1. P. Z. Grossman and E. S. Cassedy, "Cost Benefit Analysis of Nuclear Waste Disposal," Science, Technology, and Human Values 10, no. 4 (Fall 1985): 49.

2. D. J. Evans, U.S. Senator, State of Washington, "Statement," in Nuclear Waste Program , Hearings before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate, 100th Congress, 29 April and 7 May 1987, part 3 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1987), 17; hereafter cited as: U.S. Congress, NWP.

3. D. Hawkins, Assistant Administrator for Air and Waste Management, Considerations of Environmental Protection Criteria for Radioactive Waste (Washington, D.C.: U.S. EPA, February 1978), 1. The half-life is the amount of time it takes for 50 percent of the original radioactivity to decay. After ten half-lives, one one-thousandth of the original radioactivity remains. See N. Lenssen, "Confronting Nuclear Waste," in State of the World 1992 , ed. L. Brown (New York: Norton, 1992), 50.

4. J. R. R. Tolkien, The Fellowship of the Ring (New York: Ballantine Books, 1965), 349-350. Other persons have also used Tolkien's Ring as a symbol of nuclear waste, notably A. Lovins, in an unpublished paper, and A. Blowers, D. Lowry, and B. Solomon, The International Politics of Nuclear Waste (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1991), xvii; hereafter cited as: Blowers et al., International Politics .

5. One possibility for rendering the nuclear wastes less harmful is transmutation, a process proposed by Los Alamos researchers that would transform dangerous radionuclides into less harmful elements. Later in the volume, we discuss transmutation research. See Lee D. Gibson, "Can Alchemy Solve the Nuclear Waste Problem?", The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (July/August 1991): 12-17.

6. Richard Watson has pointed out (private communication) that Floyd Cullers of the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission first proposed the idea of retrievable surface storage facilities (RSSFs) for high-level radwaste.

7. C. Fairhurst, National Research Council and National Academy of Sciences, "Statement," in The Federal Program for the Disposal of Spent Nuclear Fuel and High-Level Radioactive Waste , Hearing before the Subcommittee on Nuclear Regulation of the Committee on Environment and Public Works, U.S. Senate, 101st Congress, Second Session, 2 October 1990 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1990), 18; hereafter cited as: U.S. Congress, Federal Waste .

8. D. Deere, U.S. Nuclear Waste Technical Review Board, "Statement," in U.S. Congress, Federal Waste , 18. The position in favor of permanent geological disposal is also confirmed by Blowers et al., International Politics , 318, and by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences Commission on Geosciences, Environment, and Resources, National Research Council, Rethinking High-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1990), v, 6. See Waste Isolation Systems Panel, Board on Radioactive Waste Management, A Study of the Isolation System for Geologic Disposal of Radioactive Wastes (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1983). See also note 17.

9. Blowers et al., International Politics , 318-319.

10. R. Murray, Understanding Radioactive Waste (Columbus: Batelle, 1989), 127, 142; Blowers et al., International Politics , 318.

11. See, for example, J. Raloff, "Nuclear Waste Still Homeless," Science News 136, no. 3 (15 July 1989): 47; R. Monastersky, "More Questions Plague Nuclear Waste Dump," Science News 135, no. 25 (24 June 1989): 389; R. Monastersky, "Opening Delayed for Nuclear Waste Site," Science News 134, no. 13 (24 September 1988): 199. For the Soviet disaster, see Z. Medvedev, Disaster in the Urals (London: Angus and Robertson, 1979).

12. U.S. ERDA, Final Environmental Statement: Waste Management Operations, Hanford Reservation, Richland, Washington , ERDA-1538, vol. 1 (Springfield, Va.: National Technical Information Service, October 1975), x-28. See also A. B. Benson and L. Shook, "Statement," in High-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal at Hanford Reservation , Oversight Hearings before the Subcommittee on General Oversight, Northwest Power, and Forest Management of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, U.S. House of Representatives, 99th Congress, First and Second Sessions, 15 April 1985 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1986), 230ff.

13. U.S. Congress, Safety of DOE Nuclear Facilities . Hearing before the Subcommittee on Energy and Power of the Committee on Energy and Commerce, House of Representatives, 101st Congress, First Session, 22 February 1989, Serial No. 101-1 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1989); U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Policy Act , Hearings before the Subcommittee on Energy and Environment of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, House of Representatives, 100th Congress, First Session, 18 September 1989 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1988), 3ff., 45ff., 46-47, 97, 211ff., 393; U.S. Congress, NWP, 31, 73, 41ff., 185. For costs of the DOE facility cleanup, see U.S. Congress, Federal Facility Compliance with Hazardous Waste Laws , Hearing before the Subcommittee on Superfund and Environmental Oversight of the Committee on Environment and Public Works, U.S. Senate, 100th Congress, Second Session, 4 August 1988 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1988), esp. 2-3, 160-161. See also U.S. Congress, DOE: Pollution at Fernald, Ohio . Hearing before the Subcommittee on Transportation and Tourism, House of Representatives, 100th Congress, Second Session on H.R. 3783, H.R. 3784, and H.R. 3785, 14 October 1988, Serial No. 100-236 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1988); U.S. Congress, DOE Nuclear Facility at Fernald, Ohio . Hearing before the Subcommittee on Energy Conservation and Power of the Committee on Energy and Commerce, House of Representatives, 99th Congress, Second Session, 13 August 1986, Serial No. 99-163 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1986), 2ff., 9ff.; J. Emel et al., Risk Management and Organization Systems for High-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal: Issues and Priorities , NWPOSE-008-88 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Nuclear Projects/Nuclear Waste Projects Office, September 1988), 68-74. See note 48, chapter 2, this volume, for the $300 billion Congressional estimate for cleanup.

14. J. Neel, "Statement," in Low-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal , Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Government Operations, House of Representatives, 94th Congress, Second Session, 23 February, 12 March, and 6 April 1976 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976), 245; EMCON Associates and J. McCollough, "Geotechnical Investigation and Waste Management Studies, Nuclear Waste Disposal Site, Fleming County, Kentucky, Project 108-5.2" (unpublished report, 1975). Available from EMCON, 326 Commercial Street, San Jose, California.

15. U.S. Geological Survey, "Memo, 1 July 1962," vertical file, "Maxey Flats: Correspondence and Phone Conversations" (Louisville: U.S. Department of the Interior, USGS, Water Resources Division, 1962); G. Meyer, "Maxey Flats Radioactive Waste Burial Site: Status Report," unpublished report, Advanced Science and Technology Branch, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1975, 9; Pacific Northwest Laboratory et al., Research Program at Maxey Flats and Consideration of Other Shallow Land Burial Sites , NUREG/CR-1832 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. NRC, 1980), esp. v, I-I, I-2, I-14, IV-6, IV-9, V-7ff. See also Neel, "Statement," 245, and A. Weiss and P. Columbo, Evaluation of Isotope Migration--Land Burial , NUREG/CR-1289 BNL-NUREG-51143 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. NRC, 1980), 5. For more discussion of problems at Maxey Flats and other sites, see L. Carter, Nuclear Imperatives and Public Trust (Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future, 1987), 73ff.

16. The DOE quote is taken from R. Monastersky, "The 10,000-Year Test," Science News 133, no. 9 (27 February 1988): 139-141. See also G. Hart, "Address to the Forum," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Proceedings of a Public Forum on Environmental Protection Criteria for Radioactive Wastes , ORP/CSD-78-2 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, May 1978), 6.

17. U.S. ERDA, ERDA-1538, pp. X-74, II-1-II-57; U.S. AEC, Comparative Risk-Cost-Benefit Study of Alternative Sources of Electrical Energy , WASH-1224 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, December 1974), 3-83; see also I. Amato, "Dangerous Dirt: An Eye on DOE," Science News 130, no. 14 (4 October 1986): 221.

18. For some of the problems with poor management practices see, for example, W. Freudenburg, Organizational Management of Long-Term Risks: Implications for Risk and Safety in the Transportation of Nuclear Wastes , NWPO-TN-013-91 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Nuclear Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, 1991).

19. For an excellent early discussion that emphasizes the socioeconomic and political problems associated with disposal of high-level radwaste, see W. Bishop, I. Hoos, N. Hilberry, D. Metlay, and R. Watson, Essays on Issues Relevant to the Regulation of Radioactive Waste Management , NUREG-0412 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1978). By the same authors, see Proposed Goals for Radioactive Waste Management , NUREG-0300 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1978).

20. See, for example, D. S. Baron, "The Abuses of Risk Assessment," in Risk and Society , ed. M. Waterstone (Boston: Kluwer, 1992), 173-178.

21. F. Parker, National Research Council/National Academy of Sciences, "Letter," in Nuclear Waste Program , Hearings before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate, 100th Congress, First Session, 29 January, 4-5 February 1987 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1987), 445-449.

22. R. Monastersky, "Quake Nuclear-Waste Space," Science News 141, no. 3 (18 January 1992): 44. For information on the WIPP facility, see U.S. DOE, Final Environmental Impact Statement, Waste Isolation Pilot Plant , 2 vols. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Energy, 1980); and U.S. Congress, Waste Isolation Pilot Plant Land Withdrawal , Hearings before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate, 101st Congress, Second Session, 3 and 26 April 1990 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1990); and Panel on the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant, U.S. National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council, Review Comments on DOE Document DOE/WIPP 89-011 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. National Academy of Sciences, 1990). See also note 7.

23. Quoted in U.S. Energy Research and Development Agency, Draft Environmental Statement, Waste Management Operations: Savannah River Plant, Aiken, South Carolina , ERDA-1537 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, October 1976), p. K-62.

1. See, for example, A. Lowry et al., "Taiwan Aboriginal Tribes Protest Use of Island for Waste Site," World Information Service on Energy (WISE) News Communique 356 (10 July 1991): 4-5. C. C. Aveline, "Argentine Activist Receives Death Threats," World Information Service on Energy (WISE) News Communique 344 (21 December 1990): 4-5. J. Kalanti, "Finnish Waste to USSR," World Information Service on Energy (WISE) News Communique 325 (19 January 1990): 5. For one example of the NIMBY syndrome in the United States, see R. L. Goldsteen and J. K. Schorr, Demanding Democracy after Three Mile Island (Gainesville: University of Florida, 1991), chap. 8.

2. See, for example, R. Monastersky, "First Nuclear Waste Dump Finally Ready," Science News 140, no. 15 (12 October 1991), 228, and J. Raloff and I. Peterson, "Trouble With EPA's Radwaste Rules," Science News 132, no. 5 (1 August 1987): 73. See also R. E. Dunlap, M. E. Draft, and E. A. Rosa, (eds.), The Public and Nuclear Waste: Citizens' Views of Repository Siting (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1992). For some of the groups that oppose the U.S. repository program and some of the bills proposing to suspend or abandon the program, see U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program , Hearings before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate, 100th Congress, 29 April and 7 May 1987, part 3 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1987); hereafter cited as: U.S. Congress, NWP. See also U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Policy Act , Hearing before the Subcommittee on Energy and the Environment of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, House of Representatives, 100th Congress, First Session, 18 September 1987 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1988), and L. Carter, "Nuclear Waste Policy and Politics," Forum for Applied Research and Public Policy 4, no. 3 (1989): 5-18.

3. A. Blowers, D. Lowry, and B. Solomon, The International Politics of Nuclear Waste (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1991), 1, 4, and N. Lenssen, "Confronting Nuclear Waste," in State of the World 1992 , ed. L. Brown (New York: Norton, 1992), 50.

4. P. L. Joskow, "Commercial Impossibility, The Uranium Market, and the Westinghouse Case," Journal of Legal Studies 6, no. 1 (January 1977): 165. Information on the one-thousand-plant prediction may be found in H. R. Price, "The Current Approach to Licensing Nuclear Power Plants," Atomic Energy Law Journal 15, no. 6 (Winter 1974): 230; L. M. Muntzing, "Standardization in Nuclear Power," Atomic Energy Law Journal 15, no. 3 (Spring 1973): 22.

5. M. Batten, "The Challenge of Chernobyl," Calypso Log 18, no. 5 (October 1991): 5. For another scientist and policymaker who supports the 475,500 figure for Chernobyl cancer deaths, see Lenssen, 49 (note 3).

6. H. Kendall, "Calling Nuclear Power to Account," Calypso Log 18, no. 5 (October 1991): 8.

7. C. Flavin, Nuclear Power: The Market Test (Washington, D.C.: Worldwatch Institute, December 1983), 33. See also J. K. Asselstine, S. Eden, M. Waterstone, "The Future of the Nuclear Power Industry in the United States," in Risk and Society , ed. M. Waterstone (Boston: Kluwer, 1992), 101-120.

8. C. Polluck, Decommissioning: Nuclear Power's Missing Link (Washington, D.C.: Worldwatch Institute, April 1986), 27; Flavin, Nuclear Power , 45-47. See also P. Diehl, "Leaked Internal Documents Critical of French Nuclear Establishment," World Information Service on Energy (WISE) News Communique 330 (6 April 1990): 8-9.

9. Public Citizen, Critical Mass Energy Project (Washington, D.C.: Public Citizen, 1990). See also A. Lowry, "A Decade of Decline for U.S. Nuclear Power," World Information Service on Energy (WISE) News Communique 325 (19 January 1990): 3.

10. For an overview of nuclear technology and effects of radiation, see Blowers et al., International Politics , 1ff.; and R. Murray, Understanding Radioactive Waste (Columbus: Batelle Press, 1989). See also R. Bertell, No Immediate Danger: Prognosis for a Radioactive Earth (Summertown, Tenn.: The Book Publishing Company, 1985), 19, and R. D. Lipschutz, Radioactive Waste (Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger, 1980). See also Office of Radiation Programs, U.S. EPA, Draft Environmental Impact Statement for 40 CFR 191: Environmental Standards for Management and Disposal of Spent Nuclear Fuel, High-Level and Transuranic Radioactive Wastes , EPA 5201102025 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. EPA, 1982).

11. The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the U.S. Public Health Service, and the U.S. Federal Radiation Council have all admitted that radiation risk has no threshold and that it is cumulative. See 10 CFR 20 and 10 CFR 50 and K. Shrader-Frechette, Nuclear Power and Public Policy (Boston: Kluwer, 1983), chap. 2, esp. p. 45.

12. N. Lenssen, "Confronting Nuclear Waste," in Brown, State of the World 1992 , 49.

13. J. P. Murray, J. J. Harrington, and R. Wilson, "Chemical and Nuclear Waste Disposal," The Cato Journal 2, no. 2 (Fall 1982), 569. Sierra Club, Low-Level Nuclear Waste: Options for Storage (Buffalo: Sierra Club Radioactive Waste Campaign, 1984), 2. For summary data on high-level waste, see Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management, DOE, Characteristics of Spent Fuel, High-Level Waste, and Other Radioactive Wastes Which May Require Long-Term Isolation , DOE/RW-0184, vol. 1 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. DOE, 1987), p. 1. 3ff.

14. J. M. Deutch and the Interagency Review Group on Nuclear Waste Management, Report to the President , T1D-2817 (Springfield, Va.: Technical Information Service, October 1978), pp. D-11, D-12, D-14, D-19.

15. D. MacLean, "Introduction," to D. Bodde and T. Cochran, "Conflicting Views on a Neutrality Criterion for Radioactive Waste Management" (College Park, Md.: University of Maryland, Center for Philosophy and Public Policy, 23 February 1981), 3; J. M. Deutch, Report to the President , pp. D-11, D-12, D-14, D-19. See also K. B. Krauskopf, Radioactive Waste Disposal and Geology (London: Chapman and Hall, 1988).

16. W. S. Caldwell et al., "The 'Extraordinary Nuclear Occurrence' Threshold and Uncompensated Injury under the Price-Anderson Act," Rutgers-Camden Law Journal 6, no. 2 (Fall 1974): 379; K. S. Shrader-Frechette, Nuclear Power and Public Policy (Boston: Kluwer, 1983), 10-11.

17. S. Novick, The Electric War (San Francisco: Sierra, 1976), 32-33; Shrader-Frechette, Nuclear Power , 8-9.

18. Shrader-Frechette, Nuclear Power , 75-81. See also A. Lowry, "Canadian Nuclear Liability Act Challenged," World Information Service on Energy (WISE) News Communique 329 (9 March 1990): 329. For current U.S. nuclear-liability limits see Price-Anderson Amendments Act of 1988, P.L. 100-408, Stat 102, pp. 1066-1085. For estimates of the cost of Cher- soft

nobyl, see M. Koryakin, "State of the Soviet Nuclear Industry," World Information Service on Energy (WISE) News Communique 332 (18 May 1990): 2 (P.O. Box 5627, NL-1007, AP Amsterdam, The Netherlands). See note 38.

19. Flavin, Nuclear Power , 33, 45-47. See also C. Polluck, Decommissioning: Nuclear Power's Missing Link (Washington, D.C.: Worldwatch Institute, April 1986), 27.

20. K. S. Shrader-Frechette, "Nuclear Arms and Nuclear Power: Philosophical Connections," in Nuclear War: Philosophical Perspectives , ed. M. A. Fox and L. Groarke (New York: Peter Lang, 1985). See also S. M. Cohen, Arms and Judgment (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1989); and K. Kipnis and D. Meyers (eds.), Political Realism and International Morality (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1987). For a discussion of the problems associated with use of commercial nuclear fission in developing countries, see, for example, A. del Callar, "The Impact and Safety of Commercial Nuclear Energy: Perspectives from the Philippines," in Nuclear Energy and Ethics , ed. K. S. Shrader-Frechette (Geneva: World Council of Churches, 1991), 66-71. See also note 19.

21. E. Winchester, "Nuclear Wastes," Sierra (July-August 1979). Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management, Characteristics of Spent Fuel, High-Level Waste, and Other Radioactive Wastes which May Require Long-Term Isolation , DOE/RW-0184 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. DOE, 1987).

22. P. Z. Grossman and E. S. Cassedy, "Cost Benefit Analysis of Nuclear Waste Disposal," Science, Technology, and Human Values 10, no. 4 (Fall 1985): 48.

23. Murray, Harrington, and Wilson, "Chemical and Nuclear Waste Disposal," 586.

24. D. Hawkins, Assistant Administrator for Air and Waste Management, Considerations of Environmental Protection Criteria for Radioactive Waste (Washington, D.C.: U.S. EPA, February 1978), 27-29.

25. See note 10, this chapter. See also Novick, The Electric War , and Shrader-Frechette, Nuclear Power .

26. For discussion of the secrecy and radiological experiments conducted on the local persons around Hanford, Washington, see Blowers et al., International Politics , 34-39. See also note 10, chap. 1.

27. Cited by Novick, The Electric War , 32-33, in a taped interview with Walske. For discussion of the "Atoms for Peace" program, see L. Carter, Nuclear Imperatives and Public Trust (Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future, 1987), 47ff.; hereafter cited as Carter, NIPT.

28. Kendall, "Calling Nuclear Power," 9. If the costs of nuclear power doubled, it would be considerably more expensive than coal. See Shrader-Frechette, Nuclear Power , 57ff. and references cited. Given global warming, however, coal is not obviously a desirable energy option.

29. See Shrader-Frechette, Nuclear Power , chap. 1.

30. Murray, Understanding Radioactive Waste , 45, and Blowers et al., International Politics , 4ff. See also note 28.

31. Blowers et al., International Politics , 10ff. See also note 1 and Nils-Axel Morner, "High-Level Waste Site Cracked/Sweden," World Information Service on Energy (WISE) News Communique 326/7 (9 February 1990): 10-12; Nenig, "UK Dump Plan; Sellafield Dangers as Great at Dounreay," World Information Service on Energy (WISE) News Communique 355 (28 June 1991): 7; Nenig, "UK Waste Dump Site Chosen," World Information Service on Energy (WISE) News Communique 357 (22 August 1991): 3; E. Mealey, "London Dumping Convention," World Information Service on Energy (WISE) News Communique 357 (22 August 1991): 3; E. Mealey, "London Dumping Convention," World Information Service on Energy (WISE) News Communique 343 (7 December 1990): 5; A. Lowry, "International Controls on Nuclear Waste Dumps Needed," World Information Service on Energy (WISE) News Communique 331 (27 April 1990): 8-9.

32. Blowers et al., International Politics , 12ff.

33. Regarding the WIPP site, see note 2, this chapter, and note 17, chap. 1. See also U.S. Congress, Waste Isolation Pilot Plant Land Withdrawal , Hearings before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate, 101st Congress, Second Session, 3 and 26 April 1990 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1990).

34. See C. Eid (ed.), Incineration of Radioactive Waste (London: Graham and Trotman, 1985). See also A. Lowry, "Radwaste Incineration in the U.S.," World Information Service on Energy (WISE) News Communique 326/7 (9 February 1990): 10-11. For discussion of Sellafield pollution, see Carter, NIPT, 251ff.

35. See Blowers et al., International Politics , 41ff., and L. Scheinman, The International Atomic Energy Agency and World Nuclear Order (Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future, 1987).

36. See the previous note.

37. Quoted by Blowers et al., International Politics , 44.

38. For discussion of the Price-Anderson Act and the catastrophic consequences of nuclear accidents, see Shrader-Frechette, Risk and Rationality (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1991), 25ff., 88ff.; hereafter cited as Risk ; Shrader-Frechette, Nuclear Power , chap. 4; J. Marrone, "The Price-Anderson Act: The Insurance Industry's View" Forum 12, no. 2 (Winter 1977): 607; W. S. Caldwell et al., "Nuclear Occurrence," 379; J. R. Brydon, "Slaying the Nuclear Giants," Pacific Law Journal 8, no. 2 (July 1977): 781; "AEC Staff Study of the Price-Anderson Act, Part, I," Atomic Energy Law Journal 16, no. 3 (Fall 1974): 220. See also note 18. The 1988 amendments to the Price-Anderson Act (P.L. 100-408; Stat 102, pp. 1066-1085) set the liability limit at $63 million times the number of reactors. For one hundred reactors, the limit would be $6.3 billion. Each year, the $63 million is adjusted for inflation.

39. The Energy Reorganization Act, as a response to government problems regarding the AEC's pro-industry bias, is discussed in M. A. Rowden, "Nuclear Power Regulation in the United States: A Current Domestic and International Perspective," Atomic Energy Law Journal 17, no. 2 (Summer 1975): 102ff. See also Novick, Electric War , 354-355; Brydon, "Nuclear Giants," 771; V. McKim, "Social and Environmental Values in Power Plant Licensing," in Values in the Electric Power Industry , ed. K. M. Sayre (Notre Dame: University Press, 1977), 38-40; G. B. Karpinski, "Federal Preemption of State Laws Controlling Nuclear Power," Georgetown Law Journal 64, no. 6 (July 1976): 1336; and J. G. Palfrey, "Energy and the Environment: The Special Case of Nuclear Power," Columbia Law Review 74, no. 8 (December 1974): 1380.

40. L. Carter, NIPT, 64-65. For further discussion of the AEC coverup, see the previous note.

41. For discussion of the 1982 Nuclear Waste Policy Act, see Carter, NIPT; note 12, chap. 1; note 2, (this) chap. 2; and U.S. Congress, High-Level Nuclear Waste Issues , Hearings before the Subcommittee on Nuclear Regulation of the Committee on Environment and Public Works, U.S. Senate, 100th Congress, First Session, 23 April, 2, 3, 18 June 1987 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1987). See also Radioactive Waste Legislation , Hearings before the Subcommittee on Energy and Environment of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, House of Representatives, 97th Congress, First Session, 23, 25 June, 9 July 1981 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981).

42. For discussion of the 1987 Act, see J. D. Raeber, "Federal Nuclear Waste Policy as Defined by the Nuclear Waste Policy Amendments Act of 1987," Saint Louis University Law Journal 34, no. 1 (Fall 1989): 111-131.

43. U.S. DOE, Site Characterization Progress Report: Yucca Mountain, Nevada , DOE/RW-0307P (Washington, D.C.: U.S. DOE, 1991), xiv.

44. H. W. Swainston, "Yucca Mountain: A Study of Conflicts in Federalism," Inter Alia 57, no. 1 (October 1992): 11-16. Grant Sawyer and the State of Nevada Commission on Nuclear Projects, Report of the Nevada Commission on Nuclear Projects (Carson City: Nuclear Waste Project Office, 1992), 57-58. See also U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Policy Amendments Act of 1991 , Report of Mr. Johnston (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1991), 1-5.

45. R. H. Bryan, Governor of Nevada, "Statement," in U.S. Congress, NWP, 41, provides the 80-percent figure. See also M. Yates, "DOE Reassesses Civilian Radioactive Waste Management Program," Public Utilities Fortnightly (15 February 1990): 36-38, esp. 36; R. Loux, "Will the Nation's Nuclear Waste Policy Succeed at Yucca Mountain?" Public Utilities Fortnightly (22 November 1990): 27, 52.

46. For discussion of sub-seabed disposal, see, for example, R. A. Kaplan, "Into the Abyss: International Regulation of Sub-seabed Nuclear Waste Disposal," University of Pennsylvania Law Review , no. 3 (January 1991): 769-800; and U.S. Congress, Civilian Radioactive Waste Disposal , Hearings before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, 100th Congress, First Session, 16, 17 July 1987 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1987), 244ff., 309ff.

47. See Murray, Understanding Radioactive Waste , for a discussion of laws and regulations regarding nuclear waste.

48. Lenssen (note 3), 53. Blowers et al., International Politics , 36ff. See also U.S. Congress, Federal Facility Compliance with Hazardous Waste Laws , Hearing before the Subcommittee on Superfund and Environmental Over- soft

sight of the Committee on Environment and Public Works, U.S. Senate, 100th Congress, Second Session, 4 August 1988 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1988).

1. I. S. Roxburgh, Geology of High-Level Nuclear Waste Disposal (New York: Chapman and Hall, 1987), 189.

2. See E. Nagel, The Structure of Science (New York: Hartcourt, Brace, and World, 1961), 13-105.

3. C. Hempel and P. Oppenheim, "Studies in the Logic of Explanation," Philosophy of Science 15 (1948): 135-175. R. B. Braithwaite, Scientific Explanation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1953). K. R. Popper, The Logic of Scientific Discovery (New York: Basic Books, 1959).

4. See, for example, E. Reichard et al., Groundwater Contamination Risk Assessment (Oxfordshire, England: International Association of Hydrological Sciences, 1990), 101ff.; hereafter cited as: Reichard, GCRA.

5. Reichard, GCRA, 177-179. Much of this discussion of value judgments in quantitative risk assessment is based on K. S. Shrader-Frechette, Risk and Rationality (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1991), 53-74; hereafter cited as: Risk . For a discussion of risk assessment and its components, see Shrader-Frechette, Risk , 5ff. For an analysis of needed improvements in risk assessment, see Shrader-Frechette, Risk , 169-219.

6. R. Rudner, "The Scientist Qua Scientist Makes Value Judgments," in Introductory Readings in the Philosophy of Science , ed. E. D. Klemke, R. Hollinger, and A. Kline (Buffalo: Prometheus Books, 1980), 236; B. Allen and K. Crump, "Aspects of Quantitative Risk Assessment as Applied to Cancer," in Quantitative Risk Assessment , ed. J. Humber and R. Almeder (Clifton, N.J.: Humana Press, 1987), 129-146.

7. C. Whipple, "Nonpessimistic Risk Assessment," in The Risk Assessment of Environmental and Human Health Hazards , ed. D. Paustenbach (New York: John Wiley, 1989), 1105-1120; U.S. NRC, Reactor Safety Study , Report no. (NUREG-75/014) WASH-1400 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975), 37; C. Starr and C. Whipple, "Risks of Risk Decisions," Science 208, no. 4448 (June 1980): 1116; B. Cohen and I. Lee, "A Catalog of Risks," Health Physics 36, no. 6 (1979): 707; W. Hafele, "Energy," in Science, Technology, and the Human Prospect , ed. C. Starr and P. Ritterbush (New York: Pergamon, 1979), 139; M. Maxey, "Managing Low-Level Radioactive Wastes," in Low-Level Radioactive Waste Management , ed. J. Watson (Williamsburg, Va.: Health Physics Society, 1979), 410, 417; B. Cohen, "Risk Analyses of Buried Wastes," in Paustenbach, Risk Assessment , 575; R. Andrews, "Environmental Impact Assessment and Risk Assessment," in Environmental Impact Assessment , ed. P. Wathern (London: Unwin Hyman, 1988), 85-97; S. Dreyfus, "Formal Models vs. Human Situational Understanding . . .," Technology and People 1 (1982): 61; D. MacLean, "Understanding the Nuclear Power Controversy," in Scientific Controversies , ed. A. Caplan and H. Engelhardt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), part V; L. Clarke, Acceptable Risk? (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1989).

8. P. Ricci and A. Henderson, "Fear, Fiat, and Fiasco," in Phenotypic Variation in Populations , ed. A. Woodhead et al. (New York: Plenum, 1988), 285-293; R. Setlow, "Relevance of Phenotypic Variation in Risk," in Woodhead et al., 1-5.

9. M. Schneiderman, "Risk Assessment: Where Do We Want It To Go? What Do We Do To Make It Go There?" in Humber and Almeder, Quantitative Risk Assessment , 107-128; E. Foulkes, "Factors Determining Target Doses," in Hazard Assessment of Chemicals , ed. J. Saxena (New York: Taylor and Francis, 1989), 31-47.

10. K. Busch, "Statistical Approach to Quantitative Risk Assessment," in Humber and Almeder, Quantitative Risk Assessment , 9-55; see also Setlow, "Relevance of Phenotypic Variation in Risk."

11. E. Reichard et al., Groundwater Contamination Risk Assessment (Oxfordshire, England: International Association of Hydrological Sciences, 1990), 177.

12. For discussion of the difficulties with "real risk" and with the distinction between "real risk" and "perceived risk," see, for example, W. Freudenburg, "Perceived Risk, Real Risk," Science 242 (October 7, 1988): 44-49; P. Slovic, "Perception of Risk," Science 23b (1987): 280-285; P. Slovic, B. Fischoff, and S. Liechtenstein, "Characterizing Perceived Risk," in Perilous Progress , ed. R. Kates, C. Hohemser, and H. Kasperson (Boulder: Westview, 1985); P. Slovic, B. Fischoff, and S. Liechtenstein, "Perception and Acceptability of Risk from Energy Systems," in Public Reactions to Nuclear Power , ed. W. Freudenburg and E. Rosa (Boulder: American Association for the Advancement of Science/Westview, 1984), 115-135; and K. Shrader-Frechette, Risk , 77-88.

13. For discussion of some of these other risk factors, see W. Freudenburg and T. Jones, "Attitudes and Stress in the Presence of Technological Risk," Social Forces 69, no. 4 (June 1991): 999-1024; J. Short, "Social Dimensions of Risk," The American Sociologist (Summer 1987): 167-172; J. Short, "The Social Fabric at Risk," American Sociological Review 49 (December 1984): 711-725; S. Rayner and R. Canton, "How Fair Is Safe Enough?" Risk Analysis 7, no. 1 (March 1987): 3-9; K. Shrader-Frechette, Risk , 89-168; K. Shrader-Frechette, Risk Analysis and Scientific Method (Boston: Kluwer/Reidel, 1985), 55-125; R. Dunlap, M. Kraft, and E. Rosa (eds.), The Public and Nuclear Waste: Citizens' Views of Repository Siting (Durham: Duke University Press, 1993).

14. H. Longino, "Comments on 'What's Wrong with Quantitative Risk Assessment?,'" remarks delivered at the Philosophy of Science Association Meeting, Pittsburgh, 24 October 1986, pp. 3-11; J. Fabrikant et al., Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation, Health Risks of Radon and Other Internally Deposited Alpha-Emitters: BEIR IV (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1988); K. S. Shrader-Frechette, Nuclear Power and Public Policy (Boston: Reidel, 1983), 25-27; D. Paustenbach (ed.), The Risk Assessment of Environmental and Human Health Hazards (New York: John Wiley, 1989); J. Saxena (ed.), Hazard Assessment of Chemicals (New York: Taylor and Francis, 1989); A. Woodhead et al. (eds.), Phenotypic Variation in Populations (New York: Plenum, 1988).

15. Longino, "Comments," 3; J. Purdham, "Whose Life Is It Anyway?" At The Centre: The Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety 10, no. 1 (March 1987): 9; Foulkes, "Factors," 43ff.; Fabrikant, BEIR IV, 442ff.; Woodhead et al., Phenotypic Variation .

16. F. von Hippel and T. Cochran, "Chernobyl, The Emerging Story: Estimating Long-Term Health Effects," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 42, no. 7 (August/September 1986): 18-24 (note: this volume was originally misnumbered as vol. 43, no. 1 due to a misprint); E. Marshall, "Reactor Explodes Amid Soviet Silence," Science 232, no. 4752 (16 May 1986): 814-815.

17. D. Nebert, "Genes Encoding Drug-Metabolizing Enzymes," in Woodhead et al., Phenotypic Variation , 59.

18. L. Cox and P. Ricci, "Legal and Philosophical Aspects of Risk Analysis," in Paustenbach, Risk Assessment , 1038ff.; S. Samuels, "The Arrogance of Intellectual Power," in Woodhead et al., Phenotypic Variation , 113-120; K. S. Shrader-Frechette, Science Policy, Ethics, and Economic Methodology (Boston: Reidel, 1985), esp. chaps. 2, 5, 6, and 7.

19. V. Bond, "Causality of a Given Cancer After Known Radiation Exposure," in Hazards , ed. R. Kates et al. (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1986), 24-43.

20. L.J. Carter, Nuclear Imperatives and Public Trust (Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future, 1987), 417.

1. C. Bernard, Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 4 (1928): 997.

2. U.S. Department of Energy, Nuclear Waste Policy Act, Environmental Assessment, Yucca Mountain Site, Nevada Research and Development Area, Nevada , DOE/RW-0073, 3 vols. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. DOE, 1986), vol. 3, pp. C.5-C.55; hereafter cited as: DOE, NWPA-Yucca.

3. DOE, NWPA-Yucca, pp. C.5-56. The same admission is made in U.S. DOE, Nuclear Waste Policy Act, Environmental Assessment, Reference Repository Location, Hanford Site, Washington , DOE/RW-0070, 3 vols. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. DOE, 1986), vol. 2: 6-294; hereafter cited as: DOE, NWPA-Hanford.

4. See note 17, chap. 1, of this volume.

5. See, for example, R. Bryan, State of Nevada Comments on the U.S. Department of Energy Draft Environmental Assessment for the Proposed High-Level Nuclear Waste Site at Yucca Mountain , 2 vols. (Carson City: Nuclear Waste Project Office, Office of the Governor, 1985), vol. 1: I-42, I-43; R. Peters, The Effect of Percolation Rate on Water Travel Time in Deep, Partially Saturated Zones , SAND85-0854 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1986), 32; see G. Sawyer, "Statement," Nuclear Waste Program , Hearings before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate, 100th Congress, First Session on the Current Status of the Department of Energy's Civilian Nuclear Waste Activities, 29 January, 4 and 5 February 1987, part 1 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1987), 709-712; hereafter cited as: U.S. Congress, Nuclear .

6. R. Barnard and H. Dockery, Technical Summary of the Performance Assessment Calculational Exercises for 1990 (PACE-90), Vol. 1: "Nominal Configuration" Hydrogeologic Parameters and Calculation Results , SAND90-2726 (Albuquerque: Nuclear Waste Repository Technology Department, Sandia National Labs., 1991).

7. Barnard and Dockery, Technical Summary , 5-6.

8. Thompson Engineering Company, Review and Comment on the U.S. Department of Energy Site Characterization Plan Conceptual Design Report , NWPO-TR-009-88 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, October 1988) (Item 329 in US DOE, DE90006793).

9. See R. A. Watson, "Explanation and Prediction in Geology," Journal of Geology 77 (1969): 488-494.

10. R. A. Watson, "Absence as Evidence in Geology," Journal of Geological Education 30 (1982): 300-301.

11. See, for example, J. Beavers and N. Thompson, Environmental Effects on Corrosion in the Tuff Repository (Washington, D.C.: U.S. NRC, 1990) (Item 118 in US DOE, DE91000566); W. Halsey, "Selection Criteria for Container Materials at the Proposed Yucca Mountain High Level Nuclear Waste Repository," in NACE Corrosion '90 (Las Vegas: U.S. DOE, 1990) (Item 60 in US DOE, DE91000566); J. Perry, "A Lineament Analysis of Yucca Mountain, Nevada: The Proposed High-Level Nuclear Waste Repository," in 6th Thematic Conference on Remote Sensing for Exploration Geology: Applications, Technology, Economics (Ann Arbor: Environmental Research Institute of Michigan, 1988) (Item 135 in US DOE, DE91000566); D. Dobson et al., "Plans for Characterization of the Potential Geologic Repository Site at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, "in International Conference for High-Level Radioactive Waste Management (Las Vegas: U.S. DOE, 1990) (Item 8 in US DOE, DE91000566).

12. See G. Sawyer, Report of the State of Nevada Commission on Nuclear Projects (Carson City: Nevada Commission on Nuclear Projects, December 1990), 73.

13. K. V. Hodges, "Comment," in J. L. Younker, S. L. Albrecht, W. J. Arabasz, J. H. Bell, F. W. Cambray, S. W. Carothers, J. I. Drever, J. T. Einaudi, D. E. French, K. V. Hodges, R. H. Jones, D. K. Kreamer, W. G. Pariseau, T. A. Vogel, T. Webb, W. B. Andrews, G. A. Fasano, S. R. Mattson, R. C. Murray, L. B. Ballou, M. A. Revelli, A. R. Ducharme, L. E. Shephard, W. W. Dudley, D. T. Hoxie, R. J. Herbst, E. A. Patera, B. R. Judd, J. A. Docka, L. R. Rickertsen, J. M. Boak, and J. R. Stockey, Report of the Peer Review Panel on the Early Site Suitability Evaluation of the Potential Repository Site at Yucca Mountain, Nevada , SAIC-91/8001 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. DOE, 1992), 362; hereafter cited as: Younker, Albrecht, et al.

14. N. Oreskes, "Comments on Uncertainty, Expert Error, and Radioactive Waste," unpublished remarks, 23 March 1992, 6.

15. K. V. Hodges, "Comment," in Younker, Albrecht, et al., 362-363.

16. K. V. Hodges, "Comment," in Younker, Albrecht, et al., 363.

17. K. V. Hodges, "Comment," in Younker, Albrecht, et al., 384.

18. "Consensus Position," in Younker, Albrecht, et al., p. B-2.

19. D. Hawkins, Assistant Administrator for Air and Waste Management, U.S. EPA, Considerations of Environmental Protection Criteria for Radioactive Waste (Washington, D.C.: U.S. EPA, February 1978); hereafter cited as: U.S. EPA, Considerations .

20. U.S. EPA, Considerations , 10, 26.

21. C. B. Raleigh and the Panel on Coupled Processes at Yucca Mountain, Ground Water at Yucca Mountain: How High Can It Rise? (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1992); hereafter cited as: Raleigh.

22. Nevada NWPO, State of Nevada Comments on the U.S. Department of Energy Consultation Draft Site Characterization Plan, Yucca Mountain Site, Nevada: Vol. 1 (Carson City: U.S. DOE, 1989) (Item 335 in US DOE, DE90006793).

23. R. Stein and P. Collyer, "Pilot Research Projects for Underground Disposal of Radioactive Wastes in the United States of America," in Radioactive Waste Management. Vol. 3. Proceedings of an International Conference Held by the IAEA in Seattle, 16-20 May 1983 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. DOE, 1984) (Item 157 in US DOE, DE89005394).

24. K. G. Knauss et al., Hydrothermal Interaction of Solid Wafers of Topopah Spring Tuff with J-13 Water at 90 and 150/Degree/C Using . . . Long-Term Experiments (Livermore, Calif.: Lawrence Livermore National Lab., 1987) (Item 18 in US DOE, DE89005394); D. Hoffman et al., "Review of a Field Study of Radionuclide Migration from an Underground Nuclear Explosion at the Nevada Test Site," in International Conference on Radioactive Waste Management (Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Lab., 1983) (Item 140 in US DOE, DE89005394).

25. See, respectively, R. Jacobson et al., A Reconnaissance Investigation of Hydrogeochemistry and Hydrology of Rainier Mesa (Reno: Desert Research Institute, 1986) (Item 183 in US DOE, DE89005394); Knauss et al., Hypothermal Interaction ; J. Bates and T. Gerding, "Performance of Actinide-Containing SRL 165 Type Glass in Unsaturated Conditions," in Scientific Basis for Nuclear Waste Management 11: Volume 112: Proceedings , ed. M. Apted and R. Westerman (Boston: Materials Research Society, 1987) (Item 14 in US DOE, DE89005394).

26. H. D. Smith, Electrochemical Corrosion-Scoping Experiments: An Evaluation of the Results (Richland, Wash.: Westinghouse Hanford Co., 1988) (Item 151 in US DOE, DE90006793); H. D. Smith, Initial Report on Stress-Corrosion-Cracking Experiments Using Zircaloy-4 Spent Fuel Cladding C-Rings (Richland, Wash.: Westinghouse Hanford Co., 1988) (Item 153 in US DOE, DE90006793).

27. J. Bates et al., "Identification of Secondary Phases Formed During Unsaturated Reaction of UO 2 with EJ-13 Water," in Materials Research Society Fall Meeting (Argonne, Ill.: Argonne National Lab., 1989) (Item 102 in US DOE, DE90006793); J. Bates et al., "Parametric Effects of Glass Reaction Under Unsaturated Conditions," in Materials Research Society Fall Meeting (Argonne, Ill.: Argonne National Lab., 1989) (Item 103 in US DOE, DE90006793); McCright et al., Progress Report in the Results of Testing Advanced Conceptual Design Metal Barrier Materials Under Relevant Environmental Conditions for a Tuff Repository (Livermore, Calif.: Lawrence Livermore National Lab., 1987) (Item 114 in US DOE, DE90006793); see R. Westerman et al., Corrosion Testing of Type 304L Stainless Steel in Tuff Groundwater Environments (Richland, Wash.: Pacific Northwest Lab., 1987) (Item 135 in US DOE, DE90006793); H. Weiss et al., Metallurgical Analysis of a 304L Stainless Steel Canister from the Spent Fuel Test-Climax (Livermore, Calif.: Lawrence Livermore National Lab., 1985) (Item 119 in US DOE, DE88004834).

28. C. Hadlock, Technical Support of Standards for High-Level Radioactive Waste Management , vol. D: Release Mechanisms , EPA 520/4-79-007D (Washington, D.C.: U.S. EPA, 1980), 49.

29. J. Blacic et al., Effects of Long-Term Exposure of Tuffs to High-Level Nuclear Waste Repository Conditions, Final Report (Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Lab., 1986) (Item 67 in US DOE, DE88004834).

30. S. Pitman et al., "Corrosion and Slow-Strain-Rate Testing of Type 304L Stainless in Tuff Groundwater Environments," in Corrosion '87 (San Francisco: Pacific Northwest Lab, 1986) (Item 172 in US DOE, DE88004834).

31. DOE, NWPA-Hanford, vol. 2: 6-24, 6-25.

32. P. O'Brien, Technical Support for High-Level Radioactive Waste Management, Task C Report: Assessment of Migration Pathways , EPA 520/4-79-007C (Washington, D.C.: U.S. EPA, 1977), 134.

33. See C. Smith et al., Population Risks from Disposal of High-Level Radioactive Wastes in Geologic Repositories , EPA-520/3-80-006 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. EPA, 1982), 10, 51.

34. U.S. DOE, Office of Scientific and Technical Information, "Project History," in Yucca Mountain Project Bibliography, 1988-1989 , DOE/OSTI-3406 (Suppl.2) (DE90006793) (Oak Ridge: U.S. DOE, November 1990), vii-xvii.

35. DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 2: 6-242.

36. U.S. Geological Survey, Vegetation and Climates of the Last 45,000 Years in the Vicinity of the Nevada Test Site, South-Central Nevada (Reston, Va.: U.S. Geological Survey, 1985) (Item 394 in US DOE, DE88004834).

37. R. French, Daily, Seasonal, and Annual Precipitation at the Nevada Test Site, Nevada (Las Vegas: University of Nevada Water Resources Center, 1986) (Item 186 in US DOE, DE89005394).

38. See J. Braithwaite and F. Nimick, Effect of Host-Rock Dissolution and Precipitation on Permeability in a Nuclear Waste Repository in Tuff , SAND84-0192 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1984) (Item D161 in US DOE, NVO-96-24 [REV. 5]). R. French, Effects of the Length of Record on Estimates of Annual and Seasonal Precipitation at the Nevada Test Site, Nevada (Las Vegas: Nevada University Desert Research Institute, 1987) (Item 220 in US DOE, DE89005394).

39. DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 2: 6-298, 6-299.

40. The three quotes are taken, respectively, from DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 2: 6-32, 6-32, and 6-257.

41. L. Benson, "Effect of Paleoclimatic Fluctuations on the Transport of Radionuclides from Potential Waste Disposal Sites in the Great Basin of the Western United States," Earth Sciences 3, no. 1 (March): 7-9 (Item 90 in US DOE, DE89005394).

42. S. Mara, Assessment of Effectiveness of Geologic Isolation Systems. Geologic Factors in the Isolation of Nuclear Waste: Evaluation of Long-Term Geomorphic Processes and Catastrophic Events (Seattle: Battelle Pacific Northwest Lab., 1980) (Item 92 in US DOE, DE89005394).

43. L. Metcalf, Preliminary Review and Summary of the Potential for Tectonic, Seismic, and Volcanic Activity at the Nevada Test Site Defense Waste Disposal Site (Reno: Desert Research Institute, 1983) (Item 142 in US DOE, DE89005394). See also B. Crowe, Volcanic Hazard Assessment for Disposal of High-Level Radioactive Waste (Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Laboratory, 1986).

44. J. Czarnecki, "Characterization of the Subregional Groundwater Flow System of a Potential Site for a High-Level Nuclear Waste Repository," Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1988. (Item 278 in US DOE, DE90006793).

45. T. Dunne and L. Leopold, Water in Environmental Planning (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1978), 52, 54, 70.

46. J. Davis, Geological Reconnaissance and Chronologic Studies, Technical Report no. 33 (Las Vegas: Desert Research Institute, 1983) (Item 143 in US DOE, DE89005394).

47. U.S. DOE, "NNWSI History," in Bibliography of the Published Reports, Papers, and Articles on the Nevada Nuclear Waste Storage Investigations, January 1985 , NVO-96-24 (Rev. 5) (Las Vegas: U.S. DOE, Nevada Operations Office, 1985), 1-30.

48. H. MacDougall et al., Site Characterization Plan: Conceptual Design Report, Vol. 3: Appendices A-E: Nevada Nuclear Waste Storage Investigations Project (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1987) (Item 177 in US DOE, DE90006793).

49. J. Robinson, Water Levels in Periodically Measured Wells in the Yucca Mountain Area, Nevada, 1981-1987 (Denver: U.S. Geological Survey, 1988) (Item 271 in US DOE, DE90006793). See also Raleigh.

50. Raleigh, 144.

51. Raleigh, 7, 122, 135.

52. Stein and Collyer, "Pilot Research Projects."

53. I. Roxburgh, Geology of High-Level Nuclear Waste Disposal (London: Chapman and Hall, 1987), 183; hereafter cited as: Geology .

54. I. Walker, Geologic and Hydrogeologic Evaluation of a Proposed Site  . . . (Frankfort, Ky.: State Department of Health, 1962), 3.

55. S. Papadopulos and I. Winograd, Storage of Low-Level Radioactive Wastes in the Ground: Hydrogeologic and Hydrochemical Factors , EPA-520/3-74-009 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. EPA, Office of Radiation Programs, 1974), 29-30.

56. N. Bixler and R. Eaton, "Modeling of Multiphase Flow in Permeable Media: (1) Mathematical Model; (2) Analysis of Imbibation and Drying Experiments," in Gordan Research Conference on Modeling of Flow in Permeable Media (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1986) (Item 187 in US DOE, DE90006793).

57. R. Watson, "A Critique of Chronostratigraphy," American Journal of Science 283 (February 1983): 173-177; see also R. Watson and H. Wright, "The End of the Pleistocene: A General Critique of Chronostratigraphic Classification," Boreas 9 (1980): 153-163.

58. L. Ramspott, "Assessment of Engineered Barrier System and Design of Waste Packages," in American Nuclear Society Annual Meeting (Livermore, Calif.: Lawrence Livermore National Lab., 1988) (Item 147 in US DOE, DE90006793).

59. C. Cooper, Numerical Simulation of Gas Flow through Unsaturated Fractured Rock at Yucca Mountain, Nevada , NWPO-TR-014-90 (Las Vegas and Reno: Water Resources Center, Desert Research Institute, University of Nevada System, January 1990).

60. C. Sastre et al., Waste Package Reliability , NUREG/CR-4509 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. NRC, 1986), 22-24.

61. U.S. NRC, Reactor Safety Study , Report no. (NUREG-75/014) WASH-1400 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975).

62. See chap. 6 and R. Cooke, Subjective Probability and Expert Opinion (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), chap. 9.

63. Nevada NWPO, State of Nevada Comments on the U.S. Department of Energy Consultation Draft Site Characterization Plan, Yucca Mountain Site, Nevada: Vol. 1 (Carson City: U.S. DOE, 1989) (Item 335 in US DOE, DE90006793). Nevada NWPO, State of Nevada Comments on the U.S. Department of Energy Consultation Draft Site Characterization Plan, Yucca Mountain Site, Nevada: Vol. 2 (Carson City: U.S. DOE, 1989) (Item 336 in US DOE, DE90006793).

64. See, for example, G. Bertozzi, M. Hill, J. Lewi, and R. Storck, "Long-Term Risk Assessment of Geological Disposal," ed. R. Simon, Radioactive Waste Management and Disposal (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 639, 647.

65. M. Board, Examination of the Use of Continuum Versus Discontinuum Models for Design and Performance Assessment for the Yucca Mountain Site , NUREG/CR-5426 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. NRC, Division of Waste Management, Office of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards, August 1989); T. Brikowski, Yucca Mountain Program Summary of Research, Site Monitoring and Technical Review Activities (January 1987-June 1988) (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, December 1988); C. Cooper, Numerical Simulation of Gas Flow ; see GeoTrans Inc., Review of Modeling Efforts Associated with Yucca Mountain, Nevada , NWPO-TR-004-87 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Nuclear Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, September 1986), 9.

66. M. Board, Examination , 66.

67. See J. Lemons and D. Brown, "The Role of Science in the Decision to Site a High-Level Nuclear Waste Repository at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, USA," The Environmentalist 10, no. 1 (1990): 7.

68. T. Brikowski, Yucca Mountain Program Summary , 75.

69. GeoTrans Inc., Review of Modeling Efforts , 1.

70. See, for example, S. Sinnock and T. Lin, Preliminary Bounds on the Expected Postclosure Performance of the Yucca Mountain Repository Site, Southern Nevada , SAND84-1492 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1984), 8; Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates of Groundwater Travel Time and Radionuclide Transport at the Yucca Mountain Repository Site , SAND85-2701 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1986), 8; E. Jacobson, Investigation of Sensitivity and Uncertainty in Some Hydrologic Models of Yucca Mountain and Vicinity , SAND84-7212 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1984), 5; F. Thompson et al., Preliminary Upper-Bound Consequence Analysis for a Waste Repository at Yucca Mountain, Nevada , SAND83-7475 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1984), iii; N. Hayden, Benchmarking NNMSI Flow and Transport Codes: Cove 1 Results , SAND84-0996 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1985), 3-1; A. Dudley et al., Total System Performance Assessment Code (TOSPAC0): Vol. 1, Physical and Mathematical Bases: Yucca Mountain Project , SAND85-0002 UC-70 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1988) (Item 182 in US DOE, DE90006793), 36-44; C. Smith et al., Population Risks , 39; Y. Lin, Sparton--A Simple Performance Assessment Code for the Nevada Nuclear Waste Storage Investigations Project , SAND85-0602 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1985), i; see GeoTrans Inc., Review of Modeling Efforts , 13, 17.

71. See K. Shrader-Frechette, "Values and Hydrogeological Method: How Not to Site the World's Largest Nuclear Dump," in Planning for Changing Energy Conditions, Energy Policy Studies , vol. 4, ed. J. Byrne and D. Rich (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1988); K. Shrader-Frechette, "Idealized Laws, Antirealism, and Applied Science: A Case in Hydrogeology," Synthese 81 (1989): 329-352.

72. See R. Loux, State of Nevada Comments on the U.S. Department of Energy Site Characterization Plan, Yucca Mountain Site, Nevada (Carson City: Nevada Agency for Nuclear Projects, 1989), vol. 3: 6.

73. See N. Cartwright, How the Laws of Physics Lie (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983), 111; Shrader-Frechette, "Values and Hydrogeological Method"; Shrader-Frechette, "Idealized Laws, Antirealism, and Applied Science."

74. See M. Friedman, "The Methodology of Positive Economics," in The Philosophy of Economics , ed. D. Hausman (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984).

75. See A. Berusch and E. Gause, "DOE Progress in Assessing the Long Term Performance of Waste Materials," in Scientific Basis for Nuclear Waste Management X , ed. J. Bates and W. Seefeldt (Boston: Materials Research Society, 1987) (Item 190 in US DOE, DE89005394).

76. See, for example, D. Zyvoloski, "Simulation of Heat Transfer in the Unsaturated Zone," in International Conference for High-Level Radioactive Waste Management (Las Vegas: U.S. DOE, 1990) (Item 23 in US DOE, DE91000566); K. Karasaki et al., "Building of a Conceptual Model at UE25-c Hole Complex," in International Conference for High-Level Radioactive Waste Management (Las Vegas: U.S. DOE, 1990) (Item 35 in US DOE, DE91000566); T. Wolery et al., "The EQ3/6 Software Package for Geochemical Modeling," in American Chemical Society National Meeting (Los Angeles: ACS, 1988) (Item 45 in US DOE, DE91000566); A. Richardson, Yucca Mountain Project: Preliminary Shaft Liner Design Criteria and Methodology Guide (Las Vegas: U.S. DOE, 1990) (Item 69 in US DOE, DE91000566); J. Koteras, Studies of Computational Models for Jointed Media with Orthogonal Sets of Joints (Las Vegas: U.S. DOE, 1990) (Item 70 in US DOE, DE91000566); L. Costin, "Application of MOdels for Jointed Rock to the Analysis of Prototype Testing for the Yucca Mountain Project," in U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics (Golden, Colo.: U.S. DOE, 1990) (Item 81 in US DOE, DE91000566); R. Glass, "Laboratory Research Program to Aid in Developing and Testing the Validity of Conceptual Models for Flow and Transport through Unsaturated Porous Media," in GEOVAL '90 (Stockholm: U.S. DOE, 1990) (Item 83 in US DOE, DE91000566).

77. For one such admission, see DOE, NWPA-Hanford, vol. 2: 6-52, 6-69.

78. See, for example, U.S. DOE, Nuclear Waste Policy Act, Environmental Assessment, Davis Canyon Site, Utah , 3 vols., DOE/RW-0071 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. DOE, 1986), vol. 2: 6-120; hereafter cited as: DOE, NWPA-Davis.

79. See K. Shrader-Frechette, "Three Arguments Against Simplicity," in Aesthetic Factors in Natural Science , ed. N. Rescher (New York: University Press of America, 1990).

80. See, for example, Dudley et al., Total System Performance .

81. F. Gelbard et al., "One-Dimensional Radionuclide Transport Under Time-Varying Conditions," in International Conference for High-Level Radioactive Waste Management (Las Vegas: U.S. DOE, 1989) (Item 123 in US DOE, DE91000566); see also, for example, B. Sagar and A. Runchal, A Mathematical Model for Fluid Flow, Heat, and Mass Transport in Variably Saturated Geological Media (Las Vegas: U.S. DOE, 1990) (Item 131 in US DOE, DE91000566).

82. C. Cooper, Numerical Simulation of Gas Flow ; Dudley et al., Total System Performance , 1; Jacobson, Investigation of Sensitivity and Uncertainty , 12; B. Travis et al., Preliminary Estimates of Water Flow and Radionuclide Transport in Yucca Mountain (Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Lab, 1984), 3; R. Peters, The Effect of Percolation Rate on Water Travel Time in Deep, Partially Saturated Zones , SAND85-0854 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1986), i; Sastre et al., Waste Package Reliability , 24; Lin, Sparton--A Simple Performance Assessment Code , 1; Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates of Groundwater Travel Time , 66.

83. Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates of Groundwater Travel Time , 5, 13.

84. L. Mondy et al., Comparison of Waste Emplacement Configurations for a Nuclear Waste Repository in Tuff: IV: Thermo-Hydrological Analysis (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1983), 6.

85. Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates of Groundwater Travel Time , 80.

86. GeoTrans, Review of Modeling Efforts , esp. 11, 13; Thompson Engineering Company, Review and Comment on the U.S. Department of Energy Site Characterization Plan Conceptual Design Report , NWPO-TR-009-88 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, October 1988) (Item 329 in US DOE, DE90006793), esp. 1-15.

87. T. Nelson et al., Yucca Mountain Project Waste Package Design for MRS [Monitored Retrievable Storage] System Studies (Livermore, Calif.: Lawrence Livermore National Lab., 1989) (Item 132 in US DOE, DE90006793).

88. Smith et al., Population Risks , 183.

89. E. Reichard et al., Groundwater Contamination Risk Assessment (Oxfordshire, England: International Association of Hydrological Sciences, 1990), 180.

90. Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates of Groundwater Travel Time , 79.

91. Thompson Engineering Company, Review and Comment .

92. N. Goodman, "Safety, Strength, Simplicity," Philosophy of Science 28 (1961): 150-151; K. Friedman, "Empirical Simplicity as Testability," British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 23 (1972): 25-33; Shrader-Frechette, "Three Arguments Against Simplicity."

93. K. Wilson and B. Lyons, Ground-Water Levels and Tritium Concentrations at the Maxey-Flats Low-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal Site Near Morehead, Kentucky, June 1984 to April 1989 , Report 90-4189 (Louisville: U.S. Geological Survey, 1991), 20.

94. EMCON Associates and J. McCollough, Geotechnical Investigation and Waste Management Studies, Nuclear Waste Disposal Site, Fleming County, Kentucky, Project 108-5.2 (Unpublished report, 1975). Available from EMCON, 326 Commercial Street, San Jose, California.

95. D. Polluck and H. Zehner, "A Conceptual Analysis of the Ground-Water Flow System at the Maxey Flats Radioactive Waste Burial Site, Fleming County, Kentucky," U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report, in Modeling and Low-Level Waste Management , ORO-821, ed. C. Little and L. Stratton (Springfield, Va.: National Technical Information Service, U.S. Department of Commerce, 1981); E. Werner, Joint Intensity Survey in the Morehead Kentucky Area , unpublished study, Louisville: U.S. Geological Survey, Water Resources Division, 1980.

96. G. Meyer, "Maxey Flats Radioactive Waste Burial Site: Status Report," unpublished report, Advanced Science and Technology Branch, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1975, 9.

97. W. Naedele, "Nuclear Grave Is Haunting Kentucky," Philadelphia Bulletin , 17 May 1979, in U.S. Geological Survey, Maxey Flats--Publicity, Vertical File, Louisville, Kentucky Water Resources Division, U.S. Division of the Interior, 1-3; F. Browning, "The Nuclear Wasteland," New Times 7 (1976): 43.

98. D. K. Kreamer in Younker, Albrecht, et al., 423.

99. DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 2: 6-162.

100. For tuff sampling, see, for example, C. Voss and L. Shotwell, "An Investigation of the Mechanical and Hydrologic Behavior of Tuff Fractures Under Saturated Conditions," in International Conference for High-Level Radioactive Waste Management (Las Vegas: U.S. DOE, 1990) (Item 40 in US DOE, DE91000566); see also R. Peters et al., Fracture and Matrix Hydrologic Characteristics of Tuffaceous Materials from Yucca Mountain, Nye County, Nevada , SAND84-1471 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1984) (Item D170 in US DOE, NVO-96-24 [REV. 5]). For sampling of properties of glass see, for example, T. Abrajano et al., The Reaction of Glass During Gamma Irradiation in a Saturated Tuff Environment: Part 3, Long-Term Experiments at 1 × 10 ⁴ rad/hour (Argonne, Ill.: Argonne National Lab., 1988) (Item 23 in US DOE, DE89005394).

101. R. Einziger and H. Buchanan, Long-Term, Low-Temperature Oxidation of PWR Spent Fuel: Interim Transition Report (Richland, Wash.: Westinghouse Hanford Co., 1988) (Item 26 in US DOE, DE89005394).

102. S. Tyler, "Deep Installations of Monitoring in Unsaturated Welded Tuff," in International Congress on Hydrology of Rocks of Low Permeability (Las Vegas: University of Nevada System, 1985) (Item 173 in US DOE, DE89005394); see L. Candy and N. Mao, "Nuclear Waste Repository Characterization: A Spatial Estimation/Identification Approach," in Eighth Triennial World Congress-International Federation of Automatic Control (Kyoto, Japan: Lawrence Livermore National Lab., 1981) (Item 105 in US DOE, DE89005394).

103. See, respectively, Y. Chuang et al., Laboratory Analysis of Fluid Flow and Solute Transport Through a Variably Saturated Fracture Embedded in Porous Tuff (Washington, D.C.: U.S. NRC, 1990) (Item 120 in US DOE, DE91000566); W. Lin and W. Daily, "Laboratory Study of Fracture Healing in Topopah Spring Tuff," in Nuclear Waste Isolation in the Unsaturated Zone (Las Vegas: U.S. DOE, 1989) (Item 47 in US DOE, DE91000566); J. Connolly and F. Nimick, Mineralogic and Chemical Data Supporting Heat Capacity Determination for Tuffaceous Rocks (Las Vegas: U.S. DOE, 1990) (Item 66 in US DOE, DE91000566).

104. L. Carter, NIPT, 37.

105. D. Broxton, "Clinoptilolite Compositions in Diagenetically Altered Tuffs at a Potential Nuclear Waste Repository, Yucca Mountain, Nevada," in Interface Science and Engineering , ed. P. Hofmann (Columbus: Battelle Memorial Institute, 1987) (Item 90 in US DOE, DE90006793); see W. Linderfelt, Characterization of Infiltration into Fractured, Welded Tuff Using Small Borehole Data Collection Technique , NWPO-TR-005-87 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Nuclear Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, October 1986).

106. D. Bish and S. Chipera, Revised Mineralogic Summary of Yucca Mountain, Nevada (Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Lab., 1988) (Item 64 in US DOE, DE90006793).

107. S. Knight and K. Thomas, "Sorption of Radionuclides in Tuff Using Groundwaters of Various Compositions," in 194th National Meeting of the American Chemical Society (New Orleans: ACS, 1987) (Item 4 in US DOE, DE89005394); K. Thomas, Summary of Sorption Measurements Performed with Yucca Mountain, Nevada, Tuff Samples and Water from Well J-13 (Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Lab., 1987) (Item 6 in US DOE, DE89005394); R. Beckman et al., Preliminary Report on the Statistical Evaluation of Sorption Data (Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Lab., 1988) (Item 7 in US DOE, DE89005394).

108. U.S. NRC, In the Matter of Proposed Rulemaking on the Storage and Disposal of Nuclear Waste (Waste Confidence Rulemaking) , PR-50, 51 (44FR61372) (Washington, D.C.: U.S. NRC, 1980), p. B-60.

109. H. Fuentes et al., Preliminary Report on Sorption Modeling (Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Lab., 1987) (Item 50 in US DOE, DE890006793).

110. M. Morgenstein, Physics and Chemistry of the Transition of Glass to Authigenic Minerals: State of Nevada, Agency of Nuclear Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office (Carson City: Nevada Nuclear Waste Project Office, 1984) (Item 291 in US DOE, DE90006793); Bechman et al., Preliminary Report ; D. Bish and S. Chipera, Revised Mineralogic Summary of Yucca Mountain, Nevada (Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Lab., 1989) (Item 64 in US DOE, DE90006793); see also D. Finnegan and E. Bryant, Methods for Obtaining Sorption Data from Uranium-Series Disequilibria (Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Lab., 1987) (Item 55 in US DOE, DE890006793); K. Campbell, Statistical Guidelines for Planning a Limited Drilling Program (Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Lab., 1988) (Item 60 in US DOE, DE90006793).

111. See K. Shrader-Frechette, "Scientific Progress and Models of Justification: A Case in Hydrogeology," in Science, Technology, and Social Progress , Research in Technology Studies, vol. 2, ed. S. Goldman (London and Toronto: Associated University Press, 1989).

112. See, for example, A. Meijer et al., "Sorption of Radionuclides on Yucca Mountain Tuffs," in Nuclear Waste Isolation in the Unsaturated Zone: FOCUS '89 (Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Lab., 1989) (Item 82 in US DOE, DE90006793); J. Thompson, Laboratory and Field Studies Related to the Radionuclide Migration Project: Progress Report, October 1, 1986-September 30, 1987 (Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Lab., 1988) (Item 358 in US DOE, DE90006793); J. Thompson, "Actinide Behavior on Crushed Rock Columns," Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry 130, no. 2 (April 1989): 353-364 (Item 90 in US DOE, DE90006793); W. Daniels, Laboratory and Field Studies Related to the Radionuclide Migration Project. Progress Report, October 1, 1980-September 30, 1981 (Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Lab., 1982) (Item 125 in US DOE, DE89005394); C. Duffy and S. Al-Hassan, "Time and Frequency Domain Analysis of Tracer Migration in Crushed Tuff," in Workshop on Modeling of Solute Transport in the Unsaturated Zone (Los Alamos: Utah State University, 1987) (Item 211 in US DOE, DE89005394); R. Rundberg et al., "Observation of Time Dependent Dispersion in Laboratory Scale Experiments with Intact Tuff," in Second International Conference on Chemistry and Migration Behavior of Actinides and Fission Products in the Geosphere (Monterey: U.S. DOE, 1989) (Item 19 in US DOE, DE91000566).

113. See U.S. Congress, Nuclear , 204.

114. A. Kelmers et al., "Evaluation of DOE Radionuclide Solubility Data and Selected Retardation Parameters: Description of Calculational and Confirmatory Experimental Activities," in NRC Research Annual Review Meeting of Nuclear Waste Management Research on Geochemistry of HLW Disposal (Tallahassee: Oak Ridge National Lab., 1983) (Item 139 in US DOE, DE89005394).

115. U.S. DOE, "Project History," in Yucca Mountain Project Bibliography, 1988-1989 .

116. A. Norris et al., "Infiltration at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, Traced by ³⁶ Cl," Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research, Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms (Netherlands) 29, no. 1/2 (November 1987): 376-379 (Item 92 in US DOE, DE90006793).

117. GeoTrans, Review of Modeling Efforts , 1.

118. H. Zehner, Hydrologic Investigation of the Maxey Flats Radioactive Waste Burial Site, Fleming County, Kentucky , Open-File Report (Louisville: U.S. Geological Survey, 1981), 110.

119. Carter, NIPT, 38.

120. H. Fuentes et al., "Solute Leaching from Resin/Tuff Media in Unsaturated Flow," Radioactive Waste Management 10, no. 4 (June 1988): 285-320 (Item 10 in US DOE, DE89005394); see Rundberg et al., "Observation of Time Dependent Dispersion"; V. Oversby and R. McCright, "Laboratory Experiments Designed to Provide Limits on the Radionuclide Source Term for the NNWSI Project," in Workshop on the Source Term for Radionuclide Migration from HLW or Spent Nuclear Fuel (Albuquerque: Lawrence Livermore National Lab., 1985) (Item 122 in US DOE, DE88004834).

121. See, for example, E. Weeks and W. Wilson, Preliminary Evaluation of Hydrologic Properties of Cores of Unsaturated Tuff, Test Well USW H-1, Yucca Mountain, Nevada , Report 84-4193 (Denver: U.S. Geological Survey, 1984) (Item E111 in US DOE, NVO-96-24 [REV. 5]).

122. See R. Loux, State of Nevada Comments on the U.S. Department of Energy Consultation Draft Site Characterization Plan, Yucca Mountain Site, Nevada Research and Development Area, Nevada , 2 vols. (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Nuclear Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, 1988), vol. 1: I-9, I-10, II-2, II-3.

123. U.S. DOE, "Project History," in Yucca Mountain Project Bibliography, 1988-1989 .

124. See, for example, F. Heuze, "Geomechanics in Hard Rock Mining-Lessons from Two Case Histories," Preprint, Society of Mining Engineers of AIME 82-364 (September 1982): 14 (Item 134 in US DOE, DE89005394).

125. Roxburgh, Geology , 181.

126. Roxburgh, Geology , 181.

127. R. Peters et al., Fracture and Matrix Hydrologic Characteristics of Tuffaceous Materials from Yucca Mountain, Nye County, Nevada , SAND84- hard

1471 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1984) (Item D170 in US DOE, NVO-96-24 [REV. 5]), i.

128. D. Evans et al., "Fracture System Characterization for Unsaturated Rock," in Waste Management '87: Waste Isolation in the U.S., Technical Programs, and Public Education , ed. R. Post (Tucson: University of Arizona Nuclear Engineering Dept., 1987) (Item 196 in US DOE, DE89005394).

129. W. Daily and A. Ramirez, "Geophysical Tomography for Imaging Water Movement in Welded Tuff," in Second International Congress on Nuclear Waste Management (Livermore, Calif.: Lawrence Livermore National Lab., 1986) (Item 142 in US DOE, DE90006793); K. Pruess and T. Narasimhan, "Numerical Modeling of Multiphase and Nonisothermal Flow in Fractured Media," in International Conference on Fluid Flow in Fractured Rocks (Atlanta: Lawrence Berkeley Lab., 1988) (Item 43 in US DOE, DE89005394); see E. Majer et al., "VSP [Vertical Seismic Profiling] and Cross Hole Tomographic Imaging for Fracture Characterization," in Nuclear Waste Isolation in the Unsaturated Zone: FOCUS '89 (Livermore, Calif.: Lawrence Berkeley Lab., 1989) (Item 108 in US DOE, DE90006793).

130. E. Klavetter et al., Experimental Plan for Investigating Water Movement Through Fractures: Yucca Mountain Project (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1989) (Item 172 in US DOE, DE90006793).

131. Nevada NWPO, State of Nevada Comments on the U.S. Department of Energy Consultation Draft Site Characterization Plan, Yucca Mountain Site, Nevada: Vol. 1 (Carson City: U.S. DOE, 1989) (Item 335 in US DOE, DE90006793); C. Malone, "The Yucca Mountain Project," Environ. Sci. Technol . 23, no. 12 (1989): 1453; Loux, State of Nevada Comments , vol. 3: 6.

132. See Karasaki et al. "Building of a Conceptual Model"; J. Yow, "Block Analysis for Preliminary Design of Underground Excavations," in U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics (Golden, Colo.: U.S. DOE, 1990) (Item 55 in US DOE, DE91000566); Costin, "Application of Models for Jointed Rock"; J. Tillerson et al., "Uncertainties in Sealing a Nuclear Waste Repository in Partially Saturated Tuff," in Proceedings of an NEA/CEC Workshop (Paris: OECD, 1989) (Item 88 in US DOE, DE91000566); R. Zimmerman and G. Bodvarsson, "Combined Analytical/Numerical Approaches to Solving Fluid Flow Problems in the Unsaturated Zone at Yucca Mountain," in International Conference for High-Level Radioactive Waste Management (Las Vegas: U.S. DOE, 1990) (Item 90 in US DOE, DE91000566); K. Lee et al., "Application of Geophysical Methods for Fracture Characterization," in International Conference for High-Level Radioactive Waste Management (Las Vegas: U.S. DOE, 1990) (Item 114 in US DOE, DE91000566); L. Pyrak-Nolte and N. Cook, "A Stratified Percolation Model for Saturated and Unsaturated Flow through Natural Fractures," in International Conference for High-Level Radioactive Waste Management (Las Vegas: U.S. DOE, 1990) (Item 115 in US DOE, DE91000566).

133. L. Greenwade and G. Cederberg, "Preliminary Geochemical/Geophysical Model of Yucca Mountain," in Symposium on the Scientific Basis for Nuclear Waste Management (Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Lab., 1987) (Item 74 in US DOE, DE90006793).

134. See, for example, T. Buscheck and J. Nitao, Preliminary Scoping Calculations of Hydrothermal Flow in Variably Saturated Sign Test at the Yucca Mountain Exploratory Shaft Test Site (Livermore, Calif.: Lawrence Livermore National Lab., 1988) (Item 130 in US DOE, DE90006793); K. Erickson et al., "Approximate Methods to Calculate Radionuclide Discharges for Performance Assessment of HLW Repositories in Fractured Rock," in Waste Management '86. Volume 2: High-Level Waste , ed. R. Post (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1986) (Item 175 in US DOE, DE89005394); see J. Cuderman, Design and Modeling of Small Scale Multiple Fracturing Experiments (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1981) (Item 121 in US DOE, DE89005394); for use of single flow equations see, for example, R. Peters and E. Klavetter, "Continuum Model for Water Movement in an Unsaturated Fractured Rock Mass," Water Resources Research 24, no. 3 (March 1988): 416-430 (Item 38 in US DOE, DE89005394).

135. See, for example, A. Ramirez and W. Daily, "Electromagnetic Experiment to Map In Situ Water in Heated Welded Tuff: Preliminary Results," in Rock Mechanics: Proceedings of the 28th U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics (Tucson: A. A. Balkema Publishers, 1987) (Item 154 in US DOE, DE90006793).

136. U.S. DOE, "Project History," in Yucca Mountain Project Bibliography, 1988-1989 , xiii; see Norris et al., "Infiltration at Yucca Mountain."

137. Sinnock and Lin, Preliminary Bounds , 14-15.

138. Linderfelt, Characterization of Infiltration .

139. Sinnock and Lin, Preliminary Bounds , 17.

140. Sinnock and Lin, Preliminary Bounds , 24.

141. Sinnock and Lin, Preliminary Bounds , 16, 41.

142. Peters, The Effect of Percolation Rate , i; Travis et al., Preliminary Estimates of Water Flow , 4.

143. K. Pruess et al., Effective Continuum Approximation for Modeling Fluid and Heat Flow in Fractured Porous Tuff: Nevada Nuclear Waste Storage Investigations Project (Livermore, Calif.: Lawrence Berkeley Lab., 1988) (Item 42 in US DOE, DE89005394).

144. Evans et al., "Fracture System Characterization for Unsaturated Rock"; J. Rulon et al., Preliminary Numerical Simulations of Groundwater Flow in the Unsaturated Zone, Yucca Mountain, Nevada (Berkeley, Calif.: Lawrence Berkeley Lab., 1986) (Item 181 in US DOE, DE89005394); see T. Rasmussen and D. Evans, Unsaturated Flow and Transport Through Fractured Rock Related to High-Level Waste Repositories: Final Report, Phase 2 (Tucson: Arizona University Department of Hydrology and Water Resources, 1987) (Item 216 in US DOE, DE89005394); Thompson, Laboratory and Field Studies Related to the Radionuclide Migration Project: Project Report, October 1, 1985-September 30, 1986.

145. Thompson Engineering Company, Review and Comment , 13.

146. See J. L. Younker, W. B. Andrews, G. A. Fasano, C. C. Herrington, S. R. Mattson, R. C. Murray, L. B. Ballou, M. A. Revelli, A. R. Ducharme, L. E. Shepard, W. W. Dudley, D. T. Hoxie, R. J. Herbst, E. A. Patera, B. R. Judd, J. A. Docka, and L. R. Rickertsen, Report of the Early Site Suitabil- soft

ity Evaluation of the Potential Repository Site at Yucca Mountain, Nevada , SAIC-91/8000 (Washington D.C.: U.S. DOE, 1992), 214, 2-13; hereafter cited as: Younker, Andrews, et al.

147. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 181, 240, 427-430, 472, 506.

148. Pruess and Narasimhan, "Numerical Modeling."

149. R. Blanchard et al., Supplementary Radiological Measurements at the Maxey Flats Radioactive Waste Burial Site--1976-1977 , EPA-520/5-78-011 (Montgomery: U.S. EPA, 1978), 1, 29; see K. Shrader-Frechette, "Models, Scientific Method, and Environmental Ethics," in Upstream/Downstream , ed. D. Scherer (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990).

150. Sinnock and Lin, Preliminary Bounds , 16, 41.

151. C. Malone, "Geologic and Hydrologic Issues Related to Siting a Repository for High-Level Nuclear Waste at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, USA," Journal of Environmental Management 30 (1990): 381-396. J. Raloff, "Fallout Over Nevada's Nuclear Destiny," Science News 137, no. 1 (16 January 1990): 11-12.

152. J. Neel, "Statement," in Low-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal , Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Government Operations, House of Representatives, 94th Congress, Second Session, 23 February, 12 March, and 6 April 1976 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976), 258; see also A. Weiss and P. Columbo, Evaluation of Isotope Migration--Land Burial , NUREG/CR-1289 BNL-NUREG-51143 (Washington D.C.: U.S. NRC, 1980), 5; Meyer, "Maxey Flats Radioactive Waste Burial Site: Status Report," 9.

153. Neel, "Statement," 258; EMCON, Geotechnical Investigation and Waste Management Studies.

154. Zehner, Hydrologic Investigation , 35, 40; Werner, Joint Intensity Survey , 45; see Wilson and Lyons, Ground-Water Levels and Tritium Concentrations ; Shrader-Frechette "Values and Hydrogeological Method"; Shrader-Frechette, "Idealized Laws, Antirealism, and Applied Science"; Shrader-Frechette, "Models, Scientific Method, and Environmental Ethics."

155. Zehner, Hydrologic Investigation , 3.

156. Zehner, Hydrologic Investigation , 132.

157. Zehner, Hydrologic Investigation , 134.

158. Loux, State of Nevada Comments , vol. 2: 2.

159. See R. Williams, A Technique for the Geothermic Modeling of Underground Surfaces: Nevada Nuclear Waste Storage Investigations Project (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1988) (Item 171 in US DOE, DE90006793); K. Campbell, Kriging for Interpolation of Sparse and Irregularly Distributed Geologic Data (Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Lab., 1986) (Item 73 in US DOE, DE90006793).

160. Norris et al., "Infiltration at Yucca Mountain."

161. W. Glassley, "Evaluation of the Postimplacement Environment of High Level Radioactive Waste Packages at Yucca Mountain, Nevada," in Waste Management '89 (Livermore, Calif.: Lawrence Livermore National Lab., 1989) (Item 150 in US DOE, DE90006793); see R. Aines, "Estimates of Radionuclide Release from Glass Waste Forms in a Tuff Repository and the Effects on Regulatory Compliance," in Nuclear Waste Management II , ed. W. Passchier and B. Bosnjakovik (Westerville, Okla.: American Ceramic Society Inc., 1986) (Item 155 in US DOE, DE90006793).

162. Nevada NWPO, State of Nevada Comments , vol. 1.

163. U.S. DOE, Yucca Mountain Project Bibliography, 1988-1989 , 3-18.

164. DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 1: 1-5.

165. U.S. DOE, Yucca Mountain Project Bibliography, 1988-1989 .

166. Younkers, Andrews, et al., 3-46.

167. Thompson et al., Preliminary Upper-Bound Consequence Analysis , i.

168. Thompson et al., Preliminary Upper-Bound Consequence Analysis , i.

169. Thompson et al., Preliminary Upper-Bound Consequence Analysis , vi-vii.

170. Smith et al., Population Risks , 222.

171. U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program , 195.

172. See note 2, chap. 1.

173. U.S. EPA, Draft Environmental Impact Statement, 40 CFR, Part 191, Environmental Standards for Management and Disposal of Spent Nuclear Fuel, High Level, and Transuranic Radioactive Wastes (Washington, D.C.: U.S. EPA, 1982), 54,57; hereafter cited as: EPA, EIS.

174. EPA, EIS, 109.

175. R. Goble et al., Potential Retrieval of Radioactive Wastes at the Proposed Yucca Mountain Repository: A Preliminary Review of Risk Issues , NWPO-SE-010-88 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Nuclear Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, June 1988), 40.

176. J. Emel et al., Yucca Mountain Socioeconomic Project , #RA001-RA005 (Las Vegas: Coopers and Lybrand, 1987), 44; D. Golding and A. White, Guidelines on the Scope, Content, and Use of Comprehensive Risk Assessment in the Management of High-Level Nuclear Waste Transportation , NWPO-TN-007-90 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, December 1990), 5.

177. Golding and White, Guidelines , 5-8; see also S. Tuler et al., The Effects of Human Reliability in the Transportation of Spent Nuclear Fuel , NWPO-SE-007-88 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Nuclear Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, June 1988) (Item 305 in US DOE, DE90006793), 91.

178. Emel et al., Yucca Mountain Socioeconomic Project , 108, 110; J. Emel et al., Risk Management and Organizational Systems for High-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal: Issues and Priorities , NWPO-SE-008-88 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, September 1988), 9; Golding and White, Guidelines , 2, 28; W. Burns et al., Social Amplification of Risk: An Empirical Study , NWPO-SE-027-90 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, September 1990), ii; Tuler et al., The Effects of Human Reliability ; see also J. Petterson, Goiania Incident Case Study , NWPO-SE-015-88 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Nuclear Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, June 1988); H. Peters and L. Hennen, The Accident at Gorleben: A Case Study of Risk Communication and Risk Amplification in the Federal Republic of Germany , NWPO-SE-012-88 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Nuclear Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, July 1988). For discussion of the social amplification of risk see, for example, J. F. Short, "On Defining, and Explaining Elephants (and Reactions to Them): Hazards, Disasters, and Risk Analysis," International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters 7, no. 3 (November 1989): 397-418; J. F. Short, "Hazards, Risks, and Enterprise," Law and Society Review 24, no. 1 (1990): 179-198; W. Freudenburg, "Nothing Recedes Like Success? Risk Analysis and the Organizational Amplification of Risks," Risk: Issues in Health and Safety 3 (1992): 1-35.

179. M. Lyverse, Records of Wells for the Period June 13, 1984 to December 4, 1986 at the Maxey Flats Radioactive Waste Disposal Site , Report 87-214 (Louisville: U.S. Geological Survey, 1987), 15-16.

180. See note 170 above and R. Lipschutz, Radioactive Waste (Cambridge: Ballinger, 1980), 157ff.

181. U.S. Congress, Safety of DOE Nuclear Facilities , Hearing before the Subcommittee on Energy and Power of the Committee on Energy and Commerce, House of Representatives, 101st Congress, First Session, 22 February 1989, Serial no. 101-1 (Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1989); U.S. Congress, DOE: Pollution at Fernald, Ohio , Hearing before the Subcommittee on Transportation, Tourism, and Hazardous Materials of the Committee on Energy and Commerce, House of Representatives, 100th Congress, Second Session on H.R. 3783, H.R. 3784, and H.R. 3785, 14 October 1988, Serial no. 100-236 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1989).

182. U.S. Congress, DOE Nuclear Facility at Fernald, OH , Hearing before the Subcommittee on Energy Conservation and Power of the Committee on Energy and Commerce, House of Representatives, 99th Congress, Second Session, 13 August 1986, Serial no. 99-163 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1987), 2ff., 9ff. See note 12, chap. 1, for further information on DOE violations. See also DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 3: C.2-6 through C.3-23 and DOE, NWPA-Hanford, C.2-9 through C.8-21.

183. H. Reid, U.S. Senator from Nevada, "Statement," in Nuclear Waste Policy Act , Hearing before the Subcommittee on Energy and the Environment of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, House of Representatives, 100th Congress, 18 September 1987 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1988), 46; hereafter cited as: NWPA-88. See the discussion and notes in chapter 1 for additional information and references.

184. U.S. Congress, Safety of DOE Nuclear Facilities , 36.

185. Rep. P. Sharp, "Statement," NWPA-88, 3; A. Bringloe, "Statement," in U.S. Congress, High-Level Nuclear Waste Issues , Hearings before the Subcommittee on Nuclear Regulation of the Committee on Environment and Public Works, U.S. Senate, 100th Congress, 23 April, 2, 3, 18 June 1987 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1987), 237; hereafter cited as: HLNWI.

186. C. Fultz, "Statement," in U.S. Congress, Safety of DOE Nuclear Facilities , 36, 41-45; U.S. Congress, DOE: Pollution at Fernald, Ohio ; Emel et al., Risk Management and Organizational Systems , 68-74.

187. U.S. Congress, DOE Nuclear Facility at Fernald, OH , 143-146.

188. U.S. Congress, DOE: Pollution at Fernald, Ohio , 27-28, 52. See also U.S. Congress, NWPA-88, 211ff., 393ff.

189. U.S. Congress, DOE Nuclear Facility at Fernald, Ohio , 54.

190. U.S. Congress, DOE: Pollution at Fernald, Ohio , 67.

191. U.S. Congress, DOE: Pollution at Fernald, Ohio , 134.

192. Shrader-Frechette, "Values and Hydrogeological Method," 127.

193. W. Carey et al., Hillslope Erosion at the Maxey Flats, Radioactive Waste Disposal Site , Report 89-4199 (Louisville: U.S. Geological Survey, 1990), 1.

194. GeoTrans, Review of Modeling Efforts , 1.

195. See, for example, C. Malone, "Environmental Performance Assessment: A Case Study of an Emerging Methodology," J. Environmental Systems 19, no. 2 (1990): 171.

196. J. Lemons et al., "America's High-Level Nuclear Waste Repository: A Case Study of Environmental Science and Public Policy," Intern. J. Environmental Studies 34 (1989): 31; M. Winsor and C. Malone, "State of Nevada Perspective on Environmental Program Planning for the Yucca Mountain Project," The Environmental Professional 12 (1990): 197, 205; Golding and White, Guidelines .

197. U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program , 271.

198. U.S. Congress, Mission Plan for the Civilian Radioactive Waste Management Program , Hearing before the Subcommittee on Energy Research and Development of the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate, 99th Congress, First Session on the Department on Energy's Mission Plan for the Civilian Radioactive Waste Management Program, 12 September 1985 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1986), 325; U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program , 245.

199. U.S. Congress, Mission Plan , 625.

200. U.S. Congress, Mission Plan , 736. See notes 174, 177 in this chapter.

201. U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program , 70ff., 216.

202. U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program , 726.

203. U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program , 923.

1. For discussion of the Ford-Mitre and UCS studies see K. Shrader-Frechette, Risk and Rationality (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1991), 100-101; hereafter cited as: Risk.

2. J. King, "Approach to Developing a Ground-Motion Design Basis for Facilities Important to Safety at Yucca Mountain," in International Confer - soft

ence for High-Level Radioactive Waste Management (Las Vegas: U.S. DOE, 1990) (Item 4 in US DOE, DE91000566).

3. U.S. DOE, "NNWSI History," in Bibliography of the Published Reports, Papers, and Articles on the Nevada Nuclear Waste Storage Investigations, January 1985 , NVO-96-24 (Rev. 5) (Las Vegas: U.S. DOE, Nevada Operations Office, 1985), 1-30.

4. J. King et al., "Assessment of Seismic Hazards at Yucca Mountain," in American Nuclear Society Annual Meeting (Las Vegas: Science Applications International Corp., 1988) (Item 1 in US DOE, DE90006793).

5. B. Crowe, Volcanic Hazard Assessment for Disposal of High-Level Radioactive Waste (Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Lab., 1986) (Item 61 in US DOE, DE88004834).

6. L. Metcalf, Preliminary Review and Summary of the Potential for Tectonic, Seismic, and Volcanic Activity at the Nevada Test Site Defense Waste Disposal Site (Reno: Desert Research Institute, 1983) (Item 142 in US DOE, DE89005394).

7. J. Emel et al., Postclosure Risks at the Proposed Yucca Mountain Repository: A Review of Methodological and Technical Issues , NWPO-SE-011-88 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Nuclear Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, June 1988), 10.

8. E. Smith et al., Regional Importance of Post-6 M. Y. Old Volcanism in the Southern Great Basin: Implications for Risk Assessment of Volcanism at the Proposed Nuclear Waste Repository at Yucca Mountain, Nevada , Report no. 10, Annual Report for the Period 7/1/87 to 6/30/88. Submitted to the Nuclear Waste Project Office (Las Vegas: Center for Volcanic and Tectonic Studies, Department of Geoscience, University of Nevada, September 1988), 1-37.

9. L. Jardine et al., "Preliminary Preclosure Safety Analysis for a Prospective Yucca Mountain Repository," in Waste Management '87: Waste Isolation in the U.S., Technical Programs, and Public Education , ed. R. Post, (Tucson: University of Arizona Nuclear Engineering Dept., 1987) (Item 249 in US DOE, DE90006793).

10. Emel et al., Postclosure Risks , 40-41; J. Emel et al., Nuclear Waste Management: A Comparative Analysis of Six Countries , NWPO-SE-034-90 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, November 1990), 4-5.

11. Emel et al., Nuclear Waste Management , 5-10.

12. W. Williams, Population Risks from Uranium Ore Bodies , EPA 520/3-80-009 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. EPA, 1980), 1-23.

13. W. Carey et al., Hillslope Erosion at the Maxey Flats, Radioactive Waste Disposal Site , Report 89-4199 (Louisville: U.S. Geological Survey, 1990), 34.

14. L. Cox and P. Ricci, "Risk, Uncertainty, and Causation," in The Risk Assessment of Environmental and Human Health Hazards , ed. D. Paustenbach (New York: John Wiley, 1989), 1026.

15. U.S. ERDA (Energy Research and Development Administration), Final Environmental Statement: Waste Management Operations, Hanford Reservation, Richland, Washington , 2 vols. (ERDA-1538) (Springfield, Va.: National Technical Information Service, October 1975), vol. 1, p. X-74; see K. Shrader-Frechette, Nuclear Power and Public Policy (Boston: Reidel, 1983), chap. 2.

16. U.S. AEC (Atomic Energy Commission), Comparative Risk-Cost-Benefit Study of Alternative Sources of Electrical Energy (WASH-1224) (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, December 1974), 3-83.

17. See J. Tillerson et al., "Uncertainties in Sealing a Nuclear Waste Repository in Partially Saturated Tuff," in Proceedings of an NEA/CEC Workshop (Paris: OECD, 1989) (Item 88 in US DOE, DE91000566).

18. See J. Lemons and D. Brown, "The Role of Science in the Decision to Site a High-Level Nuclear Waste Repository at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, USA," The Environmentalist 10, no. 1 (1990): 7.

19. U.S. DOE, Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management, Yucca Mountain Project Bibliography, 1988-1989 , DOE/OSTI-3406 (Suppl.2) (DE90006793) (Oak Ridge: U.S. DOE, November 1990), 3-13.

20. U.S. DOE, Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management, Yucca Mountain Project , 3-8 and 3-9.

21. R. Peters et al., Fracture and Matrix Hydrologic Characteristics of Tuffaceous Materials from Yucca Mountain, Nye County, Nevada , SAND84-1471 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Laboratories, 1984) (Item D170 in US DOE, NOV-96-24 [REV. 5]), i.

22. M. Cloninger et al., "Waste Package for Yucca Mountain Repository: Strategy for Regulatory Compliance," in Waste Management '89 (Livermore, Calif.: Lawrence Livermore National Lab., 1989) (Item 149 in US DOE, DE90006793).

23. J. King et al., Assessment of Faulting and Seismic Hazards at Yucca Mountain (Las Vegas: Science Applications International Corp., 1989) (Item 15 in US DOE, DE90006793).

24. See note 14, this chapter.

25. U.S. DOE, Nuclear Waste Policy Act, Environmental Assessment, Yucca Mountain Site, Nevada Research and Development Area, Nevada , DOE/RW-0073, 3 vols. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. DOE, (1986), vol. 3, pp. C-54 and C-55; hereafter cited as: DOE, NWPA-Yucca.

26. See C. Smith et al., Population Risks from Disposal of High-Level Radioactive Wastes in Geologic Repositories , EPA-520/3-80-006 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. EPA, 1982); A. Dudley et al., Total System Performance Assessment Code (TOSPAC): Vol. 1, Physical and Mathematical Bases: Yucca Mountain Project , SAND85-0002 UC-70 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1988) (Item 182 in US DOE, DE90006793), 118.

27. J. Jackson et al., "Safety Assessment of Accident Radiological Releases: A Study Performed for the Conceptual Design of a Geologic Repository at Yucca Mountain, Nevada," Nuclear Safety 26, no. 4 (July-August 1985): 477-487 (Item 237 in US DOE, DE88004834). Regarding fracture flow, see for example, M. Wilson and A. Dudley, "Radionuclide Transport in an Unsaturated, Fractured Medium," in American Geophysical Union Fall Meeting (San Francisco: Spectra Research Institute, 1986) (Item 253 in US DOE, DE88004834); S. Sinnock and T. Lin, Preliminary Bounds on the Expected Postclosure Performance of the Yucca Mountain Repository Site, Southern Nevada , SAND84-1492 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1984), 16. See R. Loux, State of Nevada Comments on the U.S. Department of Energy Consultation Draft Site Characterization Plan, Yucca Mountain Site, Nevada Research and Development Area, Nevada . 2 vols. (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Nuclear Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, 1988), vol. 1: I-10, II-2, and II-3.

28. NRC Staff Comments, in U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program , Hearings before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate, 100th Congress, First Session on the Current Status of the Department of Energy's Civilian Nuclear Waste Activities, 29 January, 4 and 5 February 1987, part 1 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1987), 199; see also 712; hereafter cited as: U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program .

29. Regarding the weapons-testing case, see DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 2: 6-47. Regarding DOE avoidance of worst-case analysis at Hanford, see U.S. DOE, Nuclear Waste Policy Act , Environmental Assessment, Reference Repository Location, Hanford Site, Washington, 3 vols., DOE/RW-0070 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. DOE, 1986), vol. 3, pp. C.4-15 and vol. 3, pp. C.8-21; hereafter cited as: DOE, NWPA-Hanford. R. Goble et al., Potential Retrieval of Radioactive Wastes at the Proposed Yucca Mountain Repository: A Preliminary Review of Risk Issues , NWPO-SE-010-88 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Nuclear Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, June, 1988), 31.

30. See Loux, State of Nevada Comments , I-7, II-1.

31. Goble et al., Potential Retrieval of Radioactive Wastes , 40.

32. K. Wilson and B. Lyons, Ground-Water Levels and Tritium Concentrations at the Maxey-Flats Low-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal Site Near Morehead, Kentucky, June 1984 to April 1989 , Report 90-4189 (Louisville: U.S. Geological Survey, 1991), 47.

33. See P. O'Brien, Technical Support for High-Level Radioactive Waste Management, Task C Report: Assessment of Migration Pathways , EPA 520/4-79-007C (Washington, D.C.: U.S. EPA, 1977).

34. Shrader-Frechette, Risk , chap. 8.

35. O'Brien, Technical Support , 106-169.

36. G. Sawyer et al., Report of the Nevada Commission on Nuclear Projects (Carson City: nevada Commission on Nuclear Projects, 1990), 47. See also D. G. Schweitzer and C. Sastre, Assumptions, Uncertainties, and Limitations in the Predictive Capabilities of Models for Sensitization in 304 Stainless Steels (Upton, N.Y.: Brookhaven National Lab., 1987).

37. S. Pitman et al., "Corrosion and Slow-Strain-Rate Testing of Type 304L Stainless in Tuff Groundwater Environments," in Corrosion '87 (San Francisco: Pacific Northwest Lab., 1986) (Item 172 in US DOE, DE88004834).

38. B. Rusche, "Statement," in U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program , 906-907.

39. See Shrader-Frechette, Risk , chap. 9.

40. Shrader-Frechette, Risk , chap. 9.

41. E. Reichard et al., Groundwater Contamination Risk Assessment (Oxfordshire, England: International Association of Hydrological Sciences, 1990), 144, 160.

42. E. Jacobson, Investigation of Sensitivity and Uncertainty in Some Hydrologic Models of Yucca Mountain and Vicinity , SAND84-7212 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1985), 90. For evidence of DOE acceptance of such average values, see DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 2: 6-162ff.

43. S. Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates of Groundwater Travel Time and Radionuclide Transport at the Yucca Mountain Repository Site , SAND85-2701 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1986), i.

44. Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates , i.

45. R. Bryan, State of Nevada Comments on the U.S. Department of Energy Draft Environmental Assessment for the Proposed High-Level Nuclear Waste Site at Yucca Mountain . 2 vols. (Carson City: Nuclear Waste Project Office, Office of the Governor, 1985), vol. 1: I-43; R. Peters, The Effect of Percolation Rate on Water Travel Time in Deep, Partially Saturated Zones , SAND85-0854 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1986), 32; see G. Sawyer, "Statement," in U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program , 709-712.

46. See Shrader-Frechette, Nuclear Power and Public Policy , 148ff.; K. Shrader-Frechette, Risk Analysis , 144, 174. For problems with using averages in QRA, see R. Cooke, The European Communities' Expert Judgment Study (Delft, The Netherlands: University of Technology, 1991), 8ff.; hereafter cited as: Cooke, European .

47. R. Peters et al., Fracture and Matrix Hydrologic Characteristics of Tuffaceous Materials from Yucca Mountain, Nye County, Nevada , SAND84-1471 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1984) (Item D170 in US DOE, NVO-96-24 [REV. 5]), i.

48. Sinnock and Lin, Preliminary Bounds , 8-11.

49. Smith et al., Population Risks , 49.

50. Dudley et al., Total System Performance Assessment Code , 72.

51. Sinnock and Lin, Preliminary Bounds , 41.

52. Carey et al., Hillslope Erosion , 1, 34.

53. B. Carpenter, "A Nuclear Graveyard," U.S. News and World Report 110, no. 10 (March 1991): 74.

54. See note 17, chap. 1.

55. For discussion of expert judgment and the Kahneman and Tversky results, see Shrader-Frechette, Risk and Rationality , 128ff.; R. Cooke, Experts in Uncertainty (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991). For discussion of the 90-percent confidence bands and associated problems, see Cooke, European , 9ff.

56. L. Hamilton et al., Toward a Risk Assessment of the Spent Fuel and High-Level Nuclear Waste Disposal System , Contract DE-AC02-76CH00016 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. DOE, 1986), 10-25.

57. See Williams, Population Risks from Uranium , 23.

58. G. Sawyer, Report of the State of Nevada Commission on Nuclear Projects (Carson City: Nevada Commission on Nuclear Projects, November 1986), 9.

59. Emel et al., Nuclear Waste Management , 5. See A. Milnes, Geology and Radwaste (New York: Academic, 1985), 286ff.; U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program , 29ff. See also C. Nyquist, "Nuclear Waste Disposal in Sweden," Public Utilities Fortnightly (14 May 1987): 34-35.

60. Emel et al., Nuclear Waste Management , 206.

61. See, for example, M. Board, Examination of the Use of Continuum Versus Discontinuum Models for Design and Performance Assessment for the Yucca Mountain Site , NUREG/CR-5426 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. NRC, Division of Waste Management, Office of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards, August 1989), 66; K. Stephens et al., Methodologies for Assessing Long-Term Performance of High-Level Radioactive Waste Packages , NUREG/CR-4477 ATR-85(5810-01)1ND (Washington, D.C.: U.S. NRC, Division of Waste Management, Office of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards, January 1986), xv.

62. See J. Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971); R. Kasperson and S. Abdollahzadeh, Distributional Equity Problems at the Proposed Yucca Mountain Facility , NWPO-SE-009-88 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, July 1988); Shrader-Frechette, Nuclear Power and Public Policy , 25ff., 136ff.; Shrader-Frechette, Risk Analysis and Scientific Method , 32ff., 210ff.; Shrader-Frechette, Science Policy, Ethics, and Economic Methodology (Boston: Reidel, 1985), 55ff.; Shrader-Frechette, Risk ; K. Shrader-Frechette, Environmental Ethics (Pacific Grove, Calif.: Boxwood Press, 1991).

63. J. Passmore, Man's Responsibility for Nature (New York: Scribner's, 1974); see Kasperson and Abdollahzadeh, Distributional Equity Problems .

64. Rawls, A Theory of Justice .

65. A. Sen, Collective Choice and Social Welfare (San Francisco: Holden-Day); see Kasperson and Abdollahzadeh, Distributional Equity Problems . For a libertarian ethics, see R. Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia (New York: Basic Books, 1974). For discussion of problems with the Pareto-based ethics, see Shrader-Frechette, Science Policy, Ethics, and Economic Methodology , 231ff.

66. See R. Kasperson et al., "Confronting Equity Radioactive Waste Management: Modest Proposals for a Socially Just and Acceptable Program," in Equity Issues in Radioactive Waste Management , ed. R. Kasperson (Cambridge, Mass.: Oegleschlager, Gunn, and Hain, 1983); R. Kasperson et al., Assessing the State/Nation Distributional Equity Issues Associated with the Proposed Yucca Mountain Repository: A Conceptual Approach , NWPO-SE-018-89 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Nuclear Waste Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, June 1988); Kasperson and Abdollahzadeh, Distributional Equity Problems ; P. Kleindorfer et al., Valuation and Assessment of Equity in the Siting of a Nuclear Waste Repository , Report 88-67 (Philadelphia: Risk and Decision Process Center, the Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania, 1988); A. Kneese et al., "Economic Issues in the Legacy Problem," in Equity Issues in Radioactive Waste Management , ed. R. Kasperson; D. MacLean (ed.), Values at Risk (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Allanheld, 1986); Rawls, A Theory of Justice ; S. Rayner and R. Cantor, "How Free Is Safe Enough? The Cultural Approach to Societal Technology Choice," Risk Analysis 7 (March 1987): 3-13; W. Schultze and A. Kneese, "Risk and Benefit-Cost Analysis," Risk Analysis 1 (1981): 81-88; Shrader-Frechette, Nuclear Power and Public Policy , 25ff., 136ff.; Shrader-Frechette, Risk Analysis and Scientific Method , 210ff.; Shrader-Frechette, Risk ; Shrader-Frechette, Environmental Ethics ; Shrader-Frechette, "Ethical Dilemmas and Radioactive Waste: A Survey of the Issues," Environmental Ethics 13 (Winter 1991): 327-343.

67. For discussion of substantive and procedural equality, see Shrader-Frechette, Science Policy, Ethics, and Economic Methodology , 219ff.

68. Reichard et al., Groundwater Contamination Risk Assessment , 167.

69. Kneese et al., "Economic Issues in the Legacy Problem"; Shrader-Frechette, Science Policy, Ethics, and Economic Methodology , 261ff.

70. For discussion of equity and the NIMBY syndrome, see W. Freudenburg and S. Pastor, "NIMBY's and LULU's: Stalking the Syndromes," Journal of Social Issues , forthcoming.

71. See Shrader-Frechette, Risk Analysis and Scientific Method , 84ff., 142ff.; Shrader-Frechette, Risk, chap. 8.

72. See Reichard et al., Groundwater Contamination Risk Assessment , 162-163, 181.

73. See Reichard et al., Groundwater Contamination Risk Assessment , 164-168.

74. See Reichard et al., Groundwater Contamination Risk Assessment , 164.

75. See Shrader-Frechette, Risk, chap. 8.

76. U.S. Congress, DOE: Pollution at Fernald, Ohio , Hearing before the Subcommittee on Transportation, Tourism, and Hazardous Materials of the Committee on Energy and Commerce, House of Representatives, 100th Congress, Second Session on H.R. 3783, H.R. 3784, and H.R. 3785, 14 October 1988, Serial no. 100-236 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1989), esp. 27-28.

77. S. Mattson et al., "Geology and Hydrogeology of the Proposed Nuclear Waste Repository at Yucca Mountain, Nevada and the Surrounding Area," in Geological Society of America Annual Meeting (Las Vegas: Science Applications International Corp., 1989) (Item 3 in US DOE, DE90006793). For further discussion of this point, see text and references, chapter 2.

78. J. Lemons et al., "America's High-Level Nuclear Waste Repository: A Case Study of Environmental Science and Public Polciy," Intern. J. Environmental Studies 34 (1989): 38.

79. U.S. DOE, "Foreword," in Bibliography of the Published Reports, Papers, and Articles on the Nevada Nuclear Waste Storage Investigations, January 1985 , NVO-96-24 (Rev. 5) (Las Vegas: U.S. DOE, Nevada Operations Office, 1985), 111. G. Jacob, "Conflict, Location, and Politics: Siting a Nuclear Waste Repository" (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan. Available from University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan) (Item 136 in US DOE, DE91000566); J. Davis, "Wasting of Nevada," Sierra 73, no. 4 (July 1988): 31-35 (Item 251 in US DOE, DE89005394); J. Karkut, "Nevada v. Herrington: An Effective Check on the DOE," Journal of Energy and Policy (USA) 8, no. 2 (1988): 301-318 (Item 425 in US DOE, DE90006793); R. Bryan, "Politics and Promises of Nuclear Waste Disposal," Environment 29, no. 8 (October 1987): 32-38 (Item 229 in US DOE, DE89005394); See L. Carter, "Nuclear Wastes: Popular Antipathy Narrows Search for Disposal Sites," Science 197, no. 4310 (September): 1265-1266 (Item 68 in US DOE, DE89005394); U.S. Congress, Civilian Nuclear Waste Program , Hearing Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate, 101st Congress, Second Session, 2 March 1990 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1990), 213-214; U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program , 210; U.S. Congress, Mission Plan for the Civilian Radioactive Waste Management Program , Hearing before the Subcommittee on Energy Research and Development of the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate, 99th Congress, First Session on the Department of Energy's Mission Plan for the Civilian Radioactive Waste Management Program, 12 September 1985 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1986), 45; H. Kunreuther et al., "Public Attitude Toward Siting a High-Level Nuclear Waste Repository in Nevada," Risk Analysis 10, no. 4 (December 1990): 470; M. Winsor and C. Malone, "State of Nevada Perspective on Environmental Program Planning for the Yucca Mountain Project," The Environmental Professional 12 (1990): 197.

80. See Emel et al., Postclosure Risks , 20.

81. U.S. Congress, Mission Plan , 235.

82. G. Sawyer, Report of the State of Nevada Commission on Nuclear Projects (Carson City: Nevada Commission on Nuclear Projects, 1990), 2.

83. Emel et al., Nuclear Waste Management , 5.

84. Loux, State of Nevada Comments , 33-34.

85. Nevada NWPO (Nuclear Waste Project Office), State of Nevada Comments on the U.S. Department of Energy Draft Environmental Assessment for the Proposed High-Level Nuclear Waste Site at Yucca Mountain: Vol. 2 (Carson City: U.S. DOE, 1985) (Item 339 in US DOE, DE90006793).

86. See R. Keeney, "Analysis of the Portfolio of Sites to Characterize for Selecting a Nuclear Repository," Risk Analysis 7, no. 2 (June 1987): 195-218 (Item 218 in US DOE, DE89005394).

87. For further discussion of begging the question in a different context, see the next chapter.

88. See E. Marshall, "Nevada Wins the Nuclear Waste Lottery," Science (Washington, D.C.) 239 (January 1988): 15 (Item 241 in US DOE, DE89005394).

89. For discussion of the single-site choice, see E. Russell et al., "Fabrication and Closure Development of Nuclear Waste Containers for Storage at the Yucca Mountain, Nevada Repository," in Joint International Waste Management Conference (Kyoto: U.S. DOE, 1989) (Item 46 in US DOE, DE91000566); U.S. GAO, Nuclear Waste (Gaithersburg, Md.: U.S. GAO, 1988) (Item 111 in US DOE, DE91000566); U.S. GAO, Nuclear Waste (Gaithersburg, Md.: U.S. GAO, 1989) (item 112 in US DOE, DE91000566).

90. See D. Zettwock, "Interview with K. S. Shrader-Frechette," 2 August 1985. Available from Dr. Shrader-Frechette of the University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida; K. Shrader-Frechette, "Values and Hydrogeological Method: How Not to Site the World's Largest Nuclear Dump," in Planning for Changing Energy Conditions, Energy Policy Studies , vol. 4, ed. J. Byrne and D. Rich (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1988), 126ff.

91. Rusche, "Statement," in U.S. Congress, Mission Plan , 484, 655.

92. Rusche, "Statement," in U.S. Cognress, Mission Plan , 484-485.

93. M. Koryakin, "State of the Soviet Nuclear Industry," WISE (World Information Service on Energy) News Communique 332 (18 May 1990): 2 (P.O. Box 5627, NL-1007 AP Amsterdam, The Netherlands).

94. Shrader-Frechette, Risk ; Shrader-Frechette, Nuclear Power and Public Policy .

95. Price-Anderson Amendments Act of 1988 , P.L. 100-408, Stat. 102, pp. 1066-1085.

96. Koryakin, "State of the Soviet Nuclear Industry"; Shrader-Frechette, Risk ; Shrader-Frechette, Nuclear Power and Public Policy .

97. Koryakin, "State of the Soviet Nuclear Industry"; see M. Resnikoff, Probabilistic Risk Assessment and Nuclear Waste Transportation: A Case Study of the Use of RADTRAN in the 1986 Environmental Assessment for Yucca Mountain , NWPO-TN-066-90 (New York: Radioactive Waste Management Associates, December 1990).

98. F. Parker, "Testimony," in U.S. Congress, NWP, 88.

99. Resnikoff, Probabilistic Risk Assessment , 44; see Shrader-Frechette, Nuclear Power and Public Policy , 73ff.

100. L. Hamilton et al., Toward a Risk Assessment of the Spent Fuel and High-Level Nuclear Waste Disposal System , Contract DE-AC02-76CH00016 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. DOE, 1986), 10-25.

101. See, for example, U.S. Congress, Safety of DOE Nuclear Facilities , Hearing before the Subcommittee on Energy and Power of the Committee on Energy and Commerce, House of Representatives, 101st Congress, First Session, 22 February 1989, Serial no. 101-1 (Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1989). See also U.S. Congress, NWP, 82ff.; U.S. DOE, NWPA-Hanford, vol. 3, pp. c. 2-9, c. 2-28, c. 2-29.

102. U.S. Congress, Safety of DOE Nuclear Facilities , 2. For citizens' requests for liability coverage, see U.S. DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 3, p. c. 2-8.

103. Rusche, "Statement," in U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program , 376. See Williams, Population Risks from Uranium , 1ff.

104. W. Freudenburg and T. Jones, "Attitudes and Stress in the Presence of Technological Risk," Social Forces 69, no. 4 (June 1991): 1143-1168; W. Freudenburg and J. Gervers, Empirical Studies of Hazard Management , Draft Report (Carson City: Nevada Nuclear Waste Projects Office, 1991).

105. G. E. Moore, Principia Ethica (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1951), viii-ix; 23-40, 60-63, 108, 146.

106. Shrader-Frechette, Nuclear Power and Public Policy , chap. 6, esp. 142-152.

107. See Moore, Principia Ethica , 36-40; Shrader-Frechette, Nuclear Power and Public Policy , chap. 9.

108. U.S. DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 2: 6-121.

109. See Williams, Population Risks from Uranium , 23.

110. O'Brien, Technical Support for High-Level Radioactive Waste Management , 125ff.; Smith et al., Population Risks , 183.

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2. D. Montgomery and R. Blanchard, "Radioactivity Measurement in the Environment at the Maxey Flats Waste Burial Site," in Management of Low-Level Radioactive Waste , vol. 2, ed. M. Carter et al. (New York: Pergamon, 1979), 784; U.S. Congress, LLR WD , 28; G. Meyer, Preliminary Data on the Occurrence of Transuranium Nuclides in the Environment at the Radioactive Waste Burial Site, Maxey Flats, Kentucky (Washington, D.C.: U.S. EPA, Office of Radiation Programs, February 1976), x.

3. P. Zurer, "U.S. Charts Plans for Nuclear Waste Disposal," Chemical and Engineering News 61, no. 27 (July 1983): 20-38.

4. R. Kasperson and S. Abdollahzadeh, Distributional Equity Problems at the Proposed Yucca Mountain Facility , NWPO-SE-009-88 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, July 1988), 13.

5. USGS, "Memo, 1 July 1962"; G. Meyer, "Maxey Flats Radioactive Waste Burial Site: Status Report," unpublished report (Advanced Science and Technology Branch, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1975), 9; Pacific Northwest Laboratory et al., Research Program at Maxey Flats and Consideration of Other Shallow Land Burial Sites , NUREG/CR-1832 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. NRC, 1980), esp. v, I-1, I-2, I-14, IV-6, IV-9, V-7ff.

6. L. Cox and P. Ricci, "Legal and Philosophical Aspects of Risk Analysis," in The Risk Assessment of Environmental and Human Health Hazards , ed. D. Paustenbach (New York: John Wiley, 1989), 1026.

7. H. Kunreuther et al., "A Decision-Process Perspective on Risk and Policy Analysis," in Resolving Locational Conflict , ed. L. Lake (New Brunswick, N.J.: Center for Urban Policy Research, Rutgers University, 1987), 261.

8. T. Rasmussen, "Methods of Hazard Analysis and Nuclear Safety Engineering," in The Three Mile Island Nuclear Accident , ed. T. Moss and D. Sills (New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1981).

9. U.S. DOE, Nuclear Waste Policy Act, Environmental Assessment, Yucca Mountain Site, Nevada Research and Development Area, Nevada , DOE/RW-0073, 3 vols. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. DOE, 1986), vol. 2: 6-280; hereafter cited as: U.S. DOE, NWPA-Yucca.

10. U.S. DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 2: 6-292.

11. U.S. DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 2: 6-12 and 6-25.

12. J. L. Younker, W. B. Andrews, G. A. Fasano, C. C. Herrington, S. R. Mattson, R. C. Murray, L. B. Ballou, M. A. Revelli, A. R. Ducharme, L. E. Shephard, W. W. Dudley, D. T. Hoxie, R. J. Herbst, E. A. Patera, B. R. Judd, J. A. Docka, and L. R. Rickertsen, Report of Early Site Suitability Evaluation of the Potential Repository Site at Yucca Mountain, Nevada , SAIC-91/8000 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Energy, 1992), E-11; hereafter cited as: Younker, Andrews, et al.

13. Younker, Andrews, et al., E-11.

14. J. L. Younker, S. L. Albrecht, W. J. Arabasz, J. H. Bell, F. W. Cambray, S. W. Carothers, J. I. Drever, J. T. Einaudi, D. E. French, K. V. Hodges, R. H. Jones, D. K. Kreamer, W. G. Pariseau, T. A. Vogel, T. Webb, W. B. Andrews, G. A. Fasano, S. R. Mattson, R. C. Murray, L. B. Ballou, M. A. Revelli, A. R. Ducharme, L. E. Shephard, W. W. Dudley, D. T. Hoxie, R. J. Herbst, E. A. Patera, B. R. Judd, J. A. Docka, L. R. Rickertsen, J. M. Boak, and J. R. Stockey, Report of the Peer Review Panel on the Early Site Suitability Evaluation of the Potential Repository Site at Yucca Mountain, Nevada , SAIC-91/8001 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Energy, 1992), B-2; hereafter cited as: Younker, Albrecht, et al.

15. Younker, Andrews, et al., E-5.

16. Younker, Andrews, et al., E-11.

17. K. Shrader-Frechette, Risk and Rationality (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1991), 133-145; hereafter cited as: Risk .

18. L. Libby et al., "Evaluation of Great Deserts of the World for Perpetual Radwaste Storage," The Environmental Professional 4, no. 2 (1982): 111-128 (Item 122 in US DOE, DE89005394).

19. U.S. NRC, In the Matter of Proposed Rulemaking on the Storage and Disposal of Nuclear Waste (Waste Confidence Rulemaking) , PR-50, 51 (44FR61372) (Washington, D.C.: U.S. NRC, 1980), I-25.

20. U.S. NRC, In the Matter of Proposed Rulemaking , IV-1.

21. See K. Shrader-Frechette, Nuclear Power and Public Policy , 49ff.

22. F. Thompson et al., Preliminary Upper-Bound Consequence Analysis for a Waste Repository at Yucca Mountain, Nevada , SAND83-7475 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1984), i, v-vi, 7, 47.

23. Y. Lin, Sparton--A Simple Performance Assessment Code for the Nevada Nuclear Waste Storage Investigations Project , SAND85-0602 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1985), i, 1.

24. C. St. John, Thermal Analysis of Spent Fuel Disposal in Vertical Emplacement Boreholes in a Welded Tuff Repository , SAND84-7207 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1985), 2.

25. U.S. DOE, Nuclear Waste Policy Act, Environmental Assessment, Reference Repository Location, Hanford Site, Washington , 3 vols., DOE/RW- hard

0070 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. DOE, 1986), vol. 2: 6-75; hereafter cited as: DOE, NWPA-Hanford.

26. I. Borg et al., Information Pertinent to the Migration of Radionuclides in Ground Water at the Nevada Test Site. Part 1. Review and Analysis of Existing Information (Livermore, Calif.: Lawrence Livermore Lab., 1976) (Item 53 in US DOE, DE89005394).

27. J. Wang and T. Narasimhan, Hydrologic Mechanisms Governing Fluid Flow in Partially Saturated, Fractured, Porous Tuff at Yucca Mountain (Berkeley, Calif.: Lawrence Berkeley Lab., 1984) (Item 105 in US DOE, DE88004834); J. Wang and T. Narasimhan, Hydrologic Mechanisms Governing Partially Saturated Fluid Flow in Fractured Welded Units and Porous Non-Welded Units at Yucca Mountain (Berkeley, Calif.: Lawrence Berkeley Lab., 1986) (Item 282 in US DOE, DE88004834).

28. K. Pruess et al., Effective Continuum Approximation for Modeling Fluid and Heat Flow in Fractured Porous Tuff: Nevada Nuclear Waste Storage Investigations Project (Berkeley, Calif.: Lawrence Berkeley Lab., 1988) (Item 42 in US DOE, DE89005394).

29. Nevada NWPO, State of Nevada Comments on the U.S. Department of Energy Consultation Draft Site Characterization Plan, Yucca Mountain Site, Nevada Research and Development Area, Nevada: Vol. 2 (Carson City: Nevada Nuclear Waste Project Office, 1988) (Item 334 in US DOE, DE90006793).

30. Nevada NWPO, State of Nevada Comments on the U.S. Department of Energy Consultation Draft Site Characterization Plan, Yucca Mountain Site, Nevada: vol. 1 (Carson City: Nevada Nuclear Waste Project Office, 1988) (Item 335 in US DOE, DE90006793).

31. C. Jantzen et al., Scientific Basis for Nuclear Waste Management VIII. Volume 44 (Pittsburgh: Materials Research Society, 1989) (Item 403 in US DOE, DE90006793).

32. Younker, Andrews, et al., 2-150.

33. Younker, Andrews, et al., 2-150.

34. Younker, Andrews, et al., 2-157.

35. Younker, Andrews, et al., 2-155.

36. Younker, Andrews, et al., 2-155.

37. Meyer, "Maxey Flats Radioactive Waste Burial Site," 9; Pacific Northwest Laboratory et al., Research Program at Maxey Flats , esp. v, I-1, I-2, I-14, IV-6, IV-9, V-7ff.

38. S. Sinnock and T. Lin, Preliminary Bounds on the Expected Postclosure Performance of the Yucca Mountain Repository Site, Southern Nevada , SAND84-1492 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1984), 7, 37.

39. Sinnock and Lin, Preliminary Bounds , 47.

40. S. Pitman et al., "Corrosion and Slow-Strain-Rate Testing of Type 304L Stainless in Tuff Groundwater Environments," in Corrosion '87 (San Francisco: Pacific Northwest Lab., 1986) (Item 172 in US DOE, DE88004834).

41. C. Sastre et al., Waste Package Reliability , NUREG/CR-4509 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. NRC, 1986), 22.

42. Sastre et al., Waste Package Reliability , 65.

43. Sastre et al., Waste Package Reliability , 66.

44. S. Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates of Groundwater Travel Time and Radionuclide Transport at the Yucca Mountain Repository Site , SAND85-2701 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1986), 58.

45. Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates , 77.

46. Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates , 1-2.

47. P. Zhang, Evaluation of the Geologic Relations and Seismotectonic Stability of the Yucca Mountain Area, Nevada Waste Site Investigation , 2 vols. (NNWSI) (Reno: Center for Neotectonic Studies, Mackay School of Mines, University of Nevada, 1989), vol. 2.

48. Sinnock and Lin, Preliminary Bounds , 53.

49. Sinnock and Lin, Preliminary Bounds , 53.

50. R. Einziger and H. Buchanan, Long-Term, Low-Temperature Oxidation of PWR Spent Fuel: Interim Transition Report (Richland, Wash.: Westinghouse Hanford Co., 1988) (Item 26 in US DOE, DE89005394).

51. H. D. Smith, Electrochemical Corrosion-Scoping Experiments: An Evaluation of the Results (Richland, Wash.: Westinghouse Hanford Co., 1988) (Item 151 in US DOE, DE90006793); H. D. Smith, Initial Report on Stress-Corrosion-Cracking Experiments Using Zircaloy-4 Spent Fuel Cladding C-Rings (Richland, Wash.: Westinghouse Hanford Co., 1988) (Item 153 in US DOE, DE90006793).

52. Younker, Andrews, et al., E-5, E-11.

53. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 57.

54. C. Baylis, "Are Some Propositions Neither True Nor False?" Philosophy of Science 3 (1936): 156-166; C. Ducasse, "Truth, Verifiability, and Propositions about the Future," Philosophy of Science 8 (1941): 329-337; O. Helmer and P. Oppenheim, "A Syntactical Definition of Probability and Degree of Confirmation," The Journal of Symbolic Logic 10 (1945): 25-60; C. Hempel, "Eine rein topologische Form nichtaristotelischer Logik," Erkenntnis 6 (1936-1937): 436-442; N. Rescher, Many-Valued Logic (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969).

55. See, for example, K. R. Popper, The Logic of Scientific Discovery (New York: Basic Books, 1959); K. R. Popper, Conjectures and Refutations (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1963); C. Hempel, Philosophy of Natural Science (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1966).

56. See Popper, The Logic of Scientific Discovery ; Popper, Conjectures and Refutations ; Hempel, Philosophy of Natural Science .

57. Younker, Albrecht, et al., B-2.

58. Younker, Albrecht, et al., B-2.

59. See, for example, Popper, The Logic of Scientific Discovery ; Popper, Conjectures and Refutations ; Hempel, Philosophy of Natural Science ; J. Fetzer, "The Frame Problem: Artificial Intelligence Meets David Hume," International Journal of Expert Systems 3, no. 3 (1991): 219-232.

60. M. Resnick, Choices (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 1986); R. D. Luce and H. Raiffa, Games and Decisions (New York: Wiley, 1957), 275-326.

61. Shrader-Frechette, Risk , 100-130.

62. See Rescher, Many-Valued Logic .

63. Fetzer, "The Frame Problem," 223, 227.

64. Younker, Andrews, et al., 1-31.

65. J. Bates, J. Bradley, A. Teetsov, C. Bradley, M. Buchholtz, and M. B. ten Brink, "Colloid Formation During Waste Form Reaction: Implications for Nuclear Waste Disposal," Science 256 (1 May 1992): 649-651.

66. J. Raloff, "Radwastes May Escape Glass via New Route," Science News 141, no. 18 (1992): 141.

67. C. Ducasse, "Truth, Verifiability, and Propositions about the Future," Philosophy of Science 8 (1941): 329-337; Rescher, Many-Valued Logic.

68. Younker, Albrecht, et al., B-2.

69. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 40-51, 257, 460.

70. See Rescher, Many-Valued Logic , 328ff.; Helmer and Oppenheim, "A Syntactical Definition of Probability."

71. Younker, Andrews, et al., 1-18.

72. Younker, Andrews, et al., 1-13.

73. H. Otway and M. Peltu, Regulating Industrial Risks (London: Buttersworths, 1985), 4.

74. See, for example, Younker, Albrecht, et al., 13.

75. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 460.

76. Younker, Andrews, et al., 2-123, 2-124.

77. Younker, Andrews, et al., 2-123, 2-124.

78. Younker, Andrews, et al., E-5.

79. Younker, Andrews, et al., 2-123, 2-124.

80. J. Thompson, Laboratory and Field Studies Related to the Radionuclide Migration Project: Progress Report, October 1, 1986-September 30, 1987 (Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Lab., 1988) (Item 358 in US DOE, DE90006793).

81. B. Kiernan et al., Report of the Special Advisory Committee on Nuclear Waste Disposal , no. 142 (Frankfort, Ky.: Legislative Research Commission, 1977), ix-17; U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration (U.S. ERDA), "ERDA-1538," Final Environmental Statement: Waste Management Operations, Hanford Reservation, Richland, Washington , (Springfield, Va.: National Technical Information Service, 1975), vol. 2, 11.1-H-1 through 11.1-H-4.

82. G. Hart, "Address to the Forum," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Proceedings of a Public Forum on Environmental Protection Criteria for Radioactive Wastes , (ORP/CSD-78-2) (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1978), 6.

83. U.S. ERDA, "ERDA-1538," vol. 1, X-74; see Shrader-Frechette, Nuclear Power and Public Policy , chaps. 2-3.

84. U.S. ERDA, "ERDA-1538," vol. 1, p. II.1-57.

85. U.S. ERDA, "ERDA-1538," vol. 1, p. III.2-2.

86. U.S. ERDA, "ERDA-1537," Waste Management Operations: Savannah River Plant, Aiken, South Carolina , (UC-2-11-70) (Springfield, Va.: National Technical Information Service, September 1977), II-20 and IV-2; see also U.S. ERDA, "ERDA-1536," Waste Management Operations, Idaho National Engineering Laboratory, Idaho (Springfield, Va.: National Technical Information Service, September 1977), E-41. For data on the 1061 figure, see U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Policy Act , Hearings before the Subcommittee on Energy and Environment of the Committee on Interior and Insu- soft

lar Affairs, House of Representatives, 100th Congress, 18 September 1987 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1988), 46; hereafter cited as: U.S. Congress, NWPA.

87. U.S. EPA, Considerations of Environmental Protection Criteria for Radioactive Waste (Washington, D.C.: U.S. EPA, 1978), 26.

88. Lin, Sparton--A Simple Performance Assessment Code , i. 1.

89. U.S. DOE, NWPA-Hanford, vol. 2: 6-7.

90. D. Alexander et al., "High Level Radioactive Waste Management," vol. 2, in Proceedings of the International Topical Meeting (La Grange Park, Ill.: American Nuclear Society, April 1990), 1283.

91. GeoTrans, Review of Modeling Efforts Associated with Yucca Mountain, Nevada , NWPO-TR-004-87 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Nuclear Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, September 1986), 1.

92. Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates , 1-2. See also R. Loux, Nevada State and Local Government Comments on the U.S. Department of Energy's Report to Congress Pursuant to Section 175 of the Nuclear Waste Policy Act, as Amended , NWPO-SE-020-89 (Carson City: The Nevada Agency for Nuclear Projects and Affected Local Government, March 1989), 3; G. Sawyer, Report of the State of Nevada Commission on Nuclear Projects (Carson City: Nevada Commission on Nuclear Projects, December 1990), 37.

93. R. Beers and R. Morey, Subsurface Radar Profiling Field Tests at Low-Level Nuclear Waste Burial Sites: Maxey Flats, Kentucky and Beatty, Nevada , NUREG/CR-1272 GC-TR-79-1023 WL (Washington, D.C.: U.S. NRC, Division of Health, Siting and Waste Management Office of Regulatory Research, June 1981), 43.

94. R. McGuire et al., Demonstration of a Risk-Based Approach to High-Level Waste Repository Evaluation , NP-7075 Research Project 3055-2 (Palo Alto, Calif.: EEI/UWASTE and Electric Power Research Institute, October 1990), iii, 12-2.

95. M. Board, Examination of the Use of Continuum Versus Discontinuum Models for Design and Performance Assessment for the Yucca Mountain Site , NUREG/CR-5426 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. NRC, Division of Waste Management, Office of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards, August 1989), iii, 66.

96. J. Lemons and D. Brown, "The Role of Science in the Decision to Site a High-Level Nuclear Waste Repository at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, USA," The Environmentalist 10, no. 1 (1990): 6.

97. U.S. Congress, NWPA, 211ff. See also U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program , Hearing before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate, 100th Congress, 29 June 1987 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1987); hereafter sited as: U.S. Congress, NWP-June. R. Loux, State of Nevada Comments on the U.S. Department of Energy Site Characterization Plan, Yucca Mountain Site, Nevada (Carson City: Nevada Agency for Nuclear Projects, 1989), vol. 2: 2.

98. Loux, State of Nevada Comments on the U.S. Department of Energy Consultation Draft Site , vol. 1: I-1 through I-4.

99. Loux, State of Nevada Comments on the U.S. Department of Energy Site Characterization Plan , vol. 1: 3.

100. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 128.

101. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 128.

102. See, for example, K. Shrader-Frechette, Expert Judgment in Assessing Radwaste Risks (Carson City: Nevada Agency for Nuclear Projects, Yucca Mountain Socioeconomic Project, 1992).

103. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 120.

104. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 120-121.

105. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 122.

106. See, for example, I. C. Yang, Climatic Changes Inferred from Analyses of Lake Sediment Cores, Walker Lake , USGS-WRI-84-4006 (Las Vegas: Water-Resources Investigations Report, U.S. Geological Survey, 1989); S. S. Levy, "Mineralogic Alteration History and Paleohydrology at Yucca Mountain, Nevada," in High Level Radioactive Waste Management, Proceedings of the Second Annual International Conference , 28 April-3 May, 1991, Las Vegas (La Grange Park, Ill.: American Nuclear Society, Inc., 1991), 477-485.

107. Levy, "Mineralogic Alteration History."

108. See Yang, Climatic Changes .

109. C. B. Raleigh and the panel on Coupled Hydrologic/Techtonic/Hydrothermal Systems at Yucca Mountain, Groundwater at Yucca Mountain: How High Can It Rise ? (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1992).

110. Raleigh, Groundwater at Yucca Mountain , 140, C-9 through C-23.

111. Younker, Andrews, et al., 2-69.

112. Younker, Andrews, et al., 2-67.

113. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 520.

114. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 2-70.

115. U.S. DOE, NWPA-Hanford, vol. 3, p. c. 2-28, and R. Bryan, State of Nevada Comments on the U.S. Department of Energy Draft Environmental Assessment for the Proposed High-Level Nuclear Waste Site at Yucca Mountain , 2 vols. (Carson City: Nuclear Waste Project Office, Office of the Governor, 1985), vol. 1: I-48 through I-49.

116. M. Winsor and C. Malone, "State of Nevada Perspective on Environmental Program Planning for the Yucca Mountain Project," The Environmental Professional 12 (1990): 196, 205-206; see C. Malone, "Geologic and Hydrologic Issues Related to Siting a Repository for High-Level Nuclear Waste at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, USA," Journal of Environmental Management 30 (1990): 381-396.

117. U.S. DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 2: 6-298, 6-299.

118. R. Loux, Comments on U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management, Draft 1988 Mission Plan Amendment (DOE/RW-0187, June 1988) (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Nuclear Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, September 1988), 39.

119. R. Hunter and C. Mann, Techniques for Determining Probabilities of Events and Processes Affecting the Performance of Geologic Repositories , NUREG/CR-3964 SAND86-0196, vol. 1 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. NRC, Division of High-Level Waste Management, Office of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards, June 1989), 3.

120. Hunter and Mann, Techniques for Determining Probabilities , 7.

121. Hunter and Mann, Techniques for Determining Probabilities , 10.

122. N. Matuska, Ground-Water Sampling of the NNWSI Water Table Test Wells Surrounding Yucca Mountain, Nevada NWPO-TR-010-89 (Las Vegas and Reno: Water Resources Center Desert Research Institute, December 1988), 11-12.

123. See C. Whipple, "Nonpessimistic Risk Assessment," in The Risk Assessment of Environmental and Human Health Hazards , ed. D. Paustenbach, 1112-1113; B. Cohen, "Risk Analyses of Buried Wastes," in The Risk Assessment of Environmental and Human Health Hazards , ed. D. Paustenbach, 575.

124. See Whipple, "Nonpessimistic Risk Assessment," 1113; E. Liebow, "Letter to Kristin Shrader-Frechette" (Seattle: Batelle Human Affairs Research Center, 17 July 1987); E. Liebow and J. Fawcett, "Socioeconomic Aspects of Repository-Related Risk Perceptions: A Preliminary Literature Review" (Seattle: Batelle, 16 July 1987); E. Liebow and D. Herborn, "Assessing the Economic and Social Effects of Perceiving the Repository as 'Risky': A Preliminary Approach" (Seattle: Batelle, 28 May 1987); S. Nealy and E. Liebow (eds.), Assessing Social and Economic Effects of Perceived Risk , PNL-6515, BHARC-800/88/005 UC-70 (Richland, Wash.: Pacific Northwest Laboratory, March 1988).

125. See, for example, U.S. DOE, NWPA-Hanford, vol. 2: 6-294, and U.S. DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 3, p. c.5-56.

126. See W. Freudenburg, "Perceived Risk, Real Risk: Social Science and the Art of Probabilistic Risk Assessment," Science 242 (7 October 1988): 44-49; W. Freudenburg and T. Jones, "Attitudes and Stress in the Presence of Technological Risk," Social Forces 69, no. 4 (June 1991): 1143-1168; L. Gould et al., Perceptions of Technological Risks and Benefits (New York: Sage, 1988); C. Heimer, "Social Structure, Psychology and the Estimation of Risk," Annual Review of Sociology 14: 491-519; B. Johnson and V. Covello (eds.), The Social and Cultural Construction of Risk , (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1987); J. Petterson, "The Reality of Perception," Practicing Anthropology 10 (1988): 8-9, 12; J. Petterson, Goiania Incident Case Study , NWPO-SE-015-88 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Nuclear Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, June 1988); P. Slovic, "Perception of Risk," Science 236 (1987): 280-285; P. Slovic et al., "Rating the Risks: the Structure of Expert and Lay Perceptions," Environment 21 (April 1979); and A. Tversky and D. Kahneman, "Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases," Science 185 (1974): 1124-1131.

127. D. MacLean (ed.), Values at Risk (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Allanheld, 1986); K. Shrader-Frechette, Risk Analysis and Scientific Method (Boston: Reidel, 1985), 55-124; K. Shrader-Frechette, Science Policy, Ethics, and Economic Methodology (Boston: Reidel, 1985), 67ff., 121ff., 210ff., 261ff., 286ff.; K. Shrader-Frechette, Risk , chap. 2; R. Andrews, "Environmental Impact Assessment and Risk Assessment," in Environmental Impact Assessment , ed. P. Wathern (London: Unwin Hyman, 1988), 85-97; L. Cox and P. Ricci, "Legal and Philosophical Aspects of Risk Analysis," in The Risk Assessment of Environmental and Human Health Hazards , ed. D. Paustenbach, 1017-1046.

128. See Shrader-Frechette, Risk , chap. 8.

129. P. Ricci and A. Henderson, "Fear, Fiat, and Fiasco," in Phenotypic Variation in Populations , ed. A. Woodhead et al. (New York: Plenum, 1988), 288-293; D. Paustenbach, "A Survey of Health Risk Assessment," in The Risk Assessment of Environmental and Human Health Hazards , ed. Paustenbach, 38-39; R. Gammage and C. Travis, "Formaldehyde Exposure and Risk," in The Risk Assessment of Environmental and Human Health Hazards , ed. D. Paustenbach, 601-611.

130. A. Tversky and D. Kahneman, "Belief in the Law of Small Numbers," in Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases , ed. D. Kahneman et al. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 23-31; D. Kahneman and A. Tversky, "Subjective Probability," in Judgment Under Uncertainty , ed. D. Kahneman et al., 46-47.

131. See S. Oskamp, "Overconfidence in Case-Study Judgments," in Judgment Under Uncertainty , ed. Kahneman et al., 287-293.

132. Whipple, "Nonpessimistic Risk Assessment"; Cohen, "Risk Analyses of Buried Wastes."

133. L. Cox, "Comparative Risk Measures," in Phenotypic Variation in Populations , ed. Woodhead et al., 233-243; see B. Ames et al., "Ranking Possible Carcinogens," in The Risk Assessment of Environmental and Human Health Hazards , ed. D. Paustenbach, 1083ff.; M. Layard and A. Silvers, "Epidemiology in Environmental Risk Assessment," in The Risk Assessment of Environmental and Human Health Hazards , ed. D. Paustenbach, 159; N. Harley, "Environmental Lung Cancer Risk from Radon Daughter Exposure," in The Risk Assessment of Environmental and Human Health Hazards , ed. D. Paustenbach, 620; and Cohen, "Risk Analyses of Buried Wastes," 574.

134. See Shrader-Frechette, Risk , chap. 6.

135. For discussions of risk perception see, for example, Freudenburg, "Perceived Risk, Real Risk"; Freudenburg and Jones, "Attitudes and Stress"; Gould et al., Perceptions of Technological Risks and Benefits ; Heimer, "Social Structure, Psychology and the Estimation of Risk"; Johnson and Covello, The Social and Cultural Construction of Risk ; J. Petterson, "The Reality of Perception"; J. Petterson, Goiania Incident Case Study ; Slovic, "Perception of Risk"; Slovic et al., "Rating the Risks"; and Tversky and Kahneman, "Judgment Under Uncertainty."

136. J. Yasinsky, "Nuclear Waste Management--Choosing Among the Options," Proceedings of the American Power Conference 45 (1983): 851-854 (Item 137 in US DOE, DE89005394). For further examples of this problem, see U.S. DOE, NWPA-Hanford, vol. 2: 6-294, and U.S. DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 3, p. c. 5-56.

137. See U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program , Hearings before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate, 29 April and 7 May 1987 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1987), 41, for the 80-percent figure. See also J. Davis, "Wasting of Nevada," Sierra 73, no. 4 (July 1988): 31-35 (Item 251 in US DOE, DE89005394). For another confirmation of the 80-percent figure, see P. Slovic, J. Flynn, and M. Layman, "Perceived Risk, Trust, and the Politics of Nuclear Waste," Science 254 (13 December 1991): 1604.

138. See Shrader-Frechette, Risk , chap. 4.

139. P. Slovic et al., Perceived Risk, Stigma, and Potential Economic Impacts of a High-Level Nuclear Waste Repository in Nevada , NWPO-SE-023-89 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Nuclear Projects/Nuclear Waste Projects Office, July 1989). W. Burns et al., Social Amplification of Risk: An Empirical Study , NWPO-SE-027-90 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, September 1990). For other discussions of social amplifications of risk, see chapter three, notes 12-13 and chapter four, note 170.

140. Burns et al., Social Amplification of Risk , 660. See J. Petterson, "The Reality of Perception"; J. Petterson, Goiania Incident Case Study ; H. Peters and L. Hennen, The Accident at Gorleben: A Case Study of Risk Communication and Risk Amplification in the Federal Republic of Germany , NWPO-SE-012-88 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Nuclear Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, July 1988).

141. P. Slovic et al., What Comes to Mind When You Hear the Words "Nuclear Waste Repository"?: A Study of 10,000 Images , NWPO-SE-028-90 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, 1990), i.

142. Slovic et al., What Comes to Mind When You Hear the Words "Nuclear Waste Repository"? .

143. Cohen, "Risk Analyses of Buried Wastes," 575; Whipple, "Nonpessimistic Risk Assessment," 1112-1113; K. Shrader-Frechette, "Economics, Risk-Cost Benefit Analysis, and the Linearity Assumption," in PSA 1982 , ed. P. Asquith and T. Nickles (East Lansing, Mich.: Philosophy of Science Association, 1982).

144. Cox and Ricci, "Legal and Philosophical Aspects of Risk Analysis," 1017-1046; W. Rowe, An Anatomy of Risk (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1977), 926.

145. B. Fischhoff et al., "Facts and Fears," in Societal Risk Assessment , ed. R. Schwing and W. Albers (New York: Plenum, 1980), 207; R. Kates et al., Hazards: Technology and Fairness (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1986).

146. S. Samuels, "The Arrogance of Intellectual Power," in Phenotypic Variation in Populations , ed. Woodhead et al., 113-120; see also P. Pahner, "The Psychological Displacement of Anxiety: An Application to Nuclear Energy," in Risk-Benefit Methodology and Application , ed. D. Okrent (Los Angeles: University of California School of Engineering and Applied Science, 1975), 575.

147. P. Gleick and J. Holdren, "Assessing the Environmental Risks of Energy," American Journal of Public Health 71, no. 9 (September 1981): 1046; A. Van Horn and R. Wilson, "The Status of Risk-Benefit Analysis," discussion paper (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Energy and Environmental Policy Center, 1976), 19.

148. U.S. DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 2: 6-121.

149. See, for example, U.S. DOE, NWPA-Hanford, vol. 2: 6-24 and 6-25.

150. U. Park and C. Pflum, "Requirements for Controlling a Repository's Releases of Carbon-14 Dioxide: The High Costs and Negligible Benefits," in International Conference for High-Level Radioactive Waste Management (Las Vegas: U.S. DOE, 1990) (Item 2 in US DOE, DE91000566).

151. See Shrader-Frechette, Risk , 70ff.

152. C. Comar, "Risk: A Pragmatic De Minimis Approach," Science 203, no. 4378 (1979): 319; Cox and Ricci, "Legal and Philosophical Aspects of Risk Analysis," 1028-1041.

153. C. Starr, Current Issues in Energy , (New York: Pergamon, 1979), 14ff.; L. Cox and P. Ricci, "Risk, Uncertainty, and Causation," in The Risk Assessment of Environmental and Human Health Hazards , ed. D. Paustenbach, 134-135.

154. See Shrader-Frechette, Risk , 71ff.

155. Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management, Performance Assessment Strategy Plan for the Geologic Repository Program (Washington, D.C.: U.S. DOE, 1990).

156. For the DOE claim, see B. Rusche, "Statement," in Mission Plan for the Civilian Radioactive Waste Management Program , Hearing before the Subcommittee on Energy Research and Development of the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate, 99th Congress, First Session on the Department on Energy's Mission Plan for the Civilian Radioactive Waste Management Program, 12 September 1985 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1986), 484-485. For regulations concerning other nuclear facilities, see Shrader-Frechette, Risk , chap. 5.

157. See Shrader-Frechette, Risk , chaps. 5, 7.

158. K. Neuhauser et al., "Projected Environmental Impacts of Radioactive Material Transportation to the First U.S. Repository Site," in International Symposium on the Packaging and Transport of Radioactive Materials (PATRAM '86) (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1986) (Item 180 in US DOE, DE89005394). See also U.S. DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 2: 6-121.

159. C. Brown, "Equalizing Differences in the Labor Market," Quarterly Journal of Economics 94, no. 1 (February 1980): 113-134; A. Dillingham, "The Injury Risk Structure of Occupations and Wages," Ph.D. diss., Cornell University, 1979; R. McLean et al., "Compensating Wage Differentials for Hazardous Work: An Empirical Analysis," Quarterly Review of Economics and Business 18, no. 3 (1978): 97-107; C. Olson, "Trade Unions, Wages, Occupational Injuries, and Public Policy," Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, 1979; R. Smith, "Compensating Wage Differentials and Hazardous Work," Technical Analysis Paper no. 5 (Washington, D.C.: Office of Evaluation, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Policy Evaluation and Research, U.S. Department of Labor, 1973); R. Thaler and S. Rosen, "The Value of Saving a Life," in Household Production and Consumption , ed. N. Terleckyi (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1976), 265-298; W. Viscusi, Employment Hazards , (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979); J. Graham and D. Shakow, "Risk and Reward," Environment 23, no. 8 (October 1981): 14-20, 44-45; J. Graham et al., "Risk Compensation," Environment 25, no. 1 (January/February 1983): 14-27.

160. E. Eckholm, "Unhealthy Jobs," Environment 19, no. 6 (August/September 1977): 31-33; D. Berman, Death on the Job (London: Monthly Review Press, 1978); see also D. Paustenbach, "A Survey of Health Risk Assessment," 34-35, and Samuels, "The Arrogance of Intellectual Power," 113-120.

161. See Shrader-Frechette, Risk , 72ff.

162. U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program , Hearings before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate, 100th Congress, First Session on the Current Status of the Department of Energy's Civilian Nuclear Waste Activities, 29 January, 4 and 5 February 1987, Part 1 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1987), 212; hereafter cited as: Nuclear Waste Program-January .

163. U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-January , 213. For a discussion of the importance of supplying risk information to the public, see M. Baram, "Rights and Duties Concerning the Availability of Environmental Risk Information to the Public," in Communicating Risks to the Public , ed. R. E. Kasperson and P. M. Stallen (Boston: Kluwer, 1991), 67-78.

164. U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-January , 216, 726.

165. U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-January , 699-746.

166. U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-January , 216-245, 466-509.

167. U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-January , 923.

168. U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-January , 747.

169. O. Morgenstern, On the Accuracy of Economic Observations (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1963), 62.

170. See, for instance, W. Roberds et al., In-Situ Test Programs Related to Design and Construction of High-Level Nuclear Waste (HLW) Deep Geologic Repositories. Final Report (Task 2), June 1981-November 1982 (Bellevue, Wash.: Golder Associates, Inc., 1983) (Item 145 in US DOE, DE89005394).

171. See, for example, K. Erickson et al., "Approximate Methods to Calculate Radionuclide Discharges for Performance Assessment of HLW Repositories in Fractured Rock," in Waste Management '86. Vol. 2: High-Level Waste , ed. R. Post (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1986) (Item 175 in US DOE, DE89005394).

172. See, for example, S. Sinnock and T. Lin, "Preliminary Estimates of Groundwater Travel Time at Yucca Mountain," in American Nuclear Society Meeting (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1988) (Item 214 in US DOE, DE90006793); P. Huyakorn et al., "Finite Element Simulation of Moisture Movement and Solute Transport in a Large Caisson," in Workshop on Modeling of Solute Transport in the Unsaturated Zone (Herndon, Va.: GeoTrans, Inc., 1987) (Item 212 in US DOE, DE89005394); A. Gutjahr et al., "Panel Summary Report," in Workshop on Modeling of Solute Transport in the Unsaturated Zone (Socorro, N.M.: New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology, 1987) (Item 213 in US DOE, DE89005394).

173. J. Rulon et al., Preliminary Numerical Simulations of Groundwater Flow in the Unsaturated Zone, Yucca Mountain, Nevada (Berkeley, Calif.: Lawrence Berkeley Lab., 1986) (Item 181 in US DOE, DE89005394).

174. See U.S. DOE, "Project History," in Yucca Mountain Project Bibliography, 1988-1989 , DOE/OSTI-3406 (Suppl.2) (DE90006793) (Oak Ridge: U.S. DOE, November 1990), viii.

175. S. Mara, Assessment of Effectiveness of Geologic Isolation Systems. Geologic Factors in the Isolation of Nuclear Waste: Evaluation of Long-Term Geomorphic Processes and Catastrophic Events (Seattle: Battelle Pacific Northwest Lab., 1980) (Item 92 in US DOE, DE89005394).

176. Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management, Performance Assessment Implementation Plan .

177. U.S. Congress, DOE Nuclear Facility at Fernald, OH , Hearing before the Subcommittee on Energy Conservation and Power of the Committee on Energy and Commerce, House of Representatives, 99th Congress, Second Session, 13 August 1986, Serial No. 99-163 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1987), 5, 6.

178. U.S. Congress, DOE Nuclear Facility at Fernald, OH , 7-9; see C. Malone, "Environmental Review and Regulation for Siting a Nuclear Repository at Yucca Mountain, Nevada," Environ. Impact Assess. Rev. 9: 92; Loux, Comments on U.S. Department of Energy , 20-23; Alexander et al., "High Level Radioactive Waste Management."

179. U.S. Congress, Mission Plan for the Civilian Radioactive Waste Management Program , 107; U.S. Congress, DOE Nuclear Facility at Fernald, OH , 144. See also U.S. Congress, NWPA, 244, and U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-April/May , 185. For DOE's admissions regarding its "schedule pushing," see DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 3, p. c. 3-23.

180. U.S. Congress, DOE Nuclear Facility at Fernald, OH , 108; U.S. Congress, DOE: Pollution at Fernald, Ohio . Hearing before the Subcommittee on Transportation, Tourism, and Hazardous Materials of the Committee on Energy and Commerce, House of Representatives, 100th Congress, Second Session on H.R. 3783, H.R. 3784, and H.R. 3785, 14 October 1988, Serial No. 100-236 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1989), 1-3, 54ff.

181. For Luken's comment, see U.S. Congress, DOE: Pollution at Fernald, Ohio , 25. U.S. Congress, Mission Plan , 133ff., 235ff., 269ff., 506ff., 625, 667ff. U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-January ; U.S. Congress, DOE Nuclear Facility at Fernald, OH. ; U.S. Congress, Safety of DOE Nuclear Facilities , Hearing before the Subcommittee on Energy and Power of the Committee on Energy and Commerce, House of Representatives, 101st Congress, First Session, 22 February 1989, Serial No. 101-1 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1989); U.S. Congress, DOE: Pollution at Fernald, Ohio .

182. U.S. Congress, DOE Nuclear Facility at Fernald, OH , 2.

183. U.S. Congress, DOE: Pollution at Fernald, Ohio , 36-45.

184. Loux, State of Nevada Comments on the US Department of Energy Site Characterization Plan , vol. 1: 3.

185. A. J. Keesler, "Testimony," in U.S. Congress, The Federal Program for the Disposal of Spent Nuclear Fuel and High-Level Radioactive Waste , Hearing before the Subcommittee on Nuclear Regulation of the Committee on Environment and Public Works, U.S. Senate, 101st Congress, 2 October 1990 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1990), 145.

186. Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates of Groundwater Travel Time , 75; see Loux, Comments on U.S. Department of Energy , 20-23.

187. See, for example, Board, Examination of the Use of Continuum Versus Discontinuum Models , 66.

188. U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-January , 212-213.

189. U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-January , 245-271.

190. See, for example, Loux, State of Nevada Comments on the U.S. Department of Energy Site Characterization Plan , vol. 1: 3; vol. 2: 2.

191. Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates of Groundwater Travel Time .

192. L. Costin and S. Bauer, Thermal and Mechanical Codes First Benchmark Exercise, Part I: Thermal Analysis , SAND88-1221 UC-814 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1990), i; see N. Hayden, Benchmarking: NNMSI Flow and Transport Codes: Cove 1 Results , SAND84-0996 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1985), 1-1, 1-2. For those who speak of "verifying" their models, see, for example, R. Barnard and H. Dockery, Technical Summary of the Performance Assessment Calculational Exercises for 1990 (PACE-90). Vol. 1: "Nominal Configuration" Hydrogeologic Parameters and Calculation Results , SAND90-2727 (Albuquerque: Nuclear Waste Repository Technology Department, Sandia National Labs., 1991), 1-3: Hunter and Mann, Techniques for Determining Probabilities of Events and Processes , 5. For those who claim to "validate" their models, see, for example, T. Brikowski et al., Yucca Mountain Program Summary of Research, Site Monitoring and Technical Review Activities (January 1987-June 1988) , (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, December 1988), 51; Hunter and Mann, Techniques for Determining Probabilities of Events and Processes , 4; K. Stephens et al., Methodologies for Assessing Long-Term Performance of High-Level Radioactive Waste Packages , NUREG/CR-4477 ATR-85 (5810-01)1ND (Washington, D.C.: U.S. NRC, Division of Waste Management, Office of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards, January 1986), xvi; Barnard and Dockery, Technical Summary of the Performance Assessment Calculational Exercises for 1990 (PACE-90). Vol. 1 : 1-3.

193. For these who believe in program "verification" see, for example, E. Dijstra, A Discipline of Programming (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1976); C. Hoare, "An Axiomatic Basis for Computer Programming," Communications of the ACM 12 (1969): 576-580, 583; C. Hoare, "Mathematics of Programming," BYTE (August 1986): 115-149.

194. J. H. Fetzer, "Program Verification: The Very Idea," Communications of the ACM 31, no. 9 (September 1988): 1048-1063. See also J. H. Fetzer, "Philosophical Aspects of Program Verification," Minds and Machines 1 (1991): 197-216; and J. H. Fetzer, "Mathematical Proofs of Computer System Correctness," Notices of the American Mathematical Society 36, no. 10 (December 1989): 1352-1353. For discussions regarding program verification, I am indebted to J. H. Fetzer.

195. Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management, Performance Assessment Implementation Plan .

196. Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management, Performance Assessment Implementation Plan .

197. J. H. Fetzer, "Another Point of View," Communications of the ACM 32, no. 8 (August 1989): 921.

198. S. Savitzky, "Letters," Communications of the ACM 32, no. 3 (March 1989): 377.

199. D. Nelson, "Letters," Communications of the ACM , 32, no. 7 (July 1989): 792.

200. J. Dobson and B. Randell, "Program Verification," Communications of the ACM 32, no. 4 (April 1989): 422.

201. See, for example, P. Hopkins, Cone 2A Benchmarking Calculations Using LLUVIA , SAND88-2511-UC-814 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1990), 1.

202. J. Emel et al., Postclosure Risks at the Proposed Yucca Mountain Repository: A Review of Methodological and Technical Issues , NWPO-SE-011-88 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Nuclear Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, June 1988), 41.

203. Thompson et al., Preliminary Upper-Bound Consequence Analysis , i, v-vi.

204. Thompson et al., Preliminary Upper-Bound Consequence Analysis , 1984, 7, 47.

205. Lin, Sparton--A Simple Performance Assessment Code , i, 1.

206. U.S. DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 3, C. 5-54 and C. 5-55.

207. U.S. DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 3, C. 5-56 and U.S. DOE, NWPA-Hanford, vol. 2, p. 6-294.

208. See, for example, Yonker, Andrews, et al., 1-18, 2-6.

209. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 13, 47, 107, 149.

210. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 13, 47, 107, 149.

211. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 7.

212. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 112.

213. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 47.

214. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 511.

215. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 247, 411, 467.

216. U.S. NRC, In the Matter of Proposed Rulemaking , I-3.

217. U.S. Congress, DOE Nuclear Facility at Fernald, OH ; U.S. Congress, Safety of DOE Nuclear Facilities ; U.S. Congress, DOE: Pollution at Fernald, Ohio . See also note 12, chapter 1, for other evidence of DOE failures.

218. U.S. NRC, In the Matter of Proposed Rulemaking , I-4.

219. K. Wilson and B. Lyons, Ground-Water Levels and Tritium Concentrations at the Maxey-Flats Low-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal Site Near Morehead, Kentucky, June 1984 to April 1989 , Report 90-4189 (Louisville: U.S. Geological Survey, 1991), 36.

220. U.S. Congress, DOE: Pollution at Fernald, Ohio , 67.

221. U.S. Congress, DOE: Pollution at Fernald, Ohio , 132.

222. U.S. NRC, Reactor Safety Study , Report no. (NUREG-75/014) WASH-1400 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975).

223. See Shrader-Frechette, Risk and Rationality .

224. U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-January , 446.

225. For example, U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-January ; U.S. Congress, DOE Nuclear Facility at Fernald, OH ; U.S. Congress, Safety of DOE Nuclear Facilities ; U.S. Congress, DOE: Pollution at Fernald, Ohio .

226. For example, H. Kunreuther et al., "Public Attitude Toward Siting a High-Level Nuclear Waste Repository in Nevada," Risk Analysis 10, no. 4 (December 1990): 483.

227. Loux, Nevada State and Local Government Comments , 2; Winsor and Malone, "State of Nevada Perspective on Environmental Program Planning, 197, 205; G. Sawyer, Report of the State of Nevada Commission on Nuclear Projects (Carson City: Nevada Commission on Nuclear Projects, November 1988), 8-9, 13.

228. U.S. Congress, Mission Plan , 133, 219, 321, 328; D. Golding and A. White, Guidelines on the Scope, Content, and Use of Comprehensive Risk Assessment in the Management of High-Level Nuclear Waste Transportation , NWPO-TN-007-90 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, December 1990), 28ff.; J. Lemons et al., "America's High-Level Nuclear Waste Repository: A Case Study of Environmental Science and Public Policy," Intern. J. Environmental Studies 34 (1989): 25; J. Emel et al., Postclosure Risks at the Proposed Yucca Mountain Repository: A Review of Methodological and Technical Issues , NWPO-SE-011-88 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Nuclear Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, June 1988), 42.

229. U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-January , 446.

230. U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-January , 726.

231. See U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program , 747; see G. Sawyer, Report of the State of Nevada Commission on Nuclear Projects (Carson City: Nevada Commission on Nuclear Projects, November 1986), 92ff.; C. Malone, "Environmental Performance Assessment: A Case Study of an Emerging Methodology," J. Environmental Systems 19, no. 2 (1990): 171-184.

232. Burns et al., Social Amplification of Risk , 1ff. For further information on social amplification of risk, see notes 12-13, chapter 3, and note 170, chapter 4.

233. Petterson, "The Reality of Perception"; Petterson, Goiania Incident Case Study .

234. Peters and Hennen, The Accident at Gorleben .

235. More than a billion dollars has already been spent in site-characterization activities at Yucca Mountain, and the site characterization work has just begun. R. Loux, "Will the Nation's Nuclear Waste Policy Succeed at Yucca Mountain?" Public Utilities Fortnightly (22 November 1990): 26-28 and U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-January , 268.

236. For a fuller discussion of problems of scientific method in Yucca Mountain QRAs and recommendations about improving these methods, see Shrader-Frechette, Expert Judgment in Assessing Radwaste Risks . See also K. S. Shrader-Frechette, Expert Judgment and the Frame Problem: Analysis of the "Early Site Suitability Evaluation," Yucca Mountain (Carson City: Nevada Agency for Nuclear Projects, June 1992).

237. Younker, Albrecht, et al., p. B-2.

1. R. K. Waddell, J. H. Robison, and R. K. Blankennagel, Hydrology of Yucca Mountain and Vicinity, Nevada-California-Investigative Results through Mid-1983 (Denver: U.S. Geological Survey, Water Resources Investigations Report 84-4267, 1984).

2. S. Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates of Groundwater Travel Time and Radionuclide Transport at the Yucca Mountain Repository Site , SAND85-2701 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1986), i.

3. U.S. DOE, Nuclear Waste Policy Act, Environmental Assessment, Yucca Mountain Site, Nevada Research and Development Area, Nevada, DOE/RW-0073, 3 vols. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. DOE, 1986), vol. 2: 6-165; hereafter cited as: U.S. DOE, NWPA-Yucca.

4. U.S. DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 2: 6-167.

5. See L. Hamilton et al., Toward a Risk Assessment of the Spent Fuel and High-Level Nuclear Waste Disposal System , Contract DE-AC02-76CH00016 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. DOE, 1986), 9-12.

6. Lovins is quoted in A. K. Bates, "The Karma of Kerma: Nuclear Wastes and Natural Rights," Environmental Law and Litigation 3 (1988): 19.

7. R. Peters et al., "Effect of Percolation Rate on Water-Travel Time in Deep, Partially Saturated Zones," in Symposium on Groundwater flow and Transport Modeling for Performance Assessment of Deep Geologic Disposal of Radioactive Waste (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1985) (Item 227 in US DOE, DE88004834).

8. Board on Radioactive Waste Management, U.S. NAS, Rethinking High-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1990), v; see also 27; hereafter cited as: Board, NAS.

9. B. Travis et al., Preliminary Estimates of Water Flow and Radionuclide Transport in Yucca Mountain (Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Lab., 1984), 3-4.

10. A. Dudley et al., Total System Performance Assessment Code (TOSPAC): Vol. 1, Physical and Mathematical Bases: Yucca Mountain Project , SAND85-0002 UC-70 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1988) (Item 182 in US DOE, DE90006793), 92.

11. Travis et al., Preliminary Estimates of Water Flow , 16.

12. Travis et al., Preliminary Estimates of Water Flow , 25; Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates of Groundwater Travel Time , i.

13. U.S. DOE, Tectonic Stability and Expected Ground Motion at Yucca Mountain. Final Report. Revision 1. August 7-8, 1984-January 25-26, 1985 (La Jolla: Science Applications International Corp., 1985) (Item 18 in US DOE, DE88004834); J. Emel et al., Risk Management and Organizational Systems for High-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal: Issues and Priorities , NWPO-SE-008-88 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, September 1988); J. Emel et al., Postclosure Risks at the Proposed Yucca Mountain Repository: A Review of Methodological and Technical Issues , NWPO-SE-011-88 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Nuclear Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, June 1988).

14. P. O'Brien, Technical Support for High-Level Radioactive Waste Management, Task C Report: Assessment of Migration Pathways , EPA 520/4-79-007C (Washington, D.C.: U.S. EPA, 1977), 68.

15. NRC, "Staff Comments," in U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program , Hearings before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate, 100th Congress, First Session on the Current Status of the Department of Energy's Civilian Nuclear Waste Activities, 29 January, 4 and 5 February 1987, part 1 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1987), 204; hereafter cited as: Nuclear Waste Program-January . For the NAS claim, see Board, NAS, 4.

16. B. Rusche, "Statement," in U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-January , 917.

17. U.S. DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 2: 6-78.

18. U.S. DOE, NWPA-Yucca, vol. 2: 6-334 and 6-335.

19. Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates of Groundwater Travel Time , 58.

20. S. Raker and R. Jacobson, Chemistry of Groundwater in Tuffaceous Rocks, Central Nevada , NWPO-TR-006-87 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, January 1987), 72.

21. K. Stephens et al., Methodologies for Assessing Long-Term Performance of High-Level Radioactive Waste Packages , NUREG/CR-4477 ATR-85 (5810-01)1ND (Washington, D.C.: U.S. NRC, Division of Waste Management, Office of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards, January 1986), xvi, 8-2.

22. C. Malone, "Geologic and Hydrologic Issues Related to Siting a Repository for High-Level Nuclear Waste at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, USA," Journal of Environmental Management 30: 381; D. Brown and J. Lemons, "Scientific Certainty and the Laws That Govern Location of a Potential High-Level Nuclear Waste Repository," Environmental Management 15, no. 3 (1990): 319. See note 84 regarding the impossibility of quantifying uncertainties at present.

23. J. Lemons and D. Brown, "The Role of Science in the Decision to Site a High-Level Nuclear Waste Repository at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, USA," The Environmentalist 10, no. 1 (1990): 10.

24. J. Emel et al., Nuclear Waste Management: A Comparative Analysis of Six Countries , NWPO-SE-034-90 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, November 1990), 5.

25. R. Hunter and C. Mann, Techniques for Determining Probabilities of Events and Processes Affecting the Performance of Geologic Repositories , NUREG/CR-3964 SAND86-0196, vol. 1, June (Washington, D.C.: U.S. NRC, Division of High-Level Waste Management, Office of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards, 1989), 1.

26. Hunter and Mann, Techniques for Determining Probabilities of Events , 2.

27. Thompson Engineering Company, Review and Comment on the U.S. Department of Energy Site Characterization Plan Conceptual Design Report , NWPO-TR-009-88 (Carson City: State of Nevada, Agency for Projects/Nuclear Waste Project Office, October 1988) (Item 329 in US DOE, DE90006793), 13.

28. C. Malone, "The Yucca Mountain Project," Environ. Sci. Technol. 23, no. 12 (1989): 1453. For the utility-industry claim, See M. Yates, "Council Report Finds High-Level Nuclear Waste Repository Rules 'Unrealistic'," Public Utilities Fortnightly (16 August 1990): 40-41. For the NAS worries, see Board, NAS.

29. J. L. Younker, S. L. Albrecht, W. J. Arabasz, J. H. Bell, F. W. Cambray, S. W. Carothers, J. I. Drever, J. T. Einaudi, D. E. French, K. V. Hodges, R. H. Jones, D. K. Kreamer, W. G. Pariseau, T. A. Vogel, T. Webb, W. B. Andrews, G. A. Fasano, S. R. Mattson, R. C. Murray, L. B. Ballou, M. A. Revelli, A. R. Ducharme, L. E. Shephard, W. W. Dudley, D. T. Hoxie, R. J. Herbst, E. A. Patera, B. R. Judd, J. A. Docka, L. R. Rickertsen, J. M. Boak, and J. R. Stockey, Report of the Peer Review Panel on the Early Site Suitability Evaluation of the Potential Repository Site at Yucca Mountain, Nevada , SAIC-91/8001 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Energy, 1992), B-2; hereafter cited as: Younker, Albrecht, et al.

30. Thompson Engineering Company, Review and Comment , 5.

31. Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates of Groundwater Travel Time , 57.

32. Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates of Groundwater Travel Time , i.

33. R. Peters, The Effect of Percolation Rate on Water Travel Time in Deep, Partially Saturated Zones , SAND85-0854 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1986), i.

34. E. Reichard et al., Groundwater Contamination Risk Assessment , (Oxfordshire, England: International Association of Hydrological Sciences, 1990), 101.

35. R. Bryan, State of Nevada Comments on the U.S. Department of Energy Draft Environmental Assessment for the Proposed High-Level Nuclear Waste Site at Yucca Mountain , 2 vols. (Carson City: Nuclear Waste Project Office, Office of the Governor, 1985), vol. 1: I-42 and I-43; Peters, The Effect of Percolation Rate , 32; see G. Sawyer, "Statement," in U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program-January , 709, 712.

36. Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates of Groundwater Travel Time , 58, 75.

37. Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates of Groundwater Travel Time , i-ii.

38. S. Sinnock and T. Lin, Preliminary Bounds on the Expected Postclosure Performance of the Yucca Mountain Repository Site, Southern Nevada , SAND84-1492 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1984), 41.

39. Sinnock and Lin, Preliminary Bounds on the Expected Postclosure Performance , 37.

40. Sinnock and Lin, Preliminary Bounds on the Expected Postclosure Performance , 53.

41. Sinnock and Lin, Preliminary Bounds on the Expected Postclosure Performance , 41.

42. Sinnock and Lin, Preliminary Bounds on the Expected Postclosure Performance , 53.

43. E. Jacobson, Investigation of Sensitivity and Uncertainty in Some Hydrologic Models of Yucca Mountain and Vicinity , SAND84-7212 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1985), 90.

44. Sinnock and Lin, Preliminary Bounds on the Expected Postclosure Performance , 29.

45. Sinnock and Lin, Preliminary Bounds on the Expected Postclosure Performance , 24; C. Smith et al., Population Risks from Disposal of High-Level Radioactive Wastes in Geologic Repositories , EPA-520/3-80-006 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. EPA), 91.

46. Sinnock and Lin, Preliminary Bounds on the Expected Postclosure Performance , 16.

47. Sinnock and Lin, Preliminary Bounds on the Expected Postclosure Performance , 37.

48. Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates of Groundwater Travel Time , 58.

49. Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates of Groundwater Travel Time , 75.

50. Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates of Groundwater Travel Time , 77.

51. Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates of Groundwater Travel Time , 80.

52. Smith et al., Population Risks , 49.

53. Smith et al., Population Risks , 183.

54. Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates of Groundwater Travel Time , 77.

55. F. Thompson et al., Preliminary Upper-Bound Consequence Analysis for a Waste Repository at Yucca Mountain, Nevada , SAND83-7475 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1984), v-vi.

56. Dudley et al., Total System Performance Assessment Code , 56.

57. See, for example, J. L. Younker, W. B. Andrews, G. A. Fasano, C. C. Herrington, S. R. Mattson, R. C. Murray, L. B. Ballou, M. A. Revelli, A. R. Ducharme, L. E. Shephard, W. W. Dudley, D. T. Hoxie, R. J. Herbst, E. A. Patera, B. R. Judd, J. A. Docka, and L. R. Rickertsen, Report of Early Site Suitability Evaluation of the Potential Repository Site at Yucca Mountain, Nevada , SAIC-91/8000 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Energy, 1992), pp. 2-94, 2-163; hereafter cited as: Younker, Andrews, et al.

58. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 25.

59. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 259.

60. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 214.

61. Younker, Albrecht, et al., 214.

62. Younker, Andrews, et al., 2-121, 1-3.

63. Younker, Andrews, et al., 1-9.

64. Younker, Andrews, et al., 2-117.

65. U.S. EPA, Report to Congress on Hazardous Waste Disposal (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, June 1973), 133.

66. S. Papadopulos and I. Winograd, Storage of Low-Level Radioactive Wastes in the Ground: Hydrogeologic and Hydrochemical Factors , EPA-520/3-74-009 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. EPA, Office of Radiation Programs, 1974), 29, 33.

67. H. Zehner, Preliminary Hydrogeologic Investigation of the Maxey Flats Radioactive Waste Burial Site , USGS 79-1329 (Louisville: U.S. Department of the Interior, USGS, 1979), 48-52.

68. See Board, NAS, 4. See also A. Radin, Chair, Monitored Retrievable Storage Review Commission, Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage ? (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1989), 103, 10, xvii.

69. Bates, "The Karma of Kerma: Nuclear Wastes and Natural Rights," 13.

70. U.S. DOE, Nuclear Waste Policy Act, Environmental Assessment , Reference Repository Location, Hanford Site, Washington , 3 vols., DOE/RW-0070 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. DOE, 1986), vol. 2: 6-148; hereafter cited as: U.S. DOE, NWPA-Hanford.

71. B. Barry, Liberty and Justice (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), 271-273.

72. M. E. Rosen, "Nevada v. Watkins: Who Gets the Shaft?" Virginia Environmental Law Journal 10 (1991): 239-309.

73. M. Yates, "DOE Reassesses Civilian Radioactive Waste Management Program," Public Utilities Fortnightly (15 February 1990): 36-38.

74. F. L. Parker et al., Board on Radioactive Waste Management, U.S. National Research Council, Rethinking High-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1990), 1, 4, 6.

75. Radin, Nuclear Waste , D3, D18.

76. Radin, Nuclear Waste , D5, see also D4, D18. For problems with fracturing caused by the heat of the waste, see chapter 4.

77. Radin, Nuclear Waste , D6, D7, D18.

78. Radin, Nuclear Waste , D8, D9, D18.

79. Radin, Nuclear Waste , D10, D18.

80. Radin, Nuclear Waste , D11, D12, D18. See A. Milnes, Geology and Radwaste (New York: Academic Press, 1985), 286ff.; hereafter cited as: G. R. See also U.S. NAS, A Review of the Swedish KBS-II Plan for Disposal of Spent Nuclear Fuel (Washington, D.C.: U.S. NAS, 1980); and C. E. Nyquist, "Nuclear Waste Disposal in Sweden," Public Utilities Fortnightly (14 May 1987): 34-35.

81. Radin, Nuclear Waste , D13-D15, D18.

82. Radin, Nuclear Waste , D15-D18.

83. Radin, Nuclear Waste , D17.

84. Younker, Albrecht, et al., B-2.

85. C. Fairhurst, Board on Radioactive Waste Management, National Research Council, in The Federal Program for the Disposal of Spent Nuclear Fuel and High-Level Radioactive Waste , Hearing before the Subcommittee on Nuclear Regulation of the Committee on Environment and Public Works, U.S. Senate, 101 Congress (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1990), 35; hereafter cited as: The Federal Program for the Disposal of Spent Nuclear Fuel .

86. See, for example, K. Shrader-Frechette, Risk , chap. 9.

87. See Sinnock et al., Preliminary Estimates of Groundwater Travel Time , 80.

88. Shrader-Frechette, Risk , 132-134.

89. H. Shue, "Exporting Hazards," in Boundaries: National Autonomy and Its Limits , ed. P. Brown and H. Shue (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Little-field, 1981), 107-145; J. Lichtenberg, "National Boundaries and Moral Boundaries," in Brown and Shue, Boundaries , 79-100.

90. See, for example, L. Becker, "Rights," in Property , ed. L. Becker and K. Kipnis (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1984), 76. For a discussion of the flaws in this view of rights, see A. Baier, "Poisoning the Wells," in Values at Risk , ed. D. MacLean (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Allenheld, 1986), 49-74.

91. Shrader-Frechette, Risk , 136-137.

92. Shrader-Frechette, Risk , 137-138.

93. Shrader-Frechette, Risk , 138-139.

94. For a discussion of this argument, see W. K. Frankena, "Concept of Social Justice," in Social Justice , ed. R. Brandt, (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1962), 15; Shrader-Frechette, Risk , chap. 8.

95. R. Miller, "Letter," in The Federal Program for the Disposal of Spent Nuclear Fuel , 126.

1. A. M. Weinberg, "Social Institutions and Nuclear Energy," Science 177 (7 July 1972): 27-34.

2. F. L. Parker, Rethinking High-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal: A Position Statement of the Board on Radioactive Waste Management (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1990), 2; hereafter cited as: NAS, HLRW.

3. For an excellent analysis of equity issues in radioactive waste management/disposal, see R. E. Kasperson (ed.), Equity Issues in Radioactive Waste Management (Cambridge, Mass.: Oelgeschlager, Gunn, and Hain, 1983).

4. K. Shrader-Frechette, Risk and Rationality (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1991), 117ff.; hereafter cited as: Risk.

5. See, for example, R. Williams, A Technique for the Geothermic Modeling of Underground Surfaces: Nevada Nuclear Waste Storage Investigations Project (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1980) (Item 171 in US DOE, DE90006793), 1-23; S. Sinnock and T. Lin, Preliminary Bounds on the Expected Postclosure Performance of the Yucca Mountain Repository Site, Southern Nevada , SAND84-1492 (Albuquerque: Sandia National Labs., 1984).

6. By virtue of 10 CFR 60.113, U.S. repositories are required to provide "substantially complete containment" within the waste packages for three hundred to one thousand years and a controlled release rate from the engineered barrier system for ten thousand years of 1 part in 10 ⁵ per year for radionuclides present in defined quantities one hundred years after permanent closure. See A. Berusch and E. Gause, "DOE Progress in Assessing the Long Term Performance of Waste Materials," in Scientific Basis for Nuclear Waste Management X , ed. J. Bates and W. Seefeldt (Boston: Materials Research Society, 1987) (Item 190 in US DOE, DE89005394).

7. See note 86 in the preceding chapter.

8. W. T. Blackstone, "On the Meaning and Justification of the Equality Principle," in The Concept of Equality , ed. W. T. Blackstone (Minneapolis: Burgess, 1969), 121.

9. J. Rawls, "Justice as Fairness," in Philosophy of Law , ed. J. Feinberg and H. Gross (Encino, Calif.: Dickenson, 1975), 284. For a discussion of rights theories in the context of risk assessments, see A. Baier, "Poisoning the Wells," in Values at Risk , ed. MacLean (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Allenheld, 1986), 49-74.

10. For arguments to this effect, see M. C. Beardsley, "Equality and Obedience to Law," in Law and Philosophy , ed. S. Hook (New York: New York University Press, 1964), 35-36. See also I. Berlin, "Equality," in Law and Philosophy , ed. Hook, 33; W. K. Frankena, "Some Beliefs about Justice," in Philosophy of Law , ed. Feinberg and Gross, 250-251; M. Marcovic, "The Relationship between Equality and Local Autonomy," in Equality and Social Policy , ed. W. Feinberg (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1978), 93; Rawls, "Justice as Fairness," 277, 280, 282; G. Vlastos, "Justice and Equality," in Social Justice , ed. R. B. Brandt (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1962), 50, 56.

11. J. R. Pennock, "Introduction," in The Limits of the Law , Nomos 15, Yearbook of the American Society for Political and Legal Philosophy, ed. J. R. Pennock and J. W. Chapman (New York: Lieber-Atherton, 1974), 2, 6.

12. See J. Rawls, "Justice as Fairness," Journal of Philosophy 54, no. 22 (October 1957): 653-662; J. Rawls, "Justice as Fairness," Philosophical Review 67 (April 1958): 164-194. See also Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), 3-53. For discussion of compensation regarding risks, see Hazards: Technology and Fairness , ed. R. W. Kates et al. (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1986), part 2.

13. K. S. Shrader-Frechette, Science Policy, Ethics, and Economic Methodology (Boston: Reidel, 1985), 221-222; hereafter cited as: Science Policy .

14. Morally relevant grounds for discrimination are grounds for saying that there are differences between cases, even when we apply the principle that similar cases ought to be treated similarly. We have come to believe that skin color, for example, is not a morally relevant basis, but that ability to do a certain job might be. For analysis of this question, see W. K. Frankena, "The Concept of Social Justice," in Social Justice , ed. Brandt, 10, 14. See Taylor, "Justice and the Common Good," in Concept of Equality , ed. Blackstone, 94-97; Rawls, A Theory of Justice , 586; and A. Sen, "Welfare Inequalities and Rawlsian Axiomatics," in Foundational Problems in the Special Sciences , ed. R. E. Butts and J. Hintikka (Boston: Reidel, 1977), vol. 2: 288.

15. See Shrader-Frechette, Science Policy , 220-221. See also L. Cox and P. Ricci, "Legal and Philosophical Aspects of Risk Analysis," in The Risk Assessment of Environmental and Human Health Hazards , ed. D. Paustenbach (New York: John Wiley, 1989), 1026-1027. See also K. Shrader-Frechette, Science Policy , 222ff.; Frankena, "Beliefs about Justice," 252-257. The position described here as "prima facie political egalitarianism" appears to be close to what Frankena defends as "procedural egalitarianism." For Frankena, procedural egalitarians are to be distinguished from substantive egalitarians, who believe that there is some factual respect in which all human beings are equal. Procedural egalitarians deny that there is some such factual respect.

16. NAS, HLRW, 16.

17. L. Lave and B. Leonard (in "Regulating Coke Oven Emissions," in The Risk Assessment of Environmental and Human Health Hazards , ed. D. Paustenbach, 1068-1069) make such an argument. See H. Bethe, "The Necessity of Fission Power," Scientific American 234, no. 1 (January 1976): 26ff., who also makes such an argument. For a brief defense of the thesis that we can define rationality in terms of efficiency, see A. C. Michalos, Foundations of Decisionmaking (Ottowa: Canadian Library of Philosophy, 1987), 135-142. K. Shrader-Frechette, Nuclear Power and Public Policy (Boston: Reidel, 1983), 29; J. Maddox, The Doomsday Syndrome (London: Macmillan, 1972), 213; P. Drucker, "Saving the Crusade," in Environmental Ethics , K. Shrader-Frechette (Pacific Grove, Calif.: Boxwood Press, 1991), 102, 103, 200; hereafter cited as: Environmental Ethics . M. M. Maxey, "Radwastes and Public Ethics," Health Physics 34, no. 2 (February 1978): 129-135, esp. 132. See also Cox and Ricci, "Legal and Philosophical aspects," 1038.

18. A. V. Kneese et al., "Economic Issues in the Legacy Problem," in Equity Issues in Radioactive Waste Management , ed. R. Kasperson (Cambridge, Mass.: Oelgeschlager, Gunn and Hain, 1983), 203-226, esp. 219. For other discussions of discounting, see D. Parfit, "Energy Policy and the Further Future: The Social Discount Rate," in Energy and the Future , ed. D. MacLean and P. Brown (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1983), 31-37.

19. K. Shrader-Frechette, Nuclear Power and Public Policy .

20. Frankena (in "Concept of Social Justice," in Social Justice , ed. Brandt, 15) uses this argument. He offers it as a sound (and apparently the only) basis for justifying inequalities and differences in treatment among persons.

21. See Markovic, "Equality and Local Autonomy," 85, 87-88; Patterson, "Inequality, Freedom, and the Equal Opportunity Doctrine," in Equality and Social Policy , ed. Feinberg, 33-34; H. Laski, "Liberty and Equality," in The Concept of Equality , ed. Blackstone, 170, 173; J. Rees, Equality (New York: Praeger, 1971), 61-79; and H. J. Gans, "The Costs of Inequality," in Small Comforts for Hard Times , ed. M. Mooney and F. Stuber (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977), 50-51.

22. For a discussion of distributive risk assessment, see D. MacLean, "Social Values and the Distribution of Risk," in Values at Risk , ed. MacLean. These Census Bureau statistics are cited by A. Larkin, "The Ethical Problem of Economic Growth vs. Environmental Degradation," in Environmental Ethics , Shrader-Frechette, 212. See also D. C. North and R. L. Miller, The Economics of Public Issues (New York: Harper and Row, 1971), 151, who substantiate this same point. Similar statistics for England are cited by Rees, Equality , 30-32. See Patterson, "Inequality," 36.

23. See Shrader-Frechette, Science Policy , chap. 7, sec. 3.2; note 22 above; Patterson, "Inequality," 21-30; B. Williams, "The Idea of Equality," in Concept of Equality , ed. Blackstone, 49-53; and J. H. Scharr, "Equality of Opportunity and Beyond," in Equality , Nomos 9, Yearbook of the American Society for Political and Legal Philosophy, ed. J. R. Pennock and J. W. Chapman (New York: Lieber-Atherton, 1968), 231-240. See also J. R. Pennock, Democratic Political Theory (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1979), 36-37; and J. P. Plamenatz, "Equality of Opportunity," in Concept of Equality , ed. Blackstone.

24. See A. Gibbard, "Risk and Value," in Values at Risk , ed. D. MacLean (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Allenheld, 1986), 97-99. See also E. J. Mishan, 21 Popular Economic Fallacies (New York: Praeger, 1969), 236; Shrader-Frechette, Nuclear Power and Public Policy , 123ff.

25. See Mishan, Economic Fallacies , 232-233, 245ff.; Rees, Equality , 36. See also Plamenatz, "Equality of Opportunity," and Larkin, "The Ethical Problem of Economic Growth."

26. R. B. Stewart, "Pyramids of Sacrifice? Problems of Federalism in Mandating State Implementation of Natural Environmental Policy," in Land Use and Environmental Law Review, 1978 , ed. F. A. Strom (New York: Clark Boardman, 1978), 172. Numerous detailed economic analyses support this point. See, for example, A. M. Freeman, "Distribution of Environmental Quality," in Environmental Quality Analyses , ed. A. V. Kneese and B. T. Bower (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972), 271-275. See also A. V. Kneese and C. L. Schultze, Pollution, Prices, and Public Policy (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1975), 28.

27. See V. Brodine, "A Special Burden," Environment 13, no. 2 (March 1971): 24. See D. N. Dane, "Bad Air for Children," Environment 18, no. 9 (November 1976): 26-34. See also A. M. Freeman, "Income Distribution and Environmental Quality," in Pollution, Resources, and the Environment , ed. A. C. Enthoven and A. M. Freeman (New York: Norton, 1973), 101. Enthoven and Freeman make the same point, regarding air pollution, that Kneese and Haveman make (A. V. Kneese, "Economics and the Quality of the Environment," in Enthoven and Freeman, Pollution , 74-79; A. M. Freeman, R. H. Haveman, and A. V. Kneese, The Economics of Environmental Policy [New York: Wiley, 1973], 143). See also Asch and J. J. Seneca, "Some Evidence on the Distribution of Air Quality," Land Economics 54, no. 3 (August 1978): 278-297; and D. D. Ramsey, "A Note on Air Pollution, Property Values, and Fiscal Variables," Land Economics 52, no. 2 (May 1976): 230-234. See Gibbard, "Risk and Value," 96. See also S. Samuels, "Arrogance of Intellectual Power" in Phenotypic Variation in Populations , ed. A. Woodhead et al. (New York: Plenum, 1988); and, for example, J. Stein, "Water for the Wealthy," Environment 19, no. 4 (May 1977): 6-14. The point is documented well by Freeman (in "Distribution of Environmental Quality," 275), who argues that pollution is not "the great leveler," since the wealthy have "the means to protect themselves" from environmental insults. Even the issue of who benefits most from pollution controls is complex (see Freeman, "Distribution of Environmental Quality," 271-273; "Income Distribution," 101-104; Economics of Environmental Policy , 144-145; and Kneese, "Economics and Quality of Environment," 78-80). Freeman, Haveman, Kneese, and other economists conclude: "on balance, . . . the improvement would be pro poor" (Freeman, Economics of Environmental Policy , 143-144). In any case, there are several means whereby the costs of pollution control can be shifted from the poor and middle class to members of higher-income groups (see Freeman, "Income Distribution," 104-105, and Economics of Environmental Policy , 145-148).

28. Public Law No. 100-203, 101 stat. 1330-227. See also M. E. Rosen, "Nevada v. Watkins: Who Gets the Shaft?" Virginia Environmental Law Journal 10 (1991): 241-242, 250.

29. D. Parfit, "Energy Policy and the Further Future: The Identity Problem," in Energy and the Future , ed. D. MacLean and P. Brown (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1983), 166-179.

30. For discussion of some of the arguments against our duty to members of future generations, see B. Barry, Liberty and Justice (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), 242ff. See also E. Partridge, "Introduction," in Responsibilities to Future Generations , ed. E. Partridge (Buffalo: Prometheus Books, 1981), 7.

31. See Partridge, "Introduction," 8ff. for discussion of some of these arguments.

32. D. MacLean, "A Moral Requirement of Energy Policies," in Energy and the Future , ed. MacLean and Brown, 180-197.

33. See, for example, J. Feinberg, "The Rights of Animals and Unborn Generations," in Social Ethics , ed. T. A. Mappes and J. S. Zembaty (New York, McGraw-Hill, 1977), 358-359.

34. J. Rawls, A Theory of Justice , secs. 44-45, pp. 284-298.

35. See, for example, Barry, Liberty and Justice , 269. See also D. MacLean, "A Problem of Morality Between Generations," in Equity Issues in Radioactive Waste Management , ed. Kasperson, 175-188.

36. See Daniel Callahan, "What Obligations Do We Have to Future Generations?" The American Ecclesiastical Review 164, no. 4 (April 1971): 265-280.

37. Feinberg, "The Rights of Animals and Unborn Generations," 358.

38. For other arguments for our duties to members of future generations, see E. B. Weiss, In Fairness to Future Generations (Tokyo, Japan: United Nations University, 1989), and K. S. Shrader-Frechette, Environmental Ethics .

39. D. MacLean, "Introduction," in Energy and the Future , ed. MacLean and Brown, 9.

40. See, for example, notes 27-36.

41. Barry, Liberty and Justice , 259ff.

42. See the previous note; see also T. Page, "Intergenerational Justice as Opportunity," in Energy for the Future , ed. MacLean and Brown, 38ff. and T. Cochran, "Conflicting Views on a Neutrality Criterion for Radioactive Waste Management," in Energy for the Future , ed. MacLean and Brown, 110.

43. W. Williams, Population Risks from Uranium Ore Bodies , EPA 520/3-80-009 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. EPA, 1980), 1-23.

44. Regarding the importance of the consent of the governed, see, for example, J. Locke, Second Treatise of Government , ed. C. B. Macpherson (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1980), esp. chap. VIII, chap. XIII, and A. Gewirth, Human Rights (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), 282.

45. Quoted in A. K. Bates, "The Karma of Kerma: Nuclear Wastes and Natural Rights," Environmental Law and Litigation 3 (1988): 27.

46. See the preceding note.

47. Quoted in Bates, "The Karma of Kerma," 28.

48. Quoted in Bates, "The Karma of Kerma," 33.

49. The term, "second-party consent," is from T. L. Beauchamp and J. F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 75, who define it as "consent on behalf of a person given by another." Second-party consent is accomplished by proxy decisionmakers who typically make decisions for another person on the basis of beneficence and nonmaleficence toward the person on whose behalf they speak. For discussion of the ethical criteria for proxy decisionmaking, see Beauchamp and Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics , 177ff.

50. For one person who uses this argument, see D. Bodde, "Radioactive Wastes: Pragmatic Strategies and Ethical Perspectives," in Energy and the Future , ed. MacLean and Brown, esp. 121.

51. Rawls, A Theory of Justice , 355.

52. Rawls, A Theory of Justice , 356ff.

53. See T. Cochran, "A Criterion for Radioactive Waste Management," in Energy and the Future , ed. MacLean and Brown, 114, 116.

54. See Cochran, "A Criterion," 116.

55. C. Montange, "Federal Nuclear Waste Disposal Policy," Natural Resources Journal 27 (Spring 1987): 408.

56. According to B. Carpenter, "A Nuclear Graveyard," U.S. News and World Report 110, no. 10 (18 March 1991): 74, a full 80 percent of Nevadans oppose the Yucca Mountain facility. See notes 1 and 2 in chapter 2. For further confirmation of the 80-percent figure, see R. H. Bryan, Governor of Nevada, "Statement," in Nuclear Waste Program , Hearings before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate, 100th Congress, 29 April and 7 May 1987 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1987), 41. For another confirmation of the 80-percent figure, see P. Slovic, J. Flynn, and M. Layman, "Perceived Risk, Trust, and the Politics of Nuclear Waste," Science 254 (13 December 1991): 1604.

57. Rawls, A Theory of Justice , 355.

58. One of the best accounts of technological risk and consent is given by D. MacLean, "Risk and Consent," in Values at Risk , ed. D. MacLean, 17-30. See also R. L. Goldsteen and J. K. Schorr, Demanding Democracy After Three Mile Island (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1991), 218ff.

59. One of the best accounts of consent in medical ethics, and the account followed here, is that of Beauchamp and Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics , 74ff. See also M. Curry and L. May, Professional Responsibility for Harmful Actions (Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt, 1984), and R. Faden and T. Beauchamp, A History and Theory of Informed Consent (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986).

60. See Beauchamp and Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics , 74ff.

61. Beauchamp and Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics , 85-99. See also, for example, C. Keown, P. Slovic, and S. Lichtenstein, "Attitudes of Physicians, Pharmacists, and Laypersons Toward Seriousness and Need for Disclosure of Prescription Drug Side Effects," Health Psychology 3 (1984): 1-11.

62. Beauchamp and Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics , 99-106, esp. 101.

63. Beauchamp and Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics , 111; see 106-111. See also Bernard Gert, "Coercion and Freedom," in Coercion: Nomos XIV , ed. J. R. Pennock and J. W. Chapman (New York: Aldine, 1972), 36-37, and H. Beecher, Research and the Individual (Boston: Little, Brown, 1970).

64. See Beauchamp and Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics , 78ff., 79-85.

65. Montange, "Federal Nuclear Waste Disposal Policy," 398-399.

66. F. L. Parker et al., Board on Radioactive Waste Management, Rethinking High-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1990), 17.

67. See A. Blowers, D. Lowry, and B. Solomon, The International Politics of Nuclear Waste (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1991), 216.

68. D. Olinger, St. Petersburg Times , 1 December 1991, p. D1. See also A. Keesler, "Testimony," in C. Fairhurst, Board on Radioactive Waste Management, National Research Council, The Federal Program for the Disposal of Spent Nuclear Fuel and High-Level Radioactive Waste , Hearing before the Subcommittee on Nuclear Regulation of the Committee on Environment and Public Works, U.S. Senate, 101 Congress (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government printing Office, 1990), 1-2, and K. Schneider, "Nuclear Industry Plans Ads to Counter Critics," New York Times (13 November 1991).

69. Olinger, St. Petersburg Times , 1 December 1991, p. D1.

70. According to B. Carpenter, "A Nuclear Graveyard," U.S. News and World Report 110, no. 10 (18 March 1991): 74, a full 80 percent of Nevadans oppose the Yucca Mountain facility. See note 56 for other sources of the 80-percent figure.

71. 42 USC, section 10173a (1987); see M. E. Rosen, "Nevada v. Watkins: Who Gets the Shaft?" Virginia Environmental Law Journal 10 (Spring 1991): 239-309, esp. 250.

72. For discussion of the compensating wage differential and problems with it, see chapter 6 of this volume and Shrader-Frechette, Risk , 72ff., 153ff.

73. B. Carpenter, "A Nuclear Graveyard," 74. See note 56 for the sources of the 80-percent figure.

74. C. H. Montange, "Federal Nuclear Waste Disposal Policy," Natural Resources Journal 27 (Spring 1987): 309-408, esp. 408.

75. B. Rusche, "Statement," in U.S. Congress, Mission Plan for the Civilian Radioactive Waste Management Program . Hearing before the Subcommittee on Energy Research and Development of the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate, 99th Congress, First Session on the Department on Energy's Mission Plan for the Civilian Radioactive Waste Management Program, 12 September 1985 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1986), 484-485, 655.

76. M. Koryakin, "State of the Soviet Nuclear Industry," WISE (World Information Service on Energy) News Communique 332 (18 May 1990): 2 (P.O. Box 5627, NL-1007 AP Amsterdam, The Netherlands).

77. Beauchamp and Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics , 87ff.

78. Beauchamp and Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics , 88.

79. Carpenter, "A Nuclear Graveyard," 74.

80. See Beauchamp and Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics , 95.

81. Beauchamp and Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics , 95; see also J. F. Childress, Who Should Decide? Paternalism in Health Care (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), chapter 4, for discussion of several kinds of consent.

82. Beauchamp and Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics , 98.

83. Beauchamp and Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics , 97.

84. See chapters 4 through 7 in this volume; see also Kneese et al., "Economic Issues in the Legacy Problem," in Equity Issues in Radioactive Waste Management , ed. Kasperson, 201-206.

85. Weiss, In Fairness to Future Generations , 28-34.

86. 42 USC 4331(b).

87. National Environmental Policy Act, cited in EPA, "Criteria for Radioactive Wastes," Federal Register 43 (November 1978), 53262-67.

88. T. Cochran, "A Criterion for Radioactive Waste Management," in Energy and the Future , ed. MacLean and Brown, 115-116 and EPA, "Criteria for Radioactive Wastes," 53262.

89. Montange, "Federal Nuclear Waste Disposal Policy," 381-382.

90. 50 Fed. Reg. 38,086-38,087, promulgating 40 C.F.R., section 191.15-191.16. See C. Montange, "Federal Nuclear Waste Disposal Policy," 382.

91. 42 U.S.C., section 300ff.

92. See Montange, "Federal Nuclear Waste Disposal Policy," 383ff.

93. 40 C.F.R. section 144.12; Montange, "Federal Nuclear Waste Disposal Policy," 358, 387.

94. Montange, "Federal Nuclear Waste Disposal Policy," 383-389.

95. H. Green, "Legal Aspects of Intergenerational Equity," in Equity Issues in Radioactive Waste Management , ed. Kasperson, 193.

96. Green, "Legal Aspects of Intergenerational Equity," 194.

97. Green, "Legal Aspects of Intergenerational Equity," 195-196.

98. J. Sax, "The Public Trust Doctrine in Natural Resource Law: Effective Judicial Intervention," Michigan Law Review 68 (1970): 473-566, and Michigan Law Review, Note , "Proprietary Duties of the Federal Government under the Public Land Trust," Michigan Law Review 75 (1977): 586-626. See also Green, "Legal Aspects of Intergenerational Equity," 199ff.

99. 10 C.F.R., sections 60.113(a)(1) and 60.113(a)(2). See also Montange, "Federal Nuclear Waste Disposal Policy," 381.

100. Carpenter, "A Nuclear Graveyard," 74.

101. R. Monastersky, "First Nuclear Waste Dump Finally Ready," Science News 140 (12 October 1991): 228.

102. J. Lemons, D. Brown, and G. Varner, "Congress, Consistency, and Environmental Law: Nuclear Waste at Yucca Mountain, Nevada," Environmental Ethics 12 (Winter 1990): 311-327.

103. Kneese et al., "Economic Issues in the Legacy Problem," 217.

1. N. Lenssen, Nuclear Waste (Washington, D.C.: Worldwatch, 1991), 35.

2. A. Weinberg, "Statement," in U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program , Hearings before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate, First Session, Part 2, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1987), 2-3; hereafter cited as: Weinberg, "Statement" and NWP-2.

3. See chapter 2, especially text and notes 1-9. See also C. Flavin, Nuclear Power: The Market Test (Washington, D.C.: Worldwatch Institute, December 1983).

4. Although the feasibility of a variety of "soft" technologies needs to be substituted on a case by case basis, it is possible to outline some of the argu- soft

ments for feasibility. See, for example, C. Flavin and S. Postel, "Developing Renewable Energy," in State of the World 1984 , ed. L. R. Brown et al. (New York: Norton, 1984), 137ff.; C. Flavin, "Reforming the Electric Power Industry," in State of the World 1986 , ed. L. R. Brown et al. (New York: Norton, 1986), 105-116; C. Flavin and C. Polluck, "Harnessing Renewable Energy," in State of the World 1985 , ed. L. R. Brown et al. (New York: Norton, 1985), 180ff.; L. R. Brown, "The Coming Solar Age," in Environment , ed. J. Allen (Guilford, Conn.: Dushkin, 1985), 61ff.; W. U. Chandler, "Increasing Energy Efficiency," in Brown, State of the World 1985 , 151-164. See Energy Future , ed. R. Stobaugh and D. Yergin (New York: Random House, 1979); and C. Flavin, "Reassessing the Economics of Nuclear Power," in State of the World 1984 , ed. Brown, esp. 118-132. See also C. Flavin, "Building a Bridge to Sustainable Energy," in State of the World 1992 , ed. L. R. Brown et al. (New York: Norton, 1992), 27-45.

5. According to L. S. Johns and associates of the OTA Solar Energy Staff (in Application of Solar Technology to Today's Energy Needs , 2 vols. [Washington, D.C.: U.S. Office of Technology Assessment, 1978], vol. 1: 3), "Onsite solar devices could be made competitive in markets representing over 40 percent of U.S. energy demand by the mid-1980's." The OTA staff goes on to say that low-temperature solar uses, which comprise 40 percent of total U.S. energy needs, are currently competitive economically with existing alternatives (pp. 13-14), even in cities such as Boston, Alburquerque, and Omaha, where heating needs are often significant (pp. 31ff.). See also the previous note.

6. H. Kendall, "Calling Nuclear Power to Account," Calypso Log 18, no. 5 (October 1991): 8.

7. A. Bates, "The Karma of Kerma: Nuclear Wastes and Natural Rights," Environmental Law and Litigation 3 (1988): 39-40. Senator J. Sasser, "Testimony," in U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Policy Act , Hearing before the Subcommittee on Energy and the Environment of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, House of Representatives, 100th Congress, First Session (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1988), 395 (hereafter cited as: U.S. Congress, NWPA) says that there will be between 86,200 and 130,300 MTUs needing to be stored by the year 2020. He also says that the U.S. DOE estimate of 130,300 is more than 50 percent higher than those of other experts.

8. Weinberg, "Statement," 2-5; see also N. Lenssen, Nuclear Waste , 27-28.

9. Weinberg, "Statement," 5 D. Vieth, "Statement," in U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program , Hearing before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate, 100th Congress, First Session, 29 June 1987, Part 4 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1987), 130. See also A. Weinberg, "Statement," Civilian Radioactive Waste Disposal , Hearing before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate, 100th Congress, First Session, 16-17 July 1987 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1987), 202ff.; see also 276ff., 335ff., 387ff.; hereafter cited as: U.S. Congress, CRWD.

10. As we mentioned in chapter 6, scientists have learned that, contrary to previous scientific opinion, radioactive wastes may escape from glass via a new route. They discovered a previously unknown mechanism for directly generating colloids, particles too tiny to settle out of water. By releasing only one drop of water per week over an inch-long, half-inch diameter, glassy cylinder--containing neptunium, americium, and plutonium--scientists showed that exposure to slow dripping of water can change the largely nonreactive borosilicate glass into a form that facilitates the flaking of mineralized shards containing radionuclides. Hence, any claims about the suitability or unsuitability of vitrification for controlling radwastes depend on whether we have gained closure on the problems associated with vitrification. See J. Bates, J. Bradley, A. Teetsov, C. Bradley, M. Buchholtz ten Brink, "Colloid Formation During Waste Form Reaction: Implications for Nuclear Waste Disposal," Science 256 (1 May 1992): 649-651.

11. I. S. Roxburgh, Geology of High-Level Nuclear Waste Disposal (London: Chapman and Hall, 1987), 183.

12. Bates, "The Karma of Kerma," 38.

13. For some persons who favor this option, see, for example, L. Carter, Nuclear Imperatives and Public Trust (Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future, 1987), 397, who argues for this option as a compromise solution between disposal and recycling. See also Weinberg, "Statement," 1-11, who argues for temporary storage for one hundred years, prior to permanent disposal. For more information on monitored retrievable storage, see Boeing Engineering and Construction Company, Monitored Retrievable Storage Conceptual System Study: Cask-in-Trench , BEC-MRS-3303 (1 November 1983); GA Technologies, Inc., Monitored Retrievable Storage Conceptual System Study: Closed-Cycle Vault , GA-A-17322 (1 February 1984); Boeing Engineering and Construction Company, Monitored Retrievable Storage Conceptual System Study: Concrete Storage Casks , BEC/MRS-3302 (1 November 1983); Raymond Kaiser Engineers, Inc., Monitored Retrievable Storage Conceptual System Study: Dry Receiving and Handling Facility , KEH/R-83-96 (1 January 1984); Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Monitored Retrievable Storage Conceptual System Study: Metal Storage Leaks , WYSD-TME010 (1 August 1983); Boeing Engineering and Construction Company, Monitored Retrievable Storage Conceptual System Study: Open Cycle Vault , BEC/MRS-3304 (1 November 1983); Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Monitored Retrievable Storage Conceptual System Study: Transportable Storage Casks , WTSD-TME-013 (1 August 1983); Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Monitored Retrievable Storage Conceptual System Study: Tunnel Drywells , WTDS-TME-012 (1 August 1983); GA Technologies, Inc., Monitored Retrievable Storage Conceptual System Study: Tunnel-Rack , GA-A-17323 (1 February 1984); Office of the Secretary, U.S. DOE, Monitored Retrievable Storage Proposal Research and Development Report , DOE/S-0021 (1 June 1983). See also U.S. DOE, Monitored Retrievable Storage Submission to Congress , 3 vols. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. DOE, 1987).

14. Many of these suggestions are closely related to some of those suggested by R. Kasperson, P. Derr, and R. Kates, "Confronting Equity in Radioactive Waste Management: Modest Proposals for a Socially Just and Acceptable Program," in Equity Issues in Radioactive Waste Management , ed. R. Kasperson (Cambridge, Mass.: Oelgeschlager, Gunn, and Hain, 1983), 168-331.

15. For discussion of the laws and policy relevant to NMRS facilities for radwaste, see C. H. Montange, "Federal Nuclear Waste Disposal Policy," Natural Resources Journal 27 (Spring 1987): 401ff.

16. Weinberg, "Statement," 24.

17. See K. B. Krauskopf, Radioactive Waste Disposal and Geology (London: Chapman and Hall, 1988), 23ff., 52ff., for this argument.

18. A. Radin, D. Klein, and F. Parker, Monitored Retrievable Storage Review Commission, Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1989), 4.

19. For discussion of the Tennessee proposals and the events surrounding them, see Montange, "Federal Nuclear Waste Disposal Policy," 403ff.

20. Radin et al., Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , 4.

21. Kasperson et al., "Confronting Equity in Radioactive Waste," 346.

22. H. Kendall, "Calling Nuclear Power to Account," Calypso Log 18, no. 5 (October 1991): 9; see also, for example, J. Tomain, "Nuclear Catacomb," Jurimeterics Journal 29, no. 1 (Fall 1988): 103.

23. J. B. Johnston, U.S. Senator, "Statement," in U.S. Congress, NWP-2.

24. C. R. Malone, "High-Level Nuclear Waste Disposal," Growth and Change 22, no. 2 (Spring 1991); 72. See also, for example, D. J. Fiorino, "Environmental Risk and Democratic Process," Columbia Journal of Environmental Law 14, no. 2 (1989): 501-547; D. J. Fiorino, "Citizen Participation and Environmental Risk," Science, Technology, and Human Values 15, no. 2 (1990): 226-243; B. D. Solomon and D. M. Cameron, "Nuclear Waste Repository Siting," Energy Policy 13 (1985): 564-580; A. Kirby and G. Jacob, "The Politics of Transportation and Disposal," U.S. Policy and Politics 14, no. 1 (1986): 27-42; D. Bella, C. Mosher, and S. Calvo, "Technocracy and Trust," Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering 114, no. 1 (1988): 27-39; M. Kraft, "Evaluating Technology Through Public Participation," in Technology and Politics , ed. M. Kraft and N. Vig (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988), 252-277.

25. See K. Shrader-Frechette, Risk , chaps. 11-12; K. Shrader-Frechette, Science Policy, Ethics, and Economic Methodology (Boston: Reidel, 1985), chaps. 8-9; hereafter cited as: Science Policy. M. Heiman, "From 'Not in My Backyard' to 'Not in Anybody's Backyard'," Journal of the American Planning Association 56 (1990): 359-362; P. Rennick and R. Greyell, "Opting for Cooperation," Waste Management 90 (1990): 307-314; Malone, "High-Level Nuclear Waste Disposal," 72.

26. F. L. Parker et al., Board on Radioactive Waste Management, Rethinking High-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1990), 99; hereafter cited as: U.S. NAS, HLRW.

27. H. Inhaber, "Hands Up for Toxic Waste," Nature 347 (1990): 611-612. H. Inhaber, "Can an Economic Approach Solve the High-Level Nuclear Waste Problem?" Risk: Issues in Health and Safety 2, no. 4 (Fall 1991): 341-356.

28. See K. Shrader-Frechette, Risk , esp. chap. 10.

29. Malone, "High-Level Nuclear Waste Disposal," 72.

30. Regarding adversary assessment and negotiation, see Shrader-Frechette, Risk and Rationality , chaps. 11-12; Shrader-Frechette, Science Policy , chaps. 8-9.

31. Parker et al., U.S. NAS, HLRW, 29.

32. Parker et al., U.S. NAS, HLRW, 11.

33. See, for example, U.S. Congress, Waste Isolation Pilot Plant Land Withdrawal , Hearings before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate, 101st Congress, Second Session (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1990), especially M. Mercola, Concerned Citizens for Nuclear Safety, "Testimony," 289-296. See also Kasperson et al., "Confronting Equity in Radioactive Waste," 351; see also A. Blowers, D. Lowry, and B. Solomon, The International Politics of Nuclear Waste (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1991), 219-224. See also R. Monastersky, "Nuclear Waste Plans Blocked," Science News 141, no. 7 (15 February 1992): 101.

34. Kasperson et al., "Confronting Equity in Radioactive Waste," 349.

35. Kasperson et al., Social and Economic Aspects of Radioactive Waste Disposal (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1984), 62.

36. See Radin et al., Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , 81, I-1. For more information on the amount of waste needing to be stored, see note 7.

37. See, for example, Krauskopf, Radioactive Waste Disposal and Geology, 128.

38. R. Loux, "Statement," in U.S. Congress, High-Level Nuclear Waste Issues , 100th Congress, First Session (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1987), 319; hereafter cited as: U.S. Congress, HLNWI. See also Carter, Nuclear Imperatives and Public Trust 175-176.

39. H. R. Bryan, Governor of Nevada, "Statement," in U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Program , Hearings before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate, 100th Congress, First Session, part 3 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1987), 88ff.; hereafter cited as: U.S. Congress, NWP-3.

40. T. A. Duncan et al., Morgan County MRS Study Group, "Feasibility and Desirability of Monitored Retrievable Storage System Locating in Morgan County, Tennessee," in U.S. Congress, NWP-3, 540-558. Information on the Yakima Indian Nation proposal was obtained from Dr. G. Rosa, Washington State University, Pullman, Wash., personal communication, 15 April 1992.

41. Duncan et al., "Feasibility and Desirability," 547-550.

42. See note 28.

43. See, for example, Krauskopf, Radioactive Waste Disposal and Geology , 132.

44. This suggestion comes from Kasperson et al., "Confronting Equity in Radioactive Waste," 366.

45. Kasperson et al., "Confronting Equity in Radioactive Waste," 363, 368.

46. See for example, U.S. DOE, Nuclear Waste Policy Act, Environmental Assessment, Yucca Mountain Site, Nevada Research and Development Area, Nevada , DOE/RW-0073, vol. 3 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. DOE, 1986), C.2-8.

47. For discussion of needed improvements in this area, see C. Cranor, Regulating Toxics . . . . (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), and Shrader-Frechette, Risk, chaps. 11-12.

48. Cited in Kasperson et al., "Confronting Equity in Radioactive Waste," 348.

49. W. Freudenburg and T. Jones, "Attitudes and Stress in the Presence of Technological Risk: A Test of the Supreme Court Hypothesis," Social Forces 69, no. 4 (June 1991): 1143-1168.

50. See Radin et al., Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , 77.

51. See for example, J. W. Chapman (ed.), Compensatory Justice: NOMOS XXXIII (New York: New York University Press, 1991).

52. See Radin et al., Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , 77ff.

53. See, for example, Shrader-Frechette, Risk , chaps. 11-12. For discussion of compensation and incentive schemes regarding high-level radwaste, see U.S. Congress, NWP-2.

54. See Kasperson et al., "Confronting Equity in Radioactive Waste," 352-354.

55. Kasperson et al., "Confronting Equity in Radioactive Waste," 349.

56. Kasperson et al., "Confronting Equity in Radioactive Waste," 349.

57. For discussion of these issues, see the two previous chapters and also U.S. NAS, HLRW, 16ff.

58. Kasperson et al., "Confronting Equity in Radioactive Waste," 362, make a similar suggestion.

59. See Radin et al., Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , xv, 11.

60. See Radin et al., Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , 79-81.

61. Radin et al., Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , xvi.

62. See Radin et al., Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , I-2. See also K. Shrader-Frechette, Nuclear Power and Public Policy (Boston: Reidel, 1983).

63. Radin et al., Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , 37.

64. Radin et al., Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , xvi, 11.

65. Parker et al., U.S. NAS, HLRW, v.

66. For discussion of subseabed disposal, see R. Kaplan, "Into the Abyss," University of Pennsylvania Law Review 139, no. 3 (January 1991): 769-800; A. G. Milnes, Geology and Radwaste (New York: Academic, 1985), 284ff.; U.S. Congress, CRWD, 259ff., 309ff.; J. Kelly, Seabed Corp., "Statement," in U.S. Congress, Nuclear Waste Policy Act , Hearing before the Subcom- soft

mittee on Energy and the Environment, of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, House of Representatives, 100th Congress, First Session (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1988), 118ff., 383ff.; hereafter cited as: U.S. Congress, NWPA.

67. See Lenssen, Nuclear Waste , 7, 21, 43ff.; Radin et al., Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , 10; M. Yates, "DOE Reassesses Civilian Radioactive Waste Management Program," Public Utilities Fortnightly (15 February 1990): 36-38. M. Yates, "Council Report Finds High-Level Nuclear Waste Repository Rules 'Unrealistic,'" Public Utilities Fortnightly (16 August 1990): 40-41. R. R. Loux, "Will the Nation's Nuclear Waste Policy Succeed at Yucca Mountain?" Public Utilities Fortnightly (22 November 1990): 27-28. See also R. E. Dunlap, M. E. Kraft, and E. A. Rosa (eds.), The Public and Nuclear Waste: Citizen's Views of Repository Siting (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993); hereafter cited as: Dunlap, Kraft, and Rosa, PNW.

68. Parker et al., U.S. NAS, HLRW, 31.

69. Radin et al. Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , xvii, 1.

70. See Radin et al., Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , 13.

71. Radin et al., Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , xvii.

72. Parker et al., Rethinking , 29.

73. D. Gibson, "Can Alchemy Solve the Nuclear Waste problem?" The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 47 (July/August 1991): 12-17; G. Lawrence, "High-Power Proton Linac for Transmuting the Long-Lived Fission Products in Nuclear Waste," LA-UR-91-1335 (Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Laboratory, 1991); T. Pigford, "Waste Transmutation and Public Acceptance," unpublished paper, University of California, Berkeley, Department of Nuclear Energy, 1991.

74. R. Kasperson et al., Social and Economic Aspects of Radioactive Waste Disposal (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1984), 2.

75. Radin et al., Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , xvii.

76. Parker et al., U.S. NAS, HLRW, 4.

77. A similar argument is made by Blowers et al., The International Politics of Nuclear Waste , 318.

78. Radin et al., Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , xvii, 11.

79. See Radin et al., Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , 13.

80. Parker et al., U.S. NAS, HLRW, 4, 27.

81. See Radin et al., Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , 11-12.

82. See B. B. Yeager, Sierra Club, "Regarding the Department of Energy's Proposal for Monitored Retrievable Storage (MRS) and the Role of MRS in the Federal High-Level Nuclear Waste Program," in U.S. Congress, NWP-2, 302-312. For variants of this argument, see Carter, Nuclear Imperatives and Public Trust , chap. 3; Krauskopf, Radioactive Waste Disposal and Geology , 21ff.; Kasperson et al., "Confronting Equity in Radioactive Waste," 361, argue that permanent disposal, after long (110 years) temporary storage is safer than indefinite short-term storage at the surface.

83. See Radin et al., Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , 11-12.

84. D. Deere, "Statement," U.S. Congress, The Federal Program for the Disposal of Spent Nuclear Fuel and High-Level Radioactive Waste , Hearing before the Subcommittee on Nuclear Regulation of the Committee on Environment and Public Works, U.S. Senate, 101st Congress, Second Session (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing office, 1990), 19.

85. Kasperson et al., "Confronting Equity in Radioactive Waste," 362.

86. Radin et al., Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , 37.

87. Quoted in Montange, "Federal Nuclear Waste Disposal Policy," 401-402.

88. Radin et al., Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , xv, xvii, 10, D-5.

89. T. A. Duncan and F. E. Freytag, Morgan County (Tenn.) MRS Study Group, "Statement," in U.S. Congress, NWP-2, 543ff.

90. See Radin et al., Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , 30-31.

91. See Radin et al., Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , 37.

92. See Radin et al., Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , 52.

93. See, for example, Krauskopf, Radioactive Waste Disposal and Geology , 78-79.

94. C. Fairhurst, National Research Council, "Statement," in U.S. Congress, The Federal Program for the Disposal of Spent Nuclear Fuel and High-Level Radioactive Waste , Hearing before the Subcommittee on Nuclear Regulation of the Committee on Environment and Public Works, U.S. Senate, 101st Congress, Second Session (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing office, 1990), 35.

95. For variants of this argument, for example, see Carter, Nuclear Imperatives and Public Trust , chap. 3.

96. See Roxburgh, Geology of High-Level Nuclear Waste Disposal .

97. For the higher figure, see B. Rusche, DOE, "Statement," in U.S. Congress, NWP-3, 167. For the lower figure, see Radin et al., Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , I-1.

98. Johnston, "Statement," 147.

99. For the $51,077 billion figure, see C. Anderson, "Why Evaluate the IWM Process?" in U.S. Congress, NWP-3, 577. See Radin et al., Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , 63, who estimate the total lifecycle costs for a permanent repository at $40 billion.

100. Rusche, "Statement," 192.

101. R. G. Rabben, DOE, "Answer," in U.S. Congress, NWP-3, 373.

102. See Radin et al., Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , xv, 11. It is important to point out that this conclusion is based on a single NMRS facility, rather than on multiple, regional NMRS sites.

103. Edison Electric Institute, American Nuclear Energy Council, Utility Nuclear Waste Management Group, Electric Utility Companies' Nuclear Transportation Group, Atomic Industrial Forum, "Statement," in U.S. Congress, NWP-3, 629.

104. See D. Parfit, "The Further Future: The Social Discount Rate," in Energy and the Future , ed. D. MacLean and P. Brown (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1983), 31-37.

105. See K. S. Shrader-Frechette, Environmental Ethics (Pacific Grove, Calif.: Boxwood, 1991), esp. chap. 3.

106. A similar argument is made by Blowers et al., The International Politics of Nuclear Waste , 318.

107. A similar argument is made by Blowers et al., The International Politics of Nuclear Waste , 319.

108. See Yeager (Sierra Club spokesperson), "Regarding the Department of Energy's Proposal," 302-312. Others who make this same argument include, for example, Krauskopf, Radioactive Waste Disposal and Geology , 23ff.

109. See Radin et al., Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , 4, 93, 95. See also R. F. Pruett, Mayor, Oak Ridge, Tenn., "Statement," in U.S. Congress, NWP-2, 224-225; and B. B. Yeager, "Statement," in U.S. Congress, HLNWI, 773.

110. See Radin et al., Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , 11, 92.

111. See Lenssen, Nuclear Waste , 7, 43-44; and R. Watson, "Waste, Waste, Nuclear Waste" (St. Louis: Washington University, February 1990), 13, unpublished manuscript. See also Dunlap, Kraft, and Rosa, PNW; Radin et al., Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , D-7.

112. Carter, Nuclear Imperatives and Public Trust , 414-433.

113. This argument is similar to one advanced by R. Watson, "Goals for Nuclear Waste Management," NUREG-0412 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 1978); see also J. Lemons, D. Brown, and G. Varner, "Congress, Consistency, and Environmental Law: Nuclear Waste at Yucca Mountain, Nevada," Environmental Ethics 12 (Winter 1990): 324.

114. Duncan and Freytag, "Statement," in U.S. Congress, NWP-2, 541. See also note 7, this chapter, for information regarding the volume of waste needing to be stored.

115. Lenssen, Nuclear Power , 8, 47.

116. A. Lowry and M. Irwin, "Independent Ukraine to Shut Down Chernobyl Reactors," World Information Service on Energy (WISE) News Communique 359 (29 September 1991): 8.

117. See notes 6 and 18, chapter 2, for the casualties and costs associated with Chernobyl.

118. A. Lowry and M. Irwin, "UK Trade Unions Vote Nuclear Phase-Out," World Information Service on Energy (WISE) News Communique 359 (29 September 1991): 8.

119. A. Lowry, M. Irwin, and C. Mercy, "Yankee Rowe Shutdown Encourages U.S. Activists," World Information Service on Energy (WISE) News Communique 361 (8 November 1991): 5-6; and A. Lowry, M. Irwin, and C. Mercy, "Aging U.S. Reactors," World Information Service on Energy (WISE) News Communique 361 (8 November 1991): 6.

120. H. Kendall, "Calling Nuclear Power to Account," Calypso Log 18, no. 5 (October 1991): 8.

121. Dunlap, Kraft, and Rosa, PNW. See B. B. Yeager, "Statement," in U.S. Congress, NWPA, 273ff.; see also 307ff. Finally, see R. H. Bryan, Governor of Nevada, "Statement," in U.S. Congress, NWP-3, 44ff.

122. H. Reid, "Statement," in U.S. Congress, NWP-3, 31. See also U.S. Congress, HLNWI, 237ff.

123. F. Millar, "Statement," in U.S. Congress, NWP-3, 117.

124. B. Gardner, Governor of Washington, "Statement," in U.S. Congress, NWP-3, 185.

125. Radin et al., Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , 100.

126. See, for example, J. Rhodes, "Nuclear Power: Waste Disposal," Address to the 102nd Annual Convention of the National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners (Orlando, 1991), 27-28, 41; and M. Steinberg, "Transmutation of High-Level Nuclear Waste," Science (16 November 1990): 887-888. Finally see Dunlap, Kraft, and Rosa, PNW.

127. Radin et al., Nuclear Waste: Is There a Need for Federal Interim Storage? , D-17. For other accounts of the actions of nuclear nations regarding radioactive waste, see Lenssen, Nuclear Waste , 37-49.

128. Bates, "The Karma of Kerma," 38.

129. R. Rosa and W. Freudenburg, "The Historical Development of Public Reactions to Nuclear Power: Implications for Nuclear Waste Policy," in Dunlap, Kraft, and Rosa, PNW. See also R. L. Goldsteen and J. K. Schorr, Demanding Democracy After Three Mile Island (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1991), 117ff.