1. Faith Baldwin, "Can She Bake a Cherry Pie?" Ladies' Home Journal (December 1941): 23.

2. Michael C. Keeley, "The Economics of Family Formation," Economic Inquiry 15 (1977): 238-250.

3. Frank F. Furstenberg, Jr., et al. , "The Life Course of Children of Divorce: Marital Disruption and Parental Contact," American Sociological Review 48 (1983): 656-668; Robert H. Mnookin et al., In the Interest of Children (New York: W. H. Freeman and Company, 1985).

4. "Never Been Kissed," True Confessions 26 (March 1935): 16.

5. William J. Goode, "The Theoretical Importance of Love," American Sociological Review 24 (1959): 38-47; David M. Schneider and Raymond T. Smith, Class Differences and Sex Roles in American Kinship and Family Structure (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1973).

6. Helen Gurley Brown, Sex and the Single Girl (New York: Cardinal Books, 1963 [1962]); Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique (New York: Dell, 1977 [1963; excerpts were serialized in 1962]).

7. Brown, Sex , 2.

8. Friedan, Feminine Mystique , 351.

9. Brown, Sex , 5.

10. Ibid. , 73.

9. Brown, Sex , 5.

10. Ibid. , 73.

11. Friedan, Feminine Mystique , 40.

12. Sex , 246.

13. "Engagement Jitters," True Love Stories 67 (May 1957): 32.

14. Hannah M. Stone and Abraham Stone, A Marriage Manual (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1937), 278-281, and A Marriage Manual , completely rev. ed. (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1952), 228-229.

15. Not all intimacy is heterosexual, of course, nor all lasting unions. Nor do I wish to imply that heterosexuality is part of the biological program and homosexuality a perversion. I understand sexual preference to be part of the cultural script. And yet, partly for evidentiary reasons and partly because the choice of sexual preference typically occurs considerably earlier in the life course, I have elected to omit this theoretically relevant aspect of sequential self-definition.

16. Even less precise, but no less real, are the "institutionalized images of social and emotional maturity," expressed within peer groups, continue

that explain the timing and other circumstances of dating , developmentally the earliest of the life course transitions I treat in this book. In a fascinating study, the conclusion of which I quote, Dornbusch et al. have shown that stage in physiological sexual maturity (as of 1966-1970) had no impact on the inception of dating, apart from its correlation with the socially underlined chronological age . Sanford M. Dornbusch et al. , "Social Development, Age, and Dating: A Comparison of Biological and Social Influence upon One Set of Behaviors," Child Development 52 (1981), 179-185.

17. The editors of Bride's Magazine, Bride's Book of Etiquette (3d ed. revised and updated; New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1973), 19. See also Marguerite Bentley, Wedding Etiquette (Philadelphia: John C. Winston Company, 1947), vii. And see Barbara Wilson, The Brides' School Complete Book of Engagement and Wedding Etiquette (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1959), and Flora Bryant and Kendall Bryant, It's Your Wedding (New York: Cowles Book Company, 1970).

18. One clergyman in the late 1930s neatly conflated the dimensions at work here: "Most people who have money, and can afford to, are bound by tradition to get married in church. If they are wealthy, they want to. As a matter of fact, they are expected to make a big splurge of it." Ruby Jo Reeves, "Marriages in New Haven Since 1870" (Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University, 1938), VII-7. See also B. F. Timmons, "The Cost of Weddings," American Sociological Review 4 (1939): 224-233. A national survey in 1953 asked respondents what type of wedding they had had and how much income a young couple needed to get along. There was a strong correlation, both between educational level and type of wedding and within educational level , between type of wedding and the amount of income a young couple was seen to require. Computed from survey AIPO 563, machine-readable data. See Appendix 4 for details on machine-readable data sets.

19. United States National Center for Health Statistics, Vital Statistics of the United States , III, annual, 1960-1975. The exact bibliographical data for these volumes have varied somewhat over this period. These and other references based on Vital Statistics are henceforth abbreviated as USNCHS Vital Statistics . Appendix 3 gives details on abbreviated references.

20. Reeves, "Marriages in New Haven," II-11.

21. Philadelphia Mayor's Report , Report of Division of Vital Statistics, annual.

22. Paul H. Jacobsen, American Marriage and Divorce (New York: Rinehart, 1959), 57.

23. A national survey in 1953 suggests an increase in church wed- soft

dings over the several decades preceding, interrupted perhaps by the Depression and surely by World War II. Home weddings was the category that became less frequent, as more elaborate religious weddings, at church, became more common. AIPO 563, tabulated by age to approximate trends over time.

24. To be sure, wedding notices in newspapers bear on only that subcategory of weddings for which there were newspaper reports, presumably biased toward better-off people and those who marry in conventional fashion.

25. The years for which I gathered articles have no special meaning, except in that they permit me to describe trends over time. For the last observation, the newspapers were not so readily available, at the Minnesota Historical Society, as they had been for earlier years. In addition, the St. Paul newspaper had ceased publishing wedding notices by this date, a more prestigious Minneapolis paper having assumed this function. The choice of data from Minnesota—as of many of the locality-based materials used in this book—was based largely on convenience; the ritual patterns, however, are surely essentially national.

26. Bride's Book of Etiquette , 28.

27. Goode, "The Theoretical Importance of Love," 38-47.

28. Automobile ownership registration systems do not compile their data by age, but drivers' licensing systems do and capture adequately the developmental pattern of access to automobiles and the mobility they make possible. These data are published annually in U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Highway Statistics Summary to 1975 (Washington: USGPO, n.d.), 68-80.

29. Data on state drivers' licensing regulations are published annually in the Information Please Almanac .

30. Anne Foner and David Kertzer, "Transitions Over the Life Course: Lessons from Age-Set Societies," American Journal of Sociology 83 (1978): 1081-1104; Joseph F. Kett, Rites of Passage: Adolescence in America, 1790 to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1977); Talcott Parsons, "Age and Sex in the Social Structure of the United States," American Sociological Review 7 (1942): 604-616; Michael B. Katz, Michael B. Doucet, and Mark J. Stern, The Social Organization of Early Industrial Capitalism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982); Harold L. Wilensky, "Orderly Careers and Social Participation in the Middle Mass," American Sociological Review 26 (1961): 521-539.

31. Leonard I. Pearlin, "Discontinuities in the Study of Aging," in Hareven, ed., Aging and Life Course Transitions , 55-74. break

32. Richard B. Freeman and James L. Medoff, The Youth Labor Market Problem: Its Nature, Causes and Consequences (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), 47.

33. A careful empirical specification of several aspects of this phenomenon, dealing with the late 1950s and 1960s, is Margaret Mooney Marini and Peter J. Hodson, "Effects of the Timing of First Marriage and First Birth on the Timing and Spacing of Subsequent Births," Demography 18 (1981): 529-548. See also Glen H. Elder, Jr., "Role Orientation, Marital Age, and Life Patterns in Adulthood," Merrill-Palmer Quarterly of Behavior and Development 18 (1972): 3-24.

34. Happiness in Marriage (New York: Blue Ribbon Books, 1926), 199. For some modest contemporaneous empirical support, see Katherine Bement Davis, Factors in the Sex Life of Twenty-Two Hundred Women (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1929), 49.

35. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1938, 171-173.

36. Evelyn Millis Duvall and Reuben Hill, When You Marry (New York: Association Press, 1949), 302; Robert O. Blood, Jr., and Donald M. Wolfe, Husbands and Wives (New York: The Free Press, 1960), chaps. 5, 8.

37. Norval D. Glenn and Sara McLanahan, "Children and Marital Happiness: A Further Specification of the Relationship," Journal of Marriage and the Family 44 (1982): 71.

38. For a relevant discussion of the changing impact of the transition to parenthood on marital stability, see Elwood Carlson and Kandi Stinson, "Motherhood, Marriage Timing, and Marital Stability: A Research Note," Social Forces 61 (1982): 258-267.

39. John Modell and Tamara K. Hareven, "Transitions: Patterns of Timing," in Hareven, ed., Transitions , 245-270.

40. Alice S. Rossi, "Gender and Parenthood," in Rossi, ed., Gender and the Life Course (New York: Aldine Publishing Company, 1985), 162-169.

41. Marian B. Sussman and Lee Burchinal, "Parental Aid to Married Children: Implications for Family Functioning," Marriage and Family Living 24 (1962): 320-322; James A. Davis, Stipends and Spouses (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962).

42. Gunhild O. Hagestad, "The Aging Society as a Context for Family Life," Daedalus 115 (Winter 1986): 126.

43. Norman B. Ryder, "The Cohort as a Concept in the Study of Social Change," American Sociological Review 30 (1965): 843-861.

44. Matilda W. Riley, "Age Strata in Social Systems," in R. H. Binstock and E. Shanas, eds., Handbook of Aging and the Social Sciences (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1976), 189-217; Bernice L. continue

Neugarten, J. W. Moore, and J. C. Lowe, "Age Norms, Age Constraints, and Adult Socialization," American Journal of Sociology 70 (1965): 710-717.

45. Paul B. Baltes and K. Warner Schaie, eds., Life-Span Developmental Psychology: Personality and Socialization (New York: Academic Press, 1973).

46. Glen H. Elder, Jr., "Family History and the Life Course," in Tamara K. Hareven, ed., Transitions: The Family and the Life Course in Historical Perspective (New York: Academic Press, 1978), 23.

47. David L. Featherman, "Biography, Society, and History: Individual Development as a Population Process," in Aage B. Sorensen, Franz E. Weinert, and Lonnie R. Sherrod, eds., Human Development and the Life Course: Multidisciplinary Perspectives (Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1986), 101.

48. Tamara K. Hareven, "The Life Course and Aging in Historical Perspective," in Hareven, ed., Aging and Life Course Transitions: An Interdisciplinary Perspective (New York: The Guilford Press, 1982), 8.

49. Glen H. Elder, Jr., Children of the Great Depression (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974).

50. Glen H. Elder, Jr., "Perspectives on the Life Course," in Elder, ed., Life Course Dynamics: Trajectories and Transitions, 1968-1980 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985), 23-27.

51. "The World We Forgot: A Historical Review of the Life Course," in Victor W. Marshall, ed., Later Life: The Social Psychology of Aging (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1986).

52. Susan Littwin, The Postponed Generation: Why America's Grown-up Kids Are Growing Up Later (New York: Morrow, 1986).

53. Ibid. , 16-17.

52. Susan Littwin, The Postponed Generation: Why America's Grown-up Kids Are Growing Up Later (New York: Morrow, 1986).

53. Ibid. , 16-17.

54. Elder, "Perspectives on the Life Course," 29.

55. Deemed a highly encouraging trend by the President's Science Advisory Committee on Youth in 1973, gainful employment by school-children is currently under fierce attack, explicitly because jobs of the fast-food variety are said not to promote the transition to adulthood as once hoped but, rather, "pseudomaturity." See Ellen Greenberger and Laurence Steinberg, When Teenagers Work (New York: Basic Books, 1987).

56. Sandra L. Hofferth, "Updating Children's Life Course," Journal of Marriage and the Family 47 (1985): 93-115.

57. Uhlenberg, "Cohort Variations in Family Life Cycle Experiences of U.S. Females," Journal of Marriage and the Family 36 (1974): 284-292; Uhlenberg, "Changing Configurations of the Life Course," in Hareven, Transitions , 65-97; Uhlenberg, "Death and the Family," continue

Journal of Family History 5 (1980): 313-320. Uhlenberg's methodological and, to an extent, conceptual influence on my present study is evident in John Modell, Frank F. Furstenberg, Jr., and Theodore Hershberg, "Social Change and Transitions to Adulthood in Historical Perspective," Journal of Family History 1 (1976): 7-32.

58. Dennis Hogan, Transitions and Social Change (New York: Academic Press, 1981).

59. John Modell, "Levels of Change over Time," Historical Methods Newsletter 8 (1975): 116-127; see also John Modell, "Public Griefs and Personal Problems: An Empirical Inquiry into the Impact of the Great Depression," Social Science History 9 (1985): 399-428. On age-specific contextual effects in the Great Depression, see Howard M. Bell, Youth Tell Their Story (Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1938); Nettie Pauline McGill and Ellen Nathalie Matthews, The Youth of New York City (New York: Macmillan, 1940); Milwaukee Youth Report Their Status (Milwaukee: Milwaukee Vocational School, 1942).

60. John Modell, "Changing Risks, Changing Adaptations: American Families in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries," in Allan J. Lichtman and Joan R. Challinor, eds., Kin and Communities (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1979), 119-144.

61. Modell, Furstenberg, and Hershberg, "Social Change and Transitions to Adulthood"; John Modell, "Normative Aspects of American Marriage Timing Since World War II," Journal of Family History 5 (1980): 210-234.

62. Logically, "aging" processes could have changed, too, but we may assume that they did not for people of the ages in question here.

63. Pascal K. Whelpton, Cohort Fertility: Native White Women in the United States (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1954).

64. We are, to be sure, dealing with phenomena somewhat different from Whelpton's. By definition, first events (like becoming a parent) are unique in any person's life, whereas the whole of the "fertility schedule" is open-ended, continuing as long as 25 or 30 years beyond initiation. Basically, then, we cannot discuss tempo or quantity, only timing.

65. David Levine, Family Formation in an Age of Nascent Capitalism (New York: Academic Press, 1977).

66. Remarriage, the study of which is understandably a growth industry among demographers these days, is not treated here.

67. The most obvious "paydirt" on this question is the large empirical study by Ernest W. Burgess and Paul Wallin entitled Engagement and Marriage (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1953). But despite this continue

book's title, engagement was largely uninteresting to the authors, except for the "predictive" information that could be collected by themselves during this phase on couples that would in many cases subsequently marry so that they might discern the characteristics associated with happy marriage. They were barely interested in what predicted longer or shorter engagements, or marriage per se . I also examined the questionnaires gathered by Burgess and Wallin in the Ernest W. Burgess Papers, Special Collections, Regenstein Library, University of Chicago, and found that they never had cared much about engagement as such.

68. An excellent example is Harvey J. Locke, Predicting Adjustment in Marriage: A Comparison of a Divorced and a Happily Married Group (New York: Henry Holt, 1951), 91-96.

69. Susan Cotts Watkins, "On Measuring Transitions and Turning Points," Historical Methods 13 (1980): 181-187.

70. Herbert H. Hyman, Secondary Analysis of Survey Data (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1972).

71. Appendix 4 describes machine-readable materials used in my research and the mode of citation I employ.

72. Short-form references to national census materials are listed in Appendix 2. Like listings to national vital statistics materials are listed in Appendix 3.

1. Census—Historical Statistics I, 379; Census-CPS P20-390 .

2. On the changing relationship of educational attainment to socioeconomic background, see Robert D. Mare, "Change and Stability in Educational Stratification," American Sociological Review 46 (1981): 72-87.

3. The temporary parallelism of the trends was not coincidental. For an insightful historical overview of the evolution of the youth labor market, see Paul Osterman, Getting Started: The Youth Labor Market (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1980), chap. 4. Aggregating the experience of white and black young people conceals the fact that the extension of schooling may have affected the two differentially with regard to subsequent exclusive commitment to the labor force. A subtle analysis of how this has happened in the past two decades is Robert D. Mare and Christopher Winship, "The Paradox of Lessening Racial Inequality and Joblessness among Black Youth: Enrollment, Enlistment, and Employment, 1964-1981," American Sociological Review 49 (1984): 39-55. break

4. These data depend on tabulations of service by age reported in the 1960, 1970, and 1980 censuses, which are broken down according to whether there was any wartime service or none at all. Service was up to the date of the census and, here, refers to people varying somewhat in age at time of the inquiry but typically only somewhat beyond ordinary military ages.

5. Catherine S. Chilman, Adolescent Sexuality in a Changing American Society (DHEW Publication No. [NIH] 79- 1426, 1979), 115.

6. Alfred C. Kinsey, Wardell B. Pomeroy, and Clyde E. Martin, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1948), 400; Alfred C. Kinsey et al., Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1953), 339. In the Kinsey data, as one should find, premarital coitus was closely linked with approaching marriage (for women especially), but Kinsey's sample greatly oversampled men and women who had married late or had not married at all. For the reanalysis I employ here, I have therefore restandardized Kinsey's data by year of interview and educational level to reflect better than would the raw data, or the published tabulations, the marital-age and educational composition of the U.S. white population. This type of standardization, however, is devilishly difficult to carry out, in view of imprecisions of date and the wide range of years of interview. See Appendix 4. For the Kinsey data, see Paul H. Gebhard and Alan B. Johnson, The Kinsey Data (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1979).

7. There are simply no remotely reliable early data on the sexual behavior of nonwhite Americans. A small sample of retrospective data for white and black women in low-income areas in sixteen cities indicates that for the earliest cohort queried (born 1920-1929), the proportion of black women who had had premarital intercourse by age 17—about one in two—greatly exceeded that of whites. Some of this remarkable difference might be due to differential reporting, since in the 1970s, premarital coitus was considered far more shameful among whites than among blacks. Over succeeding cohorts, the reports by whites converged somewhat with those of blacks, which were roughly stable. J. Richard Udry, Karl E. Bauman, and Naomi M. Morris, "Changes in Premarital Coital Experience of Recent Decade-of-Birth Cohorts of Urban American Women," Journal of Marriage and the Family 37 (1975): 783-781. Carlfred Broderick's intriguing early 1960s single-city study comparing white and black children's reports of heterosexual relationships indicates that the preadolescent and adolescent peer culture of black boys, but not black girls , was considerably more "sexualized" than that of white counterparts, at least in the ritualized ways characteristic of young people of that era. Thus, at all continue

ages from 10 through 17, black boys were more likely than white boys to have played kissing games, to have kissed a girl seriously, to be going steady (but not simply to be dating), to identify a girlfriend, and to enjoy romantic movies. "Social Heterosexual Development among Urban Negroes and Whites," Journal of Marriage and the Family 27 (1965): 200-203.

8. Harold Christensen and Christina Gregg, "Changing Sex Norms in America and Scandinavia," Journal of Marriage and the Family 32 (1970): 616-627; on the 1950s, see Chilman, Adolescent Sexuality , 118, and Eleanore B. Luckey and Gilbert D. Nass, "A Comparison of Sexual Attitudes and Behavior in an International Sample," Journal of Marriage and the Family 31 (1967): 364-379.

9. Donald Carns, "Talking about Sex: Notes on First Coitus and the Double Standard," Journal of Marriage and the Family 35 (1973): 677-688; William Simon and John Gagnon, "Beyond Anxiety and Fantasy: The Coital Experience of College Youths," Journal of Youth and Adolescence 1 (1972): 203-222.

10. Melvin Zelnik and John F. Kantner, "Sexuality, Contraception, and Pregnancy among Young Unwed Females in the United States," in U.S. Commission on Population Growth and the American Future, Demographic and Social Aspects of Population Growth , "Commission Research Reports," Vol. I (Washington, D.C.: USGPO, 1972), 355-374.

11. Melvin Zelnik, John F. Kantner, and Kathleen Ford, Sex and Pregnancy in Adolescence (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1981), 65; Melvin Zelnik and Farida K. Shah, "First Intercourse among Young Americans," Family Planning Perspectives 15 (1983): 64.

12. Daniel Scott Smith and Michael Hindus, "Premarital Pregnancy in America, 1640-1971: An Overview and Interpretation," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 4 (1975): 537-570; USNCHS-Series 21-15 , 38.

13. Census CPS P20-385 .

14. Obviously, mothers never married are excluded, unfortunately.

15. Data not graphed here also pertain to marriages contracted at 14-17, a relatively rare phenomenon. Here, at essentially "deviant" ages for marriage, the differentials are rather more compelling among whites than among blacks.

16. Calculated from Martin O'Connell and Maurice J. Moore, "The Legitimacy Status of First Births to U.S. Women Aged 15-24, 1939-1978," Family Planning Perspectives 12 (January-February 1980), tables 1 and 2.

17. Calculated from Census 1930-1 , 1181. The data pertain to females only, unfortunately.

18. These data unfortunately distinguish only between those mar- soft

ried and with spouse present , not simply married, as in 1930. Surely this does affect the conclusions. Census 1970-3 , 255.

19. Here the data pertain to 1940 and 1970. Census 1970-4 , 67-68.

20. These analyses rest on the detailed retrospective accounts of age at first marriage reported in the 1960, 1970, and 1980 censuses. There are, to be sure, some imperfections in the data, for our purposes. The most obvious is recollection, which surely becomes dimmer with the passage of years and more subject to distortion by divorce and remarriage. There is also an upward bias in estimated proportions marrying at any given age produced by the well-known tendency for married people to outlive those single, the more so the longer ago they married. This will be slightly offset by differential mortality by socioeconomic groups coupled with socioeconomic differentials in marriage timing. Note, too, that the censuses were gathered as of April and so do not strictly admit of the translation I here employ of years married into calendar year of marriage. Census 1960-4 , table 2; Census 1970-2 , table 2; Census 1980-1 , table 16.

21. This is partly an artifact of shifting the source from the 1970 retrospect to the 1980.

22. Annual registration data are not subject to the distortion of memory to which retrospective materials are and avoid any biases produced by differential mortality. Lacking proper counts of single persons at single years of age for each year, however, we cannot calculate age-specific marriage rates and must content ourselves with examining year-to-year trends in numbers of single men and women marrying at particular ages. Data on New York State outside of New York City are published annually from 1921 to 1967 in S. V. De Porte, Marriage Statistics, New York State, 1921-24 (Albany: State Department of Health, n.d.), and in New York State, Department of Health, Annual Report .

23. Amy Ong Tsui, "A Study of the Family Formation Process among U.S. Marriage Cohorts," (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1978). Tsui's findings are also based on the 1975 Current Population Survey public-use file.

24. The data are unfortunately not tabulated by age at marriage; so, instead, table 5 compares groups of women currently different in age and married for equally long intervals . Those currently 20-24 had been married as young as age 16 and as old as age 21. Those currently 25-29 had been married as young as 21 and as old as 26. Those currently 30-34 had been married as young as 26 and as old as 31.

25. Many southern black women, presumably the most prone to continue

prompt motherhood, married before age 20 and so have been excluded from table 5 because so few could have been married as many as three years at the time of the census.

26. Larry Bumpass, "Age at Marriage as a Variable in Socioeconomic Differentials in Marriage," Demography 6 (1969): 45-54.

27. These data, taken from USNCHS Vital Statistics 1975 , Vol. III, table 2-1, present estimated national divorce totals as a ratio to currently married women.

28. Norval D. Glenn and Michael Supanic, "The Social and Demographic Correlates of Divorce and Separation in the United States: An Update and Reconsideration," Journal of Marriage and the Family 46 (1984): 571.

29. Samuel H. Preston and John McDonald, "The Incidence of Divorce within Cohorts of American Marriages Contracted Since the Civil War," Demography 16 (1979): 1-25.

30. Glenn and Supanic, "Social and Demographic Correlates of Divorce," 572.

31. Much of my discussion of trends in divorce-proneness is based on an examination of proportions of annual cohorts of marriages eventuating in divorce within nine years, compiled from the 1975 Current Population Survey. See Appendix 4. Such survey-based retrospects on divorce underestimate the amount of divorce, because many people choose to forget that which so distresses them. Perhaps, too, divorced people's mortality sufficiently exceeds that of those with lasting marriages that retrospective divorce estimates are biased downward. For comparative data revealing the bias, see USNCHS-Series 21-34 , 20. Other tabulations of the CPS divorce data are found in Census CPS P20-239, Census CPS P20-297 , and T. J. Espenshade, "Marriage, Divorce, and Remarriage from Retrospective Data: A Multiregional Approach," Environment and Planning A 15 (1983): 1633-1652.

32. Glenn and Supanic, "Social and Demographic Correlates of Divorce," 565-566; and see James A. Weed, "Age at Marriage as Factor in State Divorce Differentials, Demography 11 (1974): 370-372.

33. Calculated from USNCHS Vital Statistics , III, annual.

34. For related reflections, see John Modell, "Historical Reflections on American Marriage," in Kingsley Davis, ed., Contemporary Marriage (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1986), 181-196.

35. Possibly unique Connecticut data bearing on the role of divorce in marriage sequences show that even since the end of the nineteenth century, the trend of remarriage probabilities for divorced persons has been markedly up, from a stigmatization of divorced peo- soft

ple in the marriage market which profoundly limited their chances of finding an acceptable spouse to something approaching parity with single people of like age by the end of World War II. The data also reveal a shift away from severely constricted remarriage rates for divorced men to one that by the 1910s regularly exceeded that of divorcees. Connecticut, State Board of Health, Report , annual; Connecticut, State Board of Health, Registration Report , 1884-1946, annual. The data given in these reports is of the number of remarriages in the state in a given year by sex and disposition of previous marriage. I divided these figures by a five-year moving average of the number: of divorces in the state. I thus assume no differential interstate migration for purposes of divorce or remarriage. During this period, probabilities of remarriage for widows grew slightly with the remarriage market, but not at all as rapidly as for divorcees; and probabilities of remarriage for widowers actually declined. So it was not remarriage that became increasingly acceptable but explicitly the remarriage of people who had been divorced .

36. USNCHS Series 21-38 , Tables A, K.

37. Ibid. , 7. Also noted was a strong tendency (as of 1970) for states with low divorce rates to have long median intervals between marriage and divorce, where it does occur.

36. USNCHS Series 21-38 , Tables A, K.

37. Ibid. , 7. Also noted was a strong tendency (as of 1970) for states with low divorce rates to have long median intervals between marriage and divorce, where it does occur.

38. We can do nothing with the statistical problem introduced by the changing distributions of years since marriage in its interaction with proportions with any children and with propensity to divorce. We neglect this here, focusing on the most important crude trend.

39. One in ten did not report on their parenthood status. I would assume that these by and large had no children, but one cannot really be sure. The proportion not reporting parenthood declined gradually through the period we are considering, as registration of divorces slowly became more expertly accomplished.

40. Census Marriage 1931 , 32; Census Marriage 1932 , 6.

41. USNCHS Vital Statistics , annual, 1950-1975; Census CPS P23-84 , 8.

42. The uncertainty is introduced by different modes of allocating those who did not report on whether or not they had children.

43. Based on the conservative assumption that the 1930 proportion was identical to that for 1940.

44. Kristin A. Moore and Linda J. Waite, "Marital Dissolution, Early Motherhood, and Early Marriage," Social Forces 60 (1981): 20-40.

45. Ibid. , 32.

46. Ibid. , 34. break

44. Kristin A. Moore and Linda J. Waite, "Marital Dissolution, Early Motherhood, and Early Marriage," Social Forces 60 (1981): 20-40.

45. Ibid. , 32.

46. Ibid. , 34. break

44. Kristin A. Moore and Linda J. Waite, "Marital Dissolution, Early Motherhood, and Early Marriage," Social Forces 60 (1981): 20-40.

45. Ibid. , 32.

46. Ibid. , 34. break

1. Robert M. Coen, "Labor and Unemployment in the 1920s and 1930s: A Re-examination Based on Postwar Experience," Review of Economics and Statistics 55 (1973): 46-55; H. Thomas Johnson, "Postwar Optimism and the Rural Financial Crises of the 1920s," Explorations in Economic History 11 (1973-74): 173-192, on the farm bust; Wesley C. Mitchell, "A Review," in Committee on Recent Economic Changes of the President's Conference on Unemployment, Recent Economic Changes in the United States (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1929), II: 841-910. But cf. Charles F. Holt, "Who Benefited from the Prosperity of the Twenties?" Explorations in Economic History 14 (1977): 277-289.

2. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis, Long-Term Economic Growth 1860-1970 (Washington: USGPO, 1973), charts 2, 3, 4; Willard L. Thorp, "The Changing Structure of Industry," in Committee on Recent Economic Changes, Recent Economic Changes : I, 167-218; Frederick C. Mills "Price Trends" in ibid. , II, 603-656; Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making the Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1985).

3. Robert S. Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd, Middletown (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1929), Parts I, II; Daniel Horowitz, The Morality of Spending (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985); Elaine Tyler May, Great Expectations (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), chap. 8.

4. Lynd and Lynd, Middletown , 130. The Lynds present an account of the 1920s family as ripe for overt change, yet so far reflecting this state only in subtle ways. As we shall see, the decade of the 1920s, by opening a range of new options, destabilized the youthful life course, restructuring patterns of family formation and altering thereby its tone.

5. The Responsibilities of American Advertising (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1958), 40-41; Simon N. Patten, The New Basis of Civilization , ed. Daniel M. Fox (Cambridge: Belknap Press of the Harvard University Press, 1968).

6. Daniel Pope, The Making of Modern Advertising (New York: Basic Books, 1983); Marchand, Advertising the American Dream .

7. Robert S. Lynd, "The People as Consumers," in William Fielding Ogburn, ed., Recent Social Trends, II (New York, 1932), 848; William E. Leuchtenburg, Perils of Prosperity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958), chap. 10; Marcus Felson, "The Differentiation of continue

Material Life Styles: 1925-1966," Social Indicators Research 3 (1976): 397-421; J. Frederic Dewhurst and Associates, America's Needs and Resources: A New Survey (New York: The Twentieth Century Fund, 1955), Appendix 4-5.

8. Paula Fass, The Damned and the Beautiful (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977); J. F. Steiner, "Recreation and Leisure Time Activities," in Ogburn, ed., Recent Social Trends, II: 912-957.

9. Edmund K. Strong, Jr., The Psychology of Selling and Advertising (New York: McGraw Hill, 1925), 170; Paul H. Nystrom, Elements of Retail Selling (New York: Ronald Press, 1936).

10. F. Thomas Juster, Household Capital Formation and Financing, 1897-1962 (NBER General Series #83 [New York: NBER, 1966]); Edwin R. A. Seligman, The Economics of Installment Selling (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1927), 1: 263-264.

11. Blanche Bernstein, The Pattern of Consumer Debt, 1935-36 (NBER, Financial Research Program, Studies in Consumer Installment Financing #6 [New York: NBER, 1940]), chaps. 2, 5.

12. By the end of the decade, two urban surveys found that around one-third of adolescent girls and somewhat fewer boys had a regular allowance. White House Conference on Child Health and Protection, The Adolescent in the Family (New York: Appleton Century, 1934), 292-93; Evelyn Dreser Deno, "Changes in the Home Activities of Junior High School Girls over a Twenty-seven Year Period" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1958), 51; Viviana A. Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child (New York: Basic Books, 1985), chap. 3.

13. Meeting of December 10, 1930, of Chapter 375 of Child Study Association of America. Child Study Association of America Collection, Social Welfare History Archives, University of Minnesota.

14. Lynd and Lynd, Middletown, 118, 131.

15. Ibid. , 121-122.

14. Lynd and Lynd, Middletown, 118, 131.

15. Ibid. , 121-122.

16. Robert Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd, Middletown in Transition (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1937), 152.

17. Lynd and Lynd, Middletown , 111.

18. Ibid. , 112.

19. Ibid. , 140; Lynd and Lynd, Middletown in Transition , 168.

17. Lynd and Lynd, Middletown , 111.

18. Ibid. , 112.

19. Ibid. , 140; Lynd and Lynd, Middletown in Transition , 168.

17. Lynd and Lynd, Middletown , 111.

18. Ibid. , 112.

19. Ibid. , 140; Lynd and Lynd, Middletown in Transition , 168.

20. LeRoy E. Bowman and Maria Ward Lambin, "Evidences of Social Relations as Seen in Types of New York City Dance Halls," The Journal of Social Forces 3 (1925): 288; Paul G. Cressey, The Taxi-Dance Hall (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1932).

21. Elon H. Moore, "Public Dance Halls in a Small City," Sociology and Social Research 14 (1930): 260; see also Gregory Mason, "Satan in the Dance Hall," American Mercury 2 (1924): 175-182. The dance continue

halls came under close scrutiny in the early part of the 1920s, charged with being the breeding grounds of a variety of immoralities, or at least their starting point, and proper rules of dance-floor decorum were prescribed informally and in law. American National Association of Masters of Dancing, "Rules, Regulations, and Suggestions Governing Social Dancing" (pamphlet, 1919), in American Social Hygiene Association Collection, Social Welfare History Archives, University of Minnesota.

22. Lewis A. Erenberg, Steppin' Out (Contributions in American Studies, no. 50; [Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1981]), 154, and chap. 5 generally; Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986), chap. 4.

23. Maurice A. Bigelow, Adolescence (National Health Series [New York: Funk & Wagnalls, completely rev. ed., 1937 [1924]]), 86.

24. Ella Gardner, Public Dance Halls (U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, Publication No. 89, 1929), 36-49; and see M. V. O'Shea, The Trend of the Teens (Chicago: Frederick S. Drake and Co., 1920).

25. Herbert Blumer, Movies and Conduct (Motion Pictures and Youth: The Payne Fund Studies [New York: Macmillan, 1933]), 195n.

26. White House Conference on Child Health and Protection, The Adolescent in the Family (New York: Appleton-Century, 1934), 292-293.

27. Bruce L. Melvin and Elna N. Smith, Rural Youth: Their Situation and Prospects (Research Monographs XV, Works Progress Administration [Washington: USGPO, 1938]). Chapter V is a fine review of the literature on the leisure and recreation of rural youth, before and during the Depression.

28. Alice Miller Mitchell, Children and the Movies (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1929), 123-124.

29. Lary May, Screening Out the Past (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), chaps. 5, 8; Peiss, Cheap Amusements , chap. 6.

30. Edgar Dale, The Content of Motion Pictures (Motion Pictures and Youth: The Payne Fund Studies [New York: Macmillan Press, 1935]), 89, 94, 178.

31. Herbert Blumer and Philip M. Hauser, Movies, Delinquency and Crime (Motion Pictures and Youth: The Payne Fund Studies [New York: Macmillan Press, 1935]), chap. 5.

32. Although only one in five girls taking "personal hygiene" in a New York City high school in 1918 said that they would have wished further instruction in sexual matters, the sex-education proponent analyzing the survey concluded that many more would have said continue

so were it not "that what was uppermost in their minds could not find expression for reasons well understood." At least one response, quoted verbatim, could have been emblazoned on the banner of the sex modernizers and certainly indicates that at least some demand for school sex education existed ahead of supply. "Many girls feel that the sex relation is vulgar and is very repugnant to them. They have a wrong opinion which ought to be rectified by the hygiene teacher and told in a way that would not make us hate the other sex for this." Benjamin C. Gruenberg, "What Girls Want to Know," School Review 26 (1918): 753-755.

33. Mark Thomas Connelly, The Response to Prostitution in the Progressive Era (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980).

34. Wallace H. Maw, "Fifty Years of Sex Education in the Public Schools of the United States (1900-1950): A History of Ideas" (Ed.D. dissertation, University of Cincinnati, 1950), 82-133.

35. "The Sex Questionnaire that Shocked the Nation," True Confessions (July 1929): 40+.

36. William G. Shepherd, "What Our Boys and Girls Think of Each Other," Collier's 74 (December 13, 1924): 48; Howard M. Bell, Youth Tell Their Story (Washington: American Council on Education, 1938), 90. In Maryland, black youth were especially supportive and far more likely to wish early instruction.

37. Michael Imber, "Analysis of a Curriculum Reform Movement: The American Social Hygiene Association's Campaign for Sex Education 1900-1930" (Ph.D. dissertation, School of Education, Stanford University, 1980); John C. Burnham, "The Progressive Era Revolution in American Attitudes toward Sex," Journal of American History 59 (1973): 885-909.

38. Joseph Kirk Folsom, The Family (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1934), 230; Michael Gordon, "From an Unfortunate Necessity to a Cult of Mutual Orgasm: Sex in American Marital Education Literature 1830-1940," in James M. Henslin and Edward Sagarin, eds., The Sociology of Sex: An Introductory Reader (New York: Schocken, 1978), 68. Katherine B. Davis found in 1929 that four in ten of her married-women sample declared themselves to have been inadequately informed about sex at the time of their marriages and that virtually all of her unmarried-women sample favored sex instruction for both boys and girls. Davis, Factors in the Sex Life of Twenty-two Hundred Women (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1929), 63, 378.

39. D.C. Thom, Guiding the Adolescent (U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, Publication #225, 1933), 12. On parents' failings continue

in this task, see White House Conference on Child Health and Protection, The Adolescent in the Family , 192-211.

40. Quoted from the 1941 Yearbook of the Association in Maw, "Fifty Years of Sex Education," 130.

41. Laura Martha Myers, "A Study of a Personal Improvement Course for High School Girls" (M.Ed. thesis, The Pennsylvania State University, 1938), 34-41.

42. The expansion can not be laid to compulsory education laws. Almost all states that passed such laws in the 1910s had had more rapid rates of school expansion at the high school ages in the decade preceding the legislation. John K. Folger and Charles B. Nam, Education of the American People (1960 Census Monograph [Washington: USGPO, 1967]), 24-26. The White House Conference on Child Health and Protection, Child Labor (New York: The Century Company, 1932), Part IV, reflects both the difficulties of enforcing this shift in the construction of the youthful life course among working-class families and the strenuousness of efforts to accomplish that end.

43. Claudia Goldin, "The Changing Economic Role of Women: A Cohort Approach," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 13 (1983): 711.

44. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics , I: 379.

45. Tabulated from the Annual School Census of Philadelphia, in Philadelphia Board of Education, Journal and/or Statistical Report , annual.

46. Esther Mariel Cook, "The Relation between the Fluctuation of Juvenile Employment and the Enrollment of Pupils 14 and 15 Years of Age in Pittsburgh, 1923-1932," (M.A. essay, University of Pittsburgh, 1934).

47. Grayson N. Kefauver, Victor H. Noll, and C. Elwood Drake, The Secondary-School Population (U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, "National Survey of Secondary Education," Monograph No. 4 [Washington: USGPO, 1933]), 8-26.

48. John Modell, "An Ecology of Family Decisions: Suburbanization, Schooling, and Fertility in Philadelphia, 1880-1920," Journal of Urban History 6 (1980): 397-417.

49. Folger and Nam, Education of the American Population , 8-9. For a fine, naive, contemporaneous expression of recent changes as they affected school life, see Olivia Pound, "The Social Life of High School Girls: Its Problems and Its Opportunities," School Review 28 (1920): 50-56. On economic aspects of school prolongation, see Howard G. Burdge, Our Boys (Albany: State of New York, Military Training Commission, Bureau of Vocational Training, 1921), chaps. 13, 23. break

50. Duluth, Board of Education, Annual Report , 1921, 1926, 1937. In New Bedford, Massachusetts, in 1922, only 21 percent of sixteen-year-old boys were found in a single grade, and only 26 percent of the girls; by 1930 these figures had increased to 38 and 39 percent, respectively. New Bedford, School Report , 1923, 1931.

51. Clarence Long, The Labor Force under Changing Income and Employment (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1958), tables A-2, A-3.

52. Winifred Wandersee, Women's Work and Family Values, 1920-1940 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981), chap. 4.

53. Joseph A. Hill, Women in Gainful Occupations 1870 to 1920 (Census Monographs, IX [Washington: USGPO, 1929]), 287.

54. Phyllis Blanchard, The Adolescent Girl (New York: Moffat, Yard and Company, 1920), 48, 50; Winifred Richmond, The Adolescent Girl (New York: Macmillan, 1936 [1925]), and The Adolescent Boy (New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1933).

55. E. B. Hurlock and E. R. Klein, "Adolescent Crushes," Child Development 5 (1934): 80. It is striking that this excellent piece of research was uninterested in the "crushes" it did discover, obviously components of the teenage dating scene.

56. Scholarly observation of dating began with the inquiry into 1930s college dating carried out by the sociologist Willard Waller. Although Waller described dating as a special case of dissipation, he nonetheless established the crucial point that it was peer-supervised, rule-governed behavior. Waller, "The Rating and Dating Complex," American Sociological Review 2 (1937): 727-734; idem. , The Family (New York: The Dryden Press, 1938), chap. 9; Michael Gordon, "Was Waller Ever Right? The Rating and Dating Complex Reconsidered," Journal of Marriage and the Family 43 (1981): 67-76; Samuel Harman Lowrie, "Dating Theories and Student Responses," American Sociological Review 16 (1951): 334-340.

57. Reed Ueda, Avenues to Adulthood: The Origins of the High School and Social Mobility in an American Suburb (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 132.

58. Fass, The Damned and the Beautiful ; Bailey, From Front Porch to Back Seat (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988).

59. Fass, The Damned and the Beautiful , 262-273, 324-325.

60. Bailey, From Front Porch to Back Seat , 80.

61. Regina Malone, "Has Youth Deteriorated? II: The Fabulous Monster," The Forum 76 (1926): 29.

62. Bailey, From Front Porch to Back Seat , 78. break

63. Ibid. , 21.

64. Ibid. , 16.

62. Bailey, From Front Porch to Back Seat , 78. break

63. Ibid. , 21.

64. Ibid. , 16.

62. Bailey, From Front Porch to Back Seat , 78. break

63. Ibid. , 21.

64. Ibid. , 16.

65. Lynd and Lynd, Middletown , 137-138.

66. E.g., Emory S. Bogardus, The City Boy and His Problems (Los Angeles: Rotary Club of L.A., 1926), 74-75.

67. Frederick T. Shipp, "Social Activities of High-School Boys," School Review 39: 773.

68. Edgar Schmiedeler, "The Industrial Revolution and the Home" (Ph.D. dissertation, Catholic University, 1927), 50-53.

69. Harvey C. Lehman and Paul A. Witty, The Psychology of Play Activities (New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, 1927), 55-57; Shipp, "Social Activities," 771; Sister M. Mildred Knoebber, "The Adolescent Girl" (Ph.D. dissertation, St. Louis University, 1935), 162; Albert Blumenthal, Small-Town Stuff (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1932).

70. Mildred B. Thurow, "Interests, Activities, and Problems of Rural Young Folk: I" (Bulletin 617 [Ithaca: Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, 1934]), 34.

71. Paul H. Landis, "Problems of Farm Youth—A Point of View," Social Forces 18 (1940): 502-513; O. Latham Hatcher, Rural Girls in the City for Work (Richmond: Garrett and Massie for the Southern Women's Educational Alliance, 1930): 52-53.

72. Frances Donovan, The Woman Who Waits (Boston: Richard G. Badger, 1920), chaps. 17-19; Frederick M. Thrasher, The Gang (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1927), chap. 13; W. I. Thomas, The Unadjusted Girl: With Cases and Standpoint for Behavior Analysis (Criminal Science Monograph No. 4 [Boston: Little, Brown, 1923]), chap. 4.

73. Peiss, Cheap Amusements , chap. 2.

74. William Foote Whyte, "A Slum Sex Code," American Journal of Sociology 49 (1943): 24-29; and see Dorothy Reed, Leisure Time of Girls in a "Little Italy" (Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, n.d.; Portland, Ore., privately printed, 1932).

75. Jane Synge, "The Way We Were: Farm and City Families in the Early Twentieth Century," unpublished manuscript (Department of Sociology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, n.d.), chap. 5.

76. Lehman and Witty, Psychology of Play Activities , 134-137.

77. Mary K. Holloway, "A Study of Social Conditions Affecting Stowe Junior High School Girls" (M.A. Ed. thesis, University of Cincinnati, 1928), 34, 40; Lillian F. Drayton, "Personal Problems of Adolescents in the Basin Area of Cincinnati" (M.Ed. thesis, University of Cincinnati, 1935), 104-106. break

78. Quoted in E. Franklin Frazier, Negro Youth at the Crossways (Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1940), 247; see also the balance of chaps. 8 and 9, and Drayton, "Personal Problems," passim .

79. Excerpt from response to query by Drayton in Drayton, "Personal Problems," 179.

80. Ibid. , 164.

79. Excerpt from response to query by Drayton in Drayton, "Personal Problems," 179.

80. Ibid. , 164.

81. Waller, describing dating at the Pennsylvania State University, far too cynically and simplistically characterized the date as incorporating mutual exploitation, with prestige and "thrills" in view. The Family , chap. 9; "The Rating and Dating Complex." And see Peiss's excellent treatment of working-class girls' choices of how far to go. Cheap Amusements , 108-114.

82. Fannie Kilbourne, "Pretend He's the Plumber," Ladies' Home Journal 46 (January 1929): 20+.

83. I read perhaps some 650 letters to two lovelorn columnists in three time periods—1920-21, 1925, and 1930-31—choosing and transcribing for closer analysis 326 of these, roughly divided among the three dates. Doris Blake was a syndicated columnist (first as "Doris Blake's Answers," later as "Doris Blake's Love Answers") in the New York Daily News , a pioneer tabloid appealing to relatively unsophisticated readers. Blake's column was the earliest I found which employed the letter-and-reply format (as contrasted with Dorthea Dix's essay-with-quotations format). Blake truncated her letters, obviously, and more so over time; Martha Carr's evidently local and nonsyndicated column from the St. Louis Post-Dispatch , unfortunately a newspaper of far higher tone, regularized grammar and spelling but allowed correspondents to ramble on at considerable length.

84. New York Daily News , August 7, 1920.

85. New York Daily News , December 27, 1920; April 29, 1925; February 19, 1925.

86. New York Daily News , May 10, 1925; November 8, 1930.

87. New York Daily News , October 16, 1930, and November 5, 1930; St. Louis Post-Dispatch , September 17, 1931.

88. New York Daily News , May 25, 1925.

89. Middle-class girls and those aspiring to middle-class status who did not prosper under the new system shortly became its victims. As early as 1924, a California high school dean of girls set up a program to help those girls (54 percent in her school, by her reckoning) who were left out. There were many reasons for failure, "yet it will be observed that all of these various types have something in common. The non-social individual centers all her thoughts and activity upon continue

herself." Caroline Power, "The Social Program for the Unsocial High-School Girl," School Review 32 (1924): 773.

90. Richmond, The Adolescent Girl , 53; cf. idem., The Adolescent Boy . And for an unconventional statement of the conventional understanding on this point, see Ben B. Lindsey and Wainwright Evans, The Revolt of Modern Youth (New York: Boni & Liveright, 1925), chaps. 5 and 6. Lindsey and Evans hold that "the high-school boy is a much less dramatic figure than the high-school girl. Generally, she sets the pace, whatever it is to be, and he dances to her piping" ( ibid. , 68).

91. "A School Girl's Misstep," True Confessions 6 (June 1925): 6+. A 1941 study of a St. Louis high school indicated that by senior year, two-thirds of the girls but just one in ten boys ordinarily dated persons from outside the school. Helen Moore Priester, "The Reported Dating Practices of One Hundred and Six High School Seniors in an Urban Community" (M.S. thesis, Cornell University, 1941), 41.

92. Waller's commitment to a conception of love in which idealization played a large part, I believe, blinded him to the affectionate element in dating and led him to believe that dating and courtship were wholly different activities. See Waller, "Rating and Dating"; Waller, The Family , chap. 8. See also Clifford Kirkpatrick and Theodore Caplow, "Courtship in a Group of Minnesota Students," American Journal of Sociology 51 (1945): 114-125.

93. Ernie to Martha Carr, St. Louis Post-Dispatch , April 3, 1931.

94. Computations from Kinsey data. See Appendix 4.

95. These trends pertain considerably more strongly to the informants who had attended college. We should recall that much of the apparent increase in the sexual content of life was captured within marriage, which was in accord both with received values and with the relatively new notion that the sexual pleasures of marriage were to be celebrated, not just tolerated.

96. Eleanor Rowland Wembridge, "Petting and the Campus," Survey 34 (1925): 394.

97. Folsom, The Family , 231-232.

98. Joseph Wood Krutch, "Love—Or the Life and Death of a Value," Atlantic Monthly 142 (1928): 207, 205.

99. "Observations on the Sex Problem in America," American Journal of Psychiatry 8 (1928): 529; Willard Waller, The Old Love and the New (New York: Liveright, 1930). Sapir spoke of trends he hoped would not overtake American culture.

100. Richmond, The Adolescent Boy , 192; R. H. Edwards, J. M. Artman, and Galen M. Fisher, Undergraduates (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, Doran, 1928), 216-218. break

101. White House Conference on Child Health and Protection, Growth and Development of the Child, Part IV, Appraisement of the Child (New York: The Century Company, 1932), 140-142.

102. Fass, The Damned and the Beautiful , 280, 294.

103. Folsom, The Family , 71, 408.

104. "One Girl" quoted in "To-Day's Morals and Manners—The Side of the Girls," Literary Digest 70 (July 9, 1921): 36.

105. George A. Lundberg, "Sex Differences on Social Questions," School and Society 23 (1926): 595-600; Daniel Katz and Floyd Henry Allport, Students' Attitudes (Syracuse, N.Y.: The Craftsmen Press, 1931), 252-253.

106. Folsom, The Family , 98, 412.

107. Caroline B. Zachry, Emotion and Conduct in Adolescence (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1940), 509. The study was conducted in 1934-1939.

108. Child Study Association, chap. 375, meeting of December 3, 1930.

109. Floyd Dell, "Why They Pet," The Parents' Magazine 6 (October 1931): 63.

110. For a classic expression of this conventional belief, see "A High School Boy Reveals Youth's Love Problems," True Confessions 12 (July, 1928): 34.

111. Quoted in Arthur Dean, "A Survey on Petting," Journal of Education 110 (1929): 414.

112. Jessie E. Gibson, On Being a Girl (New York: Macmillan, 1927), 141.

113. Fass, The Damned and the Beautiful , chap. 5, is splendid on the meaning of sexuality, if a little underemphatic about the gender dialectic.

114. "A High School Boy Reveals Youth's Love Problems," 107.

115. A mid-1920s college survey asked, "Is it right to kiss a man or woman you do not expect to marry?" Substantial minorities of 25 percent of the boys and 40 percent of the girls answered no , indicating that they still accepted sexual pleasure only in the context of courtship. Lundberg, "Sex Differences," 598. The classic 1920s exposition of cultural change in girls' sexual expressiveness is New Girls for Old , by Phyllis Blanchard and Carolyn Manasses (New York: The Macaulay Co., 1930). Theodore Newcomb's thoughtful conclusion that by the 1930s, a "less compulsive and more spontaneous demonstration of affection between boys and girls" was common suggests the only gradual accomplishment of this cultural change. "Recent Changes in Attitudes toward Sex and Marriage," American Sociological Review 2 (1937): 662. break

116. "Miss Dateless" to Martha Carr, St. Louis Post-Dispatch , October 31, 1931. And see the exchange between Doris Blake and H. Ann and Peggy, "Doris Blake's Love Answers," New York Daily News , October 28 and November 27, 1930.

117. Gibson, On Being a Girl , 150.

118. Editorial, St. Paul Central High Times , December 16, 1927. And see letter from A.C., Minneapolis South High Southerner , April 13, 1921.

119. Little Falls The Comet's Tail , February 24, 1928, editorial. Also see Lynd and Lynd, Middletown , 162-164.

120. Little Falls The Comet's Tail , March 27, 1923.

121. L. C. in Minneapolis South High Southerner , February 29, 1919.

122. "One of Them" in Minneapolis South High Southerner , October 27, 1920.

123. Minneapolis South High Southerner , November 18, 1920.

124. Letter of E. D., St. Paul Central High Times , March 26, 1926.

125. Lehman and Witty, Psychology of Play Activities , 55-57; Alexandria High Al-Hi-Nuz , December 16, 1927.

126. "We are Bachelor Girls of 30," True Confessions 26 (June 1935): 38-39.

127. Russ Brackett, letter in Minneapolis West High News , May 2, 1924; and "One of the Many Sufferers," letter in Little Falls The Comet's Tail , February 11, 1930.

128. Quoted in Caroline B. Zachry, Emotion and Conduct in Adolescence , 121.

129. For all intents and purposes, the 1930 census data reflect the impact of the relatively booming 1920s rather than of the crash and certainly not of the Depression. Only about half a year had passed between the stock market crash and the census, and while some marriage decisions undoubtedly took this into consideration, most of the decadal changes, and even the changes in the changes, can be attributed to the "prosperity decade" rather than to its denouement.

130. New Girls for Old , 260.

131. Ibid. , 181. See also Wembridge, "Petting and the Campus"; Ernest R. Burgess, "The Romantic Impulse and Family Disorganization," Survey 57 (1926): 290-294; Alexander Black, "Is the Young Person Coming Back," Harper's Monthly 149 (1929): 337-346; and, for the parents' perspective, see Jessica H. Cosgrave, "Romantic Love," Good Housekeeping 81 (November-December 1928): 36.

130. New Girls for Old , 260.

131. Ibid. , 181. See also Wembridge, "Petting and the Campus"; Ernest R. Burgess, "The Romantic Impulse and Family Disorganization," Survey 57 (1926): 290-294; Alexander Black, "Is the Young Person Coming Back," Harper's Monthly 149 (1929): 337-346; and, for the parents' perspective, see Jessica H. Cosgrave, "Romantic Love," Good Housekeeping 81 (November-December 1928): 36.

132. Ann Bruce, Love and Marriage (Franklin Publishing Company, 1931), 66, 91. The overprudent male was a subject for gentle ridicule, however. Blanche Bruce, "The Adventure of the Lost Trousseau," Ladies' Home Journal 37 (1920): 14+. break

133. A Family Doctor, "Youth's Greatest Problem: Wait or Mate," True Confessions 12 (October 1928): 113.

134. Eleanor Rowland Wembridge, "The Girl Tribe—An Anthropological Study," Survey 60 (1928): 198.

135. Temple Bailey, "Wait for Prince Charming," Ladies' Home Journal 43 (October 1926): 20+.

136. Census 1920-1 , 391-393; Census 1930-1 , 846-847.

137. New York State Department of Health, Division of Vital Statistics, Annual Report , 1922-1930; S.V. DePorte, Marriage Statistics, New York State . . . 1921-24 (Albany: State Department of Health, n.d.). These permit construction of the best series of single-year-of-age first marriages—based on registration data—that I have discovered.

138. The foreign born and to a lesser extent the children of the foreign born do provide a very striking counterexample, but this may easily be a result of compositional changes in these groups.

139. A like analysis, for the decade of the 1910s, was carried out as early as 1928 by William Fielding Ogburn, who, however, did not choose to analyze as narrow an age group as I and thus spent a great deal of the analysis worrying about changes in age distribution and in ethnic distributions in the state population. The results are reported extensively in Ernest R. Groves and William Fielding Ogburn, American Marriage and Family Relationships (New York: Henry Holt, 1932). Unlike Ogburn, I employ ordinary least squares multiple regression.

140. In part, this is to propose what is almost a demographic tautology, for by promoting early fertility, early marriage tends per se to be associated with relatively rapid population growth. But a look at the states in which population growth in the 1920s was especially rapid convinces one that other factors are at work as well, those that promoted immigration. The four most rapidly growing states during that decade were California, Florida, Michigan, and Arizona, with rates of growth all exceeding three in ten, well above anything that natural increase could explain. Nor were these states characterized by particularly high fertility. Many of the high-fertility states in the depressed agricultural South had rates of net population growth slow enough to suggest that natural increase was being offset by outmigration.

141. Obviously, one doesn't "search" for a mate across a whole state, or in a way limited by state boundaries per se . We may very reasonably suppose that the overall decline in the skewing of sex ratios also was reflected in declines within more meaningful local marriage markets. break

142. Based on retrospective accounts taken in 1940 and published in Census 1940-4, 142-165.

143. Robert L. Hauser, Fertility Tables for Birth Cohorts by Color: United States, 1917-73 (Rockville, Md.: U.S. National Center for Health Statistics, 1976), 424-425.

144. Too many years had elapsed since the vital events in question to expect very precise retrospective information on the 1920s from the 1975 Current Population Survey of marital and fertility histories, but the gross patterns discernible there fill out this picture usefully.

145. Regine K. Stix and Frank W. Notestein, Controlled Fertility: An Evaluation of Clinic Service (Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1940), 25.

146. This study was carried out in 1941, asking about the family-building practices and beliefs of a near-representative sample of fecund white Protestants of native birth who had lived in cities for at least some years before their marriages (all in 1927-1929) and were living in Indianapolis at the time of the survey. See Appendix 4 for a discussion of machine-readable data files.

147. The relationship of schooling to fertility control was largely direct and not the product of a joint tendency for more educated women to marry older and for older-marrying women to practice more fertility limitation at this date early in their marriages.

148. James Reed, From Private to Public Virtue (New York: Basic Books, 1978), 124.

149. Stix and Notestein, Controlled Fertility , 53.

150. Middletown , 124; and see Reed, From Private Vice to Public Virtue .

151. Paul H. Gebhard et al. , Pregnancy, Birth and Abortion (New York: Harper & Brothers and Paul B. Hoefer, Inc., 1958), 70.

152. Data on contraceptive methods in Indianapolis rest on retabulations of data presented in Charles F. Westoff, Lee F. Herrera, and P. K. Whelpton, "Social and Psychological Factors Affecting Fertility, Part XX: The Use, Effectiveness, and Acceptability of Methods of Fertility Control," Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 31 (1953): 314, 317, 324.

153. Linda Gordon, Woman's Body, Woman's Right (New York: Penguin Books, 1977), chaps. 10-11.

154. P. K. Whelpton and Clyde V. Kiser, "Social and Psychological Factors Affecting Fertility, Part VI: The Planning of Fertility," Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 25 (1947): 73.

155. F. I. Davenport, "Adolescent Interests: A Study of the Sexual Interests and Knowledge of Young Women," Archives of Psychology 66 (New York, 1923); Westoff, Herrera, and Whelpton, "Social and Psychological Factors." break

156. Easily the greatest proportion of the variation in the propensity to use birth control was explained by wives' formal schooling, rather than by their ages at marriage. There was very little variation by husband's income at marriage or by Protestant sectarian affiliation.

157. Samuel A. Stouffer and Lyle M. Spencer, "Marriage and Divorce in Recent Years," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 188 (November 1936): 58.

158. Samuel H. Preston and John McDonald, "The Incidence of Divorce within Cohorts of American Marriages Contracted Since the Civil War," Demography 16 (1979): 10-11; USNCHS Vital Statistics 1974, III: 1-5, 2-5; William L. O'Neill, Divorce in the Progressive Era (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967).

159. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Marriage and Divorce 1930 (Washington: USGPO, 1932), 24, 35; Thomas P. Monahan, "The Changing Probability of Divorce," American Sociological Review 5 (1940): 536-545; USNCHS Series 21-34, tables 3, 4; USNCHS Series 21-38, table 1.

160. May, Great Expectations , 158-159.

1. Estimates based on Robert L. Heuser, Fertility Tables for Birth Cohorts by Color (Rockville, Md.: National Center for Health Statistics, 1976), tables 4B and 4C; Census 1930-1; Census 1940-1.

2. Clarence Long, The Labor Force under Changing Income and Employment (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1958), 181-192.

3. Census Population Trends , 364-379.

4. Paul Osterman, Getting Started: The Youth Labor Market (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1980), 62-73.

5. In first-class cities in Michigan, where there was but little unpaid family work, 13 percent of boys 18 years of age were unemployed and seeking their first jobs, 7 percent were unemployed and seeking a replacement job, and 13 percent were not in school but not seeking work. State of Michigan, State Emergency Relief Commission, Michigan Census of Population and Unemployment , First Series, no. 10 (1937): 2-3.

6. Massachusetts Department of Labor and Industries, Division of Statistics, Report on the Census of Unemployment in Massachusetts, 1934 (Public Document no. 15, 1934): 14, 84.

7. Samuel A. Stouffer and Paul F. Lazarsfeld, Research Memorandum on the Family in the Depression (SSRC Bulletin no. 29 [New York: Social Science Research Council, 1937]), 28-33. break

8. Census 1940-5 , 19; Walter F. Dearborn and John W. M. Rothney, Scholastic, Economic, and Social Backgrounds of Unemployed Youth (Harvard Bulletins in Education, no. 20 [Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1938]).

9. Ruth E. Eckert and Thomas O. Marshall, When Youth Leave School (New York: The Regents' Inquiry, 1938), Part II, chap. 3.

10. Helen Wood, Young Workers and Their Jobs in 1936 (U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau Publication No. 249, 1940), 48, 69.

11. Dearborn and Rothney, Unemployed Youth , 131.

12. Census 1940-6, table 6; Census 1940-8, 92; Census CPS P60-7, 22, 30.

13. Tabulation from Census 1940-7, 28, inserting all children of the given ages in place of the private household population of those ages.

14. Census 1940-9, 16. And see Don D. Humphrey, Family Unemployment (Washington: U.S. Works Progress Administration, Federal Works Agency, 1940), 9.

15. Howard M. Bell, Youth Tell Their Story (Washington: American Council on Education, 1938), 26.

16. Bruce L. Melvin and Elna N. Smith, Youth in Agricultural Villages (U.S. Works Progress Administration, Division of Research, Research Monograph XXI [Washington: USGPO, 1940]), 65.

17. On this theme, see John Modell, "Public Griefs and Personal Problems," Social Science History 9 (1985): 404-409; Elder, Children of the Great Depression ; E. Wight Bakke, Citizens without Work (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1940); Maurice Leven, The Income Structure of the United States (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institute, 1938), 166.

18. Dearborn and Rothney, Unemployed Youth , 96. And yet these were not the least successful or least apt students nor those least favorable to or engaged with school. The very best students tended to remain in school and out of the labor force, being thus neither employed nor unemployed. Ibid. , 98-120.

19. Similar patterns were present in other places for which such tabulations are possible, including cities and towns and villages with economies considerably different from Philadelphia. Humphrey, Family Unemployment , 91-110, Appendix A.

20. U.S. Federal Security Agency, Social Security Board, Bureau of Research and Statistics, Statistics of Family Composition, 11 : The Urban Sample (Bureau Memorandum no. 45 [Washington: Federal Security Agency, 1942]), 165-167. break

21. Henry F. Pringle, "What the Men of America Think of Women," Ladies' Home Journal (April 1939): 95; Pringle, "What the Women of America Think about the Double Standard," ibid (November 1938): 48; "The Fortune Quarterly Survey, VI," Fortune 14 (October 1936): 222.

22. Where the youth earned income, this tended to portray the family as of higher status, because total family income is the criterion used here. A fine New York youth study, conducted in 1935, found precisely the same differentials, using father's usual occupation to indicate socioeconomic background. The study found more current employment among children of professionals, proprietors, and managers as well as more school attendance and more unemployment (51 percent among sons of the unskilled) and housewifery among those whose fathers had less prestigious jobs. Nettie Pauline McGill and Ellen Nathalie Matthews, The Youth of New York City (New York: Macmillan, 1940), 64.

23. Roland S. Vaile et al., Impact of the Depression on Business Activity and Real Income in Minnesota (University of Minnesota Studies in Economics and Business, no. 8 [Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1933]), 45-46.

24. These data are found in the large national urban family budget studies conducted in prosperous times during and after World War I and during the middle of the Depression. Linear regression enables me to estimate for each period about how many cents per additional ten dollars of income went to these visible, symbolically significant items of personal adornment.

25. On the impact of the Depression on the position of clothes in the family budget, see Faith M. Williams, "Changes in Family Expenditures in the Postwar Period," Monthly Labor Review 47 (1938): 967-979.

26. Family composition, of course, had changed between 1918-19 and 1935-36, families now having somewhat fewer adolescent and young-adult children. This could affect the income elasticity of clothing expenditures, to the extent that the clothing expenditures detailed here were in large measure the purchase of goods needed, for warmth or decency, rather than in pursuit of reputation. But for this range of family incomes, this image is quite untenable.

27. "Youth in College," Fortune 13 (June 1936): 102.

28. The Unemployed Man and His Family (New York: Dryden Press for the Institution of Social Research, 1947), chap. 6.

29. Ethel S. Beer, "The Social Life of the Business Girl," Social Forces 17 (1939): 546-550. break

30. James H. S. Bossard, "Depression and Pre-Depression Marriage Rates: A Philadelphia Study," American Sociological Review 2 (1937): 686-695. Bossard's study was based on a careful comparison of roughly age-standardized marriage rates for different areas of the city for 1928 to 1938.

31. Census 1930-2, 27; Census 1930-1, 557; Census 1940-7, 28. In New York City, and presumably elsewhere, this pattern was even more prevalent among blacks. Matthews, Youth of New York City , 34.

32. Census 1940-2, 4-5. And see Clyde V. Kiser, Group Differences in Urban Fertility (Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1942), 112-113.

33. Ernest W. Burgess Papers, Boxes 60-63, Department of Special Collections, The Joseph Regenstein Library, University of Chicago.

34. Jessie Bernard, "The Differential Influence of the Business Cycle on the Number of Marriages in Several Age Groupings," Social Forces 18 (1940): 539-549.

35. Census 1950-3, 41-46.

36. Tabulated from AIPO 516. See Appendix 4.

37. Annual tabulations of Philadelphia marriages of white people, in City of Philadelphia, Mayor's Report , annual; Paul H. Jacobson, American Marriage and Divorce (New York: Rinehart and Company, 1959), 56.

38. Melvin Schubert Brooks, "Wisconsin Birth and Marriage Rate Trends by Occupations, 1920-1936" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1941); Frances Meurer Deputy, "Marriages and the Depression" (M.A. thesis, University of Cincinnati, 1939), 103, 122; James A. Bossard, "The Age Factor in Marriage: A Philadelphia Study, 1931," American, Journal of Sociology 38 (1933): 536-547.

39. New York State, State Department of Health, Division of Vital Statistics, Annual Report , 1926-1941.

40. Massachusetts, Registration Report , Public Document 1, annual.

41. See, more generally, Stouffer and Lazarsfeld, Research Memorandum , 40-43.

42. Cincinnati Employment Center, Ohio State Employment Service, The Population of Hamilton County, Ohio, in 1935 (Studies in Economic Security: II [Cincinnati: Cincinnati Employment Center, 1937]), 57-110, 210-215. The foreign born were surely too heterogeneous to analyze usefully, while the black population of Cincinnati was concentrated into too few census tracts to support a statistically reliable multivariate analysis of the sort possible with whites. The nativity of the parents of the native whites, unfortunately, is not distinguished in the 1935 Cincinnati census. I employ multiple regression as the statistical tool for this exploration. break

43. Brooks, "Wisconsin Birth and Marriage Trends," 82, 159, and Methodological Materials in Appendix B. The annual occupation-specific rates compiled for a WPA project were based on a group of Wisconsin cities and depend on occupational statistics drawn from city directors as well as on a certain amount of uncertain record linkage, but they represent nevertheless a highly valuable source of trend data especially because of the very high number of certificates tabulated.

44. Census 1940-4, 58-62. And see Antonio Ciocco, "Studies on the Biological Factors in Public Health, I," Human Biology 12 (1940): 59-76; Clyde V. Kiser, "Recent Analyses of Marriage Rates," Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 15 (1937): 262-274.

45. These inferences are based on tabulations of proportions married among male workers 25 to 34, by occupation and employment status, from data in Census 1940-5, 107-110.

46. Ruth Shonle Cavan and Katherine Howland Ranck, The Family and the Depression (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1938); Stouffer and Lazarsfeld, Research Memorandum .

47. Elder, Children of the Great Depression .

48. Valeria H. Parker, "The Case of Youth vs . Society," Journal of Social Hygiene 21 (1935): 330-345.

49. "Ten Modern Commandments," True Confessions (1935).

50. Roy Dickerson, When a Couple Are Engaged (New York: Association Press, 1940), 8.

51. Oliver M. Butterfield, Love Problems of Adolescence (Contributions to Education, no. 768 [New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1939]), 124-125.

52. McGill and Matthews, The Youth of New York , 31-32. A fascinating tabulation of more than one thousand letters to popular marriage counselors in the 1930s, however, dealing with difficulties in courtship, indicated that only about one in eight of these had to do with inadequate income to contemplate marriage soon. Even at that date, the largest category of problems was parental obligations to the chosen man or woman, the second greatest, sexual matters. Antonio Ciocco, "On Social Biology, III: Elements Affecting the Formation of the Marital Group," Human Biology 11 (1939): 234 -247.

53. Ernest W. Burgess and Paul Wallin, Engagement and Marriage (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1953).

54. Carolyn Zachry, "The Adolescent and His Problems Today," in Sidonie Matsner Gruenberg, ed. The Family in a World at War (New York: Harper, 1942), 224-225. break

55. Quoted in James Reed, From Private Vice to Public Virtue (New York: Basic Books, 1978), 190.

56. Bernarr MacFadden, "Why Not Marry?" True Romances 4 (March 1942): 4.

57. Paul Popenoe, "Two Million Lovers Are Desperately Asking: When Can We Marry?" The American Magazine 129 (June 1940): 22+.

58. Hadley Cantril, Public Opinion, 1935-1946 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1951). Computations discussed are based on AIPO 099. See Appendix 4.

59. Paul H. Gebhard and Alan B. Johnson, The Kinsey Data: Marginal Tabulations (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co., 1979), 342; Paul Popenoe and Donna Wicks Neptune, "Acquaintance and Betrothal," Social Forces 16 (1938): 552-555.

60. James L. McConaghy, "Now That You Are Engaged," in William Frederick Bigelow, ed., The Good Housekeeping Marriage Book (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1938), 18.

61. Lemo D. Rockwood and Mary E. N. Ford, Youth, Marriage, and Parenthood (New York: Wiley, 1945), 102-104.

62. William S. Bernard, "Student Attitudes on Marriage and the Family," American Sociological Review 3 (1938): 354-361. And see Floyd Dell, "If They Want to Get Married," Parents 11 (December 1936): 14+.

63. Quoted in Matthews, The Youth of New York City , 31.

64. N. K. to Martha Carr, in St. Louis Post-Dispatch , May 4, 1931.

65. William Mach and Donald J. Kiser, eds., Corpus Juris Secundum (Brooklyn: American Law Book Company, 1938), XI, 776-81; "The Law of Engagement Rings," United States Law Review 68 (1934): 342-351. In 1953, a Gallup Poll asked whether "when an engaged couple break off their engagement," the ring should be returned to the man or kept by the woman. Only 64 percent agreed with the legal doctrine that called for the ring's return. Eleven percent considered it an outright gift, while 17 percent said it was the woman's to keep unless it was she who broke the engagement, and 8 percent had no opinion. George Gallup, The Gallup Polls (New York: Random House, 1972), II, 1145.

66. Burgess and Wallin, Engagement and Marriage , 184; and see Manford Hinshaw Kuhn, "The Engagement," in Howard Becker and Reuben Hill, eds. Marriage and the Family (Boston: D. C. Heath, 1942).

67. Editors of Vogue , Vogue's Book of Etiquette (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, Doran, 1936); Elinor Ames, Book of Modern Etiquette (New York: Walter J. Black, Inc., 1936); and see Paul Popenoe, "Betrothal," continue

Journal of Social Hygiene 20 (1934): 444-448, and "Where Are the Marriageable Men?" Social Forces 14 (1936): 257-262.

68. Burgess and Wallin, Engagement and Marriage , 272.

69. Ernest R. Groves, Marriage (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1933), 151.

70. Burgess and Wallin, Engagement and Marriage , 273, 282-295.

71. Willard Waller, "The Rating and Dating Complex," American Sociological Review 2 (1937): 727-734.

72. "The status of being steadies brings two persons into a relationship just short of actual engagement, one in which courtship may proceed intensively." Butterfield, Love Problems of Adolescence , 83.

73. Paul Popenoe, Betrothal (New York: American Social Hygiene Association, 1936), 4.

74. Anna Steese Richardson, Standard Etiquette (New York: Harper, 1925), 192.

75. Groves, Marriage , 145.

76. Norman E. Himes, Your Marriage: A Guide to Happiness (New York: Farrar & Rinehart, 1940), 96.

77. Gulielma Fell Alsop and Mary F. McBride, She's Off to Marriage (New York: Vanguard Press, 1942), 96.

78. Groves, Marriage , 146.

79. Margaret Sanger, Happiness in Marriage (New York: Blue Ribbon Books, 1926), 74-75.

80. Roy E. Dickerson, When a Couple Are Engaged (New York: Association Press, 1940), 10-11.

81. McConaghy, "Now That You Are Engaged," 22-23

82. Burgess and Wallin, Engagement and Marriage , 317; Lewis M. Terman, Psychological Factors in Marital Happiness (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1938.)

83. See Appendix 4.

84. Ernest W. Burgess and Leonard S. Cottrell, Predicting Success or Failure of Marriage (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1939), 406-407.

85. Little Girl to Martha Carr, in St. Louis Post-Dispatch , October 16, 1931.

86. "Love Hazards, True Confessions 26 (April 1935): 22+.

87. Cavan and Ranck, The Family and the Depression , 168.

88. Quoted from the files of the National Council of the Protestant Episcopal Church, in Joseph K. Folsom, Youth, Family, and Education (Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1941), 43.

89. Bernard, "Student Attitudes," 356.

90. Samuel H. Preston and John McDonald, "The Incidence of Divorce within Cohorts of American Marriages Contracted since the continue

Civil War," Demography 16 (1979): 1-25. The discussion does not consider the generally rising trend of divorce, looking rather at deviations from it.

91. Computed from the 1975 CPS retrospective data: see Appendix 4. Note that sample attrition and modest numbers for such old persons (in 1975) render these findings uncertain. But see also CPS P20-108, 33-39, and CPS P20-239, 17-39.

92. Pringle, "What Do Women of America Think about Birth Control?," 95.

93. Regine K. Stix and Frank W. Notestein, Controlled Fertility: An Evaluation of Clinic Service (Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1940), 53; Stouffer and Lazarsfeld, Research Memorandum , 137; James Reed, From Private Vice to Public Virtue (New York: Basic Books, 1978).

94. Henry F. Pringle, "What Do the Women of America Think about Birth Control?" Ladies' Home Journal 55 (March 1938): 15.

95. Regine K. Stix, "Research in the Causes and Variations in Fertility: Medical Aspects ," American Sociological Review 2 (1937): 668-677.

96. Paul H. Jacobson, "The Trend of the Birth Rate among Persons on Different Economic Levels: City of New York, 1929-1942," Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 22 (1944): 131-147; Evelyn M. Kitagawa, "Differential Fertility in Chicago, 1920-40," American Journal of Sociology 58 (1953): 481-492.

97. Frank Lorimer and Frederick Osborn, Dynamics of Population (New York: Macmillan, 1934); Kiser, Group Differences in Urban Fertility .

98. Edgar Sydenstricker and G. St. J. Perrott, "Sickness, Unemployment, and Differential Fertility," Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 12 (1934): 132. See also Helen C. Griffin and G. St. J. Perrott, "Urban Differential Fertility during the Depression," Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 15 (1937): 75-89.

99. Ruth Riemer and Clyde V. Kiser, "Economic Tension and Social Mobility in Relation to Fertility Planning and Size of Planned Family," Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 32 (1954): 190-193.

100. Clyde V. Kiser and P. K. Whelpton, "Social and Psychological Factors Affecting Fertility: Part XI: The Interrelationships of Fertility, Fertility Planning, and Feelings of Economic Security," Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 29 (1951): 41-122; Charles F. Westoff and Clyde V. Kiser, "An Empirical Reexamination and Intercorrelation of Selected Hypothesis Factors," Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 31 (1953): 421-435.

101. The data were published only for native white women. I have further limited the table to urban women, among whom fertility con- soft

trol was the most widely practiced and among whom, therefore, the patterns discussed appear most strongly.

102. Based on computations subdivided by year of marriage from Indianapolis Fertility data tape. And see Nancy Jean Davis, "The Political Economy of Childlessness and Single-Child Fertility among United States Women" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1978), 225 and passim .

103. Ronald Freedman and P. K. Whelpton, "The Interrelation of General Planning to Fertility Planning, and Feeling of Economic Security," Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 29 (1951): 230-231; Riemer and Kiser, "Economic Tension and Social Mobility."

104. Marianne DeGraff Swain and Clyde V. Kiser, "The Interrelation of Fertility, Fertility Planning, and Ego-Centered Interest in Children," Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 31 (1953): 51-84.

105. Judith Blake, "Reproductive Ideals among White Americans," Population Studies 20 (1966): 190.

1. "The Fortune Survey," Fortune 24 (December 1941): 119.

2. "The Fortune Survey," Fortune 27 (June 1943): 16.

3. Selma Goldsmith et al. , "Size Distribution of Income since the Mid-Thirties," The Review of Economics and Statistics 36 (1954): 9-12.

4. Jerome S. Bruner, Mandate from the People (New York: Duell, Sloan, and Pearce, 1944), 163, 259-262.

5. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Family Spending and Savings in Wartime (Bulletin no. 822 [Washington: USGPO, 1945]), 88; Marshall B. Clinard, The Black Market (New York: Rinehart & Co., 1952).

6. Herbert Blumer, "Morale," in William Fielding Ogburn, ed., American Society in Wartime (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1943), 207-231; Francis E. Merrill, Social Problems on the Home Front (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1948); James H. S. Bossard, "War and the Family," in Howard Becker and Reuben Hill, eds., Marriage and the Family (Boston: D. C. Heath, 1942), chap. 24; Bossard, "What War Is Still Doing to the Family," in Howard Becker and Reuben Hill, eds., Family, Marriage and Parenthood (Boston: D. C. Heath, 1948), chap. 24; Leila Rupp, Mobilizing Women for War (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978).

7. Older soldiers, presumably because theirs were somewhat less resilient organisms and because they were likely to have served longer wartime hitches, were slightly more likely to receive disability benefits. Almost half the recipients of compensation had only "10% disabili- soft

ties," receiving annual pensions averaging $166 in 1947. Three-quarters of recipients were judged to have suffered no more than "30% disabilities." U.S. Administrator of Veterans Affairs, Annual Report 1947 (Washington: USGPO, 1948), 148.

8. I. L. Kandel, The Impact of the War upon American Education (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1948), 77-79.

9. Ella Arvilla Merritt and Floyd Hendricks, "Trend of Child Labor, 1940-44," Monthly Labor Review 60 (1945): 762; Elizabeth S. Magee, "Impact of the War on Child Labor," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 236 (November 1944): 103-105; Sanford Cohen, "Teen-Age Student Workers in an Ohio County, 1940-49," Monthly Labor Review 77 (1954): 776-778. And see Alan Clive, State of War: Michigan in World War II (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1974).

10. Theodore Levitt, "World War II Manpower Mobilization and Utilization in a Local Labor Market" (Columbus: OSU Research Foundation, 1951, mimeographed).

11. Lester M. Pearlman and Leonard Eskin, "Teenage Youth in the Wartime Labor Force," Monthly Labor Review 60 (1945): 6-17, table on p. 10.

12. Levitt, "World War II Manpower Mobilization," 267.

13. Pearlman and Eskin, "Teenage Youth," 12.

14. Calculated from City of Duluth, Annual Report of the Board of Education , "Age and Grade Report" Tables, 1941-42, 1942-43; Merritt and Hendricks, "Trends of Child Labor," 763, 771.

15. Golda G. Stander, "Young Workers in the Wartime Labor Market," The Child 6 (1944): 72-76.

16. Goldsmith et al. , "Size Distribution of Income," 15.

17. Melvin J. Williams, "A Socio-Economic Analysis of the Functions and Attitudes of Wartime Youth," Social Forces 24 (1945): 200-210.

18. Isidore Altman and Antonio Ciocco, "School Absence due to Sickness in the War Years," Child Development 16 (1945): 189-199.

19. See e.g., Kandel, The Impact of War upon American Education , chap. 4; Paul B. Jacobson, "High Schools and Manpower," School Review 51 (1943): 412-417; Harlan C. Koch, "Shifting Emphases in the Problems of Pupils in Certain Michigan High Schools," School Review 51 (1943): 79-84; Virginia M. Dewey, "War Comes into the Classroom," Educational Record 24 (1943): 93-104; Lloyd Allen Cook, "An Experimental Sociographic Study of a Stratified 10th Grade Class," American Sociological Review 10 (1945): 250-261.

20. Beverly Duncan, Family Factors and School Dropout: 1920-1960 continue

(Cooperative Research Project No. 2258; Ann Arbor, University of Michigan, 1965, processed).

21. Robert C. Taber, "What's Ahead for the Teens," Parents 19 (July 1944): 104.

22. U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau and FSA, U.S. Office of Education, National Go-to-School Drive 1944-45: A Handbook for Communities (n.p., n.d.).

23. Pearlman and Eskin, "Teenage Youth," 16.

24. Census P-S-9, 3.

25. "I Gave Too Much," True Confessions 41 (August 1942): 88; Ernest R. Groves and Gladys Hoagland Groves, "The Social Background of Wartime Adolescents," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 236 (November 1944): 26-32; George E. Gardner, "Sex Behavior of Adolescents in Wartime," ibid. , 60-66; and see Maurice A. Bigelow, "Social Hygiene and Youth in Defense Communities," Journal of Social Hygiene 28 (1942): 437-447; Charlotte Towle, "Some Notes on War and Adolescent Delinquency," Social Service Review 17 (1943): 67-73; John Slawson, "Adolescents in World at War," Mental Hygiene 27 (1943): 531-548; Dorothy Ellsworth, "Precocious Adolescence in Wartime," The Family 25 (March, 1944): 4.

26. "No Excuse for Immorality," True Confessions 41 (September 1942): 66.

27. Anne Maxwell, "This is Shocking," Woman's Home Companion 70 (January 1943): 34; "Companion Poll Question: Do You Favor Special Courses in Sex Education in High Schools as One Means of Reducing Juvenile Delinquency?" Woman's Home Companion 70 (November 1943): 32; Nelson B. Henry, ed., Juvenile Delinquency and the Schools , 47th Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part 1 (1948); Kandel, The Impact of the War upon American Education , 55-60.

28. Paul Wiers, "Wartime Increases in Michigan Delinquency," American Sociological Review 10 (1945): 515-523.

29. U.S. Federal Security Agency, U.S. Office of Education, Guidance Problems in Wartime (Education and National Defense Series, Pamphlet No. 18 [Washington: USGPO, 1942]), 26.

30. U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, "Barometers of Wartime Influences on the Behavior of Children and Youth" (March 1943, mimeographed), 2-6.

31. Social Statistics , Supplement to The Child , vol. 8, no. 6 (1943). Retrospective data show that although premarital births were up slightly from 3 percent for the 1936-1940 marriage cohort to 4 percent for the wartime marriages (with a return to 3 percent after the continue

war), antenuptial conceptions were lower, at 4 percent, in the wartime marriage cohort; data from the 1978 Current Population Survey confirm the finding. Norman B. Ryder and Charles F. Westoff, Reproduction in the United States, 1965 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971); Martin O'Connell and Maurice J. Moore, "The Legitimacy Status of First Births to U.S. Women Aged 15-24, 1939-1978," Family Planning Perspectives 12 (January/February 1980): 18-19.

32. Caroline Zachry, "Preparing Youth to Be Adults," National Society for the Study of Education 43rd Yearbook, part 1 (1944), 332-346.

33. Robert J. Havighurst and Hilda Taba, Adolescent Character and Personality (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1949), 29ff.

34. See the classic statement, Kingsley Davis, "Adolescence and the Social Structure," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 236 (November 1944): 236.

35. D'Ann Campbell, Women at War with America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984), 73, 83, and chaps. 3 and 4 generally.

36. Leonard Eskin, "Sources of Wartime Labor Supply," Monthly Labor Review 59 (1944): 275.

37. Census CPS P60-2, calculated from tables 3 and 4.

38. Ibid. , table 7; Census P-S-22, table 3; Census, Historical Statistics , I: 296, 303.

37. Census CPS P60-2, calculated from tables 3 and 4.

38. Ibid. , table 7; Census P-S-22, table 3; Census, Historical Statistics , I: 296, 303.

39. U.S. Women's Bureau, Women Workers in Ten War Production Areas and Their Postwar Employment Plans (Bulletin no. 209 [Washington: USGPO, 1946]), 45.

40. Svend Riemer, "War Marriages Are Different," Marriage and Family Living 5 (1943): 84.

41. U.S. Public Health Service, National Office of Vital Statistics, Monthly Marriage Report , Series PM-4, no. 13 (April 21, 1947), table 2. The first of these years includes statistics estimated, evidently, by a jewelers' trade association.

42. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Population , Series P-S, no. 10 (1946): 3.

43. Constantine Panunzio, "War and Marriage," Social Forces 21 (1943): 445; see also the rather pompous theoretical interpretation of the same phenomenon by Jean Lipman-Blumen, "A Crisis Framework Applied to Macrosociological Family Changes: Marriage, Divorce, and Occupational Trends Associated with World War II," Journal of Marriage and the Family 37 (1975): 889-902.

44. Grace Sloan Overton, Marriage in War and Peace (New York: Abingdon-Cokesbury Press, 1945), 134.

45. Clifford R. Adams, "How to Pick a Mate," American Magazine 138 (December 1944): 32+; "Man Shortage," True Confessions 41 continue

(January 1943): 24+; Gladys Denny Schultz, "Must We Ration Husbands?" Better Homes and Gardens 23 (November 1944): 10+. Beth L. Bailey believes this perception to have been considerably more widespread and longer-lasting than I do. From Front Porch to Back Seat: Courtship in Twentieth-Century America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988).

46. I rest these and subsequent statements on two sources, neither perfect, drawing confidence where—as generally—they coincide. These are first marriages registered in New York outside of New York City—which suffer from any racially differential migration patterns, since they are of numbers of first marriages and not of rates —and the white/nonwhite comparisons in the first-marriage retrospects reported in the 1960 U.S. Census, which overcome the migration bias but suffer from certain differential-mortality bias and probably differential-divorce bias. New York State, Department of Health, Division of Vital Statistics, Annual Report , annual; Census 1960-4, 38-43.

47. Theodore Caplow, "A Critical Study of American Marriage Rates" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1946).

48. A mythology of love appropriate to a nation at war held that both desperation and the inevitable haste of wartime marriage often produced socioeconomically mixed marriages, an assertion that I doubt but unfortunately cannot test. See, e.g., "For Always," True Romances (December 1942): 4+; "Brief Hours to Love, A Story in the Tempo of Today," True Romances (December 1943).

49. Calculated from Massachusetts, Department of Health, Vital Statistics of Massachusetts , annual. These data, unfortunately, are reported by five-year age group rather than by single year of age, as in New York State.

50. Rather than these representing a real change in who married who, I suspect that this represented a downward shift of the ages at marriage toward the lower bounds of the five-year age grouping of the Massachusetts data.

51. AIPO 377, available at the Roper Center Archives, University of Connecticut, Storrs. These data are explored at considerable length in Modell, "Normative Aspects of American Marriage Timing," 215-224.

52. Case #4551. Interviews are available in Ernest R. Burgess Papers, Regenstein Library, University of Chicago, typescript.

53. Case #2700.

54. Case #3001.

55. Case #3308.

56. Case #2705. break

57. Case #2604.

58. Hazel Erskine Gaudet, "The Polls: Morality," Public Opinion Quarterly 30 (1966): 672; Robert J. Havighurst et al. , The American Veteran Back Home (New York: Longmans Green & Co., 1951), 38-41, quotation on p. 41; and see Reuben Hill, Families under Stress (New York: Harper, 1949).

59. Case #3004.

60. Case #3304.

61. Case #2601.

62. Case #4551.

63. "The Fortune Survey: Women in America," part 1, Fortune 34 (August 1946); ibid. , part 2 (September 1946).

64. The American Veteran Back Home , 84.

65. Hill, Families under Stress , chap. 5.

66. Karen Anderson, Wartime Women: Sex Roles, Family Relations, and the Status of Women during World War II (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1981), 110.

67. Wartime Women , 111.

68. James H.S. Bossard, "Family Problems of the Immediate Future," Journal of Home Economics 37 (1945): 383-387; see also Francis E. Merrill's excellent summary and analysis of Social Problems on the Home Front (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1948.)

69. George Q. Flynn, Lewis B. Hershey, Mr. Selective Service (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985), 96-110; Richard Malkin, Marriage, Morals, and War (New York: Arden Book Company, 1943).

70. Testimony of Paul V. McNutt, Federal Security Administrator, in U.S. Congress, House Committee on Military Affairs, Hearings, Allowances and Allotments for Dependents of Military Personnel (59th Congress, 1st Session, 1942), 2-3.

71. "Allowances for Servicemen's Dependents," Monthly Labor Review 55 (1942): 226-228; "Liberalized Allowances for War Service Dependents," Monthly Labor Review 58 (1944): 67-69.

72. Guglielma Fell Alsop and Mary F. McBride, Arms and the Girl (New York: Vanguard Press, 1943), 279-280.

73. "Love Is Worth Waiting For," True Romances (June 1941): 22+.

74. Quoted in Evelyn Millis Duvall, "Marriage in War Time," Marriage and Family Living 4 (1942): 73.

75. Ruth Burr Sanborn, "Hero Come Home," Saturday Evening Post 215 (September 12, 1942): 63.

76. "My Very Special Girl," True Love and Romance (February 1944): 24+. break

77. Anne Maxwell, "Should Marriage Wait?" Woman's Home Companion 69 (November 1942): 58+.

78. Guglielma Fell Alsop and Mary F. McBride, She's Off to Marriage (New York: Vanguard Press, 1942). See also Leland Foster Wood, "Counseling on War Time Marriages," in Leland Foster Wood and John W. Mullen, eds., What the American Family Faces (Chicago: Eugene Hugh Publishers, 1943).

79. Available Selective Service records are surprisingly thin and document army inductees more fully than others, for the navy typically accepted volunteers only and only for a part of the war were these processed through Selective Service. The fullest table, dealing with the marital status of army inductees from November 1940 through September 1944, is in United States, Selective Service System, Dependency Deferment (Special Monograph No. 8 [Washington: USGPO, 1947]), 241.

80. To develop this latter story, I use three exceptional sets of survey data, gathered by the team of sociological and social-psychological researchers brought together to examine morale on behalf of the army. These data proved seminal in the history of American sociology and have been published in four volumes under the general title The American Soldier (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1949), of which Samuel Stouffer was the senior author. Most of the surveys collected in this effort are available from the Roper Center Archives, Storrs, Connecticut, and at the National Archives. See Appendix 4.

81. Survey S-106EU and Survey S-144 included 9,892 white soldiers and 4,678 black soldiers, respectively. The selection of units involved purposive rather than strictly random sampling. Units were chosen such that each branch of service was represented in approximately correct proportions, and both more and less experienced soldiers were included. The black sample designated a subsample that was entirely comparable in sampling criteria to the parallel white study, but I elected to include the entire black sample, to conserve cases. The samples appear reasonably reliable in proportions married at induction, by comparison with Selective Service records. For discussion of these data, see John Modell and Duane Steffey, "Waging War and Marriage: Military Service and Family Formation, 1940-1950," Journal of Family History , forthcoming.

82. The model here is derived from an ordinary-least-squares multiple regression of age at induction and time since induction on nuptiality of those single at induction. As a model based on crosssectional data, it represents average experience for the whole sample, not the experience of actual age-at-induction cohorts. Because of im- soft

precisions in calculating age at entry to the army at older ages, I present no estimates for their nuptiality here.

83. Overall, roughly equal proportions answered this way, the reverse, a middling position, and that they were undecided.

84. Stouffer et al. , American Soldier , I: 125.

85. Other American Soldier data show a counterinstance: when age is standardized, AWOLs were relatively more prevalent among those who had married during the war than among either the unmarried or those who were married when they began their service, except among those whose service stretched over two years, where preinduction husbands were the focus for AWOL. Stouffer et al. , American Soldier , I: 119.

86. The more exclusive navy was also more thorough in its limitation of black men to supporting roles, especially menial ones.

87. Robert R. Palmer, Bell I. Wiley, and William R. Keast, "The Procurement and Training of Ground Combat Troops," in United States Army in Worid War II (Washington: Historical Division, Department of the Army, 1948), Section I.

88. A measure of the disparity between branches is offered by tabulations of general-aptitude scores provided by Palmer, Wiley, and Keast. Thus, in March-August 1942, the air forces received 44.4 percent of its new men from the two highest aptitude classes and only 20.3 percent from the lowest, in comparison to the infantry's 27.4 percent high-scoring men and 43.6 percent low-scoring. Loud protest from infantry high command that it was hard to win a modern war with such poor material led to a modification that produced a 41.7 percent high and 27.0 percent low intake for the air forces in 1943, as compared with the infantry's 30.2 percent high and 37.2 percent low. Palmer, Wiley, and Keast, "Procurement and Training," 17-18.

89. This tendency was true among the black sample as well as the white, although the purposes and mechanisms undoubtedly differed.

90. Stouffer et al. , The American Soldier , I: 240; on comparisons between air forces and infantry in various aspects of morale, see chap. 5, Section II.

91. The infantry, I suspect, has a relatively more prestigious aspect among blacks, who typically received support rather than combat assignments. Yet figures comparable to those in the table appear when such characteristic black support branches as the quartermaster's corps and the engineers are tabulated in lieu of the infantry.

92. If we examine the joint effect of branch of the service and marriage during service on promotion, as we should because promotion was more likely within the air forces, we see that both branch and continue

rank were associated with white soldiers' marriage during military service, the latter substantially more so. A logistic regression model containing all of the above characteristics as explanatory variables accounts for approximately one-third of the variability associated with marriage during military service. Of this amount, over three-fourths is explained by the inclusion of years since induction. One-tenth is due to the subsequent (after years of service) inclusion in the model of age at entry to the armed forces. After these variables, rank, branch, and level of education enter the model with that relative importance. These variables contribute approximately 8, 3, and 2 percent, respectively, to the overall reduction in variance. The marriage process of soldiers depended both on the structure of the army and on attainment within the army, and these were not to be explained away by background, nor were they simply functions of the length of the military career. On discontinuities in the life course of blacks, see David L. Featherman and Robert M. Hauser, Opportunity and Change (New York: Academic Press, 1978), chap. 6; Michael D. Ornstein, Entry into the American Labor Force (New York: Academic Press, 1976), 173-177.

93. Based on a survey of American soldiers (excluding officers) in Italy, this study particularly closely probed sensitive personal issues because of its central concern with venereal disease and its prevention. "Seldom was a study under Research Bureau auspices planned and carried out with more meticulous care than this survey; the dangers of obtaining misleading information . . . were well understood in advance. . . . Questions were pretested with more than ordinary care." Stouffer et al. , American Soldier , I: 545-546. Study S-233 includes 2,685 cases. Blacks were intentionally oversampled.

94. Strong norms existed which supported thoughts and quasi-plans of marriage among soldiers. A careful survey of 750 undergraduates in schools all over the United States, conducted in 1945, concluded that "almost no conditions related to the war appeared to interfere with the girls['] willingness to become engaged," nor really to marry. Boys were a little less supportive of immediate marriage than girls (but were of course not themselves in the armed forces at the time they responded). Of girls, 79 percent favored immediate marriage if economic circumstances are adequate and 54 percent if the two had been "serious" about one another for at least six months (only 15 percent if they had not been well acquainted for so long a time); for boys, 55 percent supported immediate marriage if material circumstances permitted and 49 percent if the couple had been "serious" for half a year or longer. Engagement was much more feasible continue

for both young men and young women, and much of the differential about marriage was eliminated when the question was engagement. John H. Burma, "Attitudes of College Youth on War Marriage," Social Forces 24 (1945): 96-100.

95. Susan M. Hartmann, "Prescriptions for Penelope: Literature on Women's Obligations to Returning World War II Veterans," Women's Studies 5 (1978): 230.

96. Census P46-8, 9.

97. Calculated from USNCHS Vital Statistics 1974, III: 1-5, and USNCHS Vital Statistics , II, annual. The 1959 Current Population Survey retrospective accounts indicate that for white women married in 1940-1944, the pace of the transition to parenthood was virtually identical to that which had prevailed for white women at the end of the Depression, which was, of course, slower than that before the Depression. Census CPS P20-108, 38.

98. Ronald R. Rindfuss and James A. Sweet, Postwar Fertility Trends and Differentials in the United States (New York: Academic Press, 1977), 54-59.

99. David R. B. Ross, Preparing for Ulysses: Politics and Veterans during World War II (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969).

100. Bruner, Mandate from the People , 270.

101. Havighurst, The American Veteran Back Home .

102. Bruner, Mandate From the People , 270-271.

103. Keith W. Olson, The G.I. Bill, the Veterans, and the Colleges (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1972); Census CPS P57-89, 8; Veterans in Our Society , 105; U.S. President's Commission on Veterans' Pensions, Staff Report IX , Part A (Washington: USGPO, 1956), 246-247.

104. Norman Fredericksen and W. B. Schrader, Adjustment to College (Princeton: Educational Testing Service, 1951). Most of the veterans studied had finished high school in midwar, and only half had begun to work full-time before entering the military.

105. For veterans and nonveterans alike, parental income was negatively correlated with the ratio of attained grades to predicted grades based on both high school grades and aptitude tests.

106. President's Commission on Veterans' Pensions, Staff Report IX , 55.

107. George Katona and Janet A. Fisher, "Postwar Changes in the Income of Identical Consumer Units," in National Bureau of Economic Research, Studies in Income and Wealth , vol. 13 (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1951), 88. "Survey of Consumer Finances," Federal Reserve Bulletin 33 (1947): 957; "Survey of Con- soft

sumer Finances," Federal Reserve Bulletin 34 (1948): 774; "1949 Survey of Consumer Finances," Federal Reserve Bulletin 35 (1949): 16-18.

108. Census P-S-16, tables 3, 4A, 5. This relationship was present in all cities examined.

109. Census CPS P50-5, 9.

110. Mary Elizabeth Pidgeon, "Women Workers and Recent Economic Change," Monthly Labor Review 65 (1947): 668.

111. I here examine a subset of men in a random sample of the 1950 census who were of an age to have served in the military during World War II and who were not married before 1945. The subsample is of 4,955 men drawn randomly from the Public Use Sample of the 1950 individual-level population census. See Appendix 4.

112. The military, to be sure, excluded physically, mentally, and educationally deficient men, who were in any case probably not good candidates for marriage in 1945-1950 or at any time.

113. Calculated from Census CPS P50-14, table 1. See also Census CPS P20-10, 28.

114. Census P-S-16, 2; Thomas P. Monahan, "The Number of Children in American Families and the Sharing of Households," Marriage and Family Living 18 (1956): 201-203.

115. Census Housing 1947, table 4A.

116. We are here considering children fathered approximately between one year before Pearl Harbor and the Japanese surrender and thus point to a substantial amount of family-building during the war for soldiers and likely soldiers.

117. In each year, of course, those married with spouse present need not have been in this category at any earlier date, so that the apparent modest fertility increase among married ex-soldiers is in large part a product of the very great number of newly formed couples involving younger veterans between 1946 and 1947. For those who had not served, the period seems to have been one of modest, perhaps reduced, fertility. Census CPS P20-18, 19; Census CPS P20-46, 22.

1. "Coke for Breakfast," True Love (December 1959): 20+.

2. David Riesman, "Permissiveness and Sex Roles," Marriage and Family Living 21 (1959): 211-217; David Riesman, Robert J. Potter, and Jeanne Watson, "Sociability, Permissiveness, and Equality," in Riesman, Abundance for What? (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1964).

3. By contrast, when a like sample was queried a decade later, the continue

results were drastically different: parents provided the prime frame of reference only for insurance policies and for 16-year-olds' choice of automobiles. Friends were prepotent for the great majority of items. Paul Gilkison, "Teen-Agers' Perceptions of Buying Frames of Reference: A Decade in Retrospect," Journal of Retailing 49 (Summer 1973): 25-37.

4. David Riesman and Howard Roseborough, "Careers and Consumer Behavior," in Lincoln H. Clark, ed., Consumer Behavior , II (New York: NYU Press, 1955). Vance Packard's muckraking The Waste Makers (New York: McKay, 1960) devoted a chapter to the role of advertisers in solemnizing domesticity in the baby boom and their effort to reach teenagers.

5. "The Exploding Youth Market—Do Ad Men Understand Teen-Agers," Printer's Ink 272 (July 29, 1960): 20-26. A pulp magazine, intriguingly, claims that young-singles resorts date from this period and were a product of prosperity. "So the boys went. And they did enjoy themselves. And the girls went, too. And they enjoyed themselves. It has been going on ever since." "Where and How to find a Man," True Love (December 1961): 35.

6. Janet L. Wolff, What Makes Women Buy (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1958), 267.

7. "The Fortune Survey," Fortune 35 (January 1947): 5-16.

8. On the relevance of this experience, see W. S. Woytinsky, "Postwar Economic Perspectives: I. Experience After World War I," Social Security Bulletin 8 (December 1945): 18-29.

9. Elmo Roper, "The Fortune Consumer Outlook," Fortune 37 (April 1948): 5.

10. The Black Market (New York: Rinehart & Company, 1952); George Katona, "The Human Factor in Economic Affairs," in Angus Campbell and Philip E. Converse, eds., The Human Meaning of Social Change (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1972), 229-262; Reuben Hill, Family Development in Three Generations (Cambridge: Schenkman, 1970); Bert G. Hickman, Growth and Stability in the Postwar Economy (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institute, 1960), 254-255, 323-325.

11. Janet Austrian Fisher, "The Economics of an Aging Population" (Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1950), 72, 76.

12. "A Case Study: The 1948-1949 Recession," in National Bureau of Economic Research, Policies to Combat Recession (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1956), 27-53.

13. Hickman, Growth and Stability , 161.

14. Ibid. , 408 and passim . break

13. Hickman, Growth and Stability , 161.

14. Ibid. , 408 and passim . break

15. Clinard, Black Market ; Irwin Friend, "Individuals' Demand Deposits, June 1942-43," Survey of Current Business 24 (June 1944): 18, 20; Friend, "Personal Saving in the Postwar Period," Survey of Current Business 29 (September 1949): 9-23.

16. "A National Survey of Liquid Assets," Federal Reserve Bulletin 32 (1946): 574-580; Fisher, "Economics of an Aging Population," 155-156.

17. "National Survey of Liquid Assets," 717; "Survey of Consumer Finances," Federal Reserve Bulletin 33 (1947): 654.

18. "1949 Survey of Consumer Finances," Federal Reserve Bulletin 35 (1949): 639 and passim ; see also the comparable surveys for 1946, 1947, and 1948 published seriatim in the Federal Reserve Bulletin ; George Katona and Janet A. Fisher, "Postwar Changes in the Income of Identical Consumer United," in National Bureau of Economic Research, Studies in Income and Wealth , vol. 13 (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1951), 94-97; Hickman, Growth and Stability , 254-255, 323-325; George Katona, "The Human Factor in Economic Affairs," 256 and passim .

19. George Katona and Eva Mueller, Consumer Attitudes and Demand, 1950-1952 (Ann Arbor: Survey Research Center, University of Michigan, 1953), 40.

20. George Katona and Eva Mueller, Consumer Expenditures 1953-1956 (Ann Arbor: Survey ResearchCenter, University of Michigan, n.d.), 23.

21. "1954 Survey of Consumer Finances," Federal Reserve Bulletin 40 (1954): 249; Survey Research Center, University of Michigan, 1960 Survey of Consumer Finances (Ann Arbor: Survey Research Center, University of Michigan, 1961), 222, 239.

22. Katona and Mueller, Consumer Expenditures 1953-1956 , 27.

23. Gary Hendricks and Kenwood C. Youmans, Consumer Durables and Installment Debt: A Study of American Households (Institute for Survey Research, University of Michigan, 1972), 6; F. Thomas Juster, Household Capital Formation and Financing 1897-1962 (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1966), 65-67; U.S. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Consumer Installment Credit , II (Washington, D.C.: USGPO, 1957), 232-233; Federal Reserve Bulletin 37 (1951): 1517; Federal Reserve Bulletin 42 (1956): 702; Wharton School and U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Study of Consumer Expenditures, Incomes, and Savings , XVIII (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1957), 14, 26; United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, Survey of Consumer Expenditures 1960-61 , Supplement 2, Part A (Bureau of Labor Statistics Report 237-38 [Washington: USGPO, 1946]), 4-8, 23-25. break

24. Census Housing 1956, part 1, 18, 26-28; "1957 Survey of Consumer Finances," Federal Reserve Bulletin 43 (1958): 539; Louis J. Paradiso and Clement Winston, "Consumer Expenditure-Income Patterns," Survey of Current Business 35 (September 1955): 23-32; H. S. Houthakker and Lester D. Taylor, Consumer Demand in the United States, 1929-1970 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1966), chap. 4.

25. Alice Kessler-Harris, Out of Work: A History of Wage-Earning Women in the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982).

26. Calculated from United States, Employment and Training Report of the President (Washington, D.C.: USGPO, 1979), 295. An excellent overview treating trends from 1940 to the mid-1950s is Gertrude Bancroft, The American Labor Force: Its Growth and Changing Composition (Census Monograph Series [New York: John Wiley, 1958]), chap. 5.

27. Mary M. Schweitzer, "World War II and Female Labor Force Participation Rates," Journal of Economic History 40 (1980): 89-95.

28. USNCHS Series 21-2, 32-33.

29. Citations to articles on juvenile delinquency in Reader's Guide expressed as a ratio to total pages rose to 40 per 1,000 pages in the 1943-1945 volume, declined to 12 in 1949-1951 and 14 in 1951-1953, and then took off: 47 in 1953-1955, 46 in 1955-1957, and a peak of 51 in the next two-year period, followed by a slight decline to 45, and then a sharp reduction back to its late-1930s level.

30. "Conditions Conducive to Youth Crime," Congressional Digest 33 (1954): 291+.

31. William Graebner, "Outlawing Teenage Populism: The Campaign against Secret Societies in the American High School, 1900-1960," Journal of American History 74 (1987): 411-437.

32. United States, Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee to Investigate Juvenile Delinquency, Hearings , part 8 (1955), 85.

33. H. H. Remmers and D. H. Radler, The American Teenager (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1957), 106; R. D. Franklin and H. H. Remmers, Youth's Attitude toward Courtship and Marriage (The Purdue Opinion Panel, vol. 20, no. 2; n. p., 1961), 4, 6.

34. "Self-Portrait: The Teen-Type Magazine," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 338 (November 1961): 15.

35. Ibid. , 20.

36. Ibid. , 21.

34. "Self-Portrait: The Teen-Type Magazine," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 338 (November 1961): 15.

35. Ibid. , 20.

36. Ibid. , 21.

34. "Self-Portrait: The Teen-Type Magazine," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 338 (November 1961): 15.

35. Ibid. , 20.

36. Ibid. , 21.

37. Elliot H. Drisko, "Parent-Teenage Codes" (Ed.D. Project, Teacher's College, Columbia University, 1960), passim ; Ruth Carson, "A Code for Teen-Agers," Parents 34 (November 1959): 48+; Martha Grayson McDonald, "But Mom, All the Other Kids Do It!" Parents 40 continue

(October 1965): 66+. A copy of the Philadelphia Parents' Council's social code for their teenage children, reproduced in Parents 30 (December 1955): 48-49, says gingerly about dating: "Home should not be forgotten as a possible place for dating. Public entertainment puts a strain on a boy's allowance. Parents could cooperate by providing an agreeable measure of privacy."

38. James B. Conant, The American High School Today (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959), 37.

39. Census, Historical Statistics : I, 368; Census 1950-1, 1-210; Census, 1960-1, 1-37.

40. Beverly Duncan, Family Factors and School Dropout: 1920-1960 (Cooperative Research Project No. 2258 [Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1965], processed), chap. 3; Beverly Duncan, "Trends in Output and Distribution of Schooling," in Eleanor Bernert Sheldon and Wilbert E. Moore, eds., Indicators of Social Change (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1968), 601-672.

41. U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Digest of Educational Statistics (Washington, D.C.: USGPO, 1965), 13. The trend accelerated through the 1960s.

42. Ralph H. Turner, The Social Context of Ambition (San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Company, 1964); James S. Coleman, The Adolescent Society (New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, 1961); C. Wayne Gordon, The Social System of the High School (Glencoe: The Free Press).

43. Graebner, "Outlawing Teenage Populism," 429.

44. "The School Class as a Social System: Some of Its Functions in American Society," Harvard Educational Review 29 (1959): 297-318, quotation at 314.

45. Computed from machine-readable data from Minnesota State Polls. See Appendix 4.

46. Samuel H. Lowrie, "Sex Differences and Age of Initial Dating," Social Forces 30 (1952): 456-461; and "Factors Involved in the Frequency of Dating," Marriage and Family Living 18 (1956): 46-51.

47. Ernest A. Smith, American Youth Culture (New York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1962), chap. 9; Samuel Harlan Lowrie, "Dating Theories and Student Responses," American Sociological Review 16 (1951): 334-340.

48. Computed from Roper Commercial Poll 15, Roper Center Archive, University of Connecticut, Storrs; Elizabeth Douvan, Adolescent Girls (n.p., n.d., but evidently 1956 or 1957, processed), 62. The questions were not identically phrased, but the gist was similar enough that we can make the comparisons with some comfort in view of the size of the differences. The 1939 poll asked about "different ideas from either one or both of your parents" about a variety of matters, continue

while the 1956 poll asked, "What disagreements do you have with your parents?" Each then proceeded with a list that included how often and where to go out; how late to stay out; and what opposite-sex friends are appropriate. Sampling methodology had changed between the survey dates. A large and carefully conducted poll from the state of Washington in 1948 shows that only about 8 percent of high school boys and girls said that they "often quarrel" or "always scrap" about the time of returning from dates or other evening activities. Forty-eight percent of the boys and 69 percent of the girls said they had more or less formal understandings about dating with their parents. L. J. Elias, High School Youth Look at Their Problems (Pullman: The College Bookstore, 1949), 20-22.

49. William A. Westley and Frederick Elkin, "The Protective Environment and Adolescent Socialization," Social Forces 35 (1957): 243-249; David Riesman, "Permissiveness and Sex Roles," Marriage and Family Living 21 (1959): 211-217; Margaret Mead, "Problems of the Late Adolescent and Youth Adult," in Children and Youth in the 1960s: Survey Papers (Washington, D.C.: Golden Anniversary White House Conference on Children and Youth, 1960).

50. For some details as seen by the girls themselves, see Coleman, The Adolescent Society , chaps. 4, 5; Douvan, Adolescent Girls , 98-101.

51. Coleman, The Adolescent Society , 43-50; Harold R. Phelps and John E. Horrocks, "Factors Influencing Informal Groups of Adolescents," Child Development 29 (1958): 70-86.

52. Arthur M. Vener, "Adolescent Orientation to Clothing: A Social-Psychological Interpretation" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1957), 92-96, 109-112. Vener's study was administered to 782 public school students in Lansing, Michigan. Neither sex nor grade seems to have affected the conclusions I draw here.

53. Margaret Mooney Marini, "The Transition to Adulthood: Sex Differences in Educational Attainment and Age at Marriage," American Sociological Review 43 (1978): 498-499; and see Paul Ronald Voss, "Social Determinants of Age at First Marriage in the United States" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1975).

54. Arthur L. Stinchcombe, Rebellion in a High School (Chicago: Quadrangle, 1964), 110-129. The study was carried out in the high school of a small logging and sawmill town.

55. Ibid. , 128-129.

54. Arthur L. Stinchcombe, Rebellion in a High School (Chicago: Quadrangle, 1964), 110-129. The study was carried out in the high school of a small logging and sawmill town.

55. Ibid. , 128-129.

56. Robert J. Havighurst et al., Growing Up in River City (New York: John Wiley, 1962), 119, 129.

57. Clark E. Vincent, "Socialization Data in Research on Young Marriers," Acta Sociologica 8 (1965): 118-127.

58. St. Paul Central High School Times , March 14, 1954. break

59. Franklin and Remmers, Youth's Attitude toward Courtship , 4-6.

60. Carlfred Broderick, "Social-Sexual Development in a Suburban Community," Journal of Sex Research 2 (1966): 1-24.

61. A large and methodologically excellent national survey conducted between 1966 and 1970, here mingling the responses of 12- to-17-year-olds of both genders, found about this degree of remaining socioeconomic difference by parental income and parental education. USNCHS, Series 11-153, 29.

62. Carlfred B. Broderick, "Social Heterosexual Development among Urban Negroes and Whites," Journal of Marriage and the Family 27 (1975): 200-203. USNCHS, Series 11-153, 29, finds a small excess of white daters that can easily be explained by the greater income of white parents and the greater propensity to date on the part of those from more prosperous families.

63. Warren Breed, "Sex, Class and Socialization in Dating," Marriage and Family Living 18 (1956): 137-144.

64. Joseph E. Lantagne, "Interests of 4,000 High School Pupils in Problems of Marriage and Parenthood," Research Quarterly 29 (1958): 410-412. These interests were still rather pressing among college students. Lantagne, "Comparative Analysis of Items of Interest in Marriage and Parenthood of 4,000 Students in Junior and Senior Colleges," ibid. , 27 (1956): 198-201.

65. Remmers and Radler, American Teenager , 80-85.

66. On this theme, see "I Was Looking for Dates," True Confessions (October 1957): 40+.

67. An excellent 1941 St. Louis high school study found that 24 percent of the senior boys and 8 percent of the senior girls were then going steady. Helen Moore Priester, "The Reported Dating Practices of One Hundred Six High School Seniors in an Urban Community" (M.A. essay, Cornell University, 1941), 41.

68. Lowrie's nonrepresentative 1948 high school junior and senior sample, gathered in middle-class urban areas, found that about half the boys and six-tenths of the girls who had dated before age 17 had gone steady before age 17. By age 19, about three-quarters of the boys who had dated had gone steady, as had eight in ten of the girls who had dated. Samuel Harman Lowrie, "Sex Differences and Age of Initial Dating," 456-461; Lowrie, "Factors Involved in the Frequency of Dating," 46-51.

69. Hazel Gaudet Erskine, "The Polls: Morality," Public Opinion Quarterly 30 (1966): 676.

70. Beth L. Bailey, From Front Porch to Back Seat: Courtship in Twentieth-Century America (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1988), 53.

71. Goldie Ruth Kaback and Margaret Albrecht," Going Steady. . . . continue

It's Not What It Used to Be," Parents 30 (July 1955): 37+. And see the letters in Abigail Wood, "Young Living," Seventeen (May 1963): 157+.

72. Elmer W. Bock and Lee Burchinal, "Social Status, Heterosexual Relations and Expected Ages of Marriage," Journal of Genetic Psychology 101 (1962): 43-51.

73. Claire Cox, The Upbeat Generation (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1962), 37-38 and passim ; "Teens on a Roaring Pajama Party," Personal Romances (December 1959): 18.

74. Smith, American Youth Culture , 201; William J. Cameron and William F. Kunkel, "High School Dating: A Study in Variation," Marriage and Family Living 22 (1960): 74-76; Charles D. Bolton, "Mate Selection as the Development of a Relationship," Marriage and Family Living 23 (1961): 238. See also Evelyn Mills Duvall, "Adolescent Love as a Reflection of Teen-Agers' Search for Identity," Journal of Marriage and the Family 26 (1964): 226-229.

75. John Richard Crist, "High School Dating as a Behavior System" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Missouri, 1951), 242-243.

76. Quoted in Marion Le Count, "A Study of Certain Boy-Girl Relationships in a Group of High School Seniors" (Ed.D. project, Columbia University, Teachers' College, 1950), 159-160; and see Eugene J. Kanin, "Male Aggression in Dating-Courtship Relationships," American Journal of Sociology 63 (1957): 200.

77. Douvan, Adolescent Girls , 108-109.

78. Robert D. Herman, "The 'Going Steady' Complex: A Re-Examination," Marriage and Family Living 17 (1955): 36-40; Breed, "Sex, Class and Socialization," 139.

79. Ira L. Reiss, "Sexual Codes in Teenage Culture," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 338 (November 1961): 55.

80. Mead, "Problems of the Late Adolescent and Young Adult," 3-11; Svend Riemer, "Courtship for Security," Sociology and Social Research 45 (1961): 423-429; Ann Hartman, "Who Do I Love?" True Love (December 1961): 23.

81. The Times , October 31, 1952; February 6, 1953.

82. Clarkfield (Minn.) High School Clarkette , March 15, 1951; May 1953.

83. Le Count, "Boy-Girl Relationships," 273.

84. Ibid. , 273-274.

85. Ibid. , 165.

83. Le Count, "Boy-Girl Relationships," 273.

84. Ibid. , 273-274.

85. Ibid. , 165.

83. Le Count, "Boy-Girl Relationships," 273.

84. Ibid. , 273-274.

85. Ibid. , 165.

86. Remmers and Radler, The American Teenager , 80-85, based on a national poll from 1956-57; Elias, High School Youth , 38.

87. Le Count, "Boy-Girl Relationships," 166. break

88. Crist, "High School Dating," 312.

89. Bailey, From Front Porch to Back Seat , 55-56.

90. Elizabeth Douvan and Joseph Adelson, The Adolescent Experience (New York: Wiley, 1966), 408-411.

91. The draw of marriage, often for reason of pregnancy, constituted a substantial portion of young women who did drop out before graduation—as much as one in four in small cities, according to one study. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, School and Early Employment Experiences of Youth (Bulletin No. 1277, 1960), 66-69; David Segal and Oscar J. Schwarm, Retention in High Schools in Large Cities (United States Office of Education, Bulletin No. 15, 1957), 14.

92. On the whole, what small variation there was here paralleled going steady and overt marriage plans.

93. "I Want to Get Married," True Confessions 69 (December 1961): 19.

94. For a concerned parental response to the link of going steady with marriage, see Evelyn Seeley Stewart, "Why Teens Marry in Haste," Parents 37 (November 1962): 51+.

95. The Roosevelt Standard , October 14, 1954.

96. For girls, these elements of the adolescent social structure mattered a good deal more than such a critical life course variable from the adult perspective as pace of promotion through school. For boys, however, grade progress mattered rather more. Inferences from data reported in Marion F. Shaycroft et al., The Identification, Development, and Utilization of Human Talents: Studies of a Complete Age Group—Age 15 (Cooperative Research Project No. 566 [Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Project Talent Office, 1963]), D-37.

97. Alan E. Bayer, "Early Dating and Early Marriage," Journal of Marriage and the Family 30 (November 1968): 628-632.

98. Harriet B. Presser, "Age at Menarche, Socio-Sexual Behavior, and Fertility," Social Biology 25 (1978): 100.

99. Mate Selection: A Study of Complementary Needs (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1958), 15.

100. "Marriage—Your Most Dangerous Decision," Personal Romances (October 1956): 20+. And see Luther E. Woodward, "Do Opposites Attract?" True Romances 51 (August 1950): 35.

101. Winch, Mate Selection , 287, xv.

102. "Is He a Man or a Boy?" True Love Stories 66 (September 1956): 41.

103. Census 1960-3, tables 1, 2.

104. For an instance, see Hilda Holland, comp., Why Are You Single? (New York: Farrar, Straus, 1949), which assumes that singlehood stems from psychological blockage. break

105. Case #5180, National Growth of American Families Single Women Study, 1955, verbatim text file. See Appendix 4.

106. These inferences are based on the individual- and family-income-by-age data in Census, Trends in Income , based on the annual Current Population Survey income survey, and on Federal Reserve Board, "Survey of Consumer Finances," an annual sample survey published in installment in the Federal Reserve Bulletin. The latter provides tabulations for most years on income class by family life-cycle stage.

107. George Gallup, ed., The Gallup Polls, passim ; Lee Rainwater, What Money Buys (New York: Basic Books, 1974), 53, and chap. 3 in general.

108. Calculated from Gallup Polls 377-K and 516-K; Henry F. Pringle, "What Do the Women of America Think About Money?" Ladies' Home Journal 55 (April 1938): 14; The Roper Organization, "Public Opinion Service News Release," July 23, 1949; Gallup, ed., The Gallup Poll , II, 904.

109. Peter Lindert, Fertility and Scarcity in America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), 161.

110. John Modell, Frank F. Furstenberg, Jr., and Douglas Strong, "The Timing of Marriage in the Transition to Adulthood," in John Demos and Sarane Spence Boocock, eds., Turning Points (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), S130-S133.

111. Marvin B. Sussman and Lee Burchinal, "Parental Aid to Married Children: Implications for Family Functioning," Marriage and Family Living 24 (1962): 320-332; Maureen Daly, "Subsidized Marriage," in Maureen Daly, ed., Profile of Youth (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1951), 194-205.

112. "Everybody's Getting Married Except Me!" True Love (January 1963): 56-57; and see Abigail Wood, "Young Living," Seventeen (December 1962): 79+.

113. Reuben Hill, "Campus Values in Mate Selection," Journal of Home Economics 37 (1945): 554-558; John W. Hudson and Lura F. Henze, "Campus Values in Mate Selection: A Replication," Journal of Marriage and the Family 31 (1969): 772-775; John C. Flanagan, "A Study of Factors Determining Family Size in a Selected Professional Group," Genetic Psychology Monographs 25 (1942): 3-99; computations from AIPO 377.

114. What we are comparing is of course not strictly comparable. Although the ideals and behaviors are entirely contemporaneous, they are not the ideals and behaviors of the same people. Only single people are at risk of marrying for the first time. Unmarried individuals, net of their youthfulness, generally held somewhat older mar- soft

riage norms; but younger persons, net of the marital status, tended toward younger marriage ideals.

115. This statement applies a technique described in John Modell, Frank F. Furstenberg, Jr., and Theodore Hershberg, "Transitions to Adulthood in Historical Perspective," Journal of Family Histor y 1 (1976): 7-32, to data in Dennis Hogan, Transitions and Social Change (New York Academic Press, 1981), 38-39, 52-53, 59.

116. Hogan, Transitions and Social Change , 44-61, 83; Margaret Mooney Marini, "Determinants of the Timing of the Transition to Adulthood" (Battelle Human Affairs Research Center Population Study Center Report, 1981), 23-25, 35, and table 3; Stanley Lebergott, "The Labor Force and Marriages and Endogenous Factors," in James S. Duesenberry et al. , eds., The Brookings Quarterly Econometric Model of the United States (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965), 361. For a normative account, see Jeanne Sakol, What About Teen-Age Marriage? (New York: Julian Messner, 1961), chap. 5.

117. "Cradle Snatcher," True Love Stories 68 (October 1957): 5.

118. The ratio of IIIA deferments to inductions rose from 0.45 in 1952 to 0.48, 0.52, 0.60, and to 0.70 in 1956 and 1957. The ratio rose again even more sharply, reaching 0.81, then slightly exceeding unity, finishing the decade at 1.21. Computed from annual numbers of Annual Reports of the Selective Service System .

119. Census 1950-2, 100; Census 1960-5, 21-24.

120. "Components of Temporal Variation in American Fertility," in R. W. Hiorns, ed., Demographic Patterns in Developed Societies (London: Taylor & Francis, 1980), 40; Ryder, "Recent Trends and Group Differences in Fertility," in Charles Westoff, ed., Toward the End of Growth (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1973).

121. "A Model of Fertility Planning Status," Demography 15 (1978): 455.

122. Census 1960-3, table 36; Census 1970-1, table 29; Margaret Mooney Marini, "Effects of the Timing of Marriage and First Birth on the Spacing of Subsequent Births," Demography 18 (1981): 543.

123. Judith Blake and Jorge H. del Pinal, "The Childlessness Option: Recent American Views of Nonparenthood," in Gerry E. Hendershot and Paul J. Placek, eds., Predicting Fertility (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1981), 235-264.

124. Adoptions of nonrelatives, in fact, outpaced even the growth of births during the baby boom, a pattern that did not reverse when fertility rates finally turned down late in the 1950s. U.S. Children's Bureau, Statistical Series no. 14, Adoption of Children 1951 , 13; no. 39, Adoptions of Children in the United States and Its Territories 1955, 12; no. continue

51, Child Welfare Statistics 1957 , 30; no. 88, Supplement to Child Welfare Statistics—1966: Adoption in 1966 , 4.

125. The next several pages are drawn from a close textual analysis, by myself and John Campbell (now of the University of Arizona), of the quite open-ended questionnaires gathered from single women 18 to 24 years old in 1955 by the National Growth of American Families Survey. See Appendix 4. Modell and Campbell, "Family Ideology and Family Values in the 'Baby Boom': A Secondary Analysis of the 1955 Growth of American Families Survey of Single Women" (Technical Report No. 5 [Minneapolis: Minnesota Family Study Center, 1984], processed); Judith Modell, "Phrasing and Planning: A Rhetorical Analysis of Women's Statements about Family Formation," in David Kertzer, ed., Current Perspectives on Aging and the Life Cycle , vol. 2 (Westport, Conn.: JAI Press, 1986), 237-266.

126. Based on computations from a larger national survey of both men and women carried out in 1953, also based on open-ended responses (N = 970) but coded by an earlier investigator. The study is the Survey of Consumer Attitudes and Behavior, Fall 1953 (SRC613). See Appendix 4.

127. Case #5156.

128. Case #5152.

129. Robert O. Blood and Donald M. Wolfe, Husbands and Wives (New York: The Free Press, 1960), 105.

130. Ibid. , 112.

129. Robert O. Blood and Donald M. Wolfe, Husbands and Wives (New York: The Free Press, 1960), 105.

130. Ibid. , 112.

131. U.S., Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bulletin 1977, U.S. Working Women: A Databook (1977), 23; Linda J. Waite, "Working Wives: 1940-1960," American Sociological Review 41 (1976): 65-80.

132. Richard A. Easterlin, Birth and Fortune (New York: Basic Books, 1980); Victor R. Fuchs, How We Live (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1983).

1. "The choice of highly detailed, elaborate coding schemes for open questions in 1957 stood us in good stead when the 1976 coding began. . . . Had a different choice been made in 1957—for example, for more abstract, general, or inclusive code categories, the problem of comparability of coding in the two studies would have been considerably more thorny. . . . But in coding the interview questions, coders could follow the detailed categorization scheme established in 1957 with no apparent difficulties or problems. The specificity of the code designations assured comparability over time as well as high inter- soft

coder agreement [in each year]." Joseph Veroff, Elizabeth Douvan, and Richard A. Kulka, The Inner American: A Self-Portrait from 1957 to 1976 (New York: Basic Books, 1981), 31.

2. None of the observations I will make about marriage on the basis of these data differed by marital status.

3. Larry Lee Bumpass, "Age at Marriage as a Variable in Socioeconomic Differentials in Fertility," Demography 6 (1969): 45-54.

4. Linda J. Waite and Glenna D. Spitze, "Young Women's Transition to Marriage," Demography 18 (1981): 691.

5. Karen Oppenheim Mason and Larry L. Bumpass, "U.S. Women's Sex-Role Ideology, 1970," American Journal of Sociology 80 (1975): 1212-1220; Beverly Duncan and Otis Dudley Duncan, Sex Typing and Social Roles: A Research Report (New York: Academic Press, 1978); Arland Thornton and Deborah Freedman, "Changes in the Sex Role Attitudes of Women, 1962-1977," American Sociological Review 44 (1979); Arland Thornton, Duane F. Alwin, and Donald Camburn, "Causes and Consequences of Sex-Role Attitudes and Attitude Change," American Sociological Review 48 (1983): 221-227.

6. James T. Carey, "Changing Courtship Patterns in the Popular Song," American Journal of Sociology 74 (1969): 720-731; cf. Donald Horton, "The Dialogue of Courtship in Popular Songs," American Journal of Sociology 62 (1957): 569-578.

7. The survey was carried out by the Roper Organization on commission from the Philip Morris Corporation as part of a promotion for their Virginia Slims cigarette, whose advertising featured stylized favorable references to change in women's gender roles. The sampling was stratified, with women trebly oversampled; in my computations, I weighted men trebly in compensation. See Appendix 4. For the results of this fascinating poll, see the Roper Organization, The Virginia Slims Women's Opinion Poll , Vol. III (New York: The Philip Morris Company, 1974).

8. Birth and Fortune (New York: Basic Books, 1980), 39. A number of careful critiques have indicated the failure of Easterlin's relative-income hypothesis (or of its operationalization, especially of the process of learning a taste for material goods) to explain variation in fertility. See Maurice M. MacDonald and Ronald R. Rindfuss, "Earnings, Relative Income, and Family Formation," Demography 18 (1981): 123-136; Arland Thornton, "The Relationship between Fertility and Income," Research in Population Economics 1 (1978): 261-290. Like Easterlin, however, these largely ignore the potential impact of anticipated income from wives' enlarged labor-force commitment.

9. The discussion of the circumstances of marriage on the next few continue

pages is based on data in the increasingly elaborate and inclusive annual Marriage and Divorce volume of USNCHS Vital Statistics .

10. The coefficient of variation offers a simple indication of the extent of "selectiveness" in the sense meant here. The coefficient of variation is calculated by taking the standard deviation of numbers of marriages (by age of bride and by age of groom) per month per year and norming this by the mean number of marriages per month. The larger the coefficient of variation, the more selective the monthly pattern of marriage over the year.

11. Melvin Zelnik, John F. Kantner, and Kathleen Ford, Sex and Pregnancy in Adolescence (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1981), Appendixes A and B.

12. Data from the initial full edition (1976) of the annual Monitoring the Future survey. See Appendix 4. Lloyd D. Johnston, Jerald G. Bachman, and Patrick M. O'Malley, Monitoring the Future (Ann Arbor: Institute for Survey Research, University of Michigan, annual from 1976) is a fine code book with tabulations of each item.

13. This discussion is based on a multiple regression model. The impact of each independent variable is net of that of all others.

14. Paul R. Newcomb, "Cohabitation in America: An Assessment of Consequences," Journal of Marriage and the Family 41 (1979): 597-603; Eleanor D. Macklin, "Nonmarital Heterosexual Cohabitation: An Overview," in Eleanor D. Macklin and Roger H. Rubin, eds., Contemporary Families and Alternative Lifestyles (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1983), 49-74.

15. Paul C. Glick and Graham B. Spanier, "Married and Unmarried Cohabitation in the United States," Journal of Marriage and the Family 42 (1980): 19-30.

16. Richard R. Clayton and Harwin L. Voss, "Shacking Up: Cohabitation in the 1970s," Journal of Marriage and the Family 39 (1977): 273-283.

17. From Front Porch to Back Seat: Courtship in Twentieth-Century America (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1988), epilogue.

18. Frances E. Kobrin, "The Primary Individual and the Family: Changes in Living Arrangements in the United States since 1940," Journal of Marriage and the Family 38 (1976): 233-239; Census CPS P20-212, table 2; Census CPS P20-289, table 2.

19. Robert T. Michael, Victor R. Fuchs, and Sharon R. Scott, "Changes in the Propensity to Live Alone: 1950-1976," Demography 17 (1980): 39-53.

20. Linda J. Waite, Frances Kobrin Goldscheider, and Christina Witsberger, "Nonfamily Living and the Erosion of Traditional Family continue

Orientations among Young Adults," American Sociological Review 51 (1986): 542.

21. There is some indication that the attitudes of cohabitants differed systematically by gender, with females more likely than males to believe (and presumably to act accordingly while in that relationship) that cohabitation should or does lead to marriage. In the Oregon county in which the University of Oregon is located, as the proportion of all couples marrying who had cohabited increased sharply during the 1970s, the association of cohabitation with later marriage grew more pronounced, although the pattern was already visible in 1970. Patricia A. Gwartney-Gibbs, "The Institutionalization of Premarital Cohabitation: Estimates from Marriage License Applications, 1970 and 1980," Journal of Marriage and the Family 48 (1986): 423-434.

22. Macklin, "Nonmarital Heterosexual Cohabitation," 59-63.

23. Alan E. Bayer and Gerald W. McDonald, "Cohabitation among Youth: Correlates of Support for a New American Ethic," unpublished paper, 1981, 16; data from Alexander W. Astin et al., The American Freshman: National Norms .

24. A. Regula Herzog and Jerald S. Bachman, Sex Role Attitudes among High School Seniors (Research Report Series [Ann Arbor: Survey Research Center, University of Michigan, 1982]), 79.

25. Tabulations from Monitoring the Future 1976 data file. See also Herzog and Bachman, Sex Role Attitudes : 86, and Bayer and McDonald, "Cohabitation among Youth," 7-10. Among the college freshmen, considerably the most powerful predictor of assent to cohabitation was church attendance. Again, religious behavior mattered considerably more in helping to form attitudes toward cohabitation than did a range of socioeconomic and educational items. Alan E. Bayer, "Sexual Permissiveness and Correlates as Determined through Interaction Analyses," Journal of Marriage and the Family 39 (1977): 29-40, especially table 1.

26. I present it from the perspective of bride's choice of groom. The story for grooms is of course complementary in that as brides of a given age, on average, married younger grooms, so grooms of a given age married older brides. Because age at first marriage drops off far more gradually at its upper reaches than at its lower—because there are far more definite rules governing how young one may marry than how young one should marry —we would expect that as grooms married older brides their apparent "selectivity" would decline. This is so only to a very limited extent and only at the younger ages of grooms' marriage. For grooms marrying at age 25, for instance, the continue

standard deviation of brides' ages dropped markedly between the early and mid-1960s, then rose slightly and gradually to the mid-1970s, accompanying the rise of nearly half a year in mean age of brides. This amounts to powerful evidence for the genuinely increased age-selectivity of marriage in the 1960s and 1970s.

27. Postwar Fertility Trends and Differentials in the United States (New York: Academic Press, 1977), 99-101.

28. The figures are deviations from the means, in numbers of sub-three-year-old children, estimated by a multiple classification analysis.

29. Charles F. Westoff and Norman B. Ryder, The Contraceptive Revolution (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977), 56-58.

30. Ibid. , chaps. 2, 3; Christine A. Bachrach, "Contraceptive Practice among American Women, 1973-1982," Family Planning Perspectives 16 (1984): 253-259; Christine A. Bachrach and William D. Mosher, "Use of Contraception in the United States, 1982," USNCHS Advancedata ; Koray Tanfer and Marjorie C. Horn, "Contraceptive Use, Pregnancy and Fertility Patterns among Single American Women in Their 20s," Family Planning Perspectives 17 (1985): 13-14.

29. Charles F. Westoff and Norman B. Ryder, The Contraceptive Revolution (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977), 56-58.

30. Ibid. , chaps. 2, 3; Christine A. Bachrach, "Contraceptive Practice among American Women, 1973-1982," Family Planning Perspectives 16 (1984): 253-259; Christine A. Bachrach and William D. Mosher, "Use of Contraception in the United States, 1982," USNCHS Advancedata ; Koray Tanfer and Marjorie C. Horn, "Contraceptive Use, Pregnancy and Fertility Patterns among Single American Women in Their 20s," Family Planning Perspectives 17 (1985): 13-14.

31. Jane Riblett Wilkie, "The Trend toward Delayed Parenthood," Journal of Marriage and the Family 43 (1981): 583-591.

32. Census CPS P20-315, tables 27 and 28.

33. USNCHS Series 3-17, 18.

34. Amy Ong Tsui, "A Study of the Family Formation Process among U.S. Marriage Cohorts" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1978), 102-103.

35. Data from surveys of mothers of legitimate children born in 1968, 1969, and 1972 give evidence that at least a part of the delay in marital fertility was accomplished by more satisfactory birth control practices. Between 1968 and 1972, proportions of mothers saying that they had not wanted a child or had wanted a child then decreased. Of course, there were progressively fewer among all married women of any given age who had had a child at all. USNCHS Series 21-32, table 1. And see Norman B. Ryder, "A Model of Fertility by Planning Status," Demography 15 (1978).

36. Veroff, Douvan, and Kulka, The Inner American , chap. 5; and see John Modell and John Campbell, Family Ideology and Family Values in the "Baby Boom": A Secondary Analysis of the 1955 Growth of American Families Survey of Single Women (Technical Report no. 5 [Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Family Study Center, 1984]).

37. Duncan and Duncan, Sex Typing and Sex Roles (1978): 213. Since the mid-1970s, high school seniors have increasingly reaffirmed their commitment to marriage and parenthood, without retaining the continue

younger marriage pattern that prevailed in the 1950s. Relatively heavy daters are most in favor of conventional marriage and are most eager for marriage relatively soon. Herzog and Bachman, Sex Role Attitudes ; Richard R. Clayton and Harwin L. Voss, "Shacking Up: Cohabitation in the 1970s," Journal of Marriage and the Family 39 (1977): 273-283; Thornton and Freedman, "Changes in Sex Role Attitudes."

38. Judith Blake and Jorge H. del Pinal, "The Childlessness Option: Recent American Views of Nonparenthood," in Gerry E. Hendershot and Paul J. Placek, eds., Predicting Fertility (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1981), 235-264.

39. Two of the items were couched in terms of skepticism about men's willingness to share in housework and in child care. The others dealt with attitudes toward women's employment, one asserting a nice fit of employment and mothering, the other relating mothers' own happiness to employment.

40. William Watts, "The Future Can Fend for Itself," Psychology Today 15 (September 1981): 40-41.

41. USNCHS Series 21-38, table A; cf. Arthur J. Norton and Paul C. Glick, "Marital Instability: Past, Present, and Future," Journal of Social Issues 32 (1976): 5-20.

42. Andrew Cherlin, Marriage Divorce Remarriage (Social Trends in the United States [Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981]), 49.

43. USNCHS Series 21-34, table 3. And see Robert T. Michael, "The Rise in Divorce Rates, 1960-1974: Age-Specific Components," Demography 15 (May 1978): 177-182; and Shiro Horiuchi, "Decomposition of the Rise in Divorce Rates: A Note on Michael's Results," Demography 16 (1979): 549-551.

44. Lenore J. Weitzman, The Marriage Contract (New York: The Free Press, 1981), 146-147.

45. Calculated from census data in Hugh Carter and Paul C. Glick, Marriage and Divorce: A Social and Economic Study (revised ed.; Harvard University Press, 1976), 432, 434.

46. Lynne Carol Halem, Divorce Reform: Changing Legal and Social Perspectives (New York: The Free Press, 1980), chap. 8.

47. Halem, however, concludes at about a five-year remove that "perhaps . . . because the reformers promised so much to so many [,] no-fault never lived up to expectation. It was publicized as a spectacular event—both a value reorientation and a systematic restructuring of the law." Ibid. , 281.

48. The table is based on data on persons still alive at the appropriate census date. The average elapsed time of these marriages is 7.5 years. break

49. A good review of the literature on the role of women's work in recent changes in marriage is Sandra L. Hofferth and Kristin A. Moore, "Women's Employment and Marriage," in Ralph E. Smith, ed., The Subtle Revolution (Washington: Urban Institute, 1979).

50. This argument is developed at some length and with statistical documentation in John Modell, "Historical Reflections on American Marriage," in Kingsley Davis, ed., Contemporary Marriage (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1986), 181-196.

51. In Herbert J. Gans, ed., On the Making of Americans: Essays in Honor of David Reisman (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979), 221-234; and see Judith Blake, "Structural Differentiation and the Family: A Quiet Revolution," in Amos H. Hawley, ed., Societal Growth (New York: The Free Press, 1979).

52. Elwood Carlson and Kandi Stinson, "Motherhood, Marriage Timing, and Marital Stability: A Research Note," Social Forces 61 (1982): 258-267.

53. Veroff, Douvan, and Kulka, The Inner American , 191-192.

54. Ellen Gilliam, "Is Dating Outdated?" Seventeen (March 1973): 106.

55. Michael Gordon and Randi L. Miller, "Going Steady in the 1980s: Exclusive Relationships in Six Connecticut High Schools," Sociology and Social Research 68 (1984): 463-479; Randi L. Miller and Michael Gordon, "The Decline in Formal Dating: A Study in Six Connecticut High Schools," unpublished paper.

56. Bailey, From Front Porch to Back Seat , 87.

57. Lloyd B. Lueptow, Adolescent Sex Roles and Social Change (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984), 275. Lueptow's study combines a thoughtful review of the literature and a methodologically sophisticated replication study of 1964 and 1975 Wisconsin high school student samples.

58. John C. Flanagan et al. , The American High School Student , Cooperative Research Project No. 635 (Project Talent Office, University of Pittsburgh, 1964), 5-6ff.; USNCHS Series 11-147, 73.

59. There were some signs in later annual rounds of this annual survey of a slight increase in dating. Johnston, Bachman, and O'Malley, Monitoring the Future , annual.

60. Alan E. Bayer, "Dating and Early Marriage," Journal of Marriage and the Family 30 (1968): 628-632; USNCHS Series 11-147; David L. Larson, Elmer A. Spreitzer, and Eldon E. Snyder, "Social Factors in the Frequency of Romantic Involvement among Adolescents," Adolescence 11 (1976): 7-12; and see Dorothy C. F. Gregg, continue

"Premarital Sexual Attitudes and Behavior in Transition: 1958 and 1968" (Ph.D. dissertation, Purdue University, 1971); Johnson, Bachman, and O'Malley, Monitoring the Future , 1976.

61. Thanks to Martin Levin, Department of Sociology, Emory University, for a special tabulation on 17-year-olds in the 1966-1970 National Health Interview Survey. I computed comparable 1960 figures from the Project Talent public use data file.

62. Freddie Maynard, "The Real Relationship," Seventeen (December 1969): 100+.

63. This comparison and those that follow are computed from the public use file of Project Talent (eliminating all but the seniors) and from Monitoring the Future, 1976.

64. The questions were slightly different. Project Talent first asked, "On the average, how many dates do you have in a week?" And, later , "On the average, how many evenings a week during the school year do you usually go out for fun and recreation?" Monitoring the Future first asked, "During a typical week, how many evenings do you go out for fun and recreation?" and then asked "On the average, how often do you go out with a date?" The response categories supplied also differed slightly. The Project Talent public-use data file included 1,000 seniors; Monitoring the Future included a total of 3,353 seniors in 1976, although a complicated file structure reduced this number considerably in some of the tabulations to be reported in this chapter.

65. Trends in hours of study and college plans are present in the data. GPA is also, but the "grade inflation" of the period renders the observations noncomparable across time. Documentation for a decline in academic achievement can be found in the decline of SAT scores, which is, of course, an achievement test. College Entrance Examination Board, Panel on the Scholastic Aptitude Test Score Decline, On Further Examination (New York: The Board, 1977). Trends in after-school employment are found in Census 1960-1 , table 197 and Census 1970-4 , table 23. The downward trend in religious observation in the general population is documented in Smith, A Compendium of Trends , 14-15.

66. Inspection of the coefficients in the tables will suggest that this line of argument is overwhelmed by the distinctiveness and complexity of the black patterns, which I largely ignore here in favor of assessing trends among whites.

67. The expected-age-at-marriage question in 1976 was asked of a subset of the seniors who unfortunately were not asked the question about hours spent doing homework, so that this item must be dropped from the analysis. break

68. "How likely do you think it is that you would stay married to the same person for life?"

69. Dating was not a magic key that unlocked all the aspects of variation in family values. A number of questions about parenthood—its salience, the preferred number of children, the pace of childbearing—were unrelated to frequency of dating, except for a positive relationship among boys with the salience item. So also were a number of questions probing how the high school seniors responded to aspects of feminism.

70. As one might anticipate, the partial correlation for involvement in religious organizations was strongly positive , at a .120 level, for instance, among white boys.

71. An interesting account of adolescents' preferred sources of advice based on local high school samples in 1963, 1976, and 1982 found a powerful turning from parents to peers (between the early 1960s and mid-1970s) followed by a modest turn back after that. Hans Sebald, "Adolescents' Shifting Orientation toward Parents and Peers: A Curvilinear Trend over Recent Decades," Journal of Marriage and the Family 48 (1986): 5-13. Adults, it seems, responded by fervently wishing that their authority was more substantial. Glen H. Elder, Jr., "Adult Control in Family and School: Public Opinion in Historical and Comparative Perspective," Youth and Society 3 (1971): 6-16.

72. Ira L. Reiss, The Social Context of Sexual Permissiveness (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1967); Catherine S. Chilman, Adolescent Sexuality in a Changing American Society , DHEW Publication No. NIH 79-1426 (Washington: USGPO, 1979), chap. 6; Hazel Gaudet Erskine, "The Polls: More on Morality and Sex," Public Opinion Quarterly 31 (1967): 111.

73. Patricia Y. Miller and William Simon, "Adolescent Sexual Behavior: Context and Change," Social Problems 22 (1975): 58-76; Roy J. Hopkins, "Sexual Behavior in Adolescence," Journal of Social Issues 33 (1977): 67-85.

74. Catherine S. Chilman, "The 1970s and American Families (A Comitragedy)," in Eleanor D. Macklin and Roger H. Rubin, eds., Contemporary Families and Alternative Lifestyles (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1983), 15-24, is one thoughtful synthesis of a large literature.

75. Melvin Zelnik, John F. Kantner, and Kathleen Ford, Sex and Pregnancy in Adolescence , 65; Melvin Zelnik and Farida K. Shah, "First Intercourse among Young Americans," Family Planning Perspectives 15 (March-April 1983): 64.

76. Hazel Gaudet Erskine, "The Polls: Morality," Public Opinion continue

Quarterly 30 (1966): 673; Tom W. Smith, A Compendium of Trends on General Survey Questions (Chicago: NORC, 1980), 151. And see Ira E. Robinson and Davor Jedlicka, "Change in Sexual Attitudes and Behavior of College Students from 1965 to 1980: A Research Note," Journal of Marriage and the Family 44 (1982): 237-240.

77. Virginia Venable Kidd, "Happily Ever After and Other Relationship Styles: Rhetorical Visions of Interpersonal Relations in Popular Magazines, 1951-1972" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1974), 28-31; John DeLamater and Patricia MacCorquodale, Premarital Sexuality (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1979).

78. Shere Hite, The Hite Report (New York: Dell Books, 1976), 11, 59. Martin S. Weinberg, Rochelle Ganz Swensson, and Sue Kiefer Hammersmith indicate that by the mid-1970s, there had emerged in sex manuals a view of women's sexual autonomy that challenged the still more dominant "humanistic sexuality" notion presented in Hite. "Sexual Autonomy and the Status of Women: Models of Female Sexuality in U.S. Sex Manuals from 1950 to 1980," Social Problems 30 (1983): 312-324.

79. Murray S. Davis, Smut: Erotic Reality/Obscene Ideology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983).

80. Boston: Little, Brown.

81. Edward A. Tiryakian, "Sexual Anomie, Social Structure, Societal Change," Social Forces 59 (1981): 1025-1053; Ira L. Reiss, "Some Observations on Ideology and Sexuality in America," Journal of Marriage and the Family 45 (1981): 271-283.

82. Warren I. Susman, "'Personality' and the Making of Twentieth-Century Culture," in Culture as History (New York: Pantheon, 1984); Christopher Lasch, The Minimal Self (New York: Norton, 1985).

83. Ruth Brecher and Edward Brecher, An Analysis of Human Sexual Response (New York: New American Library, 1966), xiii.

84. David R. Reuben, Everything You Always Wanted to Know about Sex but Were Afraid to Ask (New York: David McKay, 1969), 4.

85. Sandra S. Kahn, The Kahn Report on Sexual Preferences (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1981), 212.

86. Davis, Smut , 193. And see Robert T. Francoeur, "Religious Reactions to Alternative Lifestyles" in Macklin and Rubin, eds., Contemporary Families and Alternative Lifestyles , 379-399, for a discussion of the now-dominant "process" view of sexuality.

87. Already in 1959, 73 percent of Americans queried believed that such information should flow freely, a proportion that has in- soft

creased in basically linear fashion at about one percent per year to a very strong consensus. Smith, A Compendium of Trends , 139.

88. Arthur M. Vener, Cyrus S. Stewart, and David L. Hager, "The Sexual Behavior of Adolescents in Middle America: Generational and American-British Comparisons," Journal of Marriage and the Family 34 (1972): 698; and Arthur M. Vener and Cyrus S. Stewart, "Adolescent Sexual Behavior in Middle America Revisited: 1970-73," Journal of Marriage and the Family 36 (1974): 728-735.

89. It is unfortunate that an inquiry into the number of Saturday nigh t dates in the past four weeks, with no further explanation, is the only item about dating or socializing more generally on the Kantner-Zelnik survey.

90. The item read: "How about you? Which one of these statements best describes how you feel about sexual intercourse before marriage? a) Sexual intercourse before marriage is okay, even if the couple has no plans to marry. b) Sexual intercourse before marriage is okay, but only if the couple is planning to marry. c) Sexual intercourse is never okay before marriage?"

91. Reiss, The Social Context of Sexual Permissiveness .

92. Ibid. , 165.

91. Reiss, The Social Context of Sexual Permissiveness .

92. Ibid. , 165.

93. DeLamater and MacCorquodale, Premarital Sexuality .

94. Cf. table 47, above. The difference may be between high school students and high school graduates.

95. Sorenson's 1972 adolescent survey is methodologically flawed but useful here because his respondents were younger than those of DeLamater and MacCorquodale. He presents a large number of tables in which quite a range of attitudes about sex and related phenomena are cross-tabulated with gender and with degree of sexual experience. By 1973 (in general conformity to the findings of DeLamater and MacCorquodale), items relating sex and marriage had largely ceased to be related to gender but were closely related to sexual experience. The linking of love and marriage, too, no longer varied systematically by gender. Robert C. Sorensen, Adolescent Sexuality in Contemporary America (New York: World Publishing, 1973).

96. Sorensen demonstrates this point overwhelmingly.

97. Herzog and Bachman, Sex Role Attitudes, passim .

98. Miller and Simon, "Adolescent Sexual Behavior."

99. Philip E. Converse et al., American Social Attitudes Data Sourcebook 1947-1978 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980), 272-277.

100. Easterlin, Birth and Fortune , Appendix tables 2.2 and 2.3. break

101. Census 1960-1, table 197; Census 1970-4, table 23.

102. Noah Lewin-Epstein, Youth Employment during High School (Chicago: National Opinion Research Center, 1981, processed), 25-31, 40, 55, 131-133.

103. John C. Flanagan et al., The American High School Student , (Pittsburgh: Project Talent Office, 1964, processed), 5-24; Jerome Johnston and Jerald G. Bachman, Young Men Look at Military Service (Youth in Transition Document No. 193 [Ann Arbor: Institute of Survey Research, University of Michigan, 1970]); Jerald G. Bachman, "American High School Seniors View the Military: 1976-1982," Armed Forces and Society 10 (1983): 88-89.

104. Kenneth Keniston, Young Radicals (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1968), chap. 8. break