges Duby and Armand Wallon, eds., Histoire de la France rurale , vol. 3 (Paris: Seuil, 1976).

2. See Ronald Aminzade, Class, Politics, and Early Industrial Capitalism (Albany: SUNY Press, 1981); Yves Lequin, Les ouvriers de la région lyonnaise, 1848-1914 , 2 vols. (Lyon: Presses universitaires de Lyon, 1977); Michael Hanagan, The Logic of Solidarity: Artisans and Industrial Workers in Three French Towns, 1871-1914 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1980); Joan W. Scott, The Glassworkers of Carmaux (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1974); William H. Sewell, Jr., ''Social Change and the Rise of Working-Class Politics in Nineteenth-Century Marseille," Past and Present 65 (1974): 75-109; Robert Bezucha, The Lyon Uprising of 1834 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1974); Bernard Moss, The Origins of the French Labor Movement: The Socialism of Skilled Workers, 1830-1914 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1976); Rolande Trempé, Les mineurs de Carmaux, 1848-1914 , 2 vols. (Paris: Editions ouvrières, 1971); and John Merriman, Red City: Limoges in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986).

3. Leo A. Loubère, Radicalism in Mediterranean France: Its Rise and Decline, 1848-1914 (Albany: SUNY Press, 1974). On politics and unions in the French countryside, see also Philippe Gratton, Les luttes de classes dans les campagnes (Paris: Anthropos, 1971); Gratton's study includes the Centre, Champagne, and the Landes, as well as Languedoc.

4. J. Harvey Smith, "Work Routine and Social Structure in a French Village: Cruzy, Hérault, in the Nineteenth Century," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 5 (December 1975): 357-382; Jean Sagnes, Le mouvement ouvrier en Languedoc (Toulouse: Edouard Privat, 1980), 30-33, 84-87; and Jean Sagnes, "Le mouvement de 1907 en Languedoc-Roussillon: De la révolte viticole à la révolte régionale." Mouvement social 104 (July-Sept. 1978): 3-20.

5. Judt, Socialism in Provence , 142-143.

6. See John Merriman, The Agony of the Republic (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1978); Ted Margadant, French Peasants in Revolt: The Insurrection of 1851 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979); Edward Berenson, Populist Religion and Left-Wing Politics in France, 1830-1852 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984); Christopher Guthrie, "Political Conflict and Socioeconomic Change in the City of Narbonne, 1848-1871" (Ph.D. diss., Northern Illinois University, 1981); and Christopher Guthrie, "Reaction to the Coup d'Etat of 1851 in the Narbonnais: A Case Study of Popular Political Mobilization and Repression During the Second Republic," French Historical Studies 13 (Spring 1983): 18-46.

7. Edward Shorter and Charles Tilly, Strikes in France, 1830-1968 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1974); and Hanagan, Logic of Solidarity , esp. chap. 3.

8. J-C. Toutain, La population de la France de 1700 à 1959 (Paris: Institut de Science Economique Appliquée, 1963), 164; Rémy Pech, Entreprise viticole et capitalisme en Languedoc-Roussillon. Du phylloxéra aux crises de mévente (Toulouse: Presses de l'Université de Toulouse, 1975), 48, 51. In the Aude 55.4 percent of the land consisted of properties over forty hectares in size (1 hectare = 2.47 acres), owned by 5.1 percent of the owners.

9. France, Ministère de l'agriculture, Statistique agricole de la France, Résultats généraux de l'enquête décennale de 1882 (Nancy: Berger-Levrault, 1887), 143.

10. France, Ministère de l'agriculture, Direction de l'agriculture, Office des renseignements agricoles. La petite propriété rurale en France. Enquêtes monographiques, 1908-1909 (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1909), 37.

11. E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (Harmondsworth, Eng.: Penguin Books, 1968), 11.

12. See, for example, Florencia Mallon, The Defense of Community in Peru's Central Highlands: Peasant Struggle and Capitalist Transition, 1860-1940 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983).

13. Loubère, Radicalism in Mediterranean France , 197.

1. Charles Ballainvilliers, "Des mémoires sur le Languedoc, divisés par diocèses et subdélégations, 1788" (Manuscript no. 81, Municipal Library of Carcassonne), fol. 19.

2. This policy was designed to insure adequate grain reserves in an economy heavily dependent on grain for bread and animal feed. See V. Pellegrin, Les grandes étapes de l'agriculture dans l'Aude (Carcassonne: Gabelle, 1937), 18; Michel Augé-Laribé, Le problème agraire du socialisme. La viticulture industrielle du Midi de la France (Paris: Giard & Brière, 1907), 29; Gilbert Larguier, ''Structures agraires, structures sociales d'un village narbonnais: Ouveillan (fin XVIII ^e siècle-début XX ^e siècle)," in Economie et société en Languedoc-Roussillon de 1789 a nos jours (Montpellier: Centre d'histoire contemporaine du Languedoc-meditérranéen et du Roussillon, 1978), 158.

3. Berthomieu Tournal Girault de Saint-Fargeau, Histoire nationale ou Dictionnaire géographique de toutes les communes du département de l'Aude (Paris: Firmin Didot; Carcassonne: Arnaud; Narbonne: Delsols, 1830), 32. See also Archives départementales de l'Aude (hereafter cited as AD Aude) 13M61, "Vignoble départemental, cépages et produits, an XIII à 1878"; Jean Sentou, "Les facteurs de la révolution agricole dans le Narbonnais," in France méridionale et pays ibériques: Mélanges géographiques offerts en hommage à Daniel Faucher (Toulouse: Edouard Privat, 1949), 2:656.

4. Louis René Villermé, Tableau de l'état physique et moral des ouvriers employés dans les manufactures de coton, de laine et de soie (1840) , ed. Yves Tyl (Paris: Union générale des éditions, Collection 10/18, 1971), 155-157; AD Aude 11M58, "Dénombrement de la population. Etat nominatif des habitants de la commune de Coursan, 1836"; A. Ditandy, Lectures variées sur le département de l'Aude (Carcassonne: François Pomiés, 1875), 221-222.

5. At the outset, two points need to be made about landholding records ( cadastre foncier ) and the land market. First, the cadastre of any village cannot give a completely accurate picture of the land actually held by the resident population. That of Coursan, for example, shows numerous individuals from neighboring villages holding land in Coursan, and the notarial archives of Coursan also amply show that Coursannais themselves owned property all over the Narbonnais: a few ares in Narbonne, a few in Cuxac, Salles, or Ouveillan. Thus, any figures illustrating property ownership underestimate the real extent of villagers' landownership. Second, the cadastre provides a picture of enormous activity on the land market, a factor that needs to be borne in mind when looking at the evolution of property ownership. Individuals bought and sold property at a tremendous rate from year to year, most transactions involving only a few ares. Despite received wisdom about the stability of peasant proprietorship, then, landownership was extremely volatile in the Aude.

6. Service de cadastre de l'Aude, Narbonne (hereafter cited as SC Aude), Cadastre foncier de Coursan.

7. Archives nationales de France (hereafter cited as AN) F ²⁰ 715, "Tableaux des prix et denrées et des salaires des ouvriers (1844, 1855)"; AN C86, Agriculture française par MM. les Inspecteurs de l'agriculture, publié d'après les ordres de M. le Ministre de l'agriculture et du commerce. Département de l'Aude (Paris: Imprimerie royale, 1847). See also AN C946, "Enquête sur le travail agricole et industriel, 25 mai 1848." The years 1846 and 1847 saw general economic depression in France, so wages were lower than they might have been. The depression, after abating for a while in the fall of 1847 and early 1848, resumed again after the revolution.

8. AD Aude 13M61, Prefect and sub-prefect reports for 1829; Gaston Galtier, Le vignoble du Languedoc-méditerranéen et du Roussillon (Montpellier: Causse, Graille & Castelnau, n.d.), 1:123n. The average income from one hectare of vines in the Narbonnais around 1829 was estimated at 434 francs; see Augé-Laribé, Problème agraire du socialisme , 41; Jean-François Garidou, "La viticulture audoise, 1870-1913" (Travail d'études et de recherches d'histoire, Université de Montpellier, Faculté des lettres et des sciences humaines, 1968, typescript), 9.

9. See Guillaume Bertier de Sauvigny, La restauration (Paris: Flammarion, 1955), 216; AD Aude 13M270-280, "Statistique générale. "Etats de renseignements concernant les grains et les farineux . . . les céréales, 1815-1850"; AD Aude 13M275, "Etats de renseignements . . . 1818-1820"; Georges Barbut, Histoire de la culture des céréales dans l'Aude de 1785 à 1900 (Carcassonne: Gabelle, 1900), 19; Sentou, "Révolution agricole," 661.

10. France, Ministère du commerce, Statistique générale, Prix et salaires à diverses époques (Strasbourg: Berger-Levrault, 1864), xxiv.

11. France, Ministère de l'agriculture, Enquête agricole de 1872. Deuxième série. Enquêtes départementales, 21 ^e circonscription (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1872), 32.

12. See Robert Laurent, Les vignerons de la Côte d'Or au XIX ^e siècle (Dijon: Bernigaud & Privat, 1957), 1:201n5.

13. Paul Carrière and Raymond Dugrand, La région méditerranéenne (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1960), 80; R. Pech, Entreprise viticole , 374.

14. Raymond Dugrand, Villes et Campagnes en Bas-Languedoc. Le réseau urbain du Bas-Languedoc (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1963), 395-402.

15. AD Aude 11M58, "Dénombrement de la population. Etats nominatifs des habitants de Coursan, 1836"; 11M101, ibid., "1876."

16. Philippe Pinchemel, Structures sociales et dépopulation rurale dans les campagnes picardes de 1836 à 1936 (Paris: Armand Colin, 1957). The same was true of the Hérault; see Sagnes, Mouvement ouvrier .

17. Rémy Pech, "Aspects de l'économie narbonnaise de l'époque du phylloxéra à la crise de mévente (fin XIX ^e siècle): Un démarrage éphémère," in Narbonne. Archéologie et histoire (Montpellier: Fédération historique du Languedoc-méditerranéen et du Roussillon, 1973), 114; Robert Laurent, "La propriété foncière dans le Bittérois à la veille de la première guerre mondiale," in Fédération historique du Languedoc-méditerranéen et du Roussillon, XLIIIC congrès, Béziers, 1970 (Montpellier: FHLMR, 1971), 415-426; Xavier Verdejo, "Les mutations de la vie rurale à Cuxac d'Aude aux XIX ^e et XX ^e siècles (entre 1789 et 1914)" (Mémoire de maîtrise d'histoire, Université de Toulouse—Le Mirail, 1983), 18, 48-62.

18. SC Aude, "Cadastre foncier de Coursan," fols. 94, 95, 100, 585, 654-655.

19. Ibid., fol. 305.

20. Ibid., fols. 94-95, 100, 300, 486, 552, 558, 585-586, 572, 610-612, 654-655, 974-975, 978-979, 983, 1158, 1431, 1536, 2274, 2277, 2279, 2280, 2285, 2286.

21. See Charles Gervais, L'indicateur des vignobles méridionaux , 2d ed. (Montpellier: Firmin, Montagne & Sicardi, [1903]).

22. Augé-Laribé estimated that it took four days to cultivate one hectare of vines with a horse and plow, but six days to cultivate the same area dispersed in small parcels throughout a village ( Probléme agraire , 268). See also J. Valentin, La révolution viticole dans l'Aude, 1789-1907 (Carcassonne: Centre départemental de documentation pédagogique, 1977), vol. 2, doc. 206.

23. See André Garridou-Lagrange, Production agricole et économie rurale en France (Paris: Librairie générale de droit et de jurisprudence, 1939), 77; E. Flour de St-Genis, La propriété rurale en France (Paris: Armand Colin, 1902); Alfred de Foville, Etudes économiques et statistiques sur la propriété foncière. Le morcellement (Paris: Guillaumin, 1885). On property division in viticulture elsewhere, see Laurent, "Propriété foncière"; and Alain Corbin, Archaïsme et modernité en Limousin au XIX ^e siècle (Paris: Marcel Rivière, 1975), 1:259-260.

24. Augé-Laribé, Problème agraire , 64-65; and AD Aude 13M300, "Statistique décennale agricole. Tableaux communaux des cantons de Coursan, Durban, Ginestas et Sigean, 1882."

25. SC Aude, "Cadastre foncier de Coursan."

26. On the Bertrand brothers, see ibid., fol. 1502; R. Pech. "La formation de la bourgeoisie viticole en Narbonnais au XIX ^e siècle," in Economie et société en Languedoc-Roussillon de 1789 à nos jours (Montpellier: Centre d'histoire contemporaine du Languedoc-méditerranéen et du Roussillon, 1978), 138-140; Yves Rinaudo, Les vendanges de la république. Les paysans du Var à la fin du XIX ^e siècle (Lyon: Presses universitaires de Lyon, 1982), 136-137; Yves Rinaudo, "Usure et crédit dans les campagnes du Var au XIX ^e siécle," Annales du Midi 92 (Oct.-Dec. 1980): 431-452.

27. SC Aude, Cadastre foncier de Coursan, fol. 77.

28. Smith, "Work Routine and Social Structure," 367-369.

29. Jules Guyot, Etude des vignobles de France pour servir à l'enseignement de la viticulture et de la vinification française , vol 1: Régions du sud-est et du sud-ouest (Paris: Imprimerie Impériale, 1868), 258.

30. Arthur Young, Travels During the Years 1787, 1788, and 1789; Undertaken More Particularly with a View Towards Ascertaining the Cultivation, Wealth, Resources and National Prosperity of France , 2d ed. (London: Printed for W. R. Richardson, Royal Exchange, 1794), 2:1.

31. AD Aude 13M282, "Tableaux de statistique agricole annuelle . . . 1856-1857."

32. For various descriptions of the work of the vineyard year and the calendar of the vigneron , see Alexis Riondet, L'agriculture de la France méridionale. Ce qu'elle est; ce qu'elle a été; ce qu'elle pourrait être (Paris: Librairie agricole de la maison rustique, 1863), 116-123; Aude, Annuaire administratif, statistique et historique du département de l'Aude pour l'anné 1869-1870 (Carcassonne: P. Labau, 1870); Guyot, Régions du sud-est et du sud-ouest, 9-14; Galtier, Vignoble du Languedoc-méditerranéen 1:240-242; Paul Marrès, La vigne et le vin en France (Paris: Armand Colin, 1950), 130-132; Garidou "Viticulture audoise," 21.

33. Paul Coste-Floret, Les travaux du vignoble (Montpellier: Camille Coulet; Paris: Masson, 1898).

34. R. Pech, Entreprise viticole , 39.

35. Augé-Laribé, Problème agraire , 51.

36. AN F ¹¹ 2698, "Enquête agricole de 1862"; France, Ministère de l'agriculture, Statistique de la France, Agriculture, Résultats généraux de l'enquête décennale 1862 (Strasbourg: Berger-Levrault, 1868), 194-195; idem, Statistique agricole de la France, Résultats généraux de l'enquête décennale de 1892 (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1898).

37. Augé-Laribé, Problème agraire , 248-249; R. Pech, Entreprise viticole , 376-380.

38. Will of Jean-Pierre Aribaud, Dec. 27, 1911; Notarial Archives, Coursan.

39. Paul Passama, La condition des ouvriers viticoles dans le Minervois (Paris: Giard & Brière, 1906), 16; AD Aude 11M117, "Dénombrement de la population. Etats nominatifs des habitants de Coursan, 1876."

40. R. Pech, Entreprise viticole , 383-384; AD Aude 13M300, "Statistique agricole décennale . . . 1882."

41. R. Pech, Entreprise viticole , 383. According to Paul Coste-Floret, "men had the right to meat at every meal and women only had vegetables cooked with meat left over from the men" ( Travaux du vignoble , 378). Although women's vineyard work was often as strenuous as that of men, this attitude was not unusual.

42. Coste-Floret, Travaux du vignoble , 378.

43. Augé-Laribé, Probléme agraire , 260-261; R. Pech, Entreprise viticole , 383.

44. Passama, Condition des ouvriers , 49. Guyot, who held a low opinion of the farmhands, attributed their inferiority to the fact that they were not used to drinking wine and therefore lacked the benefits of the aimable boisson ( Régions du sud-est et du sud-ouest , 258).

45. Abel Chatelain, "Les migrations temporaires françaises au XIX ^e siècle" (Paper delivered to the Société de démographie historique, Jan. 1967) (Paris: Sirey, 1968), 20. On the use of this term by workers in the Hérault, see Smith, "Work Routine and Social Structure," 364.

46. Coste-Floret, Travaux du vignoble , 379.

47. Pierre Larue, Le travail du sol dans les vignes (Narbonne: F. Caillard, 1902); Passama, Condition des ouvriers , 61; Georges Barbut, "Le vignoble de l'Aude: Monographie du domaine de Jouarrès" (excerpt from La Revue de viticulture ) (Paris: Bureau de La Revue de viticulture , 1898), 9; and AN F ¹¹ 2698, "Enquête agricole de 1862"; Léopold Fontanilles, Etude sur les ouvriers agricoles et leurs mouvements sociaux (Grenoble: La Dépêche dauphinoise, 1908), 54.

48. SC Aude, "Cadastre foncier de Coursan." This figure was calculated as follows: the 1876 census listed 439 day laborers and cultivateurs . The "Cadastre" showed 61 individuals who could have been totally self-supporting (on the basis of the amount of land they owned in Coursan), leaving 378 full or part-time wage earners. According to the "Cadastre," 153 workers were landowners and hence part-time wage earners. Because the "Cadastre'' provided occupational designations for a little more than half of all landowners, it is likely that this figure underestimates the true number of vinedressers who were also landowners.

49. Jules Rivals, L'agriculture dans le département de l'Aude, 1899-1900 (Paris: Henri Poirre, 1901), 69.

50. In Coursan, where workers owned an average of 0.65 hectares (65 ares) of land, income from a plot of vines would be somewhat lower, 1,095.25 francs. Costs of production included the following expenses: fertilizer (60 francs), sulphur (35 francs), pruning and other operations (40 francs), cultivation (130 francs), and the cost of bringing grapes to a neighbor's cellar for winemaking (75 francs). The estimate of 340 francs per hectare comes from the "Enquête agricole" of 1872.

51. Passama, Condition des ouvriers , 71-72; Smith, "Work Routine and Social Structure," 365.

52. AD Aude 11M101, "Dénombrement de la population. Etats nominatifs des habitants de Coursan, 1866"; 11M117, ibid., "1876." The shift is particularly striking here, showing the journaliers' decline from 33 percent of the working population in 1866 to less than 1 percent in 1876. At the same time, the number of cultivateurs grew by almost exactly the number of former journaliers , from 15 to 45 percent. This shift, linked to property ownership and the new ambiguity of the term cultivateur , was not unique to Coursan. See Smith, "Work Routine and Social Structure," 381.

53. AD Aude 13M282, "Tableaux de statistique agricole annuel. . . 1856-1857"; AN F ¹¹ 2698, "Enquête agricole de 1862"; AD Aude 13M300, "Statistique agricole décennale . . . 1882"; France, Ministère de l'agriculture, Résultats généraux de l'enquête décennale de 1862 , 204-205; ibid., 1882 , pt. 1,382-396; pt. 2,178-183; Augé-Laribé, Problème agraire , 76-77, 283-288, 290; Passama, Condition des ouvriers , 79-80. Real wages and standard of living are examined in Chapter 4, below. See also AN F ¹² 4484, "Situation de l'industrie dans l'Aude,'' Prefect's report of September 22, 1888, and prefect's reports for 1871, 1872, 1880, and 1881.

54. See, for example, Hanagan, Logic of Solidarity , 130-132; Aminzade, Class, Politics, and Early Industrial Capitalism , 31-45; Joan Scott, Glassworkers of Carmaux , chap. 4.

55. Rémy Pech, "Le vignoble du Languedoc-Roussillon: Crise séculaire et recherche d'un nouveau souffle," Revue française d'études politiques méditerranéennes 23 (Nov. 1976): 19.

56. Dugrand, Villes et campagnes , 358; Ditandy, cited by Valentin, Révolution viticole 1:27.

1. Margadant, French Peasants in Revolt , 55. I am using the term protourbanization in the same sense as Margadant and Charles Tilly have used it, to refer to the "expansion of urban influence over rural communities" (ibid.).

2. René Nelli, Le Languedoc et le comté de Foix, le Roussillon (Paris: Gallimard, 1958), 59-60; Charles Parain, "La maison vigneronne en France," Arts et traditions populaires 4 (Oct.-Dec. 1955): 289-378.

3. For the development of cafés in the 1840s and 1850s, see Merriman, Agony of the Republic , 97-101; for the later development of political cafés, see AD Aude 5M51, Letter from mayor of Coursan to subprefect of the Aude, Aug. 29, 1872; AD Aude 17J7, "Visites pastorales, Coursan," Report of 1878.

4. Daniel Fabre and Jacques Lacroix, La vie quotidienne des paysans du Languedoc au XIX ^e siècle (Paris: Hachette, 1973), 238-240; Daniel Fabre and Charles Camberoque, La fête en Languedoc (Toulouse: Edouard Privat, 1978); Abel Chatelain, Les migrations temporaires en France de 1800 à 1914 (Lille: Publications de l'Université de Lille III, 1976) 1:133.

5. Fabre and Lacroix, Vie quotidienne , 197-264.

6. Ibid., 249-250.

7. Rémy Pech, "L'organisation du marché du vin en Languedoc et en Roussillon aux XIX ^e et XX ^e siècles, Etudes rurales 78-80 (Apr.-Dec. 1980): 106, 111.

8. Ibid., 103-105.

9. Ibid., 105.

10. Ibid., 106.

11. Romain Plandé, Géographie et histoire du département de l'Aude (Grenoble: Editions françaises nouvelles, 1944), 57, 170; Bureau du greffier du tribunal de grande instance, Narbonne, Aude (hereafter referred to as TGI, Narbonne), "Etat civil de Coursan, Actes de naissance, 1851-1881"; "Actes de décès, 1851-1881." Between 1851 and 1881, Coursan had a mean crude birth rate of 22.0 and a mean crude mortality rate of 21.9; both rates were relatively low for the department and region. See Carrière and Dugrand, Région méditerranéenne , 24-27; Etienne Van de Walle, The Female Population of France in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974), 255; Dugrand, Villes et campagnes , 439; Verdejo, "Mutation de la vie rurale," 122; France, Ministère du commerce, Direction du travail, Statistique générale, Annuaire statistique de la France. Première année, 1878 (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1878), table 1, ''Mouvement général de la population en 1875."

12. France, Ministére de l'agriculture, Enquête agricole par application du décrêt du 28 mars 1866. Enquêtes départementales, 21 ^e circonscription (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1866), 130, 132-133; Guyot, Régions du sud-est et du sud-ouest, 43-44; Chatelain, Migrations temporaires 1:120-122.

13. AD Aude 11M78, "Dénombrement de la Population. Etats nominatifs des habitants de Coursan, 1851"; 11M117, ibid., "1876."

14. R. Pech, "Aspects de l'économie narbonnaise," 114.

15. Chatelain, Migrations temporaires 1:144; TGI, Narbonne, "Etat civil de Coursan, Actes de manage."

16. Cited by Fabre and Lacroix, Vie quotidienne , 374-375; AN F ¹⁷ 10781, "Mémoires sur les besoins de l'instruction primaire, Aude, Gard, 1860-1861"; F ¹⁷ 10529, "Etats de la situation des écoles primaires . . . 1878-1879."

17. AN F ¹⁷ 9322, "Inspection des écoles primaires, années 1855-1856. Ardèche à Bouches-du-Rhône."

18. Rémy Pech, "La vie politique dans l'Aude, 1881-1902" (Mémoire pour diplôme d'études supérieures d'Histoire, Université de Paris-Sorbonne, 1967), 45; national figures are from Toutain, Population de la France , 217, 227.

19. AN F ¹⁷ 10670, "Etats de la situation des écoles primaires publiques et libres et des écoles maternelles, 1888-1889. Aude à Corrèze."

20. Gérard Cholvy, "L'Indifférence religieuse et anticléricalisme à Narbonne et en Narbonnais au XIX ^e siècle," in Fédération historique du Languedoc-méditerranéen et du Roussillon , vol. 3 (Montpellier: FHLMR, 1973), 78.

21. AD Aude 17J7, "Visites pastorales, Coursan," Reports of 1864, 1880, 1882, 1885; AD Aude 5M7, Prefect's report, Nov. 20, 1859.

22. Cholvy, "Religion et société au XIX ^e siècle: Le diocèse de Montpellier" (Thèse de doctorat d'état, Université de Lille), 2 vols. (Lille: Services de réproduction des thèses de l'université, 1973); Raymond Huard, Le mouvement républicain en Bas-Languedoc, 1848 à 1881 (Paris: Fondation nationale des sciences politiques, 1982), 144, 364.

23. Fabre and Lacroix, Vie quotidienne , 369; Cholvy, "Indifférence religieuse," 91.

24. Cholvy, "Indifférence religieuse," 75-76; Jean Rivière, La sainteté en pays d'Aude (Narbonne: Brille & Gautier, 1949); Rivière, "Croyances et êtres surnaturels," in Gaston Jourdianne, Contribution au folklore de l'Aude (1889; Paris: G.-P. Maisonneuve & Larose, 1973).

25. See Berenson, Populist Religion and Left-Wing Politics , 56-67, on more politicized forms of popular religion elsewhere.

26. AD Aude 5M7, Monthly prefect reports, Dec. 1855-Dec. 1860; Bimonthly reports of subprefect, 1861-1865; 5M84, Police reports, 1858-1859; 15M120, Report of commissaire spécial , Narbonne, to prefect, Apr. 1, 1905.

27. France, Ministère de l'agriculture, Enquête agricole de 1872. Deuxième série , 133.

28. Pierre Raynier, Biographie des représentants du département de l'Aude de 1789 à 1900 (Toulouse: Passeman et Alquier, 1901), 87-88; Adolphe Robert and Gaston Cougny, Dictionnaire des parlementaires français (Paris: Bourloton, 1889-1891), 4:8, 312; André-Jean Tudesq, "L'opposition légitimiste en Languedoc en 1840," Annales du Midi 68 (Oct. 1956): 393; AD Aude 21M14, Report of subprefect to prefect of the Aude, Mar. 1841; 5M24, Prefect's reports, 1833 ( Propagande St-Simonienne ); 5M27, Report of subprefect to prefect, Nov. 2, 1840; Magali Jouffroi-Schaeffer, "L'implantation du St-Simonisme dans la ville et la région de Narbonne," in Fédération historique du Languedoc-méditerranéen et du Roussillon, XLV ^e congrés, vol. 3 (Montpellier: FHLMR, 1973), 61-72.

29. AN BB ³⁰ 380, "Rapports mensuels du procureur général à Montpellier au ministre de la justice, Dec. 1849-1868," Report of Dec. 13, 1849.

30. See the brief account of Barbès's political activities in Jean Maitron, Dictionnaire biographique du mouvement ouvrier français (Paris: Editions ouvrières, 1964), vol. 1 (1789-1864), 147-149; Raynier, Biographie , 199-203. On political clubs and popular associations in the Midi in general, see Merriman, Agony of the Republic , 60-64; Maurice Agulhon, La république au village (Paris: Plon, 1970); AD Aude 5M31, Dossier on political disturbances in Narbonne in 1848 and political clubs in the Narbonnais, Reports of subprefect to prefect, Aug. 16, 1848-June 15, 1849.

31. By the middle of 1849, the Club de l'union had almost 1,500 members. See Guthrie, "Reaction to the Coup d'Etat of 1851," 27.

32. See, for example, Claire Goldberg Moses, French Feminism in the Nineteenth Century (Albany: SUNY Press, 1985).

33. AD Aude 5M31. Teachers were especially prominent.

34. Merriman, Agony of the Republic , 58.

35. Aminzade, Class, Politics, and Early Industrial Capitalism , 148.

36. Loubère, Radicalism in Mediterranean France , 32.

37. Roger Price, The Second French Republic: A Social History (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1972), 231-233. The démoc soc program was published in April 1849 in La Réforme .

38. Margadant, French Peasants in Revolt , 85-87.

39. AD Aude 2M61, "Elections à l'assemblée nationale constituante, 1848," Election propaganda of Théodore Raynal; 2M11, "Révolution de 1848, adhésions au gouvernement provisoire, organisation des municipalités, etc.," Printed broadside, ''Aux Narbonnais," Mar. 10, 1848.

40. AD Aude 5M31, Police reports on local disturbances in August 1848.

41. AD Aude 2M13-14, Elections for the president of the Republic, Dec. 10, 1848; Paul Carbonnel, Histoire de Narbonne (Narbonne: P. Caillard, 1956), 387; Tudesq, L'élection présidentielle de Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, le 10 décembre 1848 (Paris: Armand Colin, 1965), 208; Price, Second French Republic , 208-225; Maurice Agulhon, 1848 ou l'aprentissage à la république (Paris: Seuil, 1973), 85-87.

42. Carbonnel, Histoire de Narbonne , 387-388; AN BB ³⁰ 362, Report of procureur général , Montpellier, to minister of justice, Feb. 23, 1849. Merriman, Agony of the Republic , 218, also cites examples of the use of carnival as political allegory from the Var, the Jura, and the Deux-Sèvres. See also Robert Bezucha, "Masks of Revolution: A Study of Popular Culture During the Second French Republic," in Revolution and Reaction: 1848 and the Second French Republic , ed. Roger Price (London: Croom Helm, 1975), 236-253, for other examples, esp. p. 238 on incidents in March 1848 in Fleury, Aude.

43. Price, Second French Republic , 231-233.

44. M. Bichambis, Narbonne, la robine, et les basses plaines de l'Aude (Narbonne: J. Bousquet, 1926), 460; Price, Second French Republic , 238-240; Loubère, Radicalism in Mediterranean France , 37-40, 46.

45. Loubère, Radicalism in Mediterranean France , 39.

46. The term is taken from the title of Merriman's book.

47. AN BB ³⁰ 362, Report of procureur général , Montpellier, to minister of justice, May 7, 1851. On the dismissal of mayors, see Guthrie, "Reaction to the Coup d'Etat of 1851," 35.

48. AN BB ³⁰ 362, Reports of procureur général , Montpellier, to minister of justice, May 3, 1850; July 7, Aug. 7, Sept. 3, 1851. On resistance to the coup d'état in the Aude, see AD Aude 5M36, Report from subprefect to prefect of the Aude, Jan. 6, 1852; Price, Second French Republic , 242; Guthrie, "Reactions to the Coup d'Etat of 1851." On dress and revolutionary solidarity, see Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984), 79-83.

49. AN BB ³⁰ 396, Dossier P440, on establishment of secret societies; Merriman, Agony of the Republic ; Margadant, French Peasants in Revolt .

50. On similar rituals elsewhere, see Merriman, Agony of the Republic , 207; Price, Second French Republic , 302.

51. On the rituals and those who were arrested, see AD Aude 5M36, Letter from subprefect to prefect of the Aude, March 28, 1852; Letter from justice of the peace, Coursan, to subprefect, Nov. 17, 1852; AN BB ³⁰ 380, Report of procureur général , Montpellier, to minister of justice, Nov. 11, 1852; AD Aude 5M43, "Etat des individus dangereux à raison de la part qu'ils pourraient prendre à un moment donné dans un mouvement insurrectionnel,'' Mar. 6, 1858; "Etat des individus n'ayant pas pu être compris dans le premier tableau . . . ," Mar. 10, 1858; 5M46, Political events, Apr. 23, 1853-Apr. 13, 1858; Letter from prefect to minister of the interior, Oct. 15, 1855; 5M48, Letter from prefect to minister of the interior, Mar. 31, 1863.

52. AD Aude 2M63, Election of deputies to the Corps législatif, May 22-24, 1869; Theodore Zeldin, The Political System of Louis Napoleon III (London: Macmillan, 1958), 135-136; also, on the 1869 elections, see Louis Girard, ed., Les élections de 1869 , vol. 21 in Bibliothèque de la révolution de 1848 (Paris: Marcel Rivière, 1960), xiv; Loubère, Radicalism in Mediterranean France, 93.

53. See Zeldin, Emile Olivier and the Liberal Empire of Napoleon III (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963), 154-155; A. Jeanjean and J. Rives, La proclamation de la Troisième République dans le département de l'Aude. Essai historique (Carcassonne: Gabelle, 1920), 11-19; AD Aude 2M16, "Plébiscite du 8 mai 1870."

54. AD Aude 5M51, Letter from prefect of the Aude to minister of the interior, Sept. 7, 1871; Letter from mayor of Coursan to subprefect, Aug. 31, 1872.

55. On the details of republican politics, see Carbonnel, Histoire de Narbonne , 408-409; AD Aude 2M65, Election of the representatives to the National Assembly, Feb. 5-8, 1871; André Siegfried, "Géographie de l'opinion politique dans le Midi sous la III ^e République: l'Aude. Les elections de 1849 à 1945" (Course given at the Collège de France, 1939; unpaginated typescript, Archives départementales de l'Aude); Loubère, Radicalism in Mediterranean France , 116.

56. Carbonnel, Histoire de Narbonne , 412.

57. See "Manifeste de la Ligue du Midi pour la défense de la république du 26 septembre 1870," in Jeanne Gaillard, Communes de province, commune de Paris, 1870-1871 (Paris: Flammarion, 1971), 113-114; Annie Genzling, "La commune de Narbonne en 1871" (Paper presented at the Colloquium on Right and Left in Languedoc-méditerranéen-Roussillon, Université Paul Valéry-Montpellier, June 9-10, 1973).

58. From La Fraternité , Mar. 18, 1871; quoted in Gaillard, Communes de province , 114-115. Digeon evoked a popular Christianity which portrayed a Christ in sympathy with the poor and with the working class: "Vous y apprendrez la vraie morale du Christ qui n'est en somme que celle de la sublime devise républicaine, liberté, égalité, fraternité. Le Christ . . . s'il revenait sur la terre . . . chasserait du temple les marchands de médailles et d'indulgences et maudirait les exploiteurs de miracles." This association of religious imagery with political radicalism is strikingly similar to what Edward Berenson has observed for an earlier period ( Populist Religion and Left-Wing Politics ).

59. Carbonnel, Histoire de Narbonne , 415. This was the first time the French government used colonial troops to suppress a domestic insurrection.

60. AD Aude 5M51, Letters from subprefect to prefect, Sept. 7, 1871, and Oct. 10, 1873; Letter from mayor of Coursan to subprefect, Aug. 29, 1872.

61. AD Aude 7M31, Cercles, chambrées, clubs, salons, Letter from subprefect to prefect, Mar. 14, 1872; Georges Germa, "Les élections législatives du 8 février et du 2 juillet 1871 dans l'Aude: Essai historique" (Typescript, Carcassonne, n.d.), 14; Siegfried, "Géographie de l'opinion"; Raynier, Biographie , 130. Fortuné Brousses was elected in a by-election in 1871; Théophile Marcou and Léon Bonnel were elected in 1873.

62. AD Aude 5M51, Prefect to minister of the interior, Dec. 10, 1873.

63. Loubère, Radicalism in Mediterranean France , 111-112; "Tableau comparatif des programmes radicaux (1849-1898)," in Jacques Kayser, Les grandes batailles du radicalisme, 1820-1901 (Paris: Marcel Rivière, 1962), n.p.

64. Aude, Délibérations du Conseil général du département de l'Aude. Procès-verbal des délibérations. Session de 1878 (Carcassonne: Pierre Polère, 1878), 779-782; Garidou, "Viticulture audoise," 37-41.

1. J. A. Barral, Conférence sur le phylloxéra, faite le 1 ^er avril 1882 (Paris: Tremblay, 1882), 22.

2. Income averaged 168 million francs per year (AD Aude 13M85, "Enquête sur la situation des vignes phylloxérées").

3. France, Ministère de l'agriculture, Direction de l'agriculture, Compte rendu des travaux de la Commission supérieure du phylloxéra (année 1882) et rapport de M. Tisserand, Conseiller d'Etat, Direction de l'Agriculture (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1883), 38-39; AD Aude 13M78 "Phylloxéra. Tableaux statistiques sur la marche du phylloxéra, du 3 octobre an 16 mars 1887"; 13M300, "Statistique agricole décennale des communes, 1882"; 13M307, "Statistique agricole annuelle, commune de Coursan, 1890''; Verdejo, "Mutation de la vie rurale,'' 70.

4. Paul Degrully, Essai historique et économique sur la production et le marché des vins en France (Montpellier: Roumegous & Dehan, 1910).

5. AD Aude 14M20, Report from president of the Chamber of Commerce in Narbonne, Jan. 3, 1885.

6. R. Pech, Entreprise viticole , p. 60.

7. Aude, Délibérations du Conseil général de l'Aude . . . Sessions de 1875-1878 ; AD Aude 13M75, "Phylloxéra. Associations syndicales des communes, arrondissement de Narbonne, commune de Coursan. Formation d'une association syndicale pour la sulphurisation du vignoble"; Verdejo, "Mutation de la vie rurale," 67-68; France, Ministère de I'agriculture, Compte rendu des travaux de la Commission supérieure du phylloxéra , 33. The author of the law exonerating owners of diseased vines from taxes was Adolphe Turrel, opportunist deputy and large proprietor from Narbonne arrondissement.

8. In July 1878 the government agreed to double every sum voted by a commune or department for treatment of vines. Villages throughout the Aude voted sums ranging from 1,000 to 20,000 francs. See AD Aude 13M67, "Traitement du phylloxéra"; Cornice agricole de Narbonne, Questionnaire sur le revenu foncier des terres dans l'arrondissement de Narbonne (Narbonne: F. Caillard, 1908), 8; Georges Barbut, Etude sur le vignoble de l'Aude et sa production (Carcassonne: Pierre Polère, 1912), 61-62; Barbut, "Vignoble de l'Aude."

9. Average subsidies per hectare were actually quite small (68 francs in 1881, 33 francs in 1882); see France, Ministère de l'agriculture, Compte rendu des travaux de la Commission supérieure du phylloxéra . See also Garidou, "Viticulture audoise," 41; Charles K. Warner, The Winegrowers of France and the Government Since 1875 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1960), chap. 1. Small growers in the Aude continued to receive subsidies as late as 1908; see AD Aude 13M82, "Phylloxéra. Etats nominatifs communaux . . . des propriétaires . . . possédant moins que six hectares de vignes qui ont bénéficiés de l'allocation de secours du Conseil général . . . 1908.

10. Prosper Gervais, La réconstitution du vignoble. Quantité ou qualite? (Paris: Au siège du Syndicat central des agriculteurs de la France, 1903), 3.

11. Comice agricole de Narbonne, Résumé des leçons pratiquées sur le greffage des vignes américaines (Montpellier: Société centrale d'agriculture de l'Hérault, 1880).

12. On the development of Algerian vineyards during the phylloxera crisis, see Hildebert Isnard, La vigne en Algérie. Etude géographique , 2 vols. (Orpheys-Gap, 1954); François Raymond Peyronnet, Le vignoble nord-africain (Paris: Peyronnet, 1950); Romould Dejernon, Les vignes et les vins d'Alqerie , 2 vols. (Paris: Librairie agricole de la Maison rustique, 1883-1884).

13. Warner, Winegrowers , 13-15. Warner states that the use of sugar in winemaking increased from eight million kilos in 1885 to thirty-nine million kilos in 1899.

14. On the increasing capital requirement of post-phylloxera vineyards, see France, Ministère de l'agriculture, Enquête agricole de 1872. Deuxième série , 128, 146; Vigneron narbonnais , Oct. 1, 1892, quoted in Garidou, "Viticulture audoise," 65; Comice agricole de Narbonne, Questionnaire sur le revenu foncier , 11; R. Pech, Entreprise viticole , 159-165; Augé-Laribé, Problème agraire , 138-209; Michel Augé-Laribé, "Le rôle du capital dans la viticulture languedocienne," Revue d'économie politique 19 (1905): 198ff.

15. Augé-Laribé, Problème agraire , 101; Rivals, Agriculture dans I'Aude , 65. "La culture viticole devient une industrie avec ses prix de revient, ses etudes théoriques et scientifiques, avec le perfectionnement de son machinisme, sa comptabilité (Jean Vigoroux, Essai sur le fonctionnement économique de quelques très grandes exploitations viticoles dans la Camargue et le Bas-Languedoc [Montpellier: Société anonyme de l'Imprimeur général du Midi, 1906], 73ff.).

16. Average annual wine imports increased from 824,383 hectoliters in 1870-1879 to 9,372,400 hectoliters in 1880-1889. See Warner, Winegrowers , 30; France, Ministère de l'agriculture, Statistique agricole annuelle, 1889-1900 (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1889-1900); Degrully, Essai historique et économique , 326; R. Pech, Entreprise viticole , 119.

17. Prosper Gervais, "Conférence à l'exposition agricole de Béziers, 1906," Revue de Viticulture (1906), cited by Valentin, Révolution viticole , vol. 2, doc. 405.

18. Eventually small growers formed cooperatives to produce and market their wine. Nine existed in the Aude by 1914, and they became more widespread in the interwar years. See Hubert Rouger, La France socialiste, in Encyclopédie socialiste, syndicale et coopérative de l'Internationale ouvrière , ed. Adéodat Compère-Morel (Paris: Aristide Quillet, 1912), 34; Michel Augé-Laribé, "Les coopératives paysannes et socialistes de Maraussan (Hérault)," in Le Musée social. Mémoires et documents, 1907, 65-74. On cooperatives in the Hérault, see Sagnes, Mouvement ouvrier , 146-161; and on the Var, Judt, Socialism in Provence , 168, 266.

19. Barbut, Etude sur le vignoble , 5, 77; AD Aude 15M117, "Réunions publiques, meetings contre Te chômage, la vie chère, etc.," Report from the commissaire spécial on a meeting in Narbonne, Jan. 10, 1892. The Méline tariff was not rigorously applied to Spanish wines for fear that Spain would reciprocally raise tariffs on French wine; see Eugene O. Golob, The Méline Tariff: French Agriculture and National Economic Policy (New York: Columbia University Press, 1944), 239.

20. AD Aude 15M117, Report of commissaire spécial to prefect, Dec. 24, 1893. For earlier examples of tax revolts, see Charles Tilly, Louise A. Tilly, and Richard Tilly, The Rebellious Century, 1830-1930 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1975), 46-48 and passim; Roger Price, ed., 1848 in France (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1975), 124-125.

21. AD Aude 15M117, Report of commissaire général , Carcassonne, to prefect, Sept. 30, 1900; Barbut, Etude sur le Vignoble , 77; Warner, Winegrowers , 18; Comice agricole de Narbonne, Rapport sur les travaux et sur la situation économique et agricole de l'arrondissement pour l'Exercice de 1900-1901, par le Dr. Louis de Martin, président du Comice (Narbonne: F. Caillard, 1901), 7.

22. See Charles Gide, "La crise du vin en France et les associations de vinification," Revue d'économie politique 15 (Mar. 1901): 218-235; Charles Gide, "La crise du vin dans Te Midi de la France," Revue d'économie politique 21 (July 1907): 481-512; Pierre Genieys, La crise viticole méridionale (Toulouse: Edouard Privat, 1905); Frédéric Atger, La crise viticole et la viticulture méridionale, 1900-1907 (Paris: Giard & Brière, 1907); Louis de Romeuf, "La crise viticole du Midi,'' Revue politique et parlementaire 60 (May 1909): 289-321.

23. AD Aude 15M117, Report of commissaire central , Carcassonne, to prefect, Sept. 30, 1900.

24. R. Pech, Entreprise viticole , 110, 114, 117, 123-125.

25. Ardouin Dumazet, Voyages en France (1904), cited by R. Pech, "Vie politique," 25; Romeuf, "Crise viticole," 293.

26. Warner, Winegrowers , 21; Romeuf, "Crise viticole," 292-293.

27. R. Pech, Entreprise viticole , 149.

28. Dugrand, Villes et campagnes , 365. In fact, the total area given over to large vineyards of forty hectares and more shrank between 1892 and 1911; see R. Pech, Entreprise viticole , 149.

29. See SC Aude, "Cadastre foncier de Coursan," fols. 552 (Pontserme); 974, 975, 978, 979, 983 (Lastours); 1431 (La Française); 1158 (La Ricardelle); and 446, 449, 450, 464, 466 (Laforgue).

30. See C. Gervais, Indicateur des vignobles méridionaux , 501-502, 507-509.

31. Barbut, "Vignoble de l'Aude," 3-4, 9; R. Pech, "Aspects de l'economie narbonnaise," 119.

32. R. Pech, Entreprise viticole , 297.

33. Ibid., 303, 306-310, 312.

34. Ibid., 56, 70. More vineyard workers owned land in the Hérault: 37 percent in 1882 and 31 percent in 1892; see Smith, "Work Routine and Social Structure"; and J. Harvey Smith, "Work Structure and Labor Organization in Lower Languedoc" (Paper presented to the Annual Meeting of the Society for French Historical Studies, Washington, D.C., Apr. 1-2, 1981).

35. France, Ministère de l'agriculture, Direction de l'enseignement et des services agricoles, Enquête sur les salaires agricoles (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1912), 54; Passama, Condition des ouvriers , 16ff., 86-88.

36. See Rémy Pech's analysis of the efficiency of the petit exploitant in Entreprise viticole , 438-461; see also Passama, Condition des ouvriers . A similar process of self-exploitation in a period of economic crisis was seen in the vineyards of Catalonia, where small producers survived and could even purchase land from bankrupt large farmers; see Abraham Iszaevich, "Social Organization and Social Mobility in a Catalan Village" (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1979), cited by David Goodman and Michael Redclift, From Peasant to Proletarian. Capitalist Development and Agrarian Transitions (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1981), 13.

37. R. Pech, Entreprise viticole , 413, 443-444.

38. Similar changes in the composition of the labor force have been noted by Loubère, Radicalism in Mediterranean France , 101; and Smith, "Work Routine and Social Structure," 371.

39. AD Aude 11M28, 35, 37, 43, 48, 49, "Tableaux récapitulatifs des dénombrements, 1886, 1891, 1896, 1901, 1906"; 11M157, "Dénombrement de la Population. Etats nominatifs des habitants de Coursan, 1911." See Verdejo, ''Mutation de la vie rurale," 111, 114, 122, on a similar increase in foreign-born immigrants in Cuxac.

40. Augé-Laribé, Problème agraire .

41. Augé-Laribé, "Les ouvriers de la viticulture languedocienne et leurs syndicats," Le Musée social. Mémoires et documents , 1903, 293-294.

42. For a similar process in the Hérault, see Smith, "Work Routine and Social Structure," 370-371.

43. Garidou, "Viticulture audoise," 50; Augé-Laribé, "Ouvriers de la viticulture languedocienne," 278-279; AD Aude 15M125, "Grèves agricoles, dossiers des grèves dans l'arrondissement de Narbonne, 1903-1906."

44. Forest owners in the Cher around the turn of the century also denied lumbermen customary rights to gather wood; see Gratton, Luttes des classes , 63.

45. R. Pech, Entreprise viticole , 417. On hiring and payment practices, see Gabriel-Ellen Prévot, "Les récents mouvements agraires dans le Midi de la France," La Revue socialiste 39 (Jan.-July 1904): 535. On group control over wages as an early element of workers' control, see David Montgomery, "Workers' Control over Machine Production in the Nineteenth Century," Labor History 17 (Fall 1976): 488. Lumbermen in the Nièvre and in the Cher also exercised collective control over the wage in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries; see René Braque, "Aux origines du syndicalisme dans les milieux ruraux du centre de la France (Allier, Cher, Nièvre, Sud du Loiret)," Le Mouvement social 42 (Jan.-Mar. 1963): 99-100.

46. Chatelain observes that in some parts of lower Languedoc, "une véritable association a été organisée et le travail se faisait généralement par équipes; les déplacements s'étendaient dans plusieurs départements" ( Migrations temporaires , 142). This was the case also for grafters in the Gard. See also Joan Scott, Glassworkers of Carmaux , 33; Hanagan, Logic of Solidarity , 63-64, 96; Odette Hardy-Hémery, "Rationalisation de technique et rationalisation du travail à la Compagnie des mines d'Anzin, 1927-1928," Le Mouvement social 72 (July-Sept. 1970): 3-48.

47. Augé-Laribé, "Rôle du capital," 196.

48. On the establishment of capitalist agriculture within industrial societies, see Goodman and Redclift, From Peasant to Proletarian , 11.

1. Martine Ségalen, Love and Power in the Peasant Family , trans. Sarah Matthews (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983), 108; Martine Ségalen, "Le mariage, l'amour et la femme dans les proverbes du sud de la France," Annales du Midi 87 (1975): 284.

2. Rivals, Agriculture dans l'Aude , 69.

3. Women counted for about one-third of agricultural workers at the end of the nineteenth century; see T. Deldyke, H. Gelders, and J.-M. Limbor, La population active et sa structure (Brussels: Université de Bruxelles, 1968), 174.

4. Ségalen, Love and Power , 81, 97-98.

5. On women's contribution to rural household economies more generally, see, for example, Heidi Hartmann, "Capitalism, Patriarchy, and Job Segregation by Sex," Signs 1 (Summer 1976): 137-169; Cynthia B. Lloyd, "The Division of Labor Between the Sexes: A Review," in Sex Discrimination and the Division of Labor , ed. Cynthia B. Lloyd (New York: Columbia University Press, 1974); Ségalen, Love and Power and "Mariage"; and Louise A. Tilly, "The Family Wage Economy of a French Textile City: Roubaix, 1872-1906,'' Journal of Family History 4 (Winter 1979): 388; Michele Barrett, Women's Oppression Today (London: Verso, 1980), 172-186, on domestic labor under capitalism; and Christine Delphy, Close to Home , trans. and ed. Diana Leonard (London: Hutchinson, 1984), 78-92.

6. On women's migration, see Chatelain, Migrations temporaires 1:58ff., 121, 133; Leslie Page Moch, Paths to the City: Regional Migration in Nineteenth-Century France (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1983), 147-148, 186-188.

7. Yves Rinaudo has found that in the Var, wealthy landowning women lent money to peasants, and interest from these loans provided them with a steady income ("Usure et crédit," 443-444).

8. On the division of labor in the vineyards, see Fabre and Lacroix, Vie quotidienne , 178-196; Galtier, Vignoble du Languedoc-méditerranéen 1:253; Coste-Floret, Travaux du vignoble , 30, 76, 375-379; Augé-Laribé, Problème agraire , 260-261, 272; Sagnes, Mouvement ouvrier , 31-32; Hartmann, "Capitalism, Patriarchy, and Job Segregation," 139; Barrett, Women's Oppression , 152-186.

9. AN C86, "Agriculture française par MM. les Inspecteurs de l'agriculture," 260.

10. Coste-Floret, Travaux du vignoble , 328.

11. The Félibrige was a movement of writers and poets who promoted the Provençal literary renaissance of the 1850s.

12. Alphonse Daudet, Letters from My Windmill , trans. Frederick Davies (1866-1867; Harmondsworth, Eng.: Penguin Books, 1984), 153.

13. Interview with Anastasie Vergnes (née Cheytion), Coursan, Aude, Aug. 20, 1974, conducted with Rémy Pech.

14. Fabre and Lacroix, Vie quotidienne , 239-240. On the ambiguity of gender and power, see Ségalen, Love and Power .

15. See AD Aude 9M78, "Mercuriales, Etats décadaires des denrées . . . prix pratiqués sur les marchés, 1850-1905, 1912-1921."

16. In the period of vineyard expansion, women in Coursan made 50 to 60 centimes more than women in agriculture nationally; France, Ministère de l'agriculture, Résultats généraux de l'enquête décennale de 1882 , 382.

17. Coste-Floret, Travaux du vignoble , 376.

18. R. Pech, Entreprise viticole , 383, 385-386.

19. See, for example, Christine Delphy, "Sharing the Same Table: Consumption in the Family," in Close to Home , 40-56; Laura Oren, "The Welfare of Women in Laboring Families: England, 1860-1950," in Clio's Consciousness Raised , ed. Mary Hartman and Lois Banner (New York: Harper & Row, 1974), 229-230; Lynn Hollen Lees, "Getting and Spending: The Family Budgets of English Industrial Workers in 1890," in Consciousness and Class Experience , ed. John Merriman (London: Holmes & Meier, 1976), 180. Paul Passama calculated food expenses at 293 francs for male workers and 232 francs for female workers ( Condition des ouvriers , 105).

20. Mean ages at first marriage have been computed from TGI, Narbonne, "Etat civil de Coursan, Actes de mariage, 1850-1910." See also Wesley D. Camp, Marriage and the Family in France Since the Revolution (New York: Bookman Associates, 1961), 53. Villagers in Coursan also married earlier than villagers in the Stéphanois village of Marlhes studied by James Lehning; see The Peasants of Marlhes (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980), 70.

21. AD Aude 5M8, Prefect reports, esp. of Sept. 16, 1861, and Mar. 1 and 15, 1862.

22. AD Aude 9M78-91, "Mercuriales . . . 1850-1885." Pierre Bléton estimated that working-class families spent the majority of their income on food in the 1860s; see La vie sociale sous le Second Empire. Un étonnant témoignage de la comtesse de Ségur (Paris: Editions ouvrières, 1963), 76. In the prosperous expansion years of the vineyard economy, workers in the Narbonnais spent about 20 percent of their food budget on meat, 25 percent on bread, and 20 percent on wine, with rent figuring for between 15 and 18 percent of the budget. Cf. Georges Duveau, La vie ouvrière en France sous le Second Empire (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1946), 329-386; Hanagan, Logic of Solidarity , 72-80.

23. In 1870, yearly expenses of carpenters in Carcassonne averaged 985 francs for a family of four, against an income of 780 francs. That summer the Corporation des ouvriers charpentiers of Carcassonne petitioned the prefect of the Aude to demand a wage increase and supplied a family budget to support their case; see AD Aude 15M134, "Dossiers des grèves des communes rurales de l'arrondissement de Carcassonne."

24. Louise A. Tilly and Joan W. Scott, Women, Work, and Family (New York: Methuen, 1987), 124.

25. This was true in 34 percent of all households in Coursan in 1851; AD Aude 11M78, "Dénombrement de la population. Etats nominatifs des habitants de Coursan, 1851." It is possible that the Coursan census underestimated child labor; see Louise A. Tilly, "Individual Lives and Family Strategies in the French Proletariat," Journal of Family History 4 (Summer 1979): 137-152.

26. See AD Aude 11M78, "Dénombrement de la population. Etats nominatifs des habitants de Coursan, 1851."

27. Etienne Van de Walle has argued that this census (as well as others between 1872 and 1896), which relied on forms given to household heads to fill out and return, underestimated women's wage-earning activities; see Female Population , 24.

28. AD Aude 11M35, "Tableaux récapitulatifs généraux dans le canton de Coursan, 1886." In that year 55.8 percent of women in the labor force were listed as agricultural workers, though perhaps the female agricultural labor force in Coursan was swollen by immigrants from other parts of the south. The absence of a nominative census for 1886 for the village of Coursan prevents a closer analysis of women's work patterns just as the phylloxera began to attack the Audois vineyards.

29. Interview with Anastasie Vergnes, Aug. 20, 1974. See also Gay Gullickson, "The Sexual Division of Labor in Cottage Industry and Agriculture in the Pays de Caux: Auffay, 1750-1850," French Historical Studies 12 (Fall 1981): 195-196; and Charles Babbage's classic account of wage differences and the division of labor in a nineteenth-century English pin factory, cited in Harvey Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1974), 80.

30. AD Aude 11M35, "Tableaux récapitulatifs généraux dans le canton de Coursan, 1886." According to Passama, the wives of Spanish workers did not work the vines but hired themselves out as domestiques de ferme to cook or work as domestic servants on the estate vineyards; see Condition des ouvriers , 91.

31. Passama, Condition des ouvriers , 76-77; Augé-Laribé, "Ouvriers de la viticulture languedocienne," 290-291. The number of workdays diminished because replanted vineyards did not become fully productive until 1893-1894 and so temporarily required less intensive cultivation.

32. France, Ministère du travail et de la prévoyance sociale, Statistique générale, Salaires et coût de l'existence à diverses époques jusqu'en 1910 (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1911), 61; Maurice Halbwachs, "Revenues et dépenses de ménages des travailleurs: Une enquête officielle de l'avant-guerre," Revue d'économie politique 35 (Jan.-Feb. 1921): 57. Expenses for food made up some 75 to 80 percent of working-class budgets (Passama, Condition des ouvriers , 110), a higher percentage than Halbwach found for French working-class households in 1907 ("Budgets des familles ouvrières et paysannes en France en 1907," Bulletin de la statistique générale de la France 4 [Oct. 1914]: 55).

33. The following sources have been used to estimate household budgets in the post-phylloxera years: AD Aude 9M91-106, "Mercuriales . . . 1885-1905, 1912-1921; Passama, Condition des ouvriers , 56, 82, 100-115, 209-212; and Augé-Laribé, "Ouvriers de la viticulture languedocienne," 290-291. Comparable budgets for agricultural workers' households elsewhere in France in the prewar years are found in L. Dugé de Bernonville, "Enquête sur les conditions de la vie ouvrière et rurale en France, 1913-1914" (Parts 1 and 2), Bulletin de la statistique générale de la France 6 (Oct. 1916): 85-108; (Jan. 1917): 185-221.

34. The standard of living of French workers in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries has been the subject of some debate, going back to the years before World War I. Albert Aftalion argued in 1912 ("Le salaire réel et sa nouvelle orientation," Revue d'économie politique 26 [1912]: 541-552) that the improvement in workers' real wages in the last twenty years of the nineteenth century slowed markedly in the first decade of the twentieth, but that workers' standard of living nonetheless continued to improve. Halbwachs also noted the improvement in wages and the different distribution of working-class incomes that came with increased earnings ("Budgets des families ouvrières" and "Revenues et dépenses"). More recently, Jean l'Homme has shown that workers' purchasing power, which increased between 1882 and 1905, declined between 1905 and 1913; see "Le pouvoir d'achat de l'ouvrier français au cours d'un siècle: 1840-1940," Mouvement social 63 (Apr.-June 1968): 41-69. Peter Stearns, conversely, has argued that French workers' living standards declined between 1900 and 1910; see Revolutionary Syndicalism and French Labor: Cause Without Rebels (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1971), app. A. Stearns's argument is supported by Jacques Rougerie, ''Remarques sur l'histoire des salaires à Paris au XIX ^e siècle,'' Mouvement social 63 (Apr.-June 1968): 71-108. Stearns questions the reliability of the government's price series, which, he plausibly argues, underestimated price increases and failed to weight items consumed by workers for their actual importance in the family budget (pp. 111-112). As Michael Hanagan has pointed out, until more is known about unemployment it will be difficult to assess the standard of living of French workers accurately; see Logic of Solidarity , 83-84n31. Stearns's observation that nationally real wages rose slightly after 1911 is not borne out by the data for the Nanbonnais, where continued increases in the cost of living offset wage increases after 1905.

35. On Roubaix, see L. Tilly, "Family Wage Economy"; see also L. Tilly, "Individual Lives and Family Strategies"; and L. Tilly and Scott, Women, Work, and Family , chap. 6, esp. 123-136.

36. AD Aude 11M157, "Dénombrement de la Population. Etats nominatifs des habitants de Coursan, 1911."

37. Interview with Julien Coca, Coursan, Aude, June 26, 1979.

38. Interview with Mme. Cendrous, Coursan, Aude, June 26, 1979.

39. Interview with Anastasie Vergnes, Aug. 20, 1974.

40. Passama, Condition des ouvriers , 114.

41. AD Aude 15M125, "Grèves agricoles," Report of commissa ire spécial , Narbonne, to prefect, Jan. 23, 1904.

1. Loubère, Radicalism in Mediterranean France , 111; Monique Pech, "Les luttes politiques à Narbonne à la fin du XIX ^e siècle: Un exemple, le duel Ferroul-Bartissol aux élections législatives de 1898," in Narbonne. Archéologie et histoire (Montpellier: Fédération historique du Languedoc-méditerranéen et du Roussillon, 1973), 95-105; Rémy Pech, "Les thèmes économiques et sociaux du socialisme férrouliste à Narbonne, 1880-1914," in Droite et gauche de 1789 à nos jours (Montpellier: Centre d'histoire contemporaine du Languedoc-méditerranéen et du Roussillon, 1975), 255-270.

2. AD Aude 14M20, Report of M. de Beauxhostes, president of the Comice agricole de Narbonne, to the subprefect of Nanbonne, Nov. 25, 1884; Report of Chamber of Commence of Narbonne to subprefect, Jan. 3, 1885.

3. See Clemenceau's 1881 program in Jacques Kayser, Les grandes batailles du radicalisme, 1820-1901 (Paris: Marcel Rivière, 1962), 326-329.

4. See Leo Loubère, "Left-Wing Radicals, Strikes, and the Military, 1880-1907," French Historical Studies 3 (Spring 1963): 96, 100; Jean-Thomas Nordmann, Histoire des radicaux, 1820-1973 (Paris: Editions de la Table ronde, 1974), 124.

5. R. Pech, "Vie politique," 99; Madeleine Rebérioux, La république radicale? (Paris: Seuil, 1975), 45-46.

6. Raynier, Biographie , 176. In 1898 Nanbonne was elected deputy from the Second District of Nanbonne, and he represented the Groupe d'études sociales of Lézignan at the 1899 socialist congress in Paris, as a member of the independent Socialist Federation of the Aude. He again represented these groups in the 1900 socialist congress, but did not join the SFIO in 1905. See Maitron, Dictionnaire biographique 14:168.

7. R. Pech. "Vie politique," 109.

8. Maitron, Dictionnaire biographique 12:187.

9. AD Aude 7M25-31, "Cercles, salons, clubs, sociétés"; 15M86, "Associations professionnelles."

10. Parti ouvrier français (POF), 8 ^e Congrès national du Parti ouvrier tenu à Lille, les 11 et 12 octobre 1890 (Lille: Imprimerie ouvrière, 1890), 3-8; POF, 9 ^e Congrès national du Parti ouvrier tenu à Lyon du 26 au 28 novembre 1891 (Paris: G. Delory, 1891), 1-8; POF, 10 ^e Congrès national du Parti ouvrier tenu à Marseille du 24 au 28 septembre 1892 (Lille: Imprimerie ouvrière, 1893); POF, 12 ^e Congrès national du Parti ouvrier tenu à Nantes du 14 au 16 septembre 1894 (Paris: G. Delory, 1894), 10. Claude Willard underestimated the extent of socialist organization in the countryside before 1898 ( Les Guesdistes. Le mouvement socialiste en France de 1893 à 1905 [Paris: Editions Sociales, 1965], 294).

11. AD Aude 5M93, Reports of commissaire spécial , Narbonne, to prefect of Apr. 2 and Nov. 6, 1892, on the visits of Guesde and Minck to Narbonne, and of May 29, 1893, on Millerand's visit to Narbonne; see also reports of Mar. 19 and Apr. 18 and 27, 1889.

12. Willard, Les Guesdistes , 288, 293; République sociale , May 5, 1892.

13. On Ferroul and his political career, see Maitron, Dictionnaire biographique 12:186-189; Reynier, Biographie , 157-159; M. Pech, "Luttes politiques"; and R. Pech, "Thèmes économiques et sociaux."

14. On French municipal socialism, see Joan W. Scott, "Mayors Versus Police Chiefs: Socialist Municipalities Confront the French State," in French Cities in the Nineteenth Century , ed. John Merriman (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1981), 230-245.

15. R. Pech, "Thèmes économiques et sociaux," 263-264; and numerous police reports in AD Aude 5M93. Both the practical experience and the spirit of municipal socialism in Narbonne contrast with those of Villeurbanne under the socialist mayor Victor Augageur; see Bernard Meuvret, Le socialisme municipal à Villeurbanne, 1880-1892 (Lyon: Presses universitaires de Lyon, 1982).

16. AD Aude 5M93, Reports of commissaire spécial to prefect, Sept. 22 and Nov. 22, 1892.

17. Paul Lafargue was skeptical of Ferroul's commitment to Marxian socialism; in October 1889, a year after Ferroul had won a deputy's seat in the Chamber of Deputies, Lafargue wrote to Engels that Ferroul was a socialist "only in name" (Friedrich Engels, Paul Lafargue, and Laura Lafargue, Correspondance , vol. 2: 1877-1890 (Moscow: Foreign Language Publishers, 1960), 323. Claude Willard remarks that Ferroul seemed to be completely ignorant of Marxism; see Les Guesdistes , 294. Rémy Pech, in contrast, has argued that Ferroul became more revolutionary in the 1890s and that this cost him votes in local elections thereafter; see "Thèmes économiques et sociaux," esp. 261-262. I believe the evidence shows Ferroul's discours to have been more radical than his practice.

18. Aldy was a member of the POF from 1890 to 1899. Procureur de la république in Narbonne, he had served as assistant mayor of Narbonne from 1891 to 1897 and represented the canton of Narbonne on the department General Council. See Maitron, Dictionnaire biographique 12:124-125; AD Aude 5M93, Report from commissaire spécial to prefect of socialist banquet in Lézignan, held by the Syndicat des ouvriers cultivateurs, June 3, 1892.

19. AD Aude 15M117, "Réunions publiques, meetings contre le chômage, la vie chère, etc.," Report of commissaire spécial to prefect on a meeting in Narbonne, Jan. 10, 1892. On the Var, see Judt, Socialism in Provence , 150. Judt argues that the socialists' stand against protectionism was tied to their support of low food prices for urban workers, and that this position was received favorably in the countryside as well. On Lafargue, see Pierre Barral, Les agrariens français de Méline à Pisani (Paris: Armand Colin, 1968), 155; see also Willard, Les Guesdistes , 183-184, on the 1897 Guesdist campaign against protectionism and "le pain cher."

20. AD Aude 5M93, Reports of commissaire spécial to prefect, Apr. 31, Sept. 30, and Oct. 18, 1896; "Manifestation à Lézignan," La Dépêche de Toulouse , Apr. 31, 1896; R. Pech, "Thèmes économiques et sociaux," 265.

21. Cited by M. Pech, "Luttes politiques," 100. AD Aude 2M67, Ferroul's profession de foi , Apr. 29, 1898; La République sociale , no. 454 (Mar. 17, 1898), article on the congrès socialiste .

22. Willard, Les Guesdistes , 164ff.; Leslie Derfler, "Reformism and Jules Guesde, 1891-1914," International Review of Social History 12 (1967): 66-80, argues that behind Guesde's "reformism" was an effort to bolster his own personal position. A more plausible understanding of Guesdist mobilization is provided by Robert P. Baker, ''Socialism in the Nord, 1880-1914: A Regional View of the French Socialist Movement," International Review of Social History 12 (1967): 357-389.

23. La République sociale , no. 522 (July 20, 1899).

24. AD Aude 2M66, Reports of commissaire spécial to subprefect, July 30 and Aug. 13, 1893.

25. Gratton, Luttes de classes , 31-35. The conseils de prud'hommes were local arbitration councils established under the First Empire for resolving work disputes; see Jules Guesde and Paul Lafargue, Le programme du Parti ouvrier (Paris: N.p., [1883]), 2-5, 30-51,116-122; Willard, Les Guesdistes , 366-376.

26. Harvey Goldberg, "Jaurès and the Formation of a Socialist Peasant Policy, 1885-1898," International Review of Social History 2 (1957): 380.

27. Lafargue, quoted by Willard, Les Guesdistes , 375.

28. Goldberg, "Jaurès and Socialist Peasant Policy," 381, 388; Friedrich Engels, "La question paysanne en France et en Allemagne," Cahiers de Communisme 31 (Nov. 1955): 1476-1479: Gratton, Luttes de classes , 41-45; Georges Cogniot, "La question paysanne devant le mouvement ouvrier français de 1892 à 1921," Cahiers d'histoire de l'Institut Maurice Thorez 24 (1971): 5-21.

29. Untitled, unsigned articles in La République sociale , nos. 196 (May 1, 1895), 386 (Dec. 24, 1896), 486 (Nov. 10, 1898).

30. Maitron, Dictionnaire biographique 12: 188. The municipal elections of June 1897 were invalidated, and Ferroul was dismissed.

31. AD Aude 2M58, Election returns, Aug. 25, 1881. High abstentions (41 percent in Narbonne arrondissement), primarily among conservative voters, occurred in the absence of a conservative candidate.

32. Raynier, Biographie , 147-148, 176; Robert and Cougny, Dictionnaire des parlementaires 4:542; Maitron, Dictionnaire biographique 12: 215-218.

33. AD Aude 2M58, Election returns, July 23 and Aug. 9, 1883 (second ballot).

34. Under the scrutin de liste , political groups presented departmentwide lists of candidates rather than running separate candidates in each electoral district.

35. AD Aude 5M93, Reports from commissaire spécial to prefect, July 11 and Aug. 23 and 27, 1885; Siegfried, "Géographic de l'opinion," on the elections of 1885; R. Pech, "Vie politique," 135-136.

36. AD Aude 5M93, Election returns, Oct. 4 and 18, 1885. Leo Loubère has suggested that the strong radical vote in eastern winegrowing communities was helped by the immigration of workers and winegrowers who fled phylloxera in the Hérault and settled in the Aude; see Radicalism in Mediterranean France , 121.

37. AD Aude 2M58, Election returns, Apr. 12 and 22, 1888.

38. The Boulangists were never terribly strong in the Aude, as their poor showing in 1888 and 1889 indicates (see Table 18); the Aude would thus seem to confirm Michael Burns's findings for several other rural departments ( Rural Society and French Politics ). Ferroul's attraction to the authoritarian left did not end here; on February 7, 1895, his newspaper, La République sociale , welcomed Henri Rochfort, a former Blanquist who, along with Ernest Granger and Emile Eudes, had begun to move toward integral nationalism.

39. AD Aude 2M58, Election returns, Aug. 20, 1893.

40. AD Aude 2M66, Reports from commissaire spécial to prefect, Aug. 21-23, 1893, on the demonstration in Coursan; Letter from Mayor Abet to subprefect, Aug. 21, 1893.

41. AD Aude 2M58, Election returns, Feb. 26, May 8 and 22, 1898; 2M67, Dossier on parliamentary inquiry into fraud. Articles from La Dépêche de Toulouse , Feb. 21 and 25, 1899; from Le Télégramme , Feb. 23, 1899; and Report from commissaire spécial to prefect, Feb. 21, 1899.

42. Jean-Marie Mayeur, Les débuts de la Troisième République (Paris: Seuil, 1973), 209. As elsewhere in France, in the Aude the Dreyfus affair did not receive much attention in either public forums or the press; see Burns, Rural Society and French Politics ; R. Pech, "Vie politique," 267.

43. La République sociale , no. 462 (May 12, 1898); AD Aude 2M67, Report of commissaire spécial to prefect, Feb. 21, 1899. Monique Pech speculates that anarchists in Coursan counseled abstention; see "Luttes politiques," 97.

44. Alain Lancelot has suggested that people tend not to vote in the absence of a significant political choice between candidates; see Abstentionnisme électoral en France (Paris: Armand Colin, 1968), 99-100.

45. AD Aude 2M66, Dossiers on candidates in the 1893 elections; Report of Apr. 16, 1893. The case of Henri Rouzeaud is notable here. Willard suggests that by this time in parts of the Aude, Guesdism had become completely intermixed with radicalism ( Les Guesdistes , 295).

46. There has been a lively debate over the timing and extent of peasants' integration into national politics, beginning with Eugen Weber's Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870-1914 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1976) and Margadant's French Peasants in Revolt , and continuing with Berenson's Populist Religion and Left-Wing Politics and Weber's "Comment la politique vint aux paysans: A Second Look at Peasant Politics," American Historical Review 87 (1982): 357-389. See also Edward Berenson, "Politics and the French Peasantry," Social History 12 (May 1987): 213-229. The case of the Aude suggests that although rural dwellers were very much a part of national political movements by the 1840s, this did not mean local personalities still did not exert considerable influence on local political life.

47. AD Aude 5M93, Report of commissaire spécial to prefect, Aug. 20, 1893; 5M95, ibid., Oct. 30, 1893.

48. La République sociale , no. 634 (Jan. 23, 1902).

49. Ibid.; Aldy's profession de foi, La République sociale , no. 647 (Apr. 24, 1902).

50. On the Var, see Judt, Socialism in Provence , 323-336. Judt's interpretation has recently been challenged by Yves Rinaudo, who claims that socialists in the Var were not revolutionary collectivists; rather, they adjusted their socialism to the rural world, "respectueux de la petite propriété et soucieux d'éviter la révolution violente" ( Vendages , 192). Rinaudo also emphasizes the links of Varois socialism with its left radical past (pp. 241, 254n1). See also Sagnes, Le Mouvement ouvrier , 57-64.

51. Willard, Les Guesdistes , 285; Judt, Socialism in Provence , 218.

52. Judt, Socialism in Provence , 143.

53. Although a few cooperatives existed in the Aude before World War I, they became well established only in the interwar years (late 1930s). In the Var, by contrast, thirty-four cooperative wineries had been established by 1914; see ibid., 167-168.

1. Gérard Walter, Histoire des paysans de France (Paris: Flammarion, 1963), 427-428; Gratton, Luttes de classes , 145; France, Ministère de commerce, Direction du travail, Statistique des grèves et des Recours à la conciliation et à l'arbitrage, 1903 (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1903).

2. Passama, Condition des ouvriers , 41.

3. AD Aude 15M117, Report from commissaire spécial , Narbonne, to prefect, Oct. 21, 1896.

4. Ibid., Oct. 21, 1896; Mar. 13, 1897; Jean-François Garidou, "Les mouvements ouvriers agricoles dans l'Aude, 1900-1910," in Carcassonne et sa région (Carcassonne: Gabelle, 1970), 317; Gratton, Luttes de classes , 141; Augé-Laribé, "Ouvriers de la viticulture languedocienne," 308; Verdejo, "Mutation de la vie rurale," 208-209.

5. AD Aude 15M30, Report to Ministry of the Interior from the municipality of Narbonne outlining Bourse activities, 1902.

6. AD Aude 15M90, Dossiers of formation and composition of workers' organizations.

7. Report of delegate from Carcassonne to First Congress of the Fédération des travailleurs agricoles du Midi, 1903; cited by Pierre Vilar, Introduction to Gratton, Luttes de classes , 13.

8. AD Aude 15M117 and 125, Police reports on strike of December 13, 1904.

9. See AD Aude 11M157, "Dénombrement de la population. Etats nominatifs des habitants de Coursan, 1911"; Maitron, Dictionnaire biographique , vol. 11, pt. 3, p. 201; TGI Narbonne, "Etat civil de Coursan, Actes de naissances, 1880-1914"; interviews with Anastasie Vergnes (née Cheytion), sister of François Cheytion and Marius Cheytion, Coursan, June 28, 1973, and Aug. 20, 1974.

10. Archives départementales de l'Hérault 15M49, Letters from prefect of the Hérault to mayor of Montpellier, Apr. 13 and 14, 1902; Letter from Cheytion to prefect of the Hérault declaring his candidacy, Apr. 8, 1902; 15M50, La Dépêche de Toulouse , Apr. 28, 1902, election returns.

11. See Fédération des travailleurs agricoles du Midi, Compte rendu des travaux du 3 ^e Congrès de la Fédération des travailleurs agricoles du Midi (Perpignan: D. Muller, 1906), 54 (hereafter cited as FTAM, 3 ^e Congrès).

12. On unions' ambivalence or hostility to working women generally, see Louise A. Tilly, "Paths of Proletarianization: Organization of Production, Sexual Division of Labor, and Women's Collective Action," Signs 7 (1981): 400-417; Marie-Hélène Zylberberg-Hocquard, Femmes et féminisme dans le mouvement ouvrier français (Paris: Editions ouvrières, 1981), 91-93, 184-195; Charles Sowerwine, "Workers and Women in France Before 1914: The Debate over the Couriau Affair," Journal of Modern History 55 (Sept. 1983): 411-441. By 1911 women in France counted for under 10 percent of the unionized workers (36 percent of the labor force was female); see Madeleine Guilbert, Les femmes et l'organisation syndicale en France avant 1914 (Paris: Centre national de la recherche scientifique, 1966), 28; Zylberberg-Hocquard, Femmes et féminisme , 108, 152.

13. FTAM, 3 ^e Congrès, 49.

14. See, for example, Louis Amphoux, "Crimes impunis," Le Paysan , no. 3 (July 1905); and B. Fournie, "Suppression du travail de la femme agricole," Le Paysan , no. 7 (July 1906).

15. For membership in Audois unions, see AD Aude 15M90, 99, 100, and 117; also Prévot, "Récents mouvements agraires"; Gratton, Luttes de classes , 133-197; Mayeur, Débuts de la Troisième République , 188-189. Average union membership in France has been calculated from the following sources: France, Ministère du travail et de la prévoyance sociale, Annuaire des syndicats professionnels, industriels, commerciaux et agricoles, déclarés conformément à la loi du 21 mars 1884 (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1912), xxxii; Toutain, Population de la France , tables 61-63, p. 165. See also Stearns, Revolutionary Syndicalism and French Labor , 23; and Michelle Perrot, Les ouvriers en Grève, 1871-1890 (Paris: Mouton, 1974), 2:447.

16. See Baker, "Socialism in the Nord."

17. Rebérioux, République radicale? 167.

18. AD Aude 15M99, Dossiers on the formation of workers' organizations and unions.

19. P. Picard and M. Picard, Terre de luttes (les précurseurs, 1848-1939). Histoire du mouvement ouvrier dans le Cher (Paris: Editions sociales, 1977); Gratton, Luttes de classes , 59-106, for lumbermen of central France; William McMechan, "A Syndicalist Response to Socialism: The French Building Trades, 1906-1914" (Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Historical Association, Dallas, 1977).

20. Jacques Julliard, "Théorie syndicaliste révolutionnaire et pratique gréviste," Mouvement social 65 (1968): 55-69; on contracts in the Aude, see France, Ministère de commerce, Statistique des grèves , for 1900-1915.

21. Hanagan, Logic of Solidarity , 15.

22. A. Souchon, La crise de la main d'oeuvre agricole en France (Paris: Rousseau, 1914), 21; R. Pech, Entreprise viticole , 416-420; Montgomery, "Workers' Control over Machine Production," 488.

23. AD Aude 6M360-361, "Documents anarchistes"; 7 M 114, "Police des spectacles."

24. Aminzade, Class, Politics, and Early Industrial Capitalism, 77.

25. E. P. Thompson, "The Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Nineteenth Century," Past and Present 50 (Feb. 1971): 76-106; Tilly, Tilly, and Tilly, Rebellious Century , 85; James C. Scott, The Moral Economy of the Peasant (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976). See also William Reddy, "The Language of the Crowd in Rouen, 1752-1871," Past and Present 74 (Feb. 1977): 62-89.

26. James Scott, Moral Economy , 184-185 et seq.

27. AD Aude 15M125, "Grèves agricoles, Dossiers des grèves . . . pour l'arrondissement de Narbonne, 1903-1906," Letter from sub-prefect of the Aude to prefect, Jan. 8, 1904; 15M121, "Grèves et grèves agricoles, Télégrammes de presse," Letter of prefect to minister of the interior on strikes, Feb. 1, 1904. These reports suggest that local government authorities were initially sympathetic to the situation of vineyard workers.

28. Gratton, Luttes de classes , 145-146; R. E. Mataillon, Les syndicats ouvriers dans l'agriculture (Paris: Bonvalot-Jouve, 1908), 49; France, Ministère de commerce, Statistique des grèves, 1904 , 433-444; reports in Le Petit Meridional , Jan. 4, 7, and 9, 1904; Prévot, "Récents mouvements agraires."

29. See AD Aude 15M125, "Grèves agricoles"; Le Petit Méridional , Jan. 11 and 14, 1904.

30. AD Aude 15M121, Prefect's reports to minister of the interior, Jan. 21 and Feb. 1, 1904; 15M125, Police report on the strike of January 23, 1904; 15M126, Deposition of curé of Coursan, Jan. 15, 1904. The red flag first appeared with the May First demonstrations at the end of the nineteenth century; in earlier demonstrations workers used the tricolor, as a symbol of 1789. See Perrot, Ouvriers en grève , 2:567; article from La Dépêeche de Toulouse , cited in Walter, Histoire des paysans , 428.

31. J. Harvey Smith, "Agricultural Workers and the French Wine-Growers Revolt of 1907," Past and Present 79 (1978): 107; AD Aude 15M121, Report of prefect to minister of the interior, Feb. 1, 1904.

32. AD Aude 15M126, "Grèves agricoles, Dossiers des grèves dans la localité de l'arrondissement de Narbonne," Article from Le Petit Méridional , Jan. 11, 1904; Prévot, "Récents mouvements agraires," 544-545. From 1905, when the CGT began to step up its campaign for the eight-hour day, vineyard workers argued for a six-hour day on the grounds that it would help reduce unemployment; see Fédération des travailleurs agricoles du Midi, Compte rendu des travaux du 2 ^e Congrès national des travailleurs agricoles et partis similaires organisé par la Section de l'Aude (Narbonne: J. Boulet, 1904), 35; FTAM, 3 ^e Congrès, 46. These demands were very different from those raised by workers in Cruzy, Hérault, for example, who attempted to defend "the right of the small producer to free sale on the market of natural wines at a reasonable profit" (Smith, "Work Routine and Social Structure,'' 375).

33. Tilly, Tilly, and Tilly, Rebellious Century ; Laura Levine Frader, "Grapes of Wrath: Vineyard Workers, Labor Unions, and Strike Activity in the Aude, 1860-1913," in Class Conflict and Collective Action , ed. Louise A. Tilly and Charles Tilly (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1981), 196.

34. AN BB ¹⁸ 2296 (437A05), Report of procureur général , Montpelier, to minister of the interior, Nov. 25, 1905.

35. On artisans' contributions, see La République sociale , Jan. 28, 1904.

36. Le Petit Méridional , Jan. 14, 1904.

37. See Perrot, Ouvriers en grève 2:527; AD Aude 15M117, Report of commissaire spécial , Narbonne, to prefect, Nov. 18, 1901.

38. France, Ministère de commerce, Statistique des grèves, 1904 , 8-11, 32-35; AD Aude 15M125, "Grèves agricoles," Circular from minister of the interior on the January strike; 15M126, "Grèves agricoles," Article from Le Petit Méridional , Jan. 22, 1904.

39. Mataillon, Syndicats ouvriers , 54.

40. Michel Augé-Laribé, "Les résultats des grèves agricoles dans le Midi de la France," Le Musée Social , Oct. 1904, 287ff.

41. On the March and April strikes, see Mataillon, Syndicats ouvriers , 56-61; AD Aude 15M126, "Grèves agricoles," Dossier on April strike in Coursan; France, Ministère de commerce, Statistique des Grèves, 1904 , 32-35.

42. On the formation of the FTAM, see Gratton, Luttes de classes , 143-144; Mataillon, Syndicats ouvriers , 256ff.; AD Aude 15M101, "Statuts de la Fédération . . . du département de l'Aude"; Fédération des travailleurs agricoles du Midi, Compte rendu des travaux du 1 ^er Congrès national des travailleurs agricoles et partis similaires organisé par la Fédération des travailleurs agricoles de l'Hérault (Béziers: J.-B. Perdraut, 1903), 10-11, 39-42, 75, 78.

43. FTAM, 3 ^e Congrès, 53-55.

44. Gratton, Luttes de classes , 152; Augé-Laribé, "Résultats des grèves agricoles," 290ff.; Mataillon, Syndicats ouvriers ; FTAM, 3 ^e Congrès, 45.

45. See AD Aude 15M121, Report of commissaire central , Narbonne, to prefect, Nov. 23, 1904.

46. In a straw poll taken prior to the strike call, 29 out of 132 unions opposed the strike, 72 supported it, and 31 did not respond. See AD Aude 15M121, "Grèves et grèves agricoles," Circular signed by Paul Ader; Appeal from Federation strike committee; Mataillon, Syndicats ouvriers , 61. The following standard conditions were adopted:

1. A six-hour minimum, eight-hour maximum work day.

2. A minimum wage of 50 centimes an hour.

3. Sulfating to last no more than eight hours, for 4 francs and two liters of wine.

4. Harvest and pressing days fixed at eight hours for 4.50 francs and three liters of wine.

5. Overtime at harvest to be paid at 75 centimes an hour.

6. Women to earn half as much as men in both money and wine.

7. No overtime or piecework, except during harvest.

8. Mésadiers to earn 35 francs a month for six hours of work per day, and 45 francs a month for eight hours of work per day.

9. Workers to be paid on Saturday at their place of work.

10. Travel time to work to be paid by the patron; return from work paid by the worker.

11. Two liters of good wine to be given to men throughout the year.

12. After a rain work to begin three days later.

13. Workers to be paid for each hour of work they begin.

14. Workers may not be fired for striking or for membership in a union.

See FTAM, 2 ^e Congrès, 36-38; AD Aude 15M121, "Grèves et grèves agricoles," Report from commissaire spécial to prefect, Apr. 1, 1905.

47. AN BB ¹⁸ 2272 (230A04), "Grèves artisanales, agricoles, etc.," Reports from procureur général , Montpellier, to minister of justice, Jan. 24, Feb. 19, and March 15, 1905; Telegram from procureur général , Narbonne, to minister of justice, Dec. 24, 1904.

48. AD Aude 15M120, "Grèves agricoles, Articles de presse," Newspaper accounts in Le Petit Meridional , Dec. 4 and 6, 1904; La Dépêche de Toulouse, Dec. 5, 1904; L'Humanité , Dec. 8, 1904; Poster from the FTAM calling on shopkeepers for support; 15M121, "Grèves et grèves agricoles," Telegram, Dec. 8, 1904.

49. On municipal protests against troops, see AN F ⁷ 13626, Articles from La Petite République , Dec. 8, 1904; L'Humanité , Dec. 8, 1904; AD Aude 15M120, "Grèves agricoles"; Article from Le Petit Méridional , Dec. 13, 1904.

50. Paul Ader, "La grève générale des travailleurs agricoles du Midi," Le Mouvement socialiste 147 (Jan. 15, 1905): 133-134.

51. AD Aude 15M120, "Grèves agricoles," La Dépêche de Toulouse , Dec. 11, 1904.

52. AD Aude 15M117, "Réunions publiques, meetings contre le chômage, la vie chère, etc.," Report from prefect to minister of the interior, Dec. 13, 1904; 15M126, "Grèves agricoles, Dossiers des grèves," Additional police reports, Dec. 3 and 4, 1904. François Cheytion was one of those arrested for stealing provisions, which he turned over to the strike committee.

53. Ader, "La grève générale," 137.

54. On the first incident in Coursan, see AD Aude 15M117, "Réunions publiques, meetings contre le chômage, la vie chère, etc.," Report from prefect to minister of the interior, Dec. 17, 1904; 15M120, "Grèves agricoles, Articles de presse," Le Républicain de Narbonne , Apr. 2,1905; 15M121, "Grèves et grèves agricoles. Etat concernant les faits de grève"; 15M126, "Grèves agricoles,'' Police report, Dec. 13, 1904. This form of action was, as far as we know, never taken by male strikers. For other examples, see Frank Snowden, ''Violence and Social Control in Southern Italy, Apulia, 1900-1922" (Paper presented to the Social History Seminar, Centre for the Study of Social History, University of Warwick, Mar. 1983); Stearns, Revolutionary Syndicalism and French Labor , 68; Perrot, Ouvriers en grève , 505. On the incident in Salles, see AD Aude 15M120, "Grèves agricoles, Articles de Presse," La Dépêche de Toulouse , Mar. 9 and 10, 1905.

55. France, Ministère de commerce, Statistique des Grèves, 1904 , 493-494; AD Aude 15M120, "Grèves agricoles, Articles de presse," La Dépêche de Toulouse , Dec. 17, 1904; Le Petit Méridional , Dec. 17, 18, and 19, 1904; Le Télégramme , Dec. 20, 1904.

56. See FTAM, 3 ^e Congrès, 45.

57. See Gabriel-Ellen Prévot, "Après la grève agricole," L'Humanité , Dec. 19, 1904; Gabriel-Ellen Prévot, "Les Grèves agraires du Midi: La grève générale agricole du Midi," La Revue socialiste 41 (Jan. 1905): 107-108 (also cited in Gratton, Luttes de classes , 163). On syndicalist critiques, see FTAM, 3 ^e Congrès, 28.

58. Fédération des travailleurs agricoles du Midi, Compte rendu des travaux du 4 ^e Congrès de la Fédération des travailleurs agricoles et partis similaires du Midi (Paris: Maison des Fédérations, Service de l'imprimerie, 1906), 14.

59. Shorter and Tilly, Strikes in France , 83-85, 92. A longer discussion of the relationship of strike activity in the Aude to standard of living and the 1907 revolt follows in Chapter 7.

60. See Gratton, Luttes de classes , 169-171. The third congress of the FTAM had adopted resolutions favoring legislation on work accidents, arbitration councils, and retirement legislation for agricultural workers; see FTAM, 3 ^e Congrès, 51-54; FTAM, 4 ^e Congrès, 68-70.

61. FTAM, 3 ^e Congrès, 46-47. On the argument for a six-hour day to reduce unemployment, see Le Paysan 2, no. 1 (Jan. 1906).

62. AD Aude 15M1l7, Report of prefect, April 17, 1905.

63. AD Aude 5M66, Poster, "Aux viticulteurs."

64. AD Aude 5M66, "La Défense du Midi," in Le Petit Méridional , June 22, 1905; Articles in Le Télégramme , June 23 and July 11, 1905; Le Radical du Midi , July 2,1905; L'Express du Midi , June 25, 1905; Extract from the deliberations of the Narbonne town council, June 24, 1905; 5M51, Prefect's report of June 22, 1905. See also Action viticole (newspaper published by the Société des syndicats agricoles), July 1905.

65. See FTAM, 2 ^e Congrès, 23-24.

66. Gratton, Luttes de classes , 172.

67. Julliard, "La CGT devant la guerre, 1900-1914," Le Mouvement social 49 (1964): 47-62.

68. AD Aude 15M107, "Réunions corporatives à la Bourse du travail."

69. AD Aude 15M120, "Grèves agricoles, Articles de presse," Article in La Dépêche de Toulouse , Mar. 23, 1905; FTAM, 3 ^e Congrès, 89; Article in Le Paysan , no. 6 (Oct. 1905), by Marius Reynaud, secretary of the Syndicat des cultivateurs et travailleurs de la terre de Cuxac.

70. Mataillon, Syndicats ouvriers , 294; Henri Dubief, Le syndicalisme révolutionnaire (Paris: Armand Colin, 1969), 148. The resolution of the Coursan union was printed in Le Paysan 2, no. 2 (Feb. 1906). For other examples of antimilitarist sentiment in the Aude, see Le Paysan , no. 6 (Oct. 1905).

71. FTAM, 1 ^er Congrès, 76-77.

72. L. Pieux fils, "Syndicalisme et gouvernements," Le Paysan 1, no. 4 (July 1905), 3.

73. Ferroul, writing in La République sociale , Apr. 25, 1895.

74. Le Paysan 2, no. 4 (Apr. 1906).

75. La Dépêche de Toulouse , Apr. 20, 1906.

76. FTAM, 4 ^e Congrès, 76-77; Dubief, Syndicalisme révolutionnaire , 75-97.

77. Dubief, Syndicalisme révolutionnaire , 82, 84.

78. Since the 1906 FTAM congress (August) and the CGT Amiens congress (October) both took place after the legislative contest of that year, they could have had no influence on the 1906 balloting; here we are assessing the influence of pre-May 1906 electoral propaganda.

79. AD Aude 7M37, "Cercles, chambrées, etc., 1900-1909." On the department federation of the SF10, see AN F ⁷ 12497, "Activité socialiste dans les départements, 1900-1914. Ain à Calvados."

80. Quote from Roger Magraw, France, 1815-1914: The Bourgeois Century (London: Fontana, 1984), 252.

81. AN F ⁷ 12544, "Elections législatives de 1906," Report from Commissariat spécial des Chemins de fer to director of the Sûreté générale, Paris, Apr. 8, 1906; La Dépêche de Toulouse , Apr. 11, 1906, editorial entitled "Pour les élections."

82. AD Aude 2M58, "Recensement général des votes de 1876 à 1914, Elections léegislatives de 1906"; and Loubère, Radicalism in Mediterranean France , 210-213.

83. For a similar conclusion relating to the 1910 elections, see Gratton, Luttes de classes , 206. Abstentions in the May 1906 elections were 20 percent nationally and averaged 25-30 percent in the Aude; see Lancelot, Abstentionisme électoral , 56-59; and below.

84. Madeleine Rebérioux, Review of Les ouvriers en grève , by Michelle Perrot, Le Mouvement social 93 (Oct.-Dec. 1975): 114.

1. Jean Fournel, Avec ceux d'Argelliers. Une acte d'énergie méridionale (Montpellier: Editions languedociennes, 1908), 19; Félix Napo, 1907. La révolte des vignerons (Toulouse: Edouard Privat, 1971), 36-41.

2. J. Harvey Smith, "La Crise d'une économie régionale: La monoculture viticole et la révolte du Midi (1907)," Les Annales du Midi 92 (1980): 319.

3. The literature on 1907 includes Maurice LeBlond, La crice du Midi (Paris: Bibliothèque Charpentier, 1907); Guy Bechtel, 1907. La grande révolte du Midi (Paris: Laffont, 1976); Smith, "Agricultural Workers"; Sagnes, "Mouvement de 1907"; André Marty, A la gloire des lutteurs de 1907 (Paris: Editions Norman Béthune, 1972); and numerous dossiers in Series M of AD Aude, especially 5M66-67, and in Series F ⁷ of AN.

4. AD Aude 5M67, "Crise viticole et événements de 1907," Article in Le Petit Méridional , July 7, 1905; Report of subprefect to prefect, Nov. 7, 1905; 5M66, "Crise viticole et événements de 1907," Reports of prefect to minister of the interior, Oct. 9, 1906, and Apr. 26, 1907; Report of subprefect to prefect, May 2, 1907; and Le Tocsin , no. 3 (May 5, 1907), on hostility to tax collectors.

5. AD Aude 15M132, "Grèves agricoles. Dossiers des grèves des communes rurales de l'arrondissement de Narbonne . . . 1906-1908," Diverse reports on strikes in Salles, Fleury, Marcorignan, etc.; 5M10, Monthly prefect reports, Report of subprefect to prefect, Feb. 1, 1907; AN F ⁷ 12794, "Troubles causés par les événements de 1907," Prefect reports of May 6 and 17, 1907.

6. Napo, 1907 , 207-227.

7. César Boyer and J. Payret, Aux pays de gueux. Les grands meetings du Midi (Paris: N.p., 1907), 35; Félix Napo, 1907. La révolte des vignerons , 2d ed. (Toulouse: Edouard Privat, 1982), 71.

8. See, for example, the account in Jules Maffre, "Les événements de 1907 dans l'Aude et la région méridionale," in Carcassonne et sa région. Actes du congrès d'études regionales tenus à Carcassonne en mai 1968 (Carcassonne: Gabelle, 1970), 337.

9. See Napo, 1907 (1st ed.), 70, 74; Rinaudo, Vendanges , 48-49; and photographs of women in the 1907 mass meetings in R. Pech, Entreprise viticole , and in Jacques Durand and André Hampartzoumian, Le Languedoc au temps des diligences (Montpellier: Images d'oc, 1978). On the issues of health and additives, see Jacques Duhr, "Comment on fraude et nous empoisonne," Le Journal , June 24, 1907, who presents a ghastly list of chemical additives; "Du vin naturel," Le Tocsin , no. 2 (April 28, 1907); and various articles in AD Aude 5M66.

10. Smith shows that large landowners unsuccessfully tried to steer the movement in a direction compatible with their own entrepreneurial strategies; see "Crise d'une économie régionale," 326-332. On the participation of large proprietors in the Aude, see AD Aude 5M66, Report of subprefect to prefect, Apr. 26, 1907; AN F ⁷ 12794, Report of subprefect to prefect, Apr. 26, 1907; Report of prefect to minister of the interior, undated but almost certainly June 12, 1907; Fournel, Avec ceux d'Argelliers , 29-30; Louis Blanc, Souvenirs de 1907. Légende pour les Jacques (Olonzac, Hérault: Confédération générale des vignerons du Midi, 1948), 14; Sagnes, "Mouvement de 1907," 13-14.

11. AD Aude 5M67, Report from prefect to minister of the interior, May 30, 1907; Articles from Le Petit Méridional , July 13, 1907, and Le Courrier de l'Aude , July 15, 1907; 5M68, Telegram from prefect to the minister of the interior, June 15, 1907.

12. Sagnes, "Mouvement de 1907," 16; Verdejo, "Mutation de la vie rurale," 218; Ader, "Le Midi bouge," Le Travailleur de la terre , no. 1 (June, 1907). Le Travailleur de la terre served as the official newspaper of the Union fédérative terrienne, which loosely united all the agricultural workers' federations then in existence, the Fédération nationale des bûcherons, the Fédération nationale horticole, the Fédération agricole de la région du Nord, and the FTAM. Paul Ader was editor.

13. Sagnes, "Mouvement de 1907," 16; "Les ouvriers agricoles de Bessan," Le Travailleur de la terre , no. 2 (July 1907).

14. Fédération des travailleurs agricoles du Midi, Compte rendu des travaux du 5 ^e Congrès de la Fédération des travailleurs agricoles et partis similaires du Midi (Béziers: Imprimerie ouvrière du Centre—ouvriers syndiqués et fédérés, 1907), 44-45; Smith, "Agricultural Workers," 114-115. In the Aude workers did not organize and influence the mass meetings to the extent that Smith suggests.

15. Le Tocsin no. 1 (Apr. 21, 1907). This paper was published by the Argelliers Viticultural Defense Committee. I am grateful to Deke Dusinberre and Jean-Paul Socard for their assistance in translating the manifesto.

16. Napo, 1907 (1st ed.), 63-69; see also Charles Tilly's rough classification of rural reactions to capitalism and state making in "Proletarianization and Rural Collective Action in East Anglia and Elsewhere, 1500-1900," Peasant Studies 10 (Fall 1982): 5-32.

17. AN F ⁷ 12794, Anonymous report of events of 1907; AN F ⁷ 12920; Napo, 1907 (1st ed.), 53-54; Sagnes, "Mouvement de 1907," 20; on resignations in the Aude, AD Aude 5M72-82. Figures differ on the number of municipalities that resigned. In AN F ⁷ 12794, a report from the prefect to the minister of the interior, Oct. 12, 1907, states that 246 municipalities resigned; Sagnes reports 231. Some villages remained on strike until October; others withdrew their resignations by the end of August. On the renewal of resignations, see "Les maires de l'arrondissement de Narbonne," Le Temps , July 7, 1907; and AN F ⁷ 12794, Le Petit Méridional , Aug. 9, 1907.

18. AD Aude 5M69, Commission d'enquête parlementaire et visite dans le département des délégués du Ministère du l'intérieur, Article from La Dépêche de Toulouse , June 19, 1907.

19. See Boyer and Peyret, Aux pays de gueux , 157-158; Bechtel, 1907 , 176-214; Napo 1907 (1st ed.), 78-80, 108-123; Marty, A la gloire des lutteurs , 27-28. On the events in Narbonne, see AN F ⁷ 12920, Emeutes provoquées dans le Midi par la crise viticole de 1907, Reports of prefect to minister of the interior, June 21 and 26, 1907; Report of subprefect to prefect, June 21, 1907; Reports of commissaire spécial to prefect, June 22 and 24, 1907; "Le redempteur [Albert] emprisonné" and "Les collisions à Narbonne," both in L'Eclair , June 27, 1907. See also accounts in Napo, 1907 , 108-123.

20. On the mutiny of the seventeenth, see Napo, 1907 , 127-132; and Marty, A la gloire des lutteurs , 31-35; AN F ⁷ 12920, Report from subprefect to prefect, June 21, 1907; Article in Le Journal , June 21, 1907.

21. Napo, 1907 , 177; Warner, Winegrowers , 40-41.

22. Smith, "Crise d'une économie régionale," 332.

23. For Ferroul's appeal, see Le Petit Méridional , Aug. 14, 1907.

24. According to the rules of the CGV, members received a number of votes proportional to the size of their vineyards. This meant that large owners would automatically carry the most weight, while landless vineyard workers (and even very small owners) would have virtually no voice in the organization. For CGV rules, see AD Aude 15M109, "Syndicats professionnels. Dossier général des unions des syndicats. Confédération générale des vignerons à Narbonne, 1907-1934."

25. Sagnes, "Mouvement de 1907," 14-15.

26. Napo, 1907 , 70.

27. See Rebérioux, "Jaurès et la nationalisation de la vigne," Bulletin de la Société des études jaurésiennes 17 (1965): 8. This was Jaurès's response to those who accused the SFIO of being unable to take control of the movement.

28. Citoyenne Sorgue (Antoinette Cauvin), member of the National Council of the SFIO, criticized the class collaborationism of the CGV. See AD Aude 15M94, Report of commissaire central to prefect on her address in Carcassonne, Mar. 24, 1908; 15M117, Report of police in Narbonne to subprefect, Mar. 23, 1908. Sorgue accused the CGV of yellow unionism and urged those workers who had joined to leave. On Sorgue, see Maitron, Dictionnaire biographique (pt. 3: 1871-1914 ), 15: 175; Charles Sowerwine, Sisters or Citizens: Women in the French Socialist Party (London: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 116-117, 222n27. See Parti socialiste (SFIO), 6 ^e Congrès national de la SFIO tenu à St-Etienne les 11, 12, 13, 14 avril 1909 (Paris: Au siège du Conseil national, 1909), 260; AD Aude 5M94, "Police générale," Article entitled "La CGV," in Le Midi socialiste , Apr. 16, 1909; Sagnes, Le Mouvement ouvrier , 114-117; Sagnes, Jean Jaurèes et le Languedoc viticole (Montpellier: Presses de Languedoc, 1988), 68-71.

29. On Jaurèes's program, see Rebérioux, "Jaurèes et nationalisation," 4; Napo, 1907 , 83-84; Sagnes, Jean Jaurèes , 63-64. On his approval of the CGV, see AD Aude 5M95, Articles in La Dépêche de Toulouse , Oct. 20 and 121, 1907, reporting on Jaurès's visit to Narbonne. Jaurès took a more noncommittal position on the CGV during the SFIO St-Etienne congress; see SFIO, 6 ^e Congrès, 261-262.

30. See FTAM, 5 ^e Congrès, 47-48; Smith, "Agricultural Workers," 113. I disagree with Smith about the similarity between the CGV and the CGT; the two organizations were utterly different in their membership, aims, and methods. Smith downplays the importance of the debate over the CGV that took place within the Socialist party and the labor movement.

31. FTAM, 5 ^e Congrès, 46. See also Paul Ader, "La jaunisse dans le Midi," Le Travailleur de la terre , nos. 4 (Sept. 1907), 9 (Feb. 1908), 21 (Feb. 1909), 23 (Apr. 1909), and 24 (May 1909). For Ader's sympathy with small proprietors, see FTAM, 5 ^e Congrès, 50.

32. Fédération des travailleurs agricoles du Midi, Compte rendu du 6 ^e 6 Congrès de la Fédération des travailleurs agricoles et partis similaires du Midi (Montpellier: Imprimerie coopérative ouvrière, 1909), 49-51.

33. Both Smith ("Agricultural Workers," 109) and Gratton ( Luttes de classes , 306) argue that rank-and-file workers reacted against syndicalist leaders' antiparliamentary rhetoric; as we have seen, syndicalists made no secret of these views during the years of peak unionization.

34. AD Aude 15M132, Grèves agricoles; Garidou, "Viticulture audoise," 123-124; FTAM, 6 ^e Congrès, 48.

35. See La Voix du peuple , no. 481 (Dec. 12, 1909); Le Travailleur de la terre , no. 21 (Dec. 1909).

36. See AD Aude 15M132, Placard, "Aux travailleurs agricoles"; Article by Paul Ader in Le Travailleur de la terre , no. 15 (Apr. 1908); AN F ⁷ 13626, Report of prefect to minister of the interior, Aug. 24, 1908. In Coursan, striking workers cut the bridles and harnesses of farm-hands' horses and, on one estate, set fire to haystacks; see AD Aude 15M133, "Grèves agricoles . . . 1909-1913," Police report, Apr. 20, 1909; AN BB ¹⁸ 2409 ² (856A09), "Violences à Coursan par les ouvriers agricoles ayant fête le l ^er mai"; F ⁷ 13626, Clipping from La Voix du peuple , July 11, 1909.

37. See Roland Andréani, "L'antimilitarisme en Languedoc avant 1914," Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine 20 (Jan.-Mar. 1973): 106; Roger Magraw, "Pierre Joigneaux and Socialist Propaganda in the French Countryside, 1849-1851," French Historical Studies 10 (1978): 623.

38. AN F ⁷ 12794, "Troubles causés par les événements de 1907-1908," Telegram from prefect to minister of the interior, Sept. 3, 1907; AD Aude 6M631, Anarchistes, Report from commissaire spécial to prefect, Nov. 19, 1907; Report of subprefect to prefect on antimilitarist group in Coursan, Oct. 2, 1907; 7M114, "Police administrative, police des spectacles," Placard dated Jan. 24, 1907, "Réglementation des cafés concerts," issued by prefect of the Aude; see also 6M360, "Documentation anarchiste," Report of prefect to minister of the interior on regulation of plays with antimilitarist themes in the Aude, Feb. 29, 1912.

39. FTAM, 6 ^e Congrèes, 40, 43-45.

40. See Julliard, "CGT Devant la Guerre," 47-62; AN F ⁷ 13338, "Agitation contre la Loi de trois ans," Report of commissaire de police to subprefect, Dec. 16, 1912.

41. See, for example, AD Aude 5M10, Report of prefect to minister of the interior, Jan. 9, 1909, on a meeting of vineyard workers in Coursan at the end of December 1908.

42. A. Travert, "Douce patrie," Le Travailleur de la terre , no. 9 (Feb. 1908).

43. Fédération des travailleurs agricoles du Midi, Compte rendu des travaux du 7 ^e Congrès de la Fédération des travailleurs agricoles et partis similaires de la région du Midi (Montpellier: Imprimerie coopérative ouvrière, 1909), 62. From about 1908 on, the Socialist press, including L'Humanité , opened its columns to syndicalists, in an effort to reach out to the labor movement.

44. Ibid., 21; Fédération des travailleurs agricoles du Midi, Compte rendu des travaux du 8 ^e Congrès de la Fédération des travailleurs agricoles et partis similaires de la region du Midi (Montpellier: Imprimerie coopérative ouvrière, 1910), 26-33.

45. AN F ⁷ 13599, "Bourse du Travail, Union départementale des syndicats," Newspaper articles: "L'Union départementale de l'Aude," La Voix du peuple , Mar. 13-20, 1910; "Union des syndicats de l'Aude," La Voix du peuple , Feb. 15-18, 1913; "Congrès de l'Union départementale," La Voix du peuple , June 14-21, 1914.

46. See "Propagande rurale," Le Travailleur de la terre , no. 31 (Dec. 1909); AD Aude 5M10, Report of prefect to minister of the interior, Jan. 7, 1909.

47. There was a less marked increase in the proportion of unsuccessful strikes in this period than that found nationally by Shorter and Tilly; see Strikes in France , 370. Our findings also differ somewhat from Smith's for lower Languedoc generally; see "Agricultural Workers," 123-125.

48. Our findings differ from those of Smith, who has argued that the unions became more accommodating and more adept at bargaining with employers after 1907, having learned the rules of the game; see "Agricultural Workers," 124-125. It is true that unions were more successful at winning annually renewable contracts after 1907 than earlier; however, as is shown above, unions in the Aude fought for and won contracts well before 1907.

49. Sagnes, "Les grèves dans l'Hérault de 1890 à 1938," in Economie et société en Languedoc-Roussillon de 1789 à nos jours (Montpellier: Centre d'histoire contemporaine de Languedoc-méditerranéen et du Roussillon, 1978), 268-269.

50. Shorter and Tilly ( Strikes in France , 76-103), Hanagan ( Logic of Solidarity , 72-80), and Perrot ( Ouvriers en grève 1:114-149 esp.) suggest, on the contrary, that workers struck when living standards were Improving.

51. See Shorter and Tilly, Strikes in France , 76.

52. Smith has found that this was true for Cruzy, Hérault, as well; see "Work Routine and Social Structure," 381.

53. See FTAM, 4 ^e Congrès, 34, 44-45; "Agitation syndicale, la propagande rurale," La Voix du peuple , no. 481 (Dec. 12, 1909); Paul Ader, "La vie chère," Le Travailleur de la terre , no. 40 (Sept. 1910); Léon Violes, "La pacte de famine," Le Travailleur de la terre , no. 41 (Oct. 1910); Comité confédéral, "Contre la vie chère," Le Travailleur de la terre , no. 41 (Oct. 1910); Jean-Marie Flonneau, ''La crise de la vie chère, 1910-1914,'' Le Mouvement social 72 (July-Sept. 1970): 58, and especially Flonneau's discussion of inflation, pp. 49-58.

54. FTAM, 8 ^e Congrès, 18-19.

55. AD Aude 15M117, Reports of commissaire central to prefect, Sept. 25, 1910; Oct. 9 and Nov. 5, 1911; and June 25, 1912; Reports of subprefect to prefect, Oct. 18, 1911, and June 23, 1912.

56. AD Aude 15M133, Questionnaires from Direction du travail, Feb. 28 and Sept. 8, 1911; Police report, Sept. 4, 1911; Le Petit Méridional , Sept. 4, 1911: France, Ministère de commerce, Statistique des grèves for 1911-1913.

57. FTAM, 7 ^e Congrès, 26; "Congrès régional de Coursan," Le Travailleur de la terre , no. 32 (Jan. 1910).

58. See France, Ministère de commerce, Statistique des grèves for 1911-1913; Guilbert, Femmes et l'organisation syndicale , 204.

59. This did not happen all over France, of course; see Sowerwine, "Workers and Women." On male workers' concept of class as essentially masculine, see Joan W. Scott, "Language, Gender, and Working-Class History," International Labor and Working-Class History 31 (Spring 1987): 9.

60. On the women's section of the union and the women's strike, see AD Aude 15M133, Questionnaire from Direction du travail, Telegram from subprefect to prefect, Nov. 28, 1912; Police reports to prefect, Nov. 12, 1912, and Jan. 21, 1913; Articles in La Dépêche de Toulouse , Jan. 13, 1913; 15M102, Etats des syndicats; AN F ⁷ 13626, Report of commissaire central to directeur de sûreté générale , Aug. 1912.

61. See Le Travailleur de la terre , no. 70 (Mar. 1913).

62. AD Aude 15M133, "Dossiers des grèves des communes rurales de l'arrondissement de Narbonne, 1908-1913," Le Petit Méridional , Jan. 17-19 and 24, 1913; La Dépêche de Toulouse , Jan. 17 and 19, 1913.

63. See Temma Kaplan, "Female Consciousness and Collective Action: The Case of Barcelona, 1910-1918," Signs 7 (Spring 1982): 545.

64. AD Aude 15M107, "Réunions corporatives à la bourse du travail," Le Midi socialiste , Feb. 16-19, 1913.

65. See Ferroul's and Aldy's vehement denunciations of radical "labor policy" at meetings organized by the Socialist Federation of the Aude in 1909, in AN F ⁷ 12794, Report from commissaire central to prefect, Jan. 11, 1909.

66. AN F ⁷ 12794, Telegram from prefect to minister of interior, Sept. 6, 1907; AD Aude 5M10 Reports from subprefect to prefect, Aug. 9 and Sept. 4, 1908; 5M117, Report from subprefect to prefect, Oct. 18, 1911; Hubert Rouger, La France socialiste , 35.

67. Sagnes, "Mouvement de 1907," 28; AD Aude 2M58, "Recensement général des votes."

68. Sagnes, "Mouvement de 1907," 29.

69. Inscription on Cheytion's tombstone (d. Nov. 3, 1915) in the cemetery in Coursan, erected by the Bourse du travail de Narbonne and the Syndicat des cultivateurs de Narbonne.

70. Smith, "Agricultural Workers."

1. See, for example, Berenson, Populist Religion and Left-Wing Politics ; Burns, Rural Society and French Politics ; Loubère, Radicalism in Mediterranean France ; Margadant, French Peasants in Revolt ; and Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen .

2. See, for instance, Weber, "Comment la politique vint aux paysans."

3. Here I agree with Charles Tilly's analysis in "Did the Cake of Custom Break?" in Consciousness and Class Experience , ed. John Merriman (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1979), 17-44.

4. See, for instance, Burns, Rural Society and French Politics .

5. See Loubère, Radicalism in Mediterranean France .

6. Both Loubère and Jean-Marie Mayeur have pointed to the close association of radicalism and socialism in rural areas elsewhere; see ibid., 205; Mayer, Débuts de la Troisième République , 79. See also Judt, Socialism in Provence , 228, who identifies more definite lines of difference between radicalism and socialism in the Var.

7. Ira Katznelson, "Constructing Cases and Comparisons," in Working-Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States , ed. Ira Katznelson and Aristide Zolberg (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986), 33.

8. On this point more generally, see ibid., 25.

9. On this point more generally, see Katznelson and Zolberg, Working-Class Formation .

10. See Jean-Daniel Reynaud, Les syndicats en France , vol. 1 (Paris: Seuil, 1975), 140-142.

11. See Stearns, Revolutionary Syndicalism and French Labor .

12. Zolberg, "How Many Exceptionalisms?" in Katznelson and Zolberg, Working-Class Formation , 403. Jacques Julliard has pointed out that the CGT's revolutionary rhetoric was more the creation of the rank and file than the doctrine of syndicalist leaders. In the Aude it was the opposite. See Julliard, Autonomie ouvrière. Etudes sur le syndicalisme et l'action directe (Paris: Gallimard-Le Seuil, 1988), 15-16.

13. See also Julliard, "Théorie syndicaliste révolutionnaire."