1. Gituuru wa Gikamata, MOS 27. MOS refers to the ''Meru Oral Sources" section of the Bibliography, where I have provided background information on each of my informants.

2. "The usual European way of spelling this word [Gikuyu] is Kikuyu, which is incorrect. It should be Gikuyu. . . . This form refers only to the country itself. A Gikuyu person is Mu-Gikuyu, plural, A-Gikuyu. But so as not to confuse our readers, we have used one form, Gikuyu, for all purposes" (Jomo Kenyatta, Facing Mt. Kenya , xv). This book follows Kenyatta's guidelines. Colonial sources cited here, however, retain their original spellings.

1. Gaichungi Baibuatho M'Mbarui, MOS 34.

2. See Fadiman, "Early History of the Meru," for additional detail on Meru origins and subsequent migration to Mount Kenya. All sketches in this chapter are drawn from this article.

3. Lambert, Systems of Land Tenure , 10.

4. "How the Meru Came to Their Present Country," typed manuscript, author unknown; originally collected by E. B. Home, first district commissioner, Meru, in 1918. Lambert Papers.

5. John Sharman, professor of African linguistics, Institute of African Studies, University of Nairobi, personal communication, July 1970.

6. N. Chittick, "Discoveries in the Lamu Archipelago," Anzania 2 (1967):84, and personal communication, 1970.

7. Stigand, The Land of Zinj , 48.

8. R. Bunger, "Pokomo Political History and Organization," Discussion Paper, Institute of African Studies, University of Nairobi, July 1970, and personal communication, July—December 1970.

9. Monro, "Migrations of the Bantu-Speaking Peoples, 25-28.

10. Holding, "Some Preliminary Notes on Meru Age Grades," 58-65, suggests that parallel systems of councils operated among females.

11. Lambert, "Social and Political Institutions," 439-79, Lambert Papers.

12. Mahner, "The Insider and the Outsider," 1-2, and personal communication, July—December 1970.

13. Fadiman, "Mountain Witchcraft," 87-101.

14. Laughton, "An Introductory Study of the Meru People."

15 Gerrard M'Ikaria (son of a foreteller), MOS 15; M'Anyoni wa Ntangi (former curse-detector), MOS 16; M'Rinkanya M'Ringui (former curse-detector), MOS 17; M'Mwiriria M'Murungi (former bow breaker, i.e., theft detector), MOS 18; Ngaruro M'Munyiri (former oath administrator: "oath of the hot iron"), MOS 19; M'Mukira Gakoro (former curse-remover), MOS 22; all from Imenti. No practitioners of Urogi (cursing) are included: no one in all Meru admitted to having practiced the rituals of Urogi at any time, although everyone believed that others did so.

1. M'Ikiene M'Irimbere, MOS 40.

2. Nguruntune variants collected by H. E. Lambert and J. G. H. Hopkins, former district commissioners in Meru, who took great interest in their historical traditions. Material now in Lambert Papers.

3. Benson, ed., Kikuyu-English Dictionary , for example, gives three meanings of Mukuna Ruku, each of which is reflected in Meru tradition: (1) "a mythological figure . . . giving light to the sun"; (2) "one who signals by means of a gong (legendary figure, probably an ivory trader from Mombasa)"; (3) "a person of . . . authority, . . . Arab or European.'' In contemporary Meru children's tales Mukuna Ruku is synonymous with both a figure of authority and the sun.

4. Ogot and Kiernan, Zamani , 130; Oliver and Mathew, History of East Africa , 141; and Stigand, The Land of Zinj , 49-50.

5. Hobley, Ethnology of the A-Kamba , 158.

6. Lambert Papers. Early versions were collected by E. B. Horne (1913), J. G. H. Hopkins (1918), and C. R. Wise (1925), all district commissioners. Later versions were collected from various subtribes by Rev. W. H. Laughton and H. E. Lambert, district commissioner (all in the 1930s and early 1940s). The latest collections took place in 1967-1970 among every section of the Meru-speaking peoples and are my own.

7. E. B. Home, private paper, 25 April 1913. Lambert Papers.

8. Ibid.

7. E. B. Home, private paper, 25 April 1913. Lambert Papers.

8. Ibid.

9. Mahassin, "Some Contributions of Swahili Poetry."

10. Laughton, "An Introductory Study of the Meru People."

11. Jean Brown, "Metalworking in East and Central Kenya," Discussion Paper, Institute of Development Studies, University of Nairobi, June 1970.

12. John Sharman, Professor of Linguistics, Institute of African Studies, University of Nairobi. Personal communication, October 1970.

13. The prophecy is in Ki-Igembe, a dialect of Ki-Meru (language). Kiringo M'Munyari, MOS 33.

14. Brown, Jean, "Metalworking in East and Central Kenya," 2.

15. Ibid., 5, and see L. Saggerson, "Geological Survey," in E. W. Russell, ed., Natural Resources of East Africa (Nairobi: East African Publishing House, 1962).

14. Brown, Jean, "Metalworking in East and Central Kenya," 2.

15. Ibid., 5, and see L. Saggerson, "Geological Survey," in E. W. Russell, ed., Natural Resources of East Africa (Nairobi: East African Publishing House, 1962).

16. For this and all subsequent information about the area between the Tana River and the upland fringes of Ukambani (the area currently inhabited by the Kamba), I am indebted to Mr. Stephen Pownall, Nanyuki, Kenya, who became intimately acquainted with its topography through many years of game trapping and cattle buying in the area.

17. See note 16 above.

18. Lambert, "Social and Political Institutions," 315-17.

19. Gituuru wa Gikamata (Imenti), MOS 27; M'Thaara M'Mutani (Muthambi), MOS 28; Kiringo M'Munyari (Igembe), MOS 33; Gaichungi Baibuatho M'Mbarui (Igembe), MOS 34; these men are among the last surviving members of their Kiramana (Igembe: Kilamunya) age-set, thus the oldest living men in Meru.

20. There are many translations of the term "Mount Kenya." One of the earlier Gikuyu versions, still widely accepted, is Kirima Kia Nyaga (hill of the ostrich), currently contracted to Kirinyaga. Similarly, the earlier Meru version of Kirima Kia Maara (shining hill, referring to its ice-capped peak) has been contracted to Kirimaara. Gikuyu data provided by K. K. Sillitoe, assistant agricultural officer, Meru, 1954-1957; personal communication, May 1992.

1. Hezikiah M'Mukiri, MOS 26.

2. Bernardi, Mugwe , and personal communication, Turin, Italy, July 1969. The concept of the Mugwe as "transmitter of blessings" is my own.

3. Adamson, Bwana Game , 8, describes the automatic cursing system of the Ogiek in terms identical to that of Meru hunters. Corroborated in personal communication, November 1969-November 1970.

4. The complete itemized contents of an antelope-skin carrier, said to have belonged to an A-Athi "witch doctor" (i.e., curse remover) was turned in to the British Museum, circa 1920, by Lt. G. St. J. Orde-Browne, at that time assistant district commissioner of Cuka (formerly Chuka) (i.e., the Mwimbi-Muthambi-Cuka regions), and subsequent author of The Vanishing Tribes of Kenya .

5. Chant used in South Imenti by M'Nkanata M'Mkatemia (see MOS 46), one of that region's oldest honey hunters. Informant recalls that chants were "bought" (in exchange for millet beer) from Ogiek hunters at the time of the Michubu age-set (1750s).

6. Blackburn, "A Preliminary Report of Research on the Ogiek Tribe," and Rosen, "A Preliminary Report of Research among the Mukogodo, Laikipiak District.

7. Adamson, A Lifetime with Lions (American title for Bwana Game ), 86-87, and subsequent personal communication, 1969-1970.

8. See Mathiu wa Gacece (Northeast Imenti), MOS 42; M'Mwongera wa Kabutai (Northeast Imenti), MOS 41; M'Nkanata M'Mkatemia (South Imenti), MOS 46; Daudi M'Mungaria (South Imenti), MOS 47; Majogu wa Mathiu (Northeast Imenti), MOS 44; and several others all former A-Athi or descended from A-Athi clans or both.

9. See note 8 above.

10. See note 8 above.

11. Fadiman, ''The Meru Peoples," 153-73, deals with Mount Kenya's earlier occupants in greater detail.

12. Ibid.; H. S. K. Mwaniki, personal correspondence, 1970s. Fragmentary traditions collected from Tigania and Northeast Imenti also record the presence of a single Bantu-speaking people, whom they know as Michimikuru. Traditions collected by Mwaniki among the Bantu-speaking Mbeere, who live adjacent to the Embu of Mount Kenya, suggest that at least one section of their tribe was once called Michimikuru, did live on the Tigania Plain, and was driven south.

11. Fadiman, ''The Meru Peoples," 153-73, deals with Mount Kenya's earlier occupants in greater detail.

12. Ibid.; H. S. K. Mwaniki, personal correspondence, 1970s. Fragmentary traditions collected from Tigania and Northeast Imenti also record the presence of a single Bantu-speaking people, whom they know as Michimikuru. Traditions collected by Mwaniki among the Bantu-speaking Mbeere, who live adjacent to the Embu of Mount Kenya, suggest that at least one section of their tribe was once called Michimikuru, did live on the Tigania Plain, and was driven south.

13. Alan H. Jacobs, research director, Institute of Africa Studies, University of Nairobi, 1968-1972, in a personal communication, has suggested the following sketch of the language relationships referred to in classifying Mount Kenya's earlier (pre-Bantu-speaking) occupants:

14. J. G. Hopkins, assistant district commissioner, Meru, 1917-1918. Report on Mwoko (Muoko) burial customs, 25 April 1919, Meru political records, Kenya National Archives (hereinafter KNA), Nairobi, Kenya, and personal correspondence with Hopkins, Pretoria, South Africa, June—December 1970.

15. Rev. A. J. Hopkins, missionary, United Methodist Mission, Meru District, mid-1920s. Letter, 16 May 1924, to C. S. Dobbs, district commissioner, Meru, describing similarities between the alleged Muoko burials and those of the Tana River Galla with which he had grown familiar through prior postings. Lambert Papers. Copy in my possession.

16. J. G. H. Hopkins, Lambert Papers. Hopkins collected the earliest versions of the "Mwoko [Muoko] Tradition," recounted here in abbreviated form. Corroborated by contemporary oral informants, Tigania.

17. Mahner, "The Insider and the Outsider," 9, and personal discussions, 1970. Corroborated by oral informants, Tigania.

18. The following researchers, among others, have collected "Gumba" (Agumba) oral traditions among the Meru, Embu, Mbeere, Cuka, Mwimbi, and Muthambi peoples of Mount Kenya: Routledge, With A Prehistoric People , 4; Kenyatta, Facing Mt. Kenya , 23-24; Lambert, Systems of Land Tenure , 63-93; Leakey, Stone Age Cultures , 198 ff.; Orde-Browne, The Vanishing Tribes of Kenya , 21, 63-64 (Mwimbi-Muthambi-Cuka); Muriuki, A History of the Kikuyu , 23, 37-46, 54-68, 87, 111; and Mwaniki, The Living History of Embu and Mbeere .

19. R. D. F Taylor, "The Gumba and Gumba Pits of Fort Hall District, Kenya," Azania 1 (1966): 111. Taylor describes the Gumba (Agumba) pits of Gikuyu in detail. Comparative data from Meru is based on my personal examination.

20. Blackburn, "Preliminary Report of Research on the Ogiek Tribe," 10-11 (weapons).

21. Maguire, " 'El-Torobo,' Tanganika Notes and Records," 8-13.

22. Ibid.

21. Maguire, " 'El-Torobo,' Tanganika Notes and Records," 8-13.

22. Ibid.

23. Source for II Mosiro word list is Maguire (see note 21 above); for Kiriita, see Lambert, Systems of Land Tenure , 80. The Umpua word list is from Muriuki Muriithi (MOS 32), a Mwimbi elder then (1969) in his early eighties.

24. Blackburn, "A Preliminary Report of Research on the Ogiek Tribe."

25. Alan H. Jacobs, personal letter, 8 February 1987. Much of the Maasai (01 Maa) material presented in this section was derived through extensive discussions with Professor Jacobs, research director, Institute of Africa Studies, University of Nairobi, 1968-1972, and the major Maasai scholar of this century. In 1972, Jacobs classified and estimated the number of speakers of the major Maa-speaking groups as: II Maasai (Kenya, Tanzania), 226,000; Arusha (Tanzania), 97,000; Samburu (Kenya), 58,000; Baraguyu (Tanzania), 29,000; Ogiek (Dorobo) (Kenya, Tanzania), 22,000; Njemps (Kenya), 7,000.

26. Ibid.

25. Alan H. Jacobs, personal letter, 8 February 1987. Much of the Maasai (01 Maa) material presented in this section was derived through extensive discussions with Professor Jacobs, research director, Institute of Africa Studies, University of Nairobi, 1968-1972, and the major Maasai scholar of this century. In 1972, Jacobs classified and estimated the number of speakers of the major Maa-speaking groups as: II Maasai (Kenya, Tanzania), 226,000; Arusha (Tanzania), 97,000; Samburu (Kenya), 58,000; Baraguyu (Tanzania), 29,000; Ogiek (Dorobo) (Kenya, Tanzania), 22,000; Njemps (Kenya), 7,000.

26. Ibid.

27. Fadiman, Oral History , provides detailed information regarding Meru methods of warfare up to the conquest by Great Britain.

28. See note 25 above.

1. M'Inoti, "Asili ya Wameru na tabia zao," Private Papers.

2. See Fadiman, Oral History , for detail on precolonial Meru warfare; idem, The Moment of Conquest ; idem, Mountain Warriors .

3. See Lambert, "Social and Political Institutions," 278-79, 307-9, Lambert Papers, for territorial distribution of gichiaro (kinship and military alliances).

4. Ibid. Lambert suggests the pre-Cuka were split into a main body (pre-Cuka: Chabugi) and one tiny fragment (Miutini) by the advance of the Mwimbi up the mountain.

3. See Lambert, "Social and Political Institutions," 278-79, 307-9, Lambert Papers, for territorial distribution of gichiaro (kinship and military alliances).

4. Ibid. Lambert suggests the pre-Cuka were split into a main body (pre-Cuka: Chabugi) and one tiny fragment (Miutini) by the advance of the Mwimbi up the mountain.

5. M'Muraa wa Kairanyi (Northeast Imenti), MOS 13; Rwito wa Ruganda (Mwimbi), MOS 30; personal observation, discussions with elders from Cuka, Muthambi, and Imenti. The Cuka, however, did hide cattle in pits to protect them from raiders.

6. M'Inoti (see note 1 above) and M'Anampiu, "Prophetic Families in Imenti," handwritten manuscript, Meru language, dealing with clan histories of North Imenti, Private Papers.

7. Throughout East Africa, Caucasians are perceived as "red" rather than white. Small children still greet Caucasians as "red men" until told by adults to call them "white.'' See Huxley, Red Strangers , a fictional account of the conquest of the Gikuyu by "red strangers,'' that is, the British.

8. M'Inoti, "Asili ya Wameru," chap. 4, Private Papers.

9. "Traditions and Customs of Mwimbi," undated, Saint Paul's Theological Seminary, Historical Archives (Anderson's Archives). Data on M'Agocorua corroborated by oral informants within both Mwimbi and Muthambi.

10. Information regarding the supernatural Kiamas of crop protection, food acquisition, child extortion, and supernatural dance has been supplied by former members of each group. See MOS 29, 35-36, 38, 58-59, and 61-67 as examples.

11. Mwaa: to be foolish, stupid, ignorant (Mu-Waa or Mwaa: jester, man of the fools); see Giorgis, A Tentative Kimeru Dictionary .

12. Sources for "deviant" Kiamas: Kairu Baimwera (Mwimbi), MOS 58; Karaya wa Njara (Muthambi), MOS 61; Kainyu Murungi (Igoji), MOS 63; Mwakireu Gikabu (Igoji), MOS 64; M'Muga M'Murithi (Miutini), MOS 74; Karema M'Ringeera (Northeast Imenti), MOS 88; and several others. Data corroborated by informants in Tigania-Igembe, with local variations. All informants were once either directly or indirectly connected with the societies.

1. Mwamucheke wa Gakuru (Muthambi), MOS 23.

2. Fadiman, Moment of Conquest . Material for this chapter first appeared in this monograph. Revisions and additions are the result of research during 1983-1984.

3. Chanler, Through Jungle and Desert , 175, and "Mr. Astor Chanler's Expedition, 533-34. The incidents recounted are drawn from Chanler's narrations of "battles" with warriors in Tigania and Igembe and are confirmed by informants in both regions.

4. Peters, "Mouth of the Tana," 1.

5. Fadiman, Mountain Warriors , 46-48, describes the tactics used by the Tiganians against Chanler. For Chanler's version see Through Jungle and Desert , 175ff.

6. Chanler, Through Jungle and Desert , 175ff.

7. Mwaniki, "The British Impact on Embu," and The Living History of Embu and Mbeere . Mwaniki is Kenya's foremost authority on Embu-Mbeere oral history. I have drawn all data on the British conquest of Embu from his research and personal communication with him. For a British perspective of the conquest see Moyse-Bartlett, The King's African Rifles ; and Central Province Political Record, 1906 , Kenya National Archives (KNA).

8. Mwaniki, "The British Impact on Embu."

9. H. S. K. Mwaniki, personal communication, April 1970.

10. Mwamucheke wa Gakuru (Muthambi), MOS 23.

11. Marjorie R. Horne, wife of Edward Butler Horne ("Kangangi"), British conqueror and first district commissioner of Meru. Personal interview, Nairobi, Kenya, 10 October 1969. All personal data on E. B. Horne within this and subsequent chapters have been provided by his wife.

12. Orde-Brown, "Circumcision Ceremonies," 137-40.

13. Bernardi, Mugwe , 172. Also mentioned in Meru District Record Book, 1908-1921 , KNA.

14. C. R. W. Lane, letter, 7 July 1908, Embu Political Record Book , KNA. Horne's "entourage" was the Third Battalion, King's African Rifles. He was initially assisted by Capt. Philips and Lt. Dann, neither of whom are recalled in oral tradition. This chapter, therefore, records the creation of colonialism primarily as the Meru remember it—as the work of one man, E. B. Horne (Kangangi).

15. F C. Gamble, assistant district commissioner, Meru, 1915. Private letter, 10 October 1919, Lambert Papers.

16. Matiri wa Kirongoro, Muthambi, MOS 29. Also, "The History of Communications in Meru District," Saint Paul's Theological Seminary, Historical Archives. Corroborated by other oral sources.

17. Cuka Station, including Mwimbi and Muthambi, was administered during this period by G. St. J. Orde-Brown. He has written extensively of his experiences in The Vanishing Tribes of Kenya .

18. F. C. Gamble, letter, 15 December 1919, Lambert Papers.

19. H. E. Chamier, district commissioner, Meru, 1919. Official Report , Lambert Papers.

20. Meru District Record Book, 1908-1921 , KNA. These contain detailed lists of early appointees to the chief and headman posts.

21. The Meru township was proclaimed 13 May 1911. The area was defined as having a radius of one square mile from the British flagstaff. W.O. 106 (Intelligence Papers), Military Operations, King's African Rifles, 1902-1914, Public Record Office, London.

22. Fadiman, "Oral History," 88-91, has a detailed description of the psychological devices used to prepare warriors for battle.

23. Orde-Brown, "Circumcision Ceremonies," 176-77.

24. See note 18 above.

25. Kenyatta, Facing Mt. Kenya , 155-161, describes Ngweko (Meru: Nguiko) among the neighboring Gikuyu.

26. Lambert, "Social and Political Institutions," Lambert Papers. Beginning page 432 Ngweko and its rationale are described in greater detail.

1. Chant of Kiama Kia Kagita, "secret witchcraft society" ( sic ), Meru District, 1908-1929. Before that, one of the supernatural dancing societies formed by deviant family heads of both sexes. Matiri (Paul) wa Kirongoro (Muthambi), MOS 29.

2. Holding, "Some Preliminary Notes," 58-65.

3. Data from former members of the Chigiira, a women's Kiama in Mwimbi and Igoji, notably Mrs. Gacaba Murungi (Igoji), MOS 65; Mrs. Mwa-kireu Gikabu (Igoji), MOS 64; Mrs. Kainyu Murungi (Igoji), MOS 63; and one informant (Geto village, Igoji) who withheld her name, MOS 62.

4. Lambert, "The Social and Political Institutions," 476, Lambert Papers.

5. As recounted by Meru informants who served as officials in Horne's colonial administration (usually as porter, policeman, headman, chief) from its inception. Their detestation of the dancing Kiamas remains evident to this day. M'Muraa wa Kairanyi, MOS 13, is notable.

6. Marjorie R. Horne, wife of E. B. Horne. Personal interview, Nairobi, Kenya, 1969.

7. M'Mucheke Likira (Tigania), MOS 54; and Nguluu M'Mungaine (Tigania), MOS 53. Most frequent Tigania version, 1969. Also collected in Imenti, 1950s; see Bernardi, Mugwe , 58.

8. Kairu Baimwera (Mwimbi), MOS 58; Matiri wa Kirongoro, (Muthambi), MOS 29; M'Thaara M'Mutani (Muthambi), MOS 28; and Mrs. Jwanina Murungi, MOS 67; Mrs. Gacaba Murungi, MOS 65; Mrs. Mwakireu Gikabu, MOS 64; and Mrs. Kainyu Murungi, MOS 63 (all women from Igoji); Data corroborated by male elders in Imenti, Tigania-Igembe. All informants were once involved with the Kagita.

9. See note 8 above.

10. See note 8 above.

11. J. Ainsworth to British East Africa Company, letter, 1898 (month illegible), marked EO. 2/73, copy in Lambert Papers.

12. Muriuki, A History of the Kikuyu , 155, n. 80.

13. Involved with the Kagita: MOS 63-65, 67, 53-54, 58, 28-29.

14. See note 13 above.

15. See note 13 above.

16. See note 13 above.

17. Fadiman, Oral History , chap. 6, "Courtship and Marriage," 125ff. Dancing was the first of four stages of courtship. Each was strictly regulated, and conducted in public view to permit everyone in the community to appraise the match. The Kagita broke with the tradition of public dancing, holding its dances in pitch darkness and total secrecy.

1. Madeleine Laverne Platts, wife of W. A. E Platts, first assistant district commissioner, Meru, 1912-1913. Diary, Rhodes House (see "Archival Collections" in the Bibliography).

2. Meru District Record Book, 1911-1914 , Kenya National Archives (KNA). Platts was assisted by Hemmant, Walton, T. D. Butler, H. E. Welby, and C. M. Barton, the last three of whom remained to assist Horne on his return to Meru in June 1913.

3. Embu [District] Political Record Book, 1914 , KNA, provides interesting examples. See, in particular, the case of Kianga, turned in by his own elders during a KAR punitive expedition against "ridgetop rebels" in upper Cuka, lower Cuka, lower Muthambi, lower Mwimbi. Note that the lower regions were farthest from centers of government control.

4. G. St. J. Orde-Browne, first assistant district commissioner, Nithi (Southern) Region (Mwimbi-Muthambi-Cuka), after its transfer from administrative jurisdiction of Meru District to Embu District in 1913. Much of the data on the three southern peoples in this and subsequent chapters are drawn from his private papers in the Rhodes House collection in Oxford, England. In addition, material has also been drawn from the following publications: The Vanishing Tribes of Kenya ; "Circumcision Ceremonies among the Amwimbe"; "The Circumcision Ceremony in Chuka"; "Mt. Kenya and Its People"; and "The Southeast Face of Mt. Kenya.'' (Orde-Browne's name was spelled Orde-Brown during the early years of his career.)

5. See note 4 above.

6. Orde-Browne, untitled address, prepared in later years for delivery on BBC; Rhodes House.

7. Bernardi, Mugwe , 26ff.

8. Lambert, Lambert Papers. Untitled folder assembled by C. E Adkins, district commissioner, Meru, 1938.

9. As described by former members of the Njuri ya Kiami (Imenti), notably Chief M'Muraa wa Kairanyi (Northeast Imenti), MOS 13, just prior to his death.

10. MOS 13; Lambert, untitled document, Lambert Papers.

11. Meru District Record Book, 1911 , KNA.

12. Meru District Record Book, 1912 , KNA. Other examples of Horne's reforms are from subsequent record books. See also Lambert, "Administrative Use of the Indigenous Institutions of the Meru," Lambert Papers, which traces the evolution of "native" administration under Horne and subsequent colonial officials.

13. M'Muraa wa Kairanyi (Imenti), MOS 13.

14. Lambert, "Administrative Use of the Indigenous Institutions of the Meru," 3, Lambert Papers.

15. Meru District Record Book, 1915 , KNA.

16. Meru District Record Book, 1916 , KNA.

17. Meru District Record Book, 1917, 1919, 1920, 1921 , KNA.

18. Meru District Record Book, 1913 , KNA.

19. Ibid.

18. Meru District Record Book, 1913 , KNA.

19. Ibid.

20. Lambert, "Administrative Use of the Indigenous Institutions of the Meru," 6-8, Lambert Papers. Note that the spelling varies: Ncaama, Nchama, Njama.

21. On Kauganyama: M'Rutere M'Mbogore, Mukungu M'Mbogore, M'Iniu M'Mbogore, three brothers, all sons of Mbogore M'Mwendo, first colonial chief, upper Mwimbi, MOS 31; personal interviews, 1970.

22. See note 21 above.

23. Meru District Record Book, 1911-1917 , KNA, comments on chiefs.

24. Orde-Browne, private papers, Rhodes House. Browne's private papers frequently mention dealings with Mbogore M'Mwendo.

25. See note 21 above.

26. See Chuka Sub-District Political Record Book, 1914 and Embu [District] Political Record Book, 1927 (2 August 1927) for summary and evaluation of the incidents described. Cuka (spelled Chuka in the colonial era) was a part of Embu District when this incident occurred. Both in KNA.

27. See note 21 above.

28. Embu [District] Political Record Book, 1927 , 2nd-class criminal case #6/14, as copied from an earlier record (lost) within Chuka Sub-District Political Record Book, 1914 , KNA.

1. A. J. Hopkins, Trail Blazers and Road Makers , 100. The quotation refers back to the opening of Meru District to Protestant Christianity in 1913.

2. Ibid., chaps. 1, 2.

1. A. J. Hopkins, Trail Blazers and Road Makers , 100. The quotation refers back to the opening of Meru District to Protestant Christianity in 1913.

2. Ibid., chaps. 1, 2.

3. "Decretum Laudis," proclamation, published by the Holy See, January 1901, Sec. dizionario encyclopedica dei religiosi , Societa di Sao Paulo, 1971, copy in Consolata Mission Archives, Turin.

4. Monseigneur S. Allgeyer, apostolic vicar of Zanzibar, 1901, and bishop within the Society of the Holy Ghost, a Catholic missionary order based in France. Untitled document, Consolata Mission Archives, Turin.

5. Pecomino, "Mezzo serolo di attentiva," Consolata Mission Archives, Turin. This typescript was combined with additional untitled Italian-language materials by Father P. Valentino Ghilardi, Roman Catholic, Igoji Mission, Meru, 1950. The data were made available to me by Father Ghilardi in a personal interview at the Consolata Mission Archives, in Turin in 1969.

6. Kikuyu/Gikuyu (spelling): During the colonial era Kikuyu was the preferred spelling. During the contemporary era, Gikuyu is usually preferred. I use Gikuyu throughout this book.

7. Hopkins, Trail Blazers and Road Makers , 89.

8. Ibid., 97.

9. Ibid.

10. Ibid., 98-99.

7. Hopkins, Trail Blazers and Road Makers , 89.

8. Ibid., 97.

9. Ibid.

10. Ibid., 98-99.

7. Hopkins, Trail Blazers and Road Makers , 89.

8. Ibid., 97.

9. Ibid.

10. Ibid., 98-99.

7. Hopkins, Trail Blazers and Road Makers , 89.

8. Ibid., 97.

9. Ibid.

10. Ibid., 98-99.

11. Father T. Gays, letter, handwritten, Italian language, undated but probably 1910; Consolata Mission Archives, Turin, made available courtesy of Fa-

ther P. V. Ghilardi, June 1969. This letter, later copied and translated into English by Father Jestero, is perhaps the earliest European description of Imenti and Igoji.

12. Embu District Miscellaneous Correspondence, 1906-1910, KNA.

13. "Brevi cenni storici," copy, Consolata Mission Archives, Turin. Combined with additional untitled mission documents written by Father P. V. Ghilardi, Igoji Mission, 1950. Made available by Father Ghilardi, June 1969.

14. As told by Albert M'Riria (MOS 90), son of the group's spokesman, who was present at the scene.

15. "Logbook" of the Mujwa (and therefore, Kiija) Roman Catholic Mission, 1911-1925, Consolata Mission Archives, Mujwa Village, Igoji; "Brevi cenni storici," Consolata Mission Archives, Turin.

16. See note 15 above.

17. Hopkins, Trail Blazers and Road Makers , 100, referring to the era of Griffiths and Mimmack.

18. Kenya Mission Council Records , undated (ca. 1913), Miscellaneous Papers, KNA.

19. As sung by Paulo M'Ituke, one of the earliest Methodist converts; see MOS 91. Many of the oldest men in Ka-Aga locality claim to have heard the song coming from the grove. However, similar variants also exist in Catholic localities regarding the "flight" of the spirits.

20. Rev. A. J. Hopkins, United Methodist Mission Annual Report, 1911-1940 . See the 1935 annual report, in which Hopkins writes of the mission's beginnings, Laughton Papers. School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, also has copies of the annual reports.

21. Rev. R. W. Worthington, United Methodist Mission Annual Report, 1920 Laughton Papers (see note 20 above).

22. Filipo M'Inoti, "Asili ya wa Meru na desturi zao," (Traditions of Meru and their customs), handwritten manuscript, undated (ca. 1930), 49 pages, Swahili language, Meru United Methodist Mission Archive, North Imenti, and Laughton Private Papers. Handwritten English-language copy is in my possession. This is the earliest history of the Meru tribe, written by one of its members.

23. Father B. Airaldi, MOS 7. Father Airaldi drew extensively, in his descriptions, from the Mikinduri Mission Logbook, 1913-1939 (Consolata Mission Archives, Mikinduri), as well as over thirty years' experience among the Meru-speaking peoples. Father Airaldi, together with the pioneer missionary Father Aimo-Boot, founded the first four Catholic mission stations in Tigania and Igembe (from personal interview, 1970).

24. See note 23 above.

25. "Logbook" (1913) of the Athuana Mission (later changed to Mikinduri Mission Logbook ), Consolata Mission Archives, Mikinduri.

26. See note 23 above.

27. Vitalus Anicheto, MOS 92.

28. Father B. Airaldi, MOS 7.

29. Paulo M'Gaichau, MOS 93.

30. "Gli uomini venuti dal mare: Notti ethnologia sulla tribu della prefeturra apostolica di Meru" (Ethnological notes on the tribe of the apostolic prefecture of Meru). Missioni Consolata , 81, Consolata Mission Archives, Turin.

31. United Methodist Mission unnumbered minutes book (fragmentary), Meru District, 1923; United Methodist Mission Annual Report, 1911-1940 ("The Meru Circuit"), Laughton Papers. The generation of female converts occurred solely as the result of arranged marriages.

32. Hopkins, United Methodist Mission Annual Report, 1919 (see note 20 above).

33. Father B. Airaldi, MOS 7.

34. Paulo M'Ituke, MOS 91.

35. Rev. R. W. Worthington, United Methodist Mission Annual Report, 1919 (see n. 21 above).

36. Correspondence, 24 September-7 November 1919, between Rev. R. W. Worthington, United Methodist Mission, and A. E. Chamier, district commissioner, Meru, 1919, as well as subsequent correspondence between both of them with W. Tate, provincial commissioner, Central (Gikuyu) Province, and John Ainsworth, chief, Native Administration. Miscellaneous correspondence, ref. 401/17/F/19, KNA.

37. Paulo M'Gaichau, MOS 93.

38. Rev. R. W. Worthington, United Methodist Mission Annual Report, 1917 (see note 21 above).

39. Alice Thiriadi, MOS 94. Mrs. Thiriadi was one of the first generation of female converts as the result of an arranged marriage.

1. Daudi M'Raria, MOS 97.

2. Rev. J. W. Arthur, M.D., "A Journey Made in View of Extension," Kikuyu News no. 53 (1915): 4-15, Irvine Papers.

3. Ibid.

4. Ibid. Muthambi, in this instance was described as a branch of the Mwimbi peoples.

5. Ibid.; Kikuyu News , no. 58 (January-February 1916), no. 59 (April-May 1916), Irvine Papers.

2. Rev. J. W. Arthur, M.D., "A Journey Made in View of Extension," Kikuyu News no. 53 (1915): 4-15, Irvine Papers.

3. Ibid.

4. Ibid. Muthambi, in this instance was described as a branch of the Mwimbi peoples.

5. Ibid.; Kikuyu News , no. 58 (January-February 1916), no. 59 (April-May 1916), Irvine Papers.

2. Rev. J. W. Arthur, M.D., "A Journey Made in View of Extension," Kikuyu News no. 53 (1915): 4-15, Irvine Papers.

3. Ibid.

4. Ibid. Muthambi, in this instance was described as a branch of the Mwimbi peoples.

5. Ibid.; Kikuyu News , no. 58 (January-February 1916), no. 59 (April-May 1916), Irvine Papers.

2. Rev. J. W. Arthur, M.D., "A Journey Made in View of Extension," Kikuyu News no. 53 (1915): 4-15, Irvine Papers.

3. Ibid.

4. Ibid. Muthambi, in this instance was described as a branch of the Mwimbi peoples.

5. Ibid.; Kikuyu News , no. 58 (January-February 1916), no. 59 (April-May 1916), Irvine Papers.

6. Priscilla Makumi, MOS 95. Data from "Makumi" era are drawn primarily from personal interview.

7. See note 6 above.

8. See note 6 above.

9. See note 6 above.

10. See note 6 above.

11. Ismaili Wangu, MOS 96. Data from the "Wangu era" are drawn primarily from personal interview.

12. See note 11 above.

13. See note 11 above.

14. See note 11 above.

15. See note 11 above.

16. Rev. Dr. Clive Irvine, MOS 4. Dr. Irvine remained in Mwimbi for forty years.

17. Daudi M'Raria, MOS 97. M'Raria was among those conscripted to build the bridges at this time. Intrigued, he remained to work with Irvine on his arrival.

18. Rev. Dr. Clive Irvine, MOS 4.

19. Anthony (Tony) Irvine, son of Dr. and Mrs. Clive Irvine, and the child in the ox-wagon, MOS 9, provided many insights on his father's experiences during the mission's pioneer years.

20. Josiah M'Muntu, MOS 98; Daudi M'Raria, MOS 97; Jotham M'Murianki, MOS 99; early converts, Church of Scotland Mission, Mwimbi.

21. See note 20 above.

22. See note 20 above.

23. Rev. Junius Munyua, written interview transcript, 1967, Saint Paul's Theological Seminary. Munyua was an early convert, Church of Scotland Mission, Mwimbi.

24. The first group of Wasomaji (readers), Church of Scotland Mission, is said to have included the following: Daudi M'Raria, Zakayo Kinirika, Musa M'Muga, Samsoni Kanegeni, Justo Kanampiu, Arthur M'Rucha, Amos Muchara, Jason M'Aranyu, Josef M'Raiche. This list was taken from the private papers of and personal interview with Daudi M'Raria (MOS 97). It was corroborated by other informants.

25. Daudi M'Raria, MOS 97.

26. See note 25 above.

27. Jotham M'Murianki, MOS 99.

28. Germano M'Kirichio, MOS 100.

29. Hezikiah M'Mukuri, MOS 26.

30. Daudi M'Raria, MOS 97.

31. Paulo Gaichau, MOS 93.

32. Bellani, "Da Nyeri al paesi di Meru," Consolata Mission Archives, Turin. Description of Authi by M'Ruiga M'Mbatau, former warrior, Igoji, MOS 59.

33. Samsoni M'Mutiga, MOS 101. The incident described here is as perceived by M'Mutiga; details were corroborated by Igembe elders.

34. See note 33 above.

35. See note 33 above.

36. See note 33 above.

37. See note 33 above.

38. As described by Paulo M'Ituke, MOS 91. The drunken warrior was M'Mutangi of Kaaga (formerly Ka-aga), recently appointed to the tribal police and thus entitled to carry a spear.

39. As described by Samsoni M'Mutiga, MOS 101. M'Mutiga was the youngest among those inside the blazing war hut.

40. Rahab Mbiro, MOS 102.

41. United Methodist Mission Annual Report, 1911-1924 (these reports estimated 65 converts); Dr. Clive Irvine, interviews, 1969-1970, United Church

of Scotland Mission (estimated 12 converts over 1922-1924); "II lento movemento ascensionale nella prefettura apostolica di Meru," Missioni Consolata , 81, Consolata Mission Archives, Turin (estimated 194-224 converts, 1911-1924).

1. F M. Lamb, Meru District Record Book, 1927 , Kenya National Archives (KNA).

2. Meru District Record Book, 1914-1921 , KNA.

3. See Fadiman, Oral History , 93ff. for renta , the bull feast.

4. Meru District Record Book, 1913 , KNA.

5. Meru District Record Book, 1916 , KNA; United Methodist Mission Annual Report, 1917-1918 , School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS).

6. Samsoni M'Mutiga, MOS 101.

7. United Methodist Mission Annual Report, 1919 , SOAS. Taken from the letters of Rev. R. T. Worthington and E Mimmack during that year.

8. Meru District Record Book, 1918 , KNA.

9. Ibid.

8. Meru District Record Book, 1918 , KNA.

9. Ibid.

10. Meru District Record Book, 1919 , KNA.

11. Fadiman, Oral History , 9, 127ff., "The Transfer of Power."

12. Alice Thiriadi, MOS 94.

13. Meru District Record Book, 1920 , KNA.

14. Temu, "British Protestant Missions in Kenya," 336.

15. Ibid.

14. Temu, "British Protestant Missions in Kenya," 336.

15. Ibid.

16. Meru District Record Book, 1918-1928 , KNA, contain lists of district officers for each year. The frequency of transfer may have been due to Meru's reputation as "witch ridden," "primitive," and so forth (see reports). It is more likely, however, that its reputation arose because of this frequency of transfer, which made knowledge of either the district or people impossible to acquire, thereby stimulating stereotypes in place of fact.

17. Orde-Browne, Vanishing Peoples of Kenya .

18. M'Mwongera wa Kabutai (Northeast Imenti), MOS 41. Repeated, with variations, by several informants.

19. "Native Customs," Lambert Papers, no. 9.

20. Meru District Record Book, 1923, 1924 , KNA.

21. Meru District Record Book, 1920 , KNA.

22. Existing evidence suggests Kivunja (the "destroyer"), was either R. Weeks, district commissioner, 1921-1922, or J. M. Silvester, acting district commissioner, Meru, 1922, and assistant district commissioner, 1923-1924.

23. M'Ikiene M'Irimbere ("M'Iniu") (North Imenti), MOS 40.

24. Meru District Record Book, 1920-1924 , KNA.

25. Meru District Record Book, 1925 , KNA.

26. Meru District Record Book, 1923 , KNA.

27. Orde-Browne, untitled document, Rhodes House.

28. CP/PC/1911, Central Province File, KNA.

29. Meru District Record Book, 1924 , KNA.

30. Dr. H. Brassington, MOS 2.

31. Meru District Record Book, 1920 , KNA.

32. Meru Political Record Book, 1920 , KNA.

33. Bellani, "Customi degli Bameru," Consolata Mission Archives, Turin.

34. Meru District Record Book, 1924 , KNA.

35. Meru District Record Book, 1923 , KNA.

36. "Note di etnologia sulla tribu Meru," typescript, undated (1925?), Consolata Mission Archives, Mujwa Mission, Igoji, Meru.

37. Meru District Record Book, 1924-1927 , KNA.

1. Mwakireu Gikabu, MOS 64.

2. Father B. Airaldi, MOS 7, related the story of Father Bondino. Interview (January 1970) combined with readings from the early years of Mikinduri Mission Logbook , Consolata Mission Archives, Mikinduri, Tigania.

3. See note 2 above.

4. J. G. H. Hopkins, MOS 11.

5. "Reports: Tribal Witchcraft," Native Affairs Division, 1926, Kenya National Archives (KNA). Corroborated by J. G. H. Hopkins, MOS 11.

6. Meru District Record Book, 1921-1927 , KNA.

7. Meru District Record Book, 1924 , KNA.

8. Meru District Record Book, 1927 , KNA.

9. Age-set names vary slightly among Meru regions, both with regard to spelling and dates of transferring power (Ntuiko) to younger age-sets. For clarity, I use the age-set spellings common to Imenti (Kaburia, Kiramana, Murungi, Miriti) even when discussing adjacent regions. The same applies to periods of power transfer. When necessary, a variant is placed in parentheses. Within Imenti the age-set Murungi has two subsets: Riungu, the eldest, and Kirianki, the youngest. In Muthambi the two subsets of Murungi are Kiraithe, the eldest, and Riungu, the youngest. In Mwimbi the equivalent age-set would be Kirianki, with three subsets consisting of Riungu, Marangu, and Kirianki. All men of these sets and subsets would be in their eighties.

10. Meru District Record Book, 1926 , KNA. The writer confuses the Meru term "Mwiriga" (ridgetop community containing one or more clans) with the Kikuyu term "Rika" (an age-set). The error suggests almost total ignorance of Meru communal life, as the writer himself attests.

11. M'Muraa wa Kairanyi, MOS 13.

12. Matiri wa Kirongoro ("Paul"), MOS 29.

13. Mwakiru Gikabu, MOS 64.

14. Rawcliffe, The Struggle for Kenya , 30. Similar comments appear in the Meru District Record Book throughout the 1920s.

15. Meru District Record Book, 1927 , KNA. Probable author, J. G. H. Hopkins, assistant district commissioner.

16. Chuka Sub-District Political Record Book, 1908 , KNA.

17. Meru District Record Book, 1909 , KNA.

18. East African Ordinances, 1910, KNA.

19. Ikuciambuu Nguciala, MOS 35; M'Mutiga M'Ngaruni, MOS 36; alleged former members of the Mwaa, Igembe.

20. Special Report, ''Witchcraft in Tigania and Igembe," from Frank M. Lamb, district commissioner, Meru, to senior commissioner (E. B. Horne), Nyeri Province, 15 February 1928, "Native Customs" file, Lambert Papers. Referred to hereinafter as the "Lamb Special Report." (Abbreviated version is in Meru District Record Book, 1927 , KNA). Translation of A-Athi curse by Simon P. K. Bengi, Mwimbi, 1988.

21. Lamb Special Report.

22. Lamb Special Report; Ikuciambuu Nguciala, MOS 35.

23. Ikuciambuu Nguciala, MOS 35.

24. Meru District Record Book, 1924 , KNA.

25. Meru District Record Book, 1927 , KNA.

26. Gaichungi Baibuatho M'Mbarui (Igembe), MOS 34.

27. Lamb Special Report.

28. M'Muraa wa Kairanyi, MOS 13.

1. Special Report, "Witchcraft in Tigania and Igembe," from Frank M. Lamb, district commissioner, Meru, to senior commissioner (E. B. Horne), Nyeri Province, 15 February 1928, "Native Customs" file, Lambert Papers. Referred to hereinafter as "Lamb Special Report." (Abbreviated version is in Meru District Record Book, 1927 , Kenya National Archives, [KNA].)

2. Meru District Record Book, 1925-1927 , KNA.

3. Ibid.

2. Meru District Record Book, 1925-1927 , KNA.

3. Ibid.

4. J. G. H. Hopkins, MOS 11. Hopkins was assistant district commissioner (under Frank M. Lamb) and aided Lamb in all stages of the witchcraft campaign.

5. The career of M'Mukura wa Kageta can be followed by perusal of the evaluations written by his colonial supervisors in the appendixes of the Meru District Record Book, 1913-1927 , KNA.

6. Meru District Record Book, 1927 , KNA.

7. J. G. H. Hopkins, MOS 11.

8. J. G. H. Hopkins, Native Affairs Divisional Reports, 1926, KNA.

9. J. G. H. Hopkins, MOS 11.

10. Lamb Special Report.

11. J. G. H. Hopkins, MOS 11.

12. Hezikiah M'Mukiri (Imenti), MOS 26; Kiringo M'Munyari (Igembe), MOS 33; M'Muambe M'Mbuthu (Tigania), MOS 57.

13. Lamb Special Report. Also Meru District Record Book, 1927 , KNA.

14. See note 13 above.

15. See note 13 above.

16. Data on Mbogore M'Mwendo's "war" on witchcraft are from interviews with his sons (MOS 31); M'Icirai (last name withheld), Mbogore's cook during his early years as chief (MOS 103); and Muriuki M'Muriithi, one of Mbogore's Nchama ("chief's men" or "retainers") (MOS 32). The narrative

has become part of the Mbogore family history, and is corroborated (in less flattering terms) by other Mwimbi elders.

17. M'Ikieni ("M'Iniu") M'Irimbere, MOS 40, and others in North Imenti. The tossing of ritualists' goatskin bags into the Kazita River is widely repeated within Imenti tradition.

18. See note 16 above.

19. See note 16 above.

20. See note 16 above.

21. Muriuki M'Muriithi, MOS 32; also MOS 31, 103.

22. J. G. H. Hopkins, MOS 11, and Dr. H. Brassington, MOS 2. Both participated in the antiwitchcraft campaign.

23. Dr. H. Brassington, MOS 2.

24. See note 23 above.

25. A. T. Howell, M.D., Karta Ram, and Diwan Singh (subassistant surgeon), "Medical Report" in Meru District Record Book, 1927 , KNA. The report describes the subsequent illnesses and deaths of the accused. Also J. G. H. Hopkins, MOS 11; Dr. H. Brassington, MOS 2; M'Muraa wa Kairanyi, MOS 13, probable translator for Hopkins and Lamb.

26. "Medical Report" (see note 25 above).

27. "Medical Report" (see note 25 above).

28. Revised Kenya Witchcraft Ordinance, 1928. The text of the ordinance is in "Witchcraft and Colonial Law," academic paper read to the Congress Internationale des Sciences Anthropologiques, 8 March 1934, by G. St. J. Orde-Browne, Rhodes House. Orde-Browne was district commissioner, Cuka subdistrict, 1909-1912.

29. Meru District Record Book, 1928 , Appendix, KNA.

30. Dr. H. Brassington, MOS 2.

31. M'Ruiga M'Mbatau (Igoji), MOS 59; M'Muraa wa Kairanyi (Imenti), MOS 13; M'Ikieni (M'Iniu) M'Irimbere (Imenti), MOS 40. All worked for the colonial government at this time.

32. J. G. H. Hopkins, Meru District Record Book, 1932 , KNA.

33. Rev. Dr. Clive Irvine, MOS 4.

1. Lambert, "Administrative Use of the Indigenous institutions of the Meru," Lambert Papers.

2. F. G. Jennings, a "pragmatic" administrator, was district commissioner of Meru, 1935-1936; Meru District Record Book , 1935-1936, Kenya National Archives (KNA).

3. J. G. H. Hopkins, MOS 11; Grace Lambert, MOS 5; and Capt. Victor McKeag, MOS 10.

4. J. G. H. Hopkins, MOS 11. Also Meru District Record Book, 1929 , KNA.

5. See note 4 above.

6. Fadiman, Oral History , 127-31.

7. J. G. H. Hopkins, MOS 11: Meru District Record Book, 1929 , KNA.

8. Meru District Record Book, 1929 , KNA.

9. Grace Lambert, MOS 5.

10. Lambert, "Administrative Use of the Indigenous Institutions of the Meru," Lambert Papers.

11. Hezikiah M'Mukiri, MOS 26, one of early Christian converts (along with M'Inoti) to approach Lambert on the Njuri.

12. W. H. Laughton, MOS 1.

13. M'Muraa wa Kairanyi, MOS 13. Kairanyi was a translator for Lambert.

14. The dual system of elders' councils that Lambert hoped to restore among the southern Meru had originally consisted of the following Kiamas:

15. Mburunga, Ng'entu, MOS 89.

16. Capt. Victor McKeag, MOS 10.

17. H. E. Lambert, "Meru Institutions and Their Place in Modern Government," original script BBC radio presentation, 1942, Lambert Papers.

18. "Meru Handing Over Report," (Capt. Victor McKeag to C. E Adkins) in Meru District Record Book, 1938 , KNA.

19. Capt. Victor McKeag, MOS 10.

20. H. E. Lambert, "The Place of Stock in the Native Social System," Meru District Record Book, 1938 , Appendix 10, KNA.

21. Captain Victor McKeag, MOS 10.

22. "Notes of a Meeting of Chiefs," subtitled "Integrity of the Tribe," dated "Meru, 8/12/39," Lambert Papers.

23. See note 18 above.

24. See note 18 above.

25. See note 18 above.

26. "Correspondence Re Entry of Christians into Njuri over Opposition of Clive Irvine," Meru District Record Book, 1940 , KNA.

27. Hezikiah M'Mukiri, MOS 26.

28. H. E. Lambert, "Njuri ya Kiama" (i.e., Kiama ya Njuri), Meru District Record Book, 1940 , Appendix. Corroboration: Capt. Victor McKeag, MOS 10.

29. See note 25 above.

30. See note 25 above.

31. Meru District Record Book, 1940 , Appendix, KNA.

32. See note 30 above.

33. H. E. Lambert, Meru District Record Book, 1941 , Appendix, KNA. Corroboration: Capt. Victor McKeag, MOS 10.

34. See note 30 above.

35. Alliano M'Mwarania, MOS 14.