1. These comments stem from a recent rereading of Edward Said's Orientalism, particularly pp. 27-28. Said himself refers to Raymond Williams, Culture and Society,1780-1950, p. 376.

2. "Petition, Hardevram Haridas to Chief Secretary, Government of Bombay, 19th April, 1893," BA, GD, 1893, vol. 92, comp. 600, pt. 1, p. 199.

3. The notion of "culture in the making" is adopted from Richard G. Fox, Lions of the Punjab.

4. For instance, see the work of Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere. Because of the focus here on how the concept of the public was used in historical practice, my usage is also quite different from that of the journal Public Culture. Though I know its editors, Arjun Appadurai and

Carol Breckenridge, quite well, the approach and title of this work were developed independently before I was aware of their project.

1. The part epigraph is from Frantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks, p. 1-8.

2. Ranajit Guha, "On Some Aspects of the Historiography of Colonial India," pp. 1-8.

3. The most explicit treatment of Western education in India is Bruce McCully, English Education and the Origins of Indian Nationalism. However, rather than single out particular works, I think it more important to note the pervasiveness of this perspective in Euro-American thinking about the development of liberal democracy in India and elsewhere.

4. Much of this list is adapted from Lloyd I. Rudolph and Susanne Hoeber Rudolph, The Modernity of Tradition, p. 3.

5. For a few prominent examples of this approach, see C. E. Black, The Dynamics of Modernization; David Kopf, The Brahmo Samaj and the Shaping of the Modern Indian Mind, and British Orientalism and the Bengal Renaissance; Rudolph and Rudolph, The Modernity of Tradition. All these studies on India make interesting and important historical arguments, but the strongest do not depend on modernization theory.

6. For a critique of modernization theory, see Dean C. Tipps, "Modernization Theory and the Study of National Societies: A Critical Perspective."

7. The classic conceptions are found in Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, On Colonialism, esp. pp. 35-41, 45-53, 81-87; A. R. Desai, Social Background of Indian Nationalism; and B. B. Misra, The Indian Middle Classes.

8. This approach was not confined to Marxist scholars. S. N. Mukherjee, e.g., argues in his "Class, Caste and Politics in Calcutta, 1815-38," that "this interest in public affairs . . . sprang from a social transformation brought about by a number of factors, chiefly the economic changes in the eighteenth century. The society was being transformed from a status and relatively closed society . . . to a relatively open and competitive society where social relationships were largely shaped by class" (p. 35).

9. Some historians have suggested that commercial capitalism in India grew out of indigenous conditions and emerged before the advent of British rule; others have posited the continuity of precapitalist or precolonial social relations during the colonial period itself, even in the midst of economies geared largely to the production of goods for the market. For example, Frank Perlin, "Proto-Industrialization and Precolonial South Asia"; C. A. Bayly, Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars; and Rajat and Ratna Ray, "The Dynamics of Continuity in Rural Bengal under the British Imperium."

10. Bipan Chandra, The Rise and Growth of Economic Nationalism in India, p. 751.

11. See Partha Chatterjee, Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World, a work which clearly breaks out of the mold of all previous major studies of nationalist ideology. Chatterjee argues that the context of domination was critical to In-

dian thought and culture, though he does not attempt to establish a model of causation.

12. For work on the use of political symbols and values in western India see, e.g., Ghanshyam Shah, "Traditional Society and Political Mobilization"; Howard Spodek, "On the Origins of Gandhi's Political Methodology"; and Richard Cashman, The Myth of the Lokamanya. A pathbreaking work in the analysis of political interests in specific regions was Anil Seal, The Emergence of Indian Nationalism.

13. See, e.g., John Gallagher, Gordon Johnson, and Anil Seal, eds., Locality, Province and Nation; and C. A. Bayly, The Local Roots of Indian Politics.

14. This summary is drawn largely from Anil Seal, "Imperialism and Nationalism in India." Not all members of the Cambridge school, however, accepted all features of the model Seal suggested. The quote is from p. 6.

15. Seal, "Imperialism and Nationalism in India," pp. 3-14.

16. Bernard S. Cohn, "Anthropology and History in the 1980s: Toward a Rapprochement," and "Representing Authority in Victorian India"; Arjun Appadurai, Worship and Conflict under Colonial Rule; Nicholas B. Dirks, The Hollow Crown, and "From Little King to Landlord''; Lucy Caroll, "Colonial Perceptions of Indian Society and the Emergence of Caste(s) Associations"; Richard Fox, Lions of the Punjab; Sandria B. Freitag, Collective Action and Community, esp. chap. 2; and David Lelyveld, Aligarh's First Generation, pp. 9-10.

17. The most important works informing my theoretical perspective here are Antonio Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci; Frank Parkin, Class Inequality and Political Order; Robert Q. Gray, The Labour Aristocracy in Victorian Edinburgh; Eugene D. Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll; Joseph V. Femia, Gramsci's Political Thought; T. J. Jackson Lears, "The Concept of Cultural Hegemony"; David Laitin, Hegemony and Culture: Politics and Religious Change among the Yoruba; and Ian Lustick, "Becoming Problematic."

18. Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy, p. xi.

19. Laitin, Hegemony and Culture, p. 107.

20. Lears, "The Concept of Cultural Hegemony," esp. pp. 573, 578.

21. See particularly Parkin, Class Inequality and Political Order, pp. 92-95; Gray, The Labour Aristocracy in Victorian Edinburgh.

22. This argument is especially informed by Lears, "The Concept of Cultural Hegemony."

23. Use of the word bilingual here is largely a simplification for descriptive purposes. I certainly do not mean to suggest by this term that either indigenous culture or colonial ideology was univocal.

1. Earlier an Indian official had briefly been president.

2. "Commissioner, Northern Division, to Chief Secretary to Government, G.D., Bombay, 23rd March 1889," in BA, GD, 1889, vol. 124, comp. 351, p. 49.

3. "Memorial, Secretaries, Praja Hit Vardhak Sabha to Secretary, G.D., Bombay, 27 March 1889," in BA, GD, 1889, vol. 124, comp. 351, pp. 96, 99.

4. "Memorial, Secretaries, Praja Hit Vardhak Sabha to Secretary, G.D., Bombay, 27 March 1889," in BA, GD, 1889, vol. 124, comp. 351, pp. 96-97.

5. "Commissioner, Northern Division, to Chief Secretary to Government, G.D., Bombay, 23rd March 1889," in BA, GD, 1889, vol. 124, comp. 351, pp. 47-48.

6. "Assistant Collector, Surat, to Secretary, G.D., 6th October 1888," in BA, GD, 1889, vol. 124, comp. 351, p. 148.

7. "Commissioner, Northern Division, to Chief Secretary to Government, G.D., Bombay, 23rd March 1889," in BA, GD, 1889, vol. 124, comp. 351, p. 49.

8. "Assistant Collector, Surat, to Secretary, G.D., 6th October 1888," in BA, GD, 1889, vol. 124, comp. 351, p. 151; "Collector, no. 2784, dated 6 Oct. 1888," in BA, GD, 1889, vol. 124, comp. 351, p. 157. Some of the words in this letter were not clear in the original.

9. Some readers may consider the use of the word mad extreme in this case. But see p. 214.

10. Femia, Gramsci's Political Thought, p. 44; J. G. A. Pocock, "Languages and Their Implications: The Transformation of the Study of Political Thought," p. 15, and "Introduction: The State of the Art." Equally relevant here is the notion of discourse employed by Michel Foucault in numerous works, including Discipline and Punish, and The Archaeology of Knowledge; and by Said, Orientalism. See also Laitin, Hegemony and Culture, esp. pp. 29, 107.

11. Pocock, "Introduction: The State of the Art," esp. pp. 6-7.

12. For an extensive discussion of ethnohistorical methodology which informs such arguments, see Rhys Isaac, The Transformation of Virginia, 1740-1790.

13. Sandra Sizer, Gospel Hymns and Social Religion, p. 14. Sizer in turn draws on the work of Kenneth Burke, such as The Rhetoric of Religion and Language as Symbolic Action. Among others who have influenced my theoretical perspective are Robert Paine, "When Saying Is Doing"; Abner Cohen, Two-Dimensional Man; A. P. Cohen and J. L. Comaroff, "The Management of Meaning"; and Peter J. Bertocci, "Models of Solidarity, Structures of Power." While all of these works have been extremely helpful, each exaggerates the speaker's capacity to "manipulate" an audience through rhetoric and underplays the commitments a speaker may develop through rhetorical practice.

14. The term symbolic action is used by Burke in The Philosophy of Literary Form, pp. 296-301; management of meaning comes from Cohen and Comaroff, "The Management of Meaning."

15. See Sizer, Gospel Hymns and Social Religion, pp. 14-16.

16. This paragraph is influenced by Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice; and G. Carter Bentley, "Ethnicity and Practice."

17. For similar conceptualizations, see W. H. Morris-Jones, "India's Political Idioms"; Mukherjee, "Caste, Class and Politics"; and esp. Dipesh Chakrabarty, "Discussion: Invitation to a Dialogue," pp. 374-75.

18. For example, Bernard Cohn, "The Command of Language and the Language of Command."

19. Arjun Appadurai, Worship and Conflict under Colonial Rule; and Gregory C. Kozlowski, Muslim Endowments and Society in British India.

20. Of course, the elite may become totally assimilated into the ruling group, but such cases are rare in the annals of European colonialism owing to colonial racism and the subsequent psychic costs involved in removing oneself from indigenous social groupings.

21. This application of Gramsci is derived in part from Lears, "The Concept of Cultural Hegemony"; and Laitin, Hegemony and Culture, esp. pp. 104-8.

1. GM, 23 September 1900, pp. 2-3.

2. Perlin, "Proto-Industrialization and Precolonial South Asia," p. 33. For an initial effort to apply this approach to Gujarat, see David Hardiman, "State, Community and Capital in Gujarat, 1400-1900."

3. John Ovington, A Voyage to Surat in the Year 1689, p. 131.

4. For a sound treatment of the various estimates of Surat's population during the precolonial period, see Ashin Das Gupta, Indian Merchants and the Decline of Surat, c. 1700-1750, p. 29.

5. Surendra Gopal, Commerce and Crafts in Gujarat, 16th and 17th Centuries: A Study on the Impact of European Expansion on Precapitalist Economy, pp. 121-45;

B. G. Gokhale, Surat in the Seventeenth Century, pp. 84-89. For discussions of Gujarat's trade in the Indian Ocean, see Gopal, pp. 1-74; Michael N. Pearson, Merchants and Rulers in Gujarat, pp. 7-16; Das Gupta, Indian Merchants and the Decline of Surat, c. 1700-1750, pp. 3-6, 69-74, and "Indian Merchants and the Trade in the Indian Ocean." For the role of moneylenders in the precolonial countryside of Gujarat, see Hardiman, "State, Commerce and Capital," p. 21.

6. Pearson, Merchants and Rulers in Gujarat, pp. 125-27; Gokhale, Surat in the Seventeenth Century; Das Gupta, Indian Merchants and the Decline of Surat, chap. 2. For the character of Surat's mercantile elites, see particularly two essays of Das Gupta, "The Merchants of Surat, c. 1700-1750," and "Indian Merchants in the Age of Partnership, 1500-1800." Despite their disagreements with Das Gupta, Dwijendra Tripathi and M. J. Mehta essentially confirm this picture of heterogeneity and differentiation for the precolonial period in their essay, "Class Character of the Gujarati Business Community," esp. pp. 156-57.

7. For the mahajans of Gujarat, see Shirin Mehta, "The Mahajans and the Business Communities of Ahmedabad"; Pearson, Merchants and Rulers in Gujarat, pp. 123-24; and Das Gupta, Indian Merchants and the Decline of Surat, pp. 86-88.

8. BA, Surat Factory Diary, vol. 32 (1795): 383-84.

9. I. I. Desai, Surat Sonani Murat, pt. 3, p. 196.

10. BA, Surat Factory Diary, vol. 32 (1795): 381-82.

11. K. N. Chaudhuri, "The Structure of Indian Textile Industry in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries"; Gopal, Commerce and Crafts in Gujarat, pp. 218-37; Tapan Raychaudhuri, "Non-Agricultural Production: Mughal India"; and Lakshmi Subramanian, "Capital and Crowd in a Declining Asian Port City."

12. Hyden uses this term in Beyond Ujamaa in Tanzania. I use the term somewhat more broadly than Hyden, referring to economic relationships based

upon a wide variety of social ties. I do not accept the notion that affective relations are "precapitalist" since they may serve as effective forms of adaptation to certain forms of capitalism.

13. See Das Gupta, Indian Merchants and the Decline of Surat, pp. 134-70, and "Trade and Politics in Eighteenth Century India," pp. 187-96.

14. Neil Rabitoy, "Sovereignty, Profits and Social Change"; V. A. Janaki, Some Aspects of the Historical Geography of Surat, pp. 52-83; Bombay, Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency: Gujarat, vol. 2, Surat and Broach (hereafter referred to as Surat Gazetteer ), pp. 57-58. Despite repeated assertions made about Surat's "decline" during this period, the nineteenth-century economic history of the city has never been systematically examined. For a consideration of the more general factors that affected Indian commerce during the early nineteenth century, see D. R. Gadgil, The Industrial Evolution of India in Recent Times, 1860-1935, pp. 33-46; and more important, Bayly, Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars.

15. Das Gupta, Indian Merchants and the Decline of Surat, p. 29; and Surat Gazetteer, pp. 315-18.

16. In 1895, nearly two-thirds of the city's income tax revenues derived from trade or commerce. Nearly all the top taxpayers fell into these categories. "Report on the Working of the Income Tax Act II of 1886 in the Northern Division during 1894-5," in BA, FD, 1896, vol. 48, comp. 235, p. 41.

17. The figures on industrial employment in Bombay are probably low because of the large number of residents reported as "insufficiently described." Even if it were possible, however, to determine where the members of this category should be allocated, it is unlikely that the proportion of those employed in industry would be higher than the corresponding figures for Surat. See Census of India, 1921, vol. 9.

18. Census of India, 1921, vol. 9, pt. 2, pp. cli-clii.

19. For instance, see "Administration Report of the Collector of Surat, 1895-6," in BA, RD, 1897, vol. 28, comp. 1528, pt. 6, pp. 26-27; "Collector's Report, 1909-1910," in BA, RD, 1911, vol. 11, comp. 511, pt. 10, p. 27.

20. Gordon, Businessmen and Politics, p. 42. An interview with Ashwin Modi, Surat, 1979, was also helpful.

21. For Surat's domestic markets, see Surat Gazetteer, pp. 179-180; S. M. Edwardes, A Monograph upon the Silk Fabrics of the Bombay Presidency, pp. 26, 46; R. E. Enthoven, The Cotton Fabrics of the Bombay Presidency, p. 23; J. Nissim, A Monograph on Wire and Tinsel in the Bombay Presidency, pp. 10-11; and D. R. Gadgil and R. K. Patil, Gold and Silver Thread Industry in Surat, p. 1.

22. For Surat's markets up to the early colonial period, see Janaki, The Historical Geography of Surat, pp. 58-59; Subramanian, "Bombay and the West Coast in the 1740s"; and Pamela Nightingale, Trade and Empire in Western India, 1784-1800, p. 145. International markets for Surti handicrafts in the early twentieth century are described in "Collector's Report, 1898-9," in BA, RD, 1900, vol. 33, comp. 137, pt. 5, pp. 10-11; "Collector's Report, 1899-1900," in BA, RD, 1901, vol. 55, comp. 137, pt. 5, pp. 22-23; "Collector's Report, 1909-1910," in BA, RD, 1911, vol. 11, comp. 511, pt. 10, p. 27; Bombay Provincial Banking Enquiry, 1929-30, 3:50; and Gadgil and Patil, Gold and Silver Thread Industry, pp. 12-13.

23. "Collector's Report, 1909-1910," in BA, RD, 1911, vol. 11, comp. 511, pt. 10, p. 27.

24. For Surat's pearl industry, see particularly GM, 11 April 1909, p. 8.

25. Journal of Indian Art (April 1887): 15-16, quoted in R. K. Patil, Gold and Silver Thread Industry of Surat, p. 4; and Nissim, A Monograph on Wire and Tinsel, pp. 10-11. For the jari industry in the late colonial period, see Haynes, "The Dynamics of Continuity in Indian Domestic Industry."

26. Gordon, Businessmen and Politics, pp. 71-73. The expansion in the trade in cotton and grain is documented in Janaki, The Historical Geography of Surat, chap. 5.

27. "Report on the Working of the Income Tax, 1894-5," in BA, FD, 1896, vol. 48, comp. 235, p. 41.

28. "Petition of Merchants and Traders Dealing in Cloth to President and Councillors of the Municipality of Surat," in SMR, 1907-8, pp. 85-89.

29. The delineation of levels of trade in this description has been influenced by C. A. Bayly, "Indian Merchants in a 'Traditional' Setting."

30. R. D. Choksey, Economic Life in the Bombay Gujarat (1800-1939), p. 199.

31. Bombay Provincial Banking Enquiry, 1929-30, vols. 3 and 4 passim.

32. An educational census taken in Surat during World War I revealed that in high-caste areas heavily populated by merchants and government servants, well over half the eligible school-age children attended municipal primary schools (up to 80%). Only one-third attended in some areas peopled by petty traders and artisans. SMR, 1918-19, p. 140.

33. For structural changes brought about by English policy during the eighteenth century, see S. Arasaratnam, "Weavers, Merchant and Company"; and Hameeda Hossain, "The Alienation of Weavers."

34. Government of Bombay, Report of the Commissioners Appointed under Government Resolution #1128 Dated March 1873 to Inquire into the Working of the Cotton Frauds Act (IX of 1863) with Minutes of Evidence and Other Appendices.

35. See Gordon, Businessmen and Politics, pp. 71-73.

36. "Collector's Report, 1899-1900," in BA, RD, 1901, vol. 55, comp. 137, pt. 5, p. 22.

37. GM, 11 April 1909, p. 8.

38. Haynes, "The Dynamics of Continuity in Indian Domestic Industry." See also D. R. Gadgil, "Gold and Silver Thread Industry of Surat" (written in 1930), in Gadgil and Patil, Gold and Silver Thread Industry.

39. Haynes, "The Dynamics of Continuity in Indian Domestic Industry."

40. See chap. 4.

41. Gadgil and Patil, Gold and Silver Thread Industry, p. 8.

42. "Report on the Working of the Income Tax Act, 1894-95," in BA, FD, 1896, vol. 48, comp. 235, p. 41.

43. Bombay Provincial Banking Enquiry, 1929-30, 3:20-172; and Surat Gazetteer, p. 191.

44. Gadgil and Patil, Gold and Silver Thread Industry, p. 81.

45. Bombay Provincial Banking Enquiry, 1929-30, 3:20-172, 4:456-65.

46. SMR, 1908-9, p. 132.

47. Tripathi and Mehta, "Class Character of the Gujarati Business Community"; also M. J. Mehta, "Some Aspects of Surat as a Trading Center," p. 249;

Pearson, Merchants and Rulers in Gujarat, p. 173; Rabitoy, "Sovereignty, Profits and Social Change," p. 173; and for the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, GM, 10 May 1908, p. 2; and Govindbhai H. Desai, Hindu Families in Gujarat, pp. 58-60.

48. See chap. 7.

49. These two patterns of growth are discussed in Anthony D. King, Colonial Urban Development; and C. A. Bayly, "Town-Building in North India, 1790-1830."

1. For arguments that systematically examine the character and impact of law during the colonial period, see David A. Washbrook, "Law, State and Agrarian Society in Colonial India." For the role of British policy in reinforcing caste and community in an urban setting, see Frank Conlon, "Caste, Community and Colonialism: The Elements of Population Recruitment and Urban Rule in British Bombay, 1665-1830."

2. F. G. Bailey, Gifts and Poison: The Politics of Reputation, pp. 4-8. The term "moral community" has been used with great profit by C. A. Bayly in "Indian Merchants in a 'Traditional' Setting," pp. 185-87, though the application of Bailey's notion here is somewhat different than in Bayly's essay.

3. Bertocci, "Models of Solidarity, Structures of Power," pp. 97-126; C. Wright Mills, "Situated Actions and Vocabularies of Motive."

4. While I use jnati here as a rough equivalent for jati (endogamous unit of the caste system) in other areas of India, it must be recognized that in Gujarati the term refers to caste on many levels. It is also difficult to define the endogamous unit in the region neatly, since only the broadest of these levels approaches perfect endogamy. For the complexity of the caste system in urban Gujarat, and the difficulty of defining the endogamous unit, see A. M. Shah, "Division and Hierarchy." Shah suggests that in Gujarat there is no single endogamous unit but "several units of various orders with defined roles in endogamy."

5. Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency, vol. 9, pt. 1 (hereafter Bombay Gazetteer ), p. xiv; Surat Gazetteer, p. 319, gives these figures by caste in 1872: 8,988 Brahmans, 11,559 Vaniyas, 3,717 Shravaks (Jains), 420 Kayasths, and several hundred members of other high castes.

6. Shah, "Division and Hierarchy."

7. Dhansingh Thakorsingh, "Suratno Prachin Itihas," vol. 2, provides a street-by-street breakdown of the castes and occupations of Surti residents. The pattern of residence in 1935 corresponds closely to that suggested for the eighteenth century by Das Gupta in Indian Merchants and the Decline of Surat, pp. 31-33.

8. Govindbhai Desai, Hindu Families in Gujarat, pp. 18-19, 181-82, discusses the overlap between Jain and Hindu social forms in Gujarat. Unfortunately, historians have never probed very far in discussing the cultural interaction between Jains and Hindus in the region.

9. This corresponds to Das Gupta's findings for the eighteenth century. Personal communication, 1981.

10. For the case of Thakordas Balmukandas Modi, who worked as a clerk in the firm of Atmaram Bhukan before becoming a prosperous cotton merchant and a major philanthropist, see I. I. Desai, Surat Sonani Murat, pt. 3, p. 204. For Naginchand Jhaverchand, see GM, 31 March 1918, pp. 12-13.

11. This discussion is indebted to C. A. Bayly, "Old-Style Merchants and Risk," and Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars, chap. 10.

12. GM, 24 April 1890, p. 385.

13. For a discussion of dharma among the Vaishnavas in Gujarat that pays some attention to the flexibility of the concept, see N. A. Thoothi, The Vaishnavas of Gujarat, chap. 2.

14. The most important work on the ideology of Brahmanical Hinduism is Louis Dumont, Homo Hierarchicus. Ronald Inden, Marriage and Rank in Bengali Culture, provides a case study on the ideology of caste in a specific regional and historical context.

15. For Jain philosophy, see Padmanabh S. Jaini, The Jaina Path of Purification; Dayanand Bhargava, Jaina Ethics. For sociological approaches to the Jains, see Marcus J. Banks, "Defining Division"; and Vilas Adinath Sangave, Jaina Community, esp. pp. 64-85, 194-298, 313-73.

16. For Gujarati Vaishnava belief, see Thoothi, The Vaishnavas of Gujarat, esp. chap. 5; for an anthropological study of Gujarati Vaishnava belief and practice, see David F. Pocock, Mind, Body and Wealth.

17. Gokhale describes the Vaniya life-style in seventeenth-century Surat in Surat in the Seventeenth Century, pp. 35-45.

18. See Edalji Barjorji Patel, Suratni Tavarikh, for early information on the panjrapol.

19. For this point, I am grateful to discussions with Hanna Papanek.

20. Bombay Gazetteer, vol. 9, pt. 1, p. 72.

21. Ibid., passim; Surat Gazetteer, p. 183-84.

22. For the notion of "symbolic capital," see Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice, p. 195.

23. Thakorsingh, "Suratno Prachin Itihas," vol. 2.

24. I. I. Desai, Surat Sonani Murat, pt. 3, p. 203.

25. Ibid., pt. 1, p. 134; Thakorsingh, "Suratno Prachin Itihas," vol. 1, p. 232.

26. I. I. Desai, Surat Sonani Murat, pt. 3, p. 143.

27. See pp. 121-26.

28. See, e.g., Bayly, "Old Style Merchants and Risk," and Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars, chap. 10; Susan Nield Basu, "Pachaiyyappa Mudaliar"; David West Rudner, "Religious Gifting and Inland Commerce in Seventeenth-Century South India"; Susan Lewandowski, "Merchants and Kingship."

29. Though Bayly's work on northern India suggests the existence of powerful cross-caste merchant organizations there as well. See "Indian Merchants in a 'Traditional' Setting," and Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars, pp. 174-83.

30. Shirin Mehta, "The Mahajans and the Business Communities of Ahmedabad," p. 182.

31. William Foster and Charles Fawcett, eds., English Factories in India, 1668-9, 13:190-92, 205; M. N. Pearson, Merchants and Rulers in Gujarat, p. 122; Sushil Chaudhury, "The Gujarati Mahajans." See also chap. 5. Less concrete evidence suggests the existence of these organizations several decades earlier; see Pearson, Merchants and Rulers in Gujarat, p. 125.

32. Das Gupta, Indian Merchants and the Decline of Surat, p. 87, and "Indian Merchants in the Age of Partnership," pp. 35-36.

33. Tripathi and Mehta, "Class Character of the Gujarati Business Community"; Pearson, Merchants and Rulers of India, p. 123.

34. GM, 16 November 1913, p. 3.

35. GM, 15 October 1899, pp. 3-4.

36. Hopkins, "Ancient and Modern Hindu Guilds."

37. GM, 16 November 1913, p. 3.

38. Hopkins, "Ancient and Modern Hindu Guilds," p. 188.

39. Ibid., p. 195.

40. Ibid., p. 189.

41. Ibid., p. 193.

42. Das Gupta, Indian Merchants and the Decline of Surat, pp. 87-88n.

43. GM, 15 October 1899, pp. 3-4.

44. Hopkins, "Ancient and Modern Hindu Guilds," p. 191.

45. Ibid., p. 193

46. Pearson, Merchants and Rulers in Gujarat, pp. 123-24; Hopkins, "Ancient and Modern Hindu Guilds," p. 180.

47. GM, 3 March 1912, p. 18.

48. GM, 10 August 1902, p. 11; 23 August 1903, p. 6. For the Nagarsheth Family, see I. I. Desai, Surat Sonani Murat, pt. 3, pp. 209-14.

49. Surat Sonani Murat, pt. 3, pp. 207-8.

50. For newspaper accounts of Mahajan meetings, see GM, 30 September 1900, p. 16; 14 October 1900, p. 8; 9 December 1906, p. 3.

51. Hopkins, "Ancient and Modern Hindu Guilds," p. 180.

52. Ibid.

53. GM, 30 September 1900, p. 16.

54. At times the competition to feed the mahajan was considerable. See GM, 8 April 1906, p. 3.

55. GM, 18 February 1912, p. 3.

56. GM, 1 April 1906, p. 4; 24 April 1910, p. 11; 8 May 1910, p. 7.

57. GM, 30 September 1900, p. 16; 14 October 1900, p. 8.

58. Das Gupta, Indian Merchants and the Decline of Surat, p. 69.

59. M. K. Gandhi, An Autobiography, p. 40.

60. GM, 8 April 1906, p. 3.

61. GM, 30 September 1900, p. 16; 14 October 1900, p. 8.

62. GM, 17 September 1899, p. 15; 1 July 1900, p. 8; 28 January 1900, p. 2.

63. E. P. Thompson, "The Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Eighteenth Century."

64. The 1795 protest has been examined in great depth by Subramanian, "Capital and Crowd in a Declining Asian Port." For the protest of 1848, see

Source Material for a History of the Freedom Movement; on the 1891 protest, see GM, 22 February 1891, pp. 196-98.

65. Bombay Gazetteer, vol. 9, pt. 1, p. xiv. Thakorsingh, "Suratno Prachin Itihas," vol. 2, passim.

66. Harry Borradaile, Borradaile's Gujarat Caste Rules. Many of these castes no longer accept the names by which they were known in the late nineteenth century. The Golas, for instance, are now called the Ranas; the Kanbis term themselves Patidars. As far as I have been able to determine, these names were not in general use in Surat before World War I.

67. For instance, see Bombay Gazetteer, vol. 9, pt. 1, p. xiv. Interviews with contemporary residents strengthened these impressions.

68. Thakorsingh, "Suratno Prachin Itihas," vol. 2, passim.

69. See A Report of the Surat Riot Case with Opinion of the Local Press.

70. GM, 16 September 1906, pp. 2, 12.

71. Bombay State, Source Material for a History of the Freedom Movement, p. 12.

72. Haynes, "The Dynamics of Continuity in Indian Domestic Industry."

73. Bombay Gazetteer, vol. 9, pt. 1, p. 183.

74. For a similar argument, see Gyan Prakash, "Becoming a Bhuniya."

75. A. B. Trivedi, "The Gold Thread Industry of Surat."

76. Hopkins, "Ancient and Modern Hindu Guilds," pp. 193-97; Thoothi, Vaishnavas of Gujarat, p. 192.

77. Thoothi, Vaishnavas of Gujarat, pp. 126-30; Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency: Gujarat, vol. 4, Ahmedabad (hereafter Ahmedabad Gazetteer ), p. 112.

78. Surat Gazetteer, p. 321; see also Hopkins, "Ancient and Modern Hindu Guilds," p. 192.

79. In 1906, members of a Bhavsar jnati living in Sagrampura, traditionally dyers of cloth, appealed in court that the headman's monopolization of caste vessels was unfair, arguing that all members should have the right to use the vessels. GM, 12 July 1906, p. 13. The position of the headman was supported in court.

80. GM, 16 September 1906, pp. 2, 12.

81. GM, 20 November 1910, pp. 10-11.

82. In a memorandum, Frederick Lely, once a district officer in Surat, wrote: "When I was Collector of Surat, the Hindu Ghanchis made a caste-law that the drinking of liquor at their feasts be stopped. It was a common notoriety at the time that the Government contractor of the district, or his agent, when they came to know of this, bribed the caste leaders by offer of free liquor and otherwise to abandon their position." "Memorandum by the Hon. F. S. P. Lely, 10 Jan. 1904," in BA, RD, 1905, vol. 9, comp. 729, p. 209.

83. Satish C. Misra, Muslim Communities in Gujarat, esp. chaps. 6 and 7.

84. Das Gupta, Indian Merchants and the Decline of Surat, pp. 75-77; N. Benjamin, "Arab Merchants of Bombay and Surat (c. 1800-1840)," demonstrates that Arab merchants were still important participants in the trade of western India in the early nineteenth century. By the mid-nineteenth century, there seem to have been few Arab merchants remaining in the city.

85. Bela was a small principality in the Deccan. In the late nineteenth cen-

tury, the nawab of this kingdom married one of the daughters of the Nawab of Surat and moved to the city. The so-called Nawab of Surat was not a direct descendent in the male line from the old rulers of the city but had established ties with the immediate family of the Nawab through intermarriage. See Desai, Surat Sonani Murat, pt. 3, pp. 245-47.

86. For a discussion of the Muslim communities of Gujarat, see Bombay Gazetteer, vol. 9, pt. 2; Misra, Muslim Communities of Gujarat; for residential patterns in Surat, Thakorsingh, "Suratno Prachin Itihas," vol. 2.

87. For sharif culture, see Lelyveld, Aligarh's First Generation, pp. 24-26, 35-36.

88. For a short description of the Mughal aristocracy's way of life in Surat during the seventeenth century, see Gokhale, Surat in the Seventeenth Century, pp. 53-54.

89. Desai, Surat Sonani Murat, vol. 1, p. 17; Surat Gazetteer, pp. 157, 188; Das Gupta, Indian Merchants and the Decline of Surat, p. 35; GM, 12 August 1906, pp. 16.3, 16.4.

90. "Letter from Nawab to Chief of English Factory at Surat," in BA, Surat Factory Diary 33 (1795): 360.

91. Abdul Kadir Kafiz Nuruddin and Sharafuddin N. Sharaf, The Patani Co-operative Credit Society Souvenir, pp. 83-87.

92. SMR, 1873, p. 19.

93. Ali Ashgar Engineer, The Bohras, pp. 152, 161; Bombay Gazetteer, vol. 9, pt. 2, p. 28; Karim Muhammad Master, Mahagujaratna Musalmano, pp. 133, 143; Mianbhai Mulla Abdul Husain, Gulzare Daudi for the Bohras of India, pp. 87-89.

94. For the nature of the Bohra theology, see Engineer, The Bohras, pp. 36-61; Misra, Muslim Communities in Gujarat, pp. 14-19.

95. Engineer, The Bohras, pp. 117-22, 135; S. C. Misra, Muslim Communities of Gujarat, chap. 2, passim; Theodore P. Wright, Jr., "Competitive Modernization within the Daudi Bohra Sect of Muslims and Its Significance for Indian Political Development," p. 153.

96. Engineer, The Bohras, pp. 159-61.

97. Henry G. Briggs, The Cities of Gujarashtra, p. 47.

98. Engineer, The Bohras, pp. 28, 156-59.

99. Bombay Gazetteer, vol. 9, pt. 2, p. 32.

100. GM, 5 July 1903, p. 18; 27 December 1903, p. 15.

101. Surat Gazetteer, p. 319.

102. David L. White, "Parsis in the Commercial World of Western India, 1700-1750." For the case of Rustomji Manekji, see Das Gupta, Indian Merchants and the Decline of Surat, p. 81; also I. I. Desai, Surat Sonani Murat, pt. 3, pp. 240-42.

103. Gordon, Businessmen and Politics, pp. 49-50; Christine Dobbin, Urban Leadership in Western India; esp. pp. 2-3; Dosabhai Framji Karaka, History of the Parsis, 2:47-145; Delphine Menant, The Parsis of India, 1:71-89, passim.

104. I. I. Desai, Surat Sonani Murat, pt. 3, pp. 234-38; for one important family which made the transition from commerce to government service, see Karaka, History of the Parsis, pp. 21-23.

105. Ovington, A Voyage to Surat, p. 218.

106. Karaka, History of the Parsis, 1:205; for an explanation of Parsi philanthropic traditions, see two essays by White, ''Parsis in the Commercial World of Western India," and "Eighteenth-Century Parsi Philanthropy."

107. Karaka, History of the Parsis, 2:8-39.

108. For the Parsi Panchayat of Bombay, see Conlon, "Caste, Community and Colonialism," pp. 196-98; James Masselos, Toward Nationalism; Karaka, History of the Parsis, 1:205-42; Dobbin, Urban Leadership in Western India, pp. 99-112; Henry G. Briggs, The Parsis, or the Modern Zerdusthians.

109. Bombay Gazetteer, vol. 9, pt. 2, p. 244.

110. Karaka, History of the Parsis, 2:19-20; also Robert Laming, Representative Men of the Bombay Presidency, p. 116.

1. GM, 1 September 1918, p. 11.

2. For useful treatments of deference, see Howard Newby, "The Deferential Dialectic"; Patrick Joyce, Work, Society and Politics, chap. 3; J. G. A. Pocock, "The Classical Theory of Deference."

3. Michael Adas, "From Avoidance to Confrontation."

4. Satish Chandra, Parties and Politics at the Mughal Court, 1707-1740; M. Athar Ali, The Mughal Nobility under Aurangzeb.

5. Foster and Fawcett, The English Factories in India, 13:191.

6. James C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance, and "Resistance without Protest and without Organization." James Scott and Benedict Kerkvliet, "Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance in Southeast Asia." Especially valuable in this collection is the essay by Michael Adas, "From Foot-dragging to Flight: The Evasive History of Peasant Avoidance Protest in South and Southeast Asia," pp. 64-86.

7. Ovington, A Voyage to Surat, p. 187.

8. John Fryer, John Fryer's East India and Persia, pp. 245-46.

9. Athar Ali, The Mughal Nobility under Aurangzeb, pp. 143-44, 151.

10. François Bernier, Travels in the Mogul Empire, 1:224.

11. Abu'l Fazl Allami, The A'in-i Akbari, pp. 166-67; Ram Prasad Khosla, Mughal Kingship and Nobility, p. 277; Cohn, "Representing Authority in Victorian India," pp. 168-70.

12. Khosla, Mughal Kingship and Nobility, pp. 278-79.

13. M. De Thévenot, "Indian Travels of Thévenot," p. 27.

14. Desai, Surat Sonani Murat, pt. 3, p. 197.

15. John Jourdain, The Journal of John Jourdain, 1608-1617, p. 132.

16. William Hawkins, "The Journals of William Hawkins"; Thomas Roe, The Embassy of Sir Thomas Roe to the Court of the Great Mogul, 1615-1619. There are dozens of references to local gift giving in the records of the company.

17. Foster and Fawcett, English Factories in India, 3:205.

18. Pearson, Merchants and Rulers, p. 126.

19. Ibid., pp. 149-50.

20. Ibid., chap. 5; Karen Leonard, "The 'Great Firm' Theory of the Decline of the Mughal Empire"; see also Sanjay Subrahmanyam and C. A. Bayly, "Portfolio Capitalists and the Political Economy of Early Modern India."

21. Foster and Fawcett, English Factories in India, 13:190-92, 196-97, 205.

22. Algemen Rijarchief, quoted in Das Gupta, Indian Merchants and the Decline of Surat, p. 129.

23. For a more complete picture of Surat's government and the various groups staking claims to the city's revenues, see Michelguglielmo Torri, "Social Groups and the Redistribution of Commercial Wealth."

24. Subramanian, "Capital and Crowd," pp. 205-38; also "Bombay and the West Coast in the 1740s," pp. 189-216; and Michelguglielmo Torri, "In the Deep Blue Sea." Torri has now demonstrated that the local elites who aligned themselves with the English during this period were extremely diverse and that not all Vaniyas sided with the company, in ''Surat during the Second Half of the Eighteenth Century."

25. Das Gupta, "Trade and Politics in Eighteenth Century India"; Das Gupta, Indian Merchants and the Decline of Surat, pp. 134-55.

26. For examples of the rhetoric of free trade, see Nightingale, Trade and Empire in Western India, pp. 138-39, 144, 163, 171; see also Torri, "In the Deep Blue Sea," pp. 269-73. For a discussion of these issues at the all-India level, see D. A. Washbrook, "Progress and Problems," esp. pp. 75-76.

27. Torri, "In the Deep Blue Sea," pp. 270-75; Subramanian, "Capital and Crowd," and "Bombay and the West Coast during the 1740s"; Leonard, "The 'Great Firm' Theory," pp. 160-63; Holden Furber, John Company at Work, pp. 218-19.

28. Furber, John Company at Work, pp. 216-22.

29. For instance, Torri, "Social Groups and the Redistribution of Commercial Wealth," p. 58.

30. K. N. Chaudhuri, The Trading World of Asia and the English East Company, 1660-1740, p. 125.

31. Furber, John Company at Work, p. 214; the reference to the abolition of taking gifts by company officials comes from a personal communication from Michelguglielmo Torri.

32. Surat Gazetteer, pp. 132-33n.

33. Subramanian, "Capital and Crowd," pp. 214-18; Rabitoy, "Sovereignty, Profits and Social Change," pp. 173-75.

34. Desai, Surat Sonani Murat, pt. 3, p. 196.

35. Thakorsingh, "Suratno Prachin Itihas," 1:233.

36. Rabitoy, "Sovereignty, Profits and Social Change," pp. 173-80.

37. This event is explored in great detail in Subramanian, "Capital and Crowd."

38. "Petition of the Shroffs and Mahazins of the City of Surat on the behalf of Themselves and Other Hindu Inhabitants," in Surat Factory Diary 33 (1795): 383.

1. The part epigraph is from Appendix to the Report of the Education Commission. Report by the Northwestern Provinces and Oudh Provincial Committee (Calcutta

1884), p. 202, quoted in Bruce McCully, English Education and the Origins of Indian Nationalism.

2. The notion of the "world system of cultural domination" comes from Richard Fox, "Gandhian Socialism and Hindu Nationalism." This term should not imply any pattern of homogenization in world culture. Instead, I argue that associated with European political domination were dominant values and principles to which indigenous peoples had to adjust. The cultural accommodations to these values were quite diverse.

3. A particularly valuable survey of these ideologies is in Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men.

4. For instance, see D. C. Moore, "Political Morality in Mid-Nineteenth Century England," esp. 20-26; T. J. Nossiter, Influence, Opinion and Political Idioms in Reformed England; J. B. Parry, "The State of Victorian Political History."

5. Patrick Joyce, Work, Society and Politics, esp. chap. 8.

6. David Lelyveld, Aligarh's First Generation, pp. 9-20; Cohn, "Representing Authority in British India."

7. Robert Nisbet, History of the Idea of Progress; the coexistence and reconciliation of this concept with ideas that celebrated British tradition in the writings of nineteenth-century Whig historians is explored in J. W. Burrow, A Liberal Descent.

8. Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men.

9. Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere; Patricia Hollis, Pressure from without in Early Victorian England; Joseph Hamburger, James Mill and the Art of Revolution; J. A. W. Gunn, "Public Spirit to Public Opinion"; J. G. A. Pocock, "The Varieties of Whiggism from Exclusion to Reform: A History of Ideology and Discourse."

10. L. T. Hobhouse, Democracy and Reaction, p. 220.

11. For a very rich and extended treatment of the notion of representation in the thought of nineteenth-century liberals, see Hannah Fenichel Pitkin, The Concept of Representation, chap. 9; and Samuel H. Beer, "The Representation of Interests in British Government."

12. John Stuart Mill, "On Liberty," in Three Essays by John Stuart Mill, p. 15.

13. John Stuart Mill, "Representative Government," in Three Essays by John Stuart Mill," p. 204.

14. L. T. Hobhouse, Liberalism, pp. 68-69.

15. See Said, Orientalism, for similar arguments about the larger conception of the Orient.

16. John Strachey, India, p. 5.

17. Valentine Chirol, Indian Unrest, p. 6.

18. J. Ramsay McDonald, The Government of India, p. 1.

19. Lord Dufferin, quoted in Report on Indian Constitutional Reforms, 1918, p. 69.

20. A brief but very useful treatment of these ideas is found in Fox, Lions of the Punjab, pp. 148-53.

21. Lytton to Salisbury, 11 May 1876, quoted in Cohn, "Representing Authority in Victorian India," p. 191.

22. McDonald, The Government of India, p. 72.

23. Cohn, "Representing Authority in Victorian India."

24. See esp. Sandria Freitag, Collective Action and Community, pp. 56-62.

25. Cohn, "Representing Authority in Victorian India."

26. Speeches Delivered on Moving the First and Second Readings of the Bombay Local Boards Bill and the Bombay District Municipal Act Amendment Bill Introduced for the Advancement of Local Government in the Presidency of Bombay by the Honorable J. B. Peile, pp. 4-5.

27. Paul Brass, Language, Religion and Politics in North India, and Peter Hardy, The Muslims of British India, examine and critique the myth of Muslim backwardness.

28. Robert Eric Frykenberg, "The Concept of 'Majority' as a Devilish Force in the Politics of Modern India."

29. Nandy, The Intimate Enemy, p. 3.

1. Several historians have stressed that the British ruled urban centers through persons they perceived as leaders of local society. See particularly C. A. Bayly, "Local Control in Indian Towns"; and Veena Talwar Oldenburg, The Making of Colonial Lucknow, 1856-1877, esp. chap. 6.

2. The most useful discussion of factors shaping British conceptions about what constituted natural leadership is in Freitag, Collective Action and Community, chap. 2. For a somewhat parallel treatment of an earlier period, see Conlon, "Caste, Community, and Colonialism."

3. Source Material for a History of the Indian Freedom Movement, pp. 1-16.

4. Ibid.

5. Surat Gazetteer, p. 157.

6. For the early character of the colonial revenue structure, see Gordon, Businessmen and Politics, pp. 11-12. Also important to this discussion is Eric Stokes, "The First Century of British Colonial Rule in India: Social Revolution or Social Stagnation?" 148-49.

7. "Revenue Commissioner of Surat to Bombay Government, 22 Feb. 1808" and "Resolution of the Bombay Board, 11th March 1808," in BA, Revenue Diary 61 (1808): 849-51, 855.

8. Peter Harnetty, Imperialism and Free Trade, esp. chap. 4; Bayly, Local Roots of Indian Politics, p. 11; Gordon, Businessmen and Politics, pp. 11-15.

9. Royal Commission on the Sanitary State of the Army in India; and Oldenburg, The Making of Colonial Lucknow, chap. 4.

10. For general treatments of local self-government in India, see Cecil Merne Putnam Cross, The Development of Self-Government in India, 1858-1914; and Hugh Tinker, The Foundations of Local Self-Government in India, Pakistan and Burma. For case studies of municipal development, see Susan Lewandowski, "Urban Growth and Municipal Development in the Colonial City of Madras, 1860-1900"; Journal of Asian Studies 34 (1975): 341-60; Narayani Gupta, Delhi between Two Empires, 1808-1931; and Oldenburg, The Making of Colonial Lucknow, pp. 75-144.

11. Rich residents of the city, e.g., felt little need for an improved water supply, perhaps because they obtained water from tanks underneath their houses. As a result, few supported the development of a water-supply system of

which the poorer residents in outlying neighborhoods would be the chief beneficiaries. The poor usually had to obtain water (often brackish) from the Tapi River at low tide. SMR, 1883, p. 30.

12. For the Surtis' apathy and even opposition to municipal sanitation policies, see particularly SMR, 1885, pp. 63-64, 72.

13. For the city survey and opposition to it, see SMR, 1868, p. 3; 1877, pp. 67-69.

14. For the famous Kanpur mosque incident, see Freitag, "Religious Rites and Riots," pp. 184-94; for riots in Banares in which angry crowds destroyed municipal property and attacked the homes of municipal councillors after hearing of municipal plans that involved altering a temple, see GM, 23 April 1891, p. 412.

15. See, e.g., SMR, 1871, p. 24; BA, GD, 1914, comp. 1379; GM, 9 November 1890, pp. 1074-75. For the present argument, it is less relevant that the council did not carry out most of these proposed policies than that it considered them, since even consideration posed a threat to indigenous values. David Arnold in a recent article has effectively argued that, during the late nineteenth century, efforts to control disease and improve sanitation involved a sustained "colonial assault on the body" that raised serious resentments in a "society in which touch connoted possession or pollution." ''Touching the Body."

16. SMR, 1916-17, p. 223.

17. "Revenue Commissioner of Surat to Bombay Government, 22 February 1808," in BA, Revenue Diary 151 (1808): 849-51.

18. Indian Taxation Enquiry Committee, 2:272. For an especially strong case of resistance to the imposition of house taxes, see Richard Heitler, "The Varanasi House Tax Hartal of 1810-11." Heitler also argues that the house tax was not accepted because it involved entering houses to make assessments. For Delhi's resistance to the house tax, see Das Gupta, Delhi between Two Empires, pp. 140-43.

19. Source Material for a History of the Indian Freedom Movement, pp. 19-22.

20. Ibid., pp. 29-49.

21. SMR, 1872, p. 20; 1894, p. 97; 1895-96, pp. 9-17; 1902-3, pp. 77-83; GM, 2 May 1898, p. 2

22. For papers relating to the house-tax battle, see BA, GD, 1892, vol. 97, comp. 600; 1893, vol. 92, comp. 600; 1895, vol. 101, comp. 1041; SMR, 1895-96, pp. 9-17. This movement is discussed further in chap. 8.

23. This discussion has been influenced in part by Peter Ekeh, "Colonialism and the Two Publics in Africa." There are major differences, however, between my approach and Ekeh's.

24. Tinker, The Foundations of Local Self-Government, pp. 29-30.

25. For an early history of Surat's local body, see the municipality's own publication, Surat Shaher Sudharai Shatabdi Granth, pp. 8-10, 16-33. This account includes the proceedings of the first meeting of the council.

26. SMR, 1871, p. 4

27. SMR, 1894, p. 6.

28. SMR, 1895, p. 1.

29. GM, 2 September 1888, p. 476; 17 April 1898, p. 2.

30. "Acting Collector, Surat to Commissioner, Northern Division," in BA, GD, 1888, vol. 90, comp. 351, p. 458.

31. SMR, 1869, p. 15.

32. GM, 1 July 1906, p. 1.

33. GM, 8 January 1899, p. 2; 23 December 1900, p. 2.

34. SMR, 1868, p. 1.

35. GM, 23 December 1900, p. 2.

36. GM, 27 December 1891, pp. 1296-97.

37. See, e.g., Bayly, The Local Roots of Indian Politics, p. 101; and Francis Robinson, "Municipal Government and Muslim Separatism in the United Provinces, 1883 to 1916," 389-94.

38. See, e.g., BA, GD, 1895, vol. 101, comp. 1041, pp. 126-27; 1909, vol. 117, comp. 110, pt. 2, p. 555. For British recognition of this situation, see "J. K. Spence to Secty. to Government, G.D. (April 1899)," in BA, GD, 1901, vol. 7, comp. 347, p. 80.

39. BA, GD, 1911, vol. 144, comp. 1172, p. 375.

40. "Petition of the Committee Appointed by a Public Meeting of the City Municipality, 1 June 1892," BA, GD, 1892, vol. 97, comp. 600, p. 86.

41. BA, GD, 1893, vol. 92, comp. 600, pt. 1, pp. 4-5.

42. For somewhat conflicting interpretations of the government's actions, see GM, 8 April 1894, p. 2; 13 September 1908, pp. 2-3.

43. GM, 9 November 1890, p. 1073.

44. David Owen, English Philanthropy, 1660-1960, p. 164.

45. GM, 30 October 1910, p. 2.

46. GM, 1 July 1906, p. 1.

47. GM, 28 January 1906, p. 8; 1 July 1906, p. 1.

48. GM, 11 February 1906, p. 7.

49. GM, 12 October 1913, p. 2.

50. Desai, Surat Sonani Murat, pt. 3, pp. 147-48; GM, 14 May 1899, p. 3; 17 November 1901, p. 1.

51. Desai, Surat Sonani Murat, pt. 3, p. 232.

52. GM, 1 July 1906, p. 1.

53. Desai, Surat Sonani Murat, pt. 3, pp. 147-48.

54. Desai, Surat Sonani Murat, pt. 3, p. 232.

55. This finding parallels the conclusions of Susan Lewandowski that merchants who acted as modernizing agents in the commerce of nineteenth-century Madras continued to be concerned with maintaining their standing in "traditional" groupings, and continued to accomplish this goal through traditional forms of gift-giving. See "Merchants and Kingship," pp. 151-80.

56. GM, 7 April 1918, pp. 7-8.

57. GM, 18 February 1906, p. 14.

58. GM, 8 October 1899, p. 8.

59. GM, 21 October 1900, p. 14; 4 February 1906, p. 13-1; 17 June 1906, p. 10.

60. GM, 16 November 1890, p. 1100.

61. For Parsi traditions of charity, see Karaka, History of the Parsis, vol. 1, pp. xxii-xxiv.

62. Karaka, History of the Parsis, vol. 2, pp. 140-45; Surat Shaher Sudharai Shatabdi Granth, pp. 18, 22; SMR, 1899-1900, p. 83; 1902-3, p. 101; 1904-5, p. 64.

63. Surat Shaher Sudharai Shatabdi Granth, pp. 19-20; SMR, 1869, pp. 22-23.

64. SMR, 1869, pp. 22-23.

65. Fryer, quoted in Gokhale, Surat in the Seventeenth Century, p. 53.

66. SMR, 1910-11, pp. 26-30.

67. For examples of the visits of imperial dignitaries to Surat, see GM, 9 November 1890, pp. 1073-75; 11 November 1894, pp. 2-4; 11 November 1900, pp. 1-2, 9-12; 1 September 1901, pp. 16-20; 5 March 1911, pp. 2-4.

68. For example, GM, 1 September 1901, pp. 16-20.

69. GM, 23 September 1900, pp. 2-3.

70. GM, 2 November 1902, p. 10.

71. GM, 8 October 1911, p. 2.

72. GM, 2 November 1902, p. 11.

73. GM, 12 July 1894, pp. 1-2.

74. GM, 4 March 1900, p. 1; 11 March 1900, p. 2.

75. GM, 19 May 1901, pp. 8-11.

76. BA, GD, 1901, vol. 14, comp. 633, pp. 111-13.

77. "Weir to Secty. to Governor, G.D., Bombay, 29 July 1901," in BA, GD, 1901, vol. 14, comp. 633, p. 127.

78. I. I. Desai, Muktinun Parodh, p. 10.

79. GM, 12 July 1894, p. 1.

80. GM, 27 June 1909, pp. 12-12b.

81. I. I. Desai, Surat Sonani Murat, pt. 3, p. 148.

82. Source Material for a History of the Indian Freedom Movement, pp. 29-49.

83. Quoted in BA, JD, 1896, comp. 1893, p. 66. Excerpts viewed in the office of the Secretary's Gazetteers, Bombay.

84. BA, GD, 1889, vol. 124, comp. 351, p. 151.

85. GM, 3 September 1893, p. 904.

86. The text of this proclamation is available in S. V. Desika Char, Readings in the Constitutional History of India, pp. 299-300; see also Bernard Cohn, "Representing Authority in Victorian India," pp. 165-66.

87. GM, 22 February 1891, pp. 196-98.

88. BA, JD, 1896, comp. 1893, p. 62; excerpts viewed in office of the Secretary's Gazetteers, Bombay.

89. For instance, see GM, 16 August 1903, p. 7; 4 February 1906, p. 13a.

90. GM, 9 November 1893, p. 1178.

91. GM, 9 November 1890, p. 1073.

1. In using the term elite in reference to the most highly educated in the city, I mean to suggest only the privileged place these figures came to enjoy within the civic arena and as intermediaries between the colonial rulers and local society. Within Surti society, many of these figures were far less influential

than the most substantial sheths and other urban magnates. I hope that my narrative also makes clear that it is these persons who constituted the "elite" and not the larger caste groupings from which they came.

2. Thakkoram Kapilram Mehta, Vadnagar Nagaro: Nagarona Prachin ane Arvachin Itihas Sahit Suratna Vadnagar Nagar Grahastha Kutumboni Vanshali, p. 15.

3. For the Anavil Brahmans, see Jan Breman, Patronage and Exploitation, esp. pp. 32-33, 98; Klaas van der Veen, I Give Thee My Daughter, pp. 8-16.

4. See pp. 96-97.

5. The movement of the Vaniyas into English education and the professions more generally in Gujarat is substantiated in Neera Desai, Social Change in Gujarat, pp. 59, 414-27; Dobbin, Urban Leadership in Western India, p. 162.

6. For the beginnings of English education in Surat, see I. I. Desai, Surat Sonani Murat, pt. 1, pp. 139-40. For education in the Bombay Presidency more generally, see Dobbin, Urban Leadership in Western India, pp. 33-40; Ellen E. McDonald and Craig M. Stark, English Education, Nationalist Politics and Elite Groups in Maharashtra, 1885-1915.

7. For the best study of the process of English education in India, see the excellent work by David Lelyveld, Aligarh's First Generation.

8. In 1886, for instance, there were five doctors, five lawyers, one newspaper editor, and one high school master, but only three businessmen, among the fifteen elected councillors. In 1896 five doctors, four lawyers, and six "merchants, contractors and private gentlemen" won elective office. In 1914, soon after the number of seats open to election had risen to twenty, eight lawyers, three doctors, one newspaper editor, five merchants, and three landlords were chosen by the voters. And even the elected merchants, landowners, and private gentlemen were often people with a great deal of English education. SMR, 1886, p. 102; SMR, 1896, p. 93. I collected much biographical information on the municipal councillors of Surat from the files of the Centre for Social Studies, Surat. My thanks to Dr. Ghanshyam Shah, who provided me with access to this material.

9. For the house-tax struggle in Surat, see BA, GD, 1892, vol. 97, comp. 600; GD, 1893, vol. 92, comp. 600, pt. I; GD, 1895, vol. 101, comp. 1041.

10. See C. A. Bayly, "Patrons and Politics in Northern India"; Washbrook, The Emergence of Provincial Politics. For Surat, note, for example, the role of Parsis as brokers of the English in the Mughal court. Bombay Gazetteer, vol. 9, pt. 2, pp. 196n, 197n.

11. "No. 1699 of 1893, G.D., Bombay, May 1893," in BA, GD, 1893, vol. 92, comp. 600, pt. 1, p. 212.

12. I. I. Desai, Surat Sonani Murat, pt. 1, pp. 189-90; pt. 3, pp. 34-35; Nuruddin and Sharaf, Patani Co-operative Society Souvenir, p. 136; interview with Chandravadan Shah, 1980.

13. I. J. Catanach, Rural Credit in Western India, pp. 99-102.

14. P. T. Parikh, A Brief History of the Cooperative Movement in Surat District, esp. pp. 6-7.

15. GM, 8 September 1901, p. 1.

16. GM, 5 March 1911, p. 2.

17. GM, 9 January 1898, p. 2.

18. "Memorial from the Secretaries, Praja Hit Vardhak Sabha to Secretary to Government, G.D., Bombay, 27 March 1889," in GD, 1889, vol. 124, comp. 351, pp. 96-97.

19. GM, 5 August 1906, p. 2.

20. GM, 19 July 1903, p. 7; 26 July 1903, p. 1; 22 July 1906, p. 8.

21. "Petition from the Committee Appointed by the Public Meeting of the Inhabitants of Gopipura, 1 June 1892," in BA, GD, 1892, vol. 97, comp. 600, p. 87.

22. "Secretary, Gopipura Ward Committee, Surat to the Secretary to the Government of Bombay, 19 April 1893," in BA, GD, 1893, vol. 92, comp. 600, pt. 1, p. 199.

23. Native Opinion, 7 August 1892, quoted in BA, GD, 1892, vol. 97, comp. 600, p. 81.

24. GM, 27 December 1891, p. 1298.

25. "No. 1699 of 1893, G.D., Bombay, May 1893," in BA, GD, 1893, vol. 92, comp. 600, pt. 1, p. 212.

26. "Remarks on the Draft Municipal Act, 1899, 6 April 1899," in BA, GD, 1901, vol. 7, comp. 347, p. 33.

27. "Surat Collector's Letter, no. 32, 20th Jan. 1893," in BA, GD, 1892, vol. 92, comp. 600, pt. 1, p. 65.

28. "Letter from Collector of Surat to Chief Secty, to Government, G.D., Surat 28th July 1892," in BA, GD, 1892, vol. 97, comp. 600, pt. 1, p. 36.

29. "No. 1699 of 1893, G.D., Bombay, May 1893," in BA, GD, 1893, vol. 92, comp. 600, pt. 1, p. 212.

30. Ibid.

31. "Petition from Chandrashankar Bhimanand, Chairman of a Meeting held at Vithalwadi, dated 26th September 1909," in BA, GD, 1910, vol. 117, comp. 210, p. 177.

32. BA, GD, 1910, vol. 117, comp. 210, p. 63. The following treatment parallels to some extent Dipesh Chakrabarty's interesting analysis of the "spastic" nature of trade-union organizations in Calcutta. See Rethinking Working-Class History, Bengal, chap. 4.

33. GM, 11 October 1888, p. 617.

34. BA, GD, 1910, vol. 117, comp. 210, p. 91.

35. For instance, see GM, 31 January 1915, p. 7.

36. The concept of nation as an imagined community is developed in Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities.

37. For instance, see GM, 22 March 1903, p. 13.

38. I. I. Desai, Surat Sonani Murat, pt. 3, p. 215; GM, 21 December 1890, p. 1220.

39. GM, 23 November 1893, p. 1.

40. GM, 15 July 1906, p. 2; also 22 July 1906, p. 8.

41. For the development of nationalist organization in Surat before World War I, see G. J. Desai, "Surat under the Britishers," chap. 5; the files of GM; I. I. Desai, Surat Sonani Murat, vol. 1, pp. 208-24, and Surat Congress; Shirin Mehta, Gujarat Politics on Eve of Congress Session of Surat, 1907, pp. 451-55, and "Social Background of Swadeshi Movement in Gujarat."

42. For example, GM, 24 April 1890, p. 385; 16 November 1890, p. 1099; 19 March 1891, p. 282.

43. GM, 13 September 1908, pp. 2-3.

44. GM, 23 November 1893, p. 1.

45. GM, 24 January 1909, pp. 6-7. Though he was one of the three notables who traditionally called public meetings, Edrus for some reason accepted the district association's effort (the two other notables did not).

46. "Collector's No. 2784, 6th October 1888," in BA, GD, 1889, vol. 124, comp. 351, p. 156.

47. For the development of the consultative form of the durbar, see GM, 29 August 1909, p. 2.

48. "Petition from Chandrashankar Bhimanand," in BA, GD, 1910, vol. 117, comp. 210, pp. 177-79.

49. BA, GD, 1910, vol. 117, comp. 210, p. 221.

50. "Petition from Chandrashankar Bhimanand," in BA, GD, 1910, vol. 117, comp. 210, pp. 187-89.

51. "Petition from Prasanavadan Motabhai Desai and Others of Surat, 12 Sept. 1909," in BA, GD, 1910, vol. 117, comp. 210, p. 41.

52. "Memorial from the Surat District Association, 26 April 1909," in BA, GD, 1910, vol. 117, comp. 210, pp. 69-70.

53. "The Humble Petition of the President and Other Members of the Surat Cloth Merchants and Grain Dealers' Association Adopted at Their Meeting Held on the 28 Aug. 1909," in BA, GD, 1910, vol. 117, comp. 210, pp. 95-97.

54. "Collector, Surat, to Commissioner, N.D., 4th Jan. 1910," in BA, GD, 1910, vol. 117, comp. 210, pp. 360-61.

55. GM, 5 July 1908, p. 12; 25 October 1908, pp. 9-10; 3 January 1909, p. 3; 8 August 1909, pp. 95-97.

56. GM, 29 August 1909, p. 2. Obviously, such a statement carries with it the assumptions of English-educated men about the appropriate logic that should be used in the municipal-national arena.

57. GM, 5 August 1906, p. 6.

58. Compare BA, GD, 1885, vol. 96, pp. 65-66, with SMR, 1908-9, p. 155.

59. Voting qualifications were quite complicated. The two most important criteria were property worth more than 2,000 rupees or payment of more than 9 rupees municipal tax. Other criteria were payment of income tax or land revenue in excess of 40 rupees. In addition, educated voters could vote in an "intelligence," or "general," ward that selected three councillors. Qualifications included a university degree, a substantial salary or pension from the government, a title, etc.

60. SMR, 1895, pp. 89-90.

61. SMR, 1898-99, p. 71.

62. "Memorial from Iccharam Nagindas Vakil and Others 26 Feb. 1885," in BA, GD, 1885, vol. 94, comp. 351, p. 4.

63. Interview with Gordhandas Chokhawala, 1980.

64. Ibid.

65. GM, 18 March 1917, pp. 2-3.

66. "Petition from Prasanavadan Motabhai Desai and others of Surat, 12th Sept. 1909," in BA, GD, 1910, vol. 117, comp. 210, p. 41.

67. BA, GD, 1915, comp. 72, pp. 27-30.

68. For a somewhat different treatment of Indian politics acknowledging the use of multiple idioms by powerful men, see Morris-Jones, "India's Political Idioms," pp. 133-54.

69. GM, 10 September 1899, p. 10.

70. SMR, 1904-5, p. 40.

1. So reported the collector in his speech at the annual durbar in 1914. See GM, 25 October 1914, p. 2.

2. "Collector's Report, 1913-4," in BA, RD, 1915, comp. 511, pt. 6, pp. 10-11.

3. GM, 9 August 1914, p. 16.2.

4. "Collector's Report, 1913-4," in BA, RD, 1915, comp. 511, pt. 6, pp. 10-11.

5. Jhaverchand's collapse is recorded in GM, 7 April 1918, pp. 7-8. See TI, 9 January 1917, p. 4, for conditions in the pearl market.

6. GM, 12 March 1916, p. 11; 19 March 1916, p. 6; 23 June 1918, p. 16.3; TI, 30 April 1918, p. 8.

7. "Collector's Report, 1916-7," in BA, RD, 1918, comp. 511, pt. 4, p. 11.

8. Ibid.

9. GM, 14 October 1917, p. 5.

10. GM, 5 January 1919, p. 5.

11. GM, 8 September 1918, p. 6.

12. GM, 5 January 1919, p. 5.

13. GM, 14 October 1917, p. 5.

14. Ibid.

15. For a discussion of new controls during the war, see Gordon, Businessmen and Politics, pp. 87-104.

16. GM, 18 August 1918, p. 16.2.

17. Gordon, Businessmen and Politics, pp. 87-93; GM, 7 July 1918, p. 6.

18. Gordon, Businessmen and Politics, p. 22.

19. GM, 26 May 1918, p. 3.

20. GM, 1 September 1918, p. 11.

21. For policy recommendations on Bombay municipalities, see Report of the Special Officer on Local Self-Government in the Bombay Presidency.

22. The passing of municipal bylaws in Surat City is discussed in BA, GD, 1914, comp. 1379.

23. Patrick Geddes, Reports on the Replanning of Six Towns in Bombay Presidency, pp. 20-21.

24. Administrative Report of Surat Municipality, 1917-1918, in SMR, 1917-18, pp. 21-22.

25. "Collector, Surat to Commissioner, Northern Division 12 May 1913," in BA, GD, 1914, comp. 1379, p. 13.

26. "Extracts from Proceedings of the Adjourned Special General Meeting of the Surat City Municipality held on 13th Mar. 1914," in BA, GD, 1914, comp. 1379, pp. 51-53.

27. Papers relating to the new building regulations include BA, GD, 1914, comp. 1379, pp. 15, 53-55; GD, 1916, comp. 862, pp. 57-58. The collector's quote is on p. 15 of the first reference.

28. "Collector, Surat to Secty. to the Govt., G.D., Bombay, 2nd Nov. 1914," in GD, 1915, comp. 72, p. 65.

29. Ibid., p. 33.

30. SMR, 1916-17, pp. 46-47.

31. "Collector of Surat, 4 Aug. 1916," in GD, 1917, comp. 653, p. 106.

32. Administrative Report of Surat Municipality, 1917-1918, in SMR, 1917-18, p. 13.

33. Administrative Report of Surat Municipality, 1916-1917, in SMR, 1916-17, p. 16.

34. SMR, 1915-16, pp. 139-40.

35. Administrative Report of Surat Municipality, 1917-1918, in SMR, 1917-18, p. 10; complaints against the imposition of meters on heavy water users may be found in BA, GD, 1917, comp. 661; on cesspool rates, see "Letter of Commissioner for City of Surat, 16 April 1918," in BA, GD, 1917, comp. 72, p. 10.

36. GM, 23 May 1915, p. 16.4.

37. GM, 8 April 1918, pp. 7-8.

38. For a little information on Desai's background, see BC, 8 August 1917, p. 8.

39. For criticism of the mahajan's failure to respond to rising grain prices during the war by acting to forbid grain exports, see GM, 21 April 1918, p. 7.

40. GM, 21 April 1918, p. 4; SMR, 1918-19, pp. 19-20. Middle-income residents apparently avoided these shops because of a stigma attached to accepting charity.

41. GM, 1 September 1918, p. 5.

42. For the movements in Bombay and Ahmedabad, see TI, 3 August 1918, p. 7; BSPA, 1918, para. 1359, pp. 790-91.

43. GM, 1 September 1918, pp. 5-6, 11.

44. GM, 1 September 1918, pp. 5-6.

45. GM, 24 September 1916, p. 7.

46. GM, 26 November 1916, p. 20.2.

47. GM, 26 November 1916, p. 5.

48. GM, 30 November 1919, p. 22; 14 December 1919, p. 20.

49. GM, 4 January 1920, p. 3.

50. GM, 15 February 1920, p. 4.

51. Ibid.

52. GM, 30 March 1919, p. 18.

53. GM, 15 February 1920, p. 3.

54. Interview with Kumudbehen Desai, 1980.

55. GM, 30 March 1919, p. 18.

56. GM, 5 May 1918, p. 5.

57. GM, 23 March 1919, pp. 3-4.

58. For the role of jnati organizations in mobilizing middle-caste residents in Gandhian politics just after World War I, see pp. 242-43. Caste organizations among Golas, Khatris, Bhavsars, and Ghanchis again played important parts in the civil disobedience agitations of 1930-32.

59. For Mehta's support of the commissioner system, see BA, GD, 1917, comp. 653. The collector's comments are found in his letter, 4 August 1916, on p. 108 of this compilation.

60. "Petition of the Citizens of Surat as Represented by Their Elected Municipal Councillors, Mar. 1915," BA, GD, 1915, comp. 72, pp. 211-13.

61. SMR, 1898-99, p. 71.

62. "Memorial from Iccharam Nagindas Vakil and Others 26 Feb. 1885," in BA, GD, 1885, vol. 94, comp. 351, p. 4.

63. Interview with Gordhandas Chokhawala, 1980.

64. Ibid.

65. GM, 18 March 1917, pp. 2-3.

66. "Petition from Prasanavadan Motabhai Desai and others of Surat, 12th Sept. 1909," in BA, GD, 1910, vol. 117, comp. 210, p. 41.

67. BA, GD, 1915, comp. 72, pp. 27-30.

68. For a somewhat different treatment of Indian politics acknowledging the use of multiple idioms by powerful men, see Morris-Jones, "India's Political Idioms," pp. 133-54.

69. GM, 10 September 1899, p. 10.

70. SMR, 1904-5, p. 40.

71. GM, 14 April 1918, p. 2.

72. GM, 31 March 1918, p. 1.

73. BSPA, 1915, para. 404, p. 219.

74. For early Home Rule League politics in Bombay, see James Masselos, "Bombay City Politics in 1919"; "Statement Relating to the Disturbances in the City of Bombay," IOR, L/P&J/1650, file 839, 1920, p. 1.

75. Interview with Kunvarji Mehta, 1980; BC, 20 February 1919, p. 10.

76. BSPA, 1917, para. 899(r), p. 583.

77. BSPA, 1917, para. 559(g), p. 289.

78. BC, 20 February 1919, p. 10.

79. GM, 18 August 1918, p. 3.

80. GM, 11 November 1917, pp. 13-16.

81. BC, 20 February 1919, p. 10.

82. For numerous reports on meetings of Surat's Home Rule League, see BSPA and BC for 1917 and 1918.

83. BC, 27 April 1917, p. 5.

84. GM, 11 November 1917, pp. 13-14.

85. BC, 27 April 1917, p. 5.

86. BC, 19 July 1917, p. 6.

87. In 1919, before the law went into effect, as few as 40 percent of children between the ages of six and twelve attended school in middle- and low-caste wards. In some high-caste wards, by contrast, more than 80 percent of such children attended school. SMR, 1918-19, p. 140.

88. BC, 22 July 1920, p. 13.

89. SMR, 1919-20, p. 8; for evidence of objections to the primary education scheme, see GM, 10 July 1921, p. 7; 20 July 1924, p. 3.

1. The most penetrating account of Gandhi's South African period remains Judith M. Brown's Gandhi's Rise to Power, pp. 1-15. More in-depth but analytically less satisfactory are Robert A. Huttenback, Gandhi in South Africa; and Maureen Swan, Gandhi: The South African Experience. See also Gandhi's own Satyagraha in South Africa.

2. For analysis of the novel, syncretic character of this philosophy, see Joan Bondurant, Conquest of Violence; Indira Rothermund, The Philosophy of Restraint; Rudolph and Rudolph, "The Traditional Roots of Charisma," in The Modernity of Tradition, pp. 155-219. The most important psychological study of Gandhi is Erik Erikson's Gandhi's Truth on the Origins of Militant Nonviolence, while the most useful biography remains B. R. Nanda, Mahatma Gandhi. A recent study of importance is Richard Fox, Gandhian Utopia. The quote comes from Gandhi, Collected Works, vol. 22, p. 404, and is cited in Rudolph and Rudolph, "The Traditional Roots of Charisma," p. 158.

3. Gandhi, Hind Swaraj, in Collected Works, vol. 10, pp. 6-69. The quotes are from p. 15 and p. 16.

4. An excellent analysis of Hind Swaraj is Partha Chatterjee, "Gandhi and the Critique of Civil Society."

5. See esp. Fox, "Gandhian Socialism and Hindu Nationalism," in Gandhian Utopia, chap. 5.

6. Hind Swaraj, p. 37.

7. For instance, ibid., pp. 27, 28-29.

8. Ibid., p. 39. For a more extensive analysis of the concept of swaraj, see Raghavan N. Iyer, The Moral and Political Thought of Mahatma Gandhi, pp. 346-58.

9. Louis Fisher, The Life of Mahatma Gandhi, p. 124.

10. For Gandhi's first visit to Surat, see GM, 9 January 1916, pp. 13-16.4, and I. I. Desai, Muktinun Parodh, pp. 98-121.

11. The lives of these three are well documented. For the Mehta brothers, see Kalyanji Mehta, "Ashramna Ekavan Varsh," pt. 2; Anil Bhatt, "Caste and Political Mobilisation in a Gujarat District," pp. 299-339; I. I. Desai and Ramnarayan N. Phatak, Be Karmvir Bhaio. A somewhat novelistic account of the brothers' activities is Babubhai P. Vaidhya, Retima Vahan. For Dayalji, see Shri Dayaljibhai Smrutigranth. Important for locating these men in the larger struggles of the region is Shirin Mehta, The Peasantry and Nationalism.

12. Interview with Bhailalbhai Patel, 1980.

13. For a sophisticated examination of the meanings of the terms kanbi and patidar, see David F. Pocock, Kanbi and Patidar.

14. For these activities, see especially Bhatt, "Caste and Political Mobilisation," and Kalyanji Mehta, "Ashramna Ekavan Varsh."

15. Mehta, "Ashramna Ekavan Varsh," p. 6. The emphasis is mine.

16. Patel Bandhu 7 (1916), quoted in Bhatt, "Caste and Political Mobilisation," p. 302. The emphasis is Bhatt's.

17. Desai and Phatak, Be Karmvir Bhaio, pp. 62-68.

18. Shirin Mehta, The Peasantry and Nationalism, p. 73.

19. Kalyanji Mehta, "Ashramna Ekavan Varsh," p. 35.

20. Ibid.

21. BSPA, 1919, para. 1566(a), p. 1055; GM, 14 December 1919, pp. 13-14; BC, 20 December 1919, p. 15; 24 December 1919, p. 14; 30 December 1919, p. 5.

22. BSPA, 1919, para. 1520(a), p. 1029.

23. BC, 30 December 1919, p. 5.

24. See pp. 221-22.

25. BSPA, 1920, para. 1131(I)-(K), pp. 1150-52.

26. GM, 31 October 1920, p. 4; also 24 October 1920, pp. 10-11; BC, 19 August 1920, p. 14; BSPA, 1920, para. 1494, p. 1641.

27. GM, 7 November 1920, pp. 6-7.

28. GM, 20 February 1921, p. 4.

29. Ibid., p. 3.

30. GM, 27 March 1921, p. 16.

31. GM, 8 May 1921, pp. 16-17.

32. BC, 22 November 1921, p. 8.

33. BC, 19 December 1921, p. 5.

34. Desai and Phatak, Be Karmvir Bhaio, p. 98; GM files for 1921 and 1922; Surat Municipality Administration Reports, 1921-22; 1922-23; BSPA, 1922, para. 349(1), p. 382.

35. GM, 8 May 1921, p. 16.

36. Richard A. Brown, ''Social Theory as Metaphor," pp. 176, 172; see also Robert Paine, "The Political Uses of Metaphor and Metonym: An Explanatory Statement," in Politically Speaking. Other important studies of metaphor are James W. Fernandez, "The Mission of Metaphor in Expressive Culture," and the essays in David J. Sapir and J. Christopher Crocker, eds., The Social Use of Metaphor.

37. Brenda Beck, "The Metaphor as a Mediator between Semantic and Analogic Modes of Thought."

38. Fernandez, in "The Mission of Metaphor," p. 121, suggests that those outside well-defined roles are most responsible for metaphor innovation: "There are always some men who feel more strongly their inchoateness and their painful positioning in quality space . . . they have the imagination to leap to other domains to obtain recompense and movement."

39. Even these customs were challenged in one public meeting when one noncooperator argued that the gathering dispense with the ritual of selecting a chair. GM, 10 June 1923, p. 8.2.

40. GM, 13 April 1919, p. 10.

41. GM, 10 July 1921, p. 11.

42. BC, 19 December 1921, p. 5.

43. GM, 10 July 1921, p. 9.

44. GM, 20 June 1920, p. 6.

45. GM, 30 January 1921, p. 5.

46. Kalyanji Mehta, "Ashramna Ekavan Varsh," p. 39.

47. GM, 9 August 1921, p. 15.

48. GM, 16 April 1922, p. 15; also 9 April 1922, p. 7; 26 March 1922, pp. 15-16.

49. GM, 4 June 1922, p. 13.

50. For these arguments, I am indebted to conversations with Geraldine Forbes. See also Maria Mies, "Indian Women and Leadership."

51. GM, 26 April 1925, p. 2.

52. GM, 3 October 1920, p. 15.

53. GM, 2 October 1921, p. 8.2.

54. See the discussion later in this section and in the following sections.

55. GM, 9 August 1921, p. 16.

56. Ibid.

57. GM, 10 July 1921, pp. 9-11.

58. GM, 9 August 1921, p. 16.

59. GM, 4 June 1922, p. 10.

60. Ibid.

61. GM, 20 June 1920, pp. 5-6.

62. GM, 10 July 1921, p. 9.

63. GM, 8 April 1923, p. 9.

64. GM, 23 April 1922, p. 13.

65. GM, 13 April 1919, pp. 5-6; 30 January 1921, p. 4.

66. GM, 23 April 1922, p. 14.

67. GM, 10 July 1920, p. 9.

68. For an exploration of this theme in Gandhi's own writings, see Bondurant, Conquest of Violence, pp. 113-15, 228.

69. GM, 10 July 1921, p. 9.

70. GM, 11 June 1922, p. 12.

71. See BSPA, 1923, para. 314, p. 178; I. I. Desai, ed., Raniparajma Jagruti; David Hardiman, "Adivasi Assertion in South Gujarat," and The Coming of the Devi, chap. 10.

72. GM, 26 March 1922, p. 15.

73. BSPA, 1921, para. 584(5), p. 1019.

74. GM, 2 October 1921, p. 8.1.

75. GM, 9 April 1922, p. 6.

76. Anavil Sevak, September 1920, in Bombay Presidency, Native Newspaper Reports for the week ending 5 February 1921.

77. GM, 5 August 1923, p. 15.

78. GM, 23 July 1922, p. 17.

79. GM, 9 April 1922, p. 6.

80. This section could hardly have been conceived without the stimulation of the provocative essay by Shahid Amin, "Gandhi as Mahatma." While Amin focuses on peasant perceptions of Gandhi, however, this section considers elite constructions of the Mahatma.

81. For instance, see GM, 16 October 1921, pp. 19-20.

82. GM, 2 October 1921, pp. 8-10.

83. GM, 2 October 1921, p. 8-1; this talk referred to the ideal qualities associated with each of the four varnas (divisions) of the caste system: the Brahmans (who performed the role of priests), the Kshatriyas (warriors), the Vaishyas (merchants), and Shudras (cultivators).

84. GM, 23 April 1922, p. 13.

85. GM, 23 April 1922, p. 14.

86. For instance, GM, 26 March 1922, p. 15; 23 April 1922, p. 13.

87. GM, 4 June 1922, p. 13.

88. Kalyanji Mehta, "Ame Satyagrahi Chela," in Ladatna Gito, ed. I. I. Desai, p. 43.

89. Interview with Kunvarji Mehta, Bombay, 1980.

90. BA, GD, 1920, comp. 1053, no page given; BSPA, 1920, para. 1131(U), p. 1160.

91. BSPA, 1921, para. 474(10), p. 763.

92. Kalyanji Mehta, "Hindna Banda," in Ladatna Gito, p. 54. For nautical imagery in Gandhian and devotional discourse, see Amin, "Gandhi as Mahatma," p. 19. Amin in turn cites Susan Wadley, "Power in Hindu Ideology and Practice," p. 144.

93. GM, 11 June 1922, pp. 10-18; BSPA, 1922, para. 758(11), p. 726.

94. Navayug, 8 July 1923, in Bombay Presidency, Native Newspaper Reports for the week ending 9 July 1923, p. 542.

95. Ibid.

1. For the municipal campaign, see BC, 7 April 1921, p. 9; GM, 27 February 1921, pp. 2-3; 6 March 1921, pp. 2-3; 13 March 1921, pp. 4-5, 18-19.

2. GM, 16 October 1921, p. 14.2.

3. GM, 13 April 1919, pp. 5-12.

4. BC, 30 December 1919, p. 5.

5. GM, 21 December 1919, pp. 13-15.

6. GM, 14 November 1920, p. 1.

7. BSPA, 1920, para. 1555(36), p. 1710; GM, 21 November 1920, p. 12.

8. GM, 21 November 1920, p. 12.

9. BSPA, 1920, para. 1555(36), p. 1710.

10. Administration Report of the Surat Municipality, 1921-22, p. 13.

11. Ibid.

12. BSPA, 1922, para. 569(9), p. 598; para. 28(4), p. 21.

13. BSPA, 1923, para. 25(6), p. 19.

14. BSPA, 1923, para. 1047(10), p. 682.

15. The analysis here is influenced by Amin, "Gandhi as Mahatma"; and Chatterjee, "Gandhi and the Critique of Civil Society." I have found only limited evidence in Surat of popular reinterpretations of Gandhi that defied elite representations. This may be owing to the presence of large numbers of Gandhians in Surat with direct ties to Gandhi, who were always ready to correct such "heterodox" developments. Of course, it may also be owing to the limitations of the sources.

16. BSPA, 1921, para. 461(12), p. 728.

17. BSPA, 1922, para. 193(11), p. 235.

18. BA, GD, 1920, comp. 1053, no page given.

19. BSPA, 1923, para. 28(4), p. 21; para. 119(2), p. 62.

20. GM, 25 October 1925, p. 1.

21. BSPA, 1923, para. 903(2), p. 600; GM, 20 May 1923, pp. 14-16.

22. GM, 19 August 1923, p. 4; 7 October 1923, pp. 9-12; 14 October 1923, p. 10; BSPA, 1923, para. 1898, p. 1280.

23. See, e.g., Judith Brown, Gandhi's Rise to Power, p. 340.

24. GM, 9 September 1923, p. 4.

25. GM, 28 October 1923, p. 16.

26. BSPA, para. 2004(5), p. 1346.

27. Ibid.

28. GM, 14 November 1926, pp. 1-2.

29. The words are those of the editor of GM, 10 October 1926, p. 2.

30. GM, 18 November 1923, p. 8.

31. David Arnold, The Congress in Tamilnad, p. 96. The analysis also owes much to this work.

32. S. R. Bakshi, Swaraj Party and the Indian National Congress, p. 123.

33. GM, 23 March 1924, p. 13; Bombay Legislative Council, Proceedings, 20 March 1924, p. 1565.

34. Bombay Legislative Council, Proceedings, 21 July 1924, p. 100.

35. BC, 27 August 1924, p. 11; 23 October 1924, p. 11.

36. GM, 8 February 1925, p. 2.

37. For instance, GM, 12 April 1925, p. 3.

38. GM, 9 August 1925, p. 1.

39. Surat City Municipality, Municipal Proceedings, 27 July 1925.

40. Surat City Municipality, Municipal Proceedings, 2 October 1925; 9 October 1925.

41. Surat City Municipality, Municipal Proceedings, 18 January 1926.

42. GM, 15 November 1925, p. 1.

43. GM, 7 February 1926, pp. 1-2; pp. 8.1-16, 19, 20-22.

44. GM, 7 February 1926, pp. 10-11.

45. SMR, 1926-27, pp. 4, 28; 1927-28, p. 3.

46. Administrative Report of Surat City Municipality, 1927-28, p. 20.

47. Administrative Report of Surat City Municipality, 1926-27, p. 8.

48. SMR, 1925-26, p. 24.

1. GM, 23 January 1910, p. 3.

2. GM, 10 November 1912, p. 13.

3. GM, 18 May 1913, p. 17.

4. BA, GD, 1914, comp. 1379, p. 4.

5. Surat City Municipality, Municipal Proceedings, 29 September 1919.

6. BA, GD, 1914, comp. 1379, pp. 42-43.

7. BC, 18 August 1920, p. 7; GM, 15 August 1920, p. 20; 29 August 1920, p. 16.

8. "Collector, Surat to Commissioner, Northern Division 14-10-1913," in BA, GD, 1914, comp. 1379, pp. 21-22.

9. BC, 21 November 1917, p. 5. Francis Robinson has distinguished between the politics of "young" Muslims and "old" Muslims in Separatism among Indian Muslims. He finds that the young Muslims came from social backgrounds similar to those of old Muslims and were distinguished from old Muslims mainly by their relationship to the British, their opportunities for employment, and their style of politics. In Surat, the new group of politicians who arose dur-

ing the war came largely from outside the families that had dominated Muslim politics in the city before the war. Not all the new activists, however, were younger than those who belonged to the notable families.

10. BC, 3 December 1917, p. 4.

11. GM, 14 October 1917, p. 3; BC, 1 August 1919, p. 10.

12. Richard Fox, writing on different Gandhian conceptions and drawing upon theoretical insights of the French literary critic Richard Terdiman, argues that the Mahatma's insights were in a "conflicted intimacy" with the pejorative understandings of India they were intended to counter. See Fox, Gandhian Utopia, chap. 5 and Conclusion.

13. Gandhi, Collected Works, vol. 15, pp. 201-3; vol. 18, pp. 327-28, 392; see also Gandhi, Hind Swaraj, in Collected Works, vol. 10, pp. 28-32.

14. Brown, Gandhi's Rise to Power, p. 194.

15. For instances, see Gandhi's speech on Khilafat at Bombay, 9 May 1919, in Collected Works, vol. 15, p. 297.

16. Arguments formulated in somewhat different terms but with similar implications are made in Ravinder Kumar, introduction to Essays on Indian Politics, pp. 11-16; and Gail Minault, The Khilafat Movement, p. 135.

17. Interview with Hafiz Mohammed Golandaz, Surat, 1980; BSPA, 1920, para. 1131(u), p. 1160.

18. GM, 21 March 1920, p. 4.

19. Ibid.

20. For instance, see BSPA, 1920, para. 596, III, pp. 494-95.

21. Gani Dahinwala, Shvas-Uchchhavas, p. 3.

22. GM, 21 March 1920, p. 4.

23. GM, 21 March 1920, p. 4.1.

24. BC, 2 March 1921, p. 13.

25. BA, HD, (Special), 1922, file 584-C.

26. Gandhi, in the Independent (Allahabad), 12 October 1919, quoted in Robinson, Separatism among Indian Muslims, p. 296.

27. Gandhi, "Letter to Press," 10 October 1919, in Collected Works, vol. 16, p. 227.

28. GM, 19 October 1919, p. 7.

29. BSPA, 1919, para. 1397(f), p. 952.

30. BSPA, 1920, para. 549, IV, p. 437.

31. GM, 8 February 1920, pp. 9-12.

32. Interview with Gani Dahinwala, Surat, 1980.

33. GM, 21 November 1920, pp. 12-14.

34. For instance, see BSPA, 1921, para. 511(39), p. 864.

35. Collector of Surat, 4 October 1920, in BA, HD (Special), 1920, file 355(11).

36. For a fuller account of conflicts among the Bohras over control of community properties, see Haynes, "Conflict and Cultural Change in Urban India," pp. 344-53.

37. BSPA, 1920, para. 1653(26), p. 1788.

38. BSPA, 1923, para. 119(2), p. 62.

39. BSPA, 1921, para. 978(10), p. 1485.

40. BSPA, 1920, para. 596, II, pp. 494-95.

41. BSPA, 1921, para. 750(2), p. 1233.

42. "A Note on the Present Situation at Bardoli, Acting Superintendent of Police, Surat," in BA, HD, (Special) 1922, file 584-6, p. 311.

43. GM, 28 August 1921, p. 21.

44. BC, 25 August 1924, p. 9.

45. BC, 4 September 1924, p. 5.

46. BC, 3 October 1924, p. 9.

47. This paragraph has been influenced by Frykenberg, "The Concept of 'Majority,'" pp. 267-74.

48. BSPA, 1922, para. 1732(9), p. 1510; 1923, para. 665(12), p. 426.

49. GM, 8 April 1923, p. 16; BSPA, 1923, para. 665(12), p. 426.

50. The Mahasabha was originally founded in Surat in 1923. The association was apparently revived in early 1927, with Dr. Vora as its president and with members of its administrative committee including Prasannavadan Desai, Kanaiyalal Desai, and Chhotubhai Marfatia.

51. On Rayaji's writings and speeches, see IOR/L/P&J/6/1968, file 4041 of 1928; BA, HD (Special), 1927, file 566A(i), p. 103; BSPA, 1928, para. 9(9), p. 5; 1928, para. 39, p. 24; 1928, para. 1243(1), p. 501.

52. BC, 11 April 1928, p. 9. For an extensive treatise on Shivaji, see Gandiv, 1 May 1927, p. 4.

53. "Opinion of Inspector General of Police, 22 June 1927," p. 6, in IOR, L/P&J/6/1939, file 1113 of 1927, Document 1155-28.

54. For accounts of these events, see IOR, L/P&J/6/1939, file 1113 of 1927; GM, 8 May 1927, p. 21; Pratap, 8 May 1927, p. 3.

55. GM, 15 May 1927, p. 1.

56. GM, 8 May 1927, pp. 21-22.

57. Pratap, 15 May 1927, p. 2; 29 May 1927, p. 3.

58. "District Magistrate, Surat to Secty to Government, H.D., Bombay, 28 May 1927," in IOR, L/P&J/6/1939, file 1113 of 1927, p. 10.

59. Pratap, 8 May 1927, p. 3.

60. Even in Maharashtra, the Ganapati festival had only recently acquired a formal and political character; see esp. Cashman, The Myth of the Lokamanya, pp. 75-97.

61. BA, HD (Special) 1927, file 566A(i), p. 72.

62. Ibid., p. 53.

63. Ibid., pp. 74-75.

64. Ibid., p. 41.

65. IOR/P&J/6/1968, file 4041 of 1928, for accounts of the 1928 riots and events leading up to them.

66. Chatterjee, Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World, p. 155.

1. The epigraph is from a speech by Gandhi to students and workers, Surat, 6 October 1920, in Collected Works, vol. 18, p. 330.

2. Rosalind O'Hanlon, "Recovering the Subject."

3. For instance, David Arnold, The Congress in Tamilnad, chap. 3, for members of the Madras Congress during the 1920s. On Jawaharlal Nehru, see Bipan

Chandra, "Jawaharlal Nehru and the Capitalist Class, 1936"; Sarvepalli Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru; Chatterjee, Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World, pp. 131-66, esp. 151-57.

4. I paraphrase Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy, p. xii.

5. Daniel B. Schirmer and Stephen Rosskamm Shalom, eds., The Philippines Reader, esp. chaps. 2 and 6; Norman G. Owen, ed., Compadre Colonialism; Alfred W. McCoy, "The Philippines"; Peter W. Stanley, Reappraising an Empire.

6. "Address of His Excellency Manuel L. Quezon, President of the Philippines on Filipino Gratitude to the United States," Luneta, 13 August 1938. A copy of this speech is in the Dartmouth College Library, Hanover, N.H.

7. David G. Marr, Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, 1920-1945; R. B. Smith, "Bui Quang Chieu and the Constitutionalist Party in French Cochinchina, 1917-1930"; Hue-Tam Ho Tai, "The Politics of Compromise"; Bernard Fall, ed., Ho Chi Minh on Revolution.

8. See esp. Marr, Vietnamese Tradition on Trial.

9. These paragraphs have been influenced by Laitin, Hegemony and Culture; and Leo Spitzer, The Creoles of Sierra Leone.

10. Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, pp. 137-38. My thanks to Gyan Prakash for pointing out this concept to me.

11. This analysis is influenced by Dipesh Chakrabarty, Rethinking Working-Class History, esp. chap. 4. I differ from Chakrabarty on a number of points, however.

12. See, e.g., Donn V. Hart, Compadrinazgo, esp. pp. 135-41.

13. See, e.g., Peter Ekeh, "Colonialism and the Two Publics in Africa"; Richard Joseph, Democracy and Prebendal Politics in Nigeria; and Audrey I. Richards, The Multicultural States of East Africa. The quote is from p. 38 of Richards.