1. See Tom Rockmore, Before and After Hegel: An Introduction to Hegel's Thought (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1992).

2. G. W. F. Hegel, Phenomenology of Spirit, trans. A. V. Miller, with an analysis of the text and foreword by J. N. Findlay (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977), 27.

3. Cited in G. W. F. Hegel, Phénoménologie de l'Esprit, trans. Gwendoline Jarczyk and Pierre-Jean Labarrière (Paris: Gallimard, 1993), 9.

4. Robert C. Solomon, In the Spirit of Hegel: A Study of G. W. E Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 211-215.

5. William Maker, Philosophy Without Foundations: Rethinking Hegel (Albany: SUNY Press, 1994), 67.

6. J. N. Findlay, Hegel: A Re-examination (New York: Collier Books, 1962).

7. Karl Ameriks, "Recent Work on Hegel: The Rehabilitation of an Epistemologist?" Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 52, no. 1 (March 1992): 177-202.

8. See A. Phalén, Das Erkenntnisproblem in Hegtls Philosophic (Uppsala, 1912).

9. See Kenneth Westphal, Hegel's Epistemological Realism: A Study of the Aim and Method of Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1989).

10. See Solomon, In the Spirit of Hegel.

11. See Terry Pinkard, Hegel's Phenomenology: The Sociality of Reason (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994).

12. For this thesis, see, e.g., Richard J. Bernstein, Praxis anti Action: Contemporary Philosophies of Human Activity (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1971).

13. See Immanuel Kant, Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason, trans. Norman Kemp Smith (London: Macmillan; New York: St. Martin's, 1961), B xliv, p. 37.

14. G. W. F. Hegel, Hegel's Science of Logic, trans. A. V. Miller (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1989), 61 n. 1.

15. Letter to Marcus Hcrz, dated February 21, 1772, in Immanuel Kant, Philosophical Correspondence, 1759-99, ed. and trans. Arnulf Zweig (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967), 71.

16. See The Logic of Hegel, translated from The Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences, trans. William Wallace (London: Oxford University Press, 1873; rpt. 1968).

17. G. W. F. Hegel, The Phenomenology of Mind, trans, and introd., J. B. Baillie (London: George Allen and Unwin; New York: Macmillan, 1910; rpt. 1961).

18. See Lawrence S. Stepelevich, ed. and introd., Hegel: Preface and Introduction to the Phenomenology of Mind (New York: LLA, 1990), 27.

1. For additional help in following Hegel's often difficult references, see the "Anmerkungen" in G. W. F. Hegel, Phänomenologie des Geistes, ed. H. F. Wessels and H. Clairmont (Hamburg: Felix Meiner Verlag, 1988), 553-620.

2. G. W. F. Hegel, The Difference Between Fichte's and Schelling's System of Philosophy, trans. H. S. Harris and Walter Cerf (Albany: SUNY Press, 1977), 85-89.

3. Immanuel Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, trans. Norman Kemp Smith (London: Macmillan; New York: St. Martin's, 1961), B 860-879, pp. 653-665, esp. B 860, p. 653.

4. Ibid., B 168, p. 175.

5. G. W. F. Hegel, Faith and Knowledge, trans. Walter Cerf and H. S. Harris (Albany: SUNY Press, 1977), 97-152.

6. Richard Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979).

7. "Meditation I," in The Philosophical Works of Descartes, trans. Elizabeth S. Haldane and G. R. T. Ross (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1970), 144-149.

8. Hegel to Niethammer, dated 28 October 1808, in Hegel: The Letters, trans. Clark Butler and Christiane Seiler (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984), 178-179.

9. Hegel, The Difference Between Fichte's and Schelling's System of Philosophy, 80.

10. "§1: First, Absolutely Unconditioned Principle," in Fichte: Science of Knowledge (Wissenschaftslehre) with First and Second Introductions, ed. and trans. Peter Heath and John Lachs (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 93-102.

11. See Die Hauptschriften zum Pantheismusstreit zwischen Jacobi und Mendelssohn, ed. H. Scholz (Berlin, 1916).

12. G. W. F. Hegel, The Encyclopedia Logic, trans. T. F. Geraets, W. A. Suchting, and H. S. Harris (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1991), 10.

13. Hegel, The Difference Between Fichte's and Schelling's System of Philosophy, 180.

14. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, B 860, p. 653.

15. G. W. F. Hegel, Hegel's Science of Logic, trans. A. V. Miller (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1989), 67-78.

16. Ludwig Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, trans. D. F. Pears and B. F. McGuinness (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1961), Prop. 6.54, p. 151.

17. Hegel was so satisfied with this image that he used it again elsewhere. See, e.g., Hegel, Science of Logic, 67.

18. Jacques Derrida, De la grammatologie (Paris: Editions de Minuit, 1967), 69, 80, 95.

19. See Hegel, Science of Logic, 69.

20. For criticism, see Bertrand Russell, An Essay on the Foundations of Geometry (New York: Dover, 1956), 54-62.

21. See G. W. F. Hegel, Philosophy of Nature, trans. A. V. Miller (Oxford: Oxford at the Clarendon Press, 1970), §267, Remark, pp. 56-59.

22. "Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting the Reason," in The Philosophical Works of Descartes, I:79-130.

23. Hegel, The Encyclopedia Logic, §10, Addition, p. 34.

24. See, e.g., Friedrich Engels, Dialectics of Nature, trans. C. P. Dutt (New York: International Publishers, 1940).

25. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, B 110, p. 116.

26. G. W. F. Hegel, Lectures on the History of Philosophy, trans. E. S. Haldane and Frances H. Simson (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul; New York: Humanities Press, 1894-1896), I:252.

27. See Aristotle, Metaphysics, bk. Delta 8, 1017b10-1017b26; see also ibid., bk. Zeta passim, esp. 3, 1028b33-1029b12.

28. See Hegel, Science of Logic, 75-78.

29. See Fichte: Science of Knowledge, 221, 240.

1. See, in no particular order, Martin Heidegger, Hegel's Concept of Experience (New York: Harper and Row, 1970); Walter Kaufmann, Hegel: Texts and Commentary (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday Anchor, 1966); Werner Marx, Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit: Its Point and Purpose—A Commentary on the Preface and Introduction, trans. Peter Heath (New York: Harper and Row, 1975); Alexis Philonenko, Lecture de la Phénoménologie de Hegel, Préface-Introduction (Paris: Vrin, 1993); Lawrence S. Stepelevich, ed. and introd., Preface and Introduction to the Phenomenology of Mind (New York: LLA, 1990).

2. Quotations from the Phenomenology of Spirit will be from the Miller translation and will be cited in parentheses by paragraph and page number. Thus (§73, 46) refers to paragraph 73, page 46.

3. See "Relationship of Skepticism to Philosophy, Exposition of Its Different Modifications and Comparison to the Latest Form with the Ancient One," in Between Kant and Hegel: Texts in the Development of Post-Kantian Idealism, trans. George di Giovanni and H. S. Harris (Albany: SUNY Press, 1985), 311-362. For Hegel's view of skepticism, see Michael N. Forster, Hegel and Skepticism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989).

4. See chapter 5: "The Problem of the Criterion," in Roderick M. Chisholm, The Foundations of Knowing (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1982), 61-75.

5. For recent discussion, see Norman Malcolm, "Wittgenstein's Philosophical Investigations," in The Philosophy of Mind, ed. V. C. Chappell (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1962), 74-100, esp. pp. 86-90.

6. See Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, B xiii, p. 20, and B xvi, p. 22.

7. Ibid., B 566, p. 467.

8. Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness, trans. Hazel E. Barnes (New York: Washington Square Books, 1973), "The Pre-Reflective Cogito and the Being of the Percipere," 9-17.

9. Ibid., "Being and Doing: Freedom," 559-711.

10. See Hegel, The Encyclopedia Logic, §1, p. 24.

11. Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970).

12. Ludwik Fleck, Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact, trans. Fred Bradley and Thaddeus J. Trenn (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979).

13. G. W. F. Hegel, Philosophy of Right, trans. T. M. Knox (London: Oxford University Press, 1970), 11.

14. Donald Davidson, for instance, can be read as claiming that our theories do not depend on anything like a categorial framework, but in fact describe the way the world is in independence of any framework. See "On the Very Idea of a Conceptual Scheme," in Donald Davidson, Truth and Interpretation (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984), 183-198.

15. See Werner Heisenberg, Physics and Philosophy: The Revolution in Modern Science, introd. F. S. C. Northrop (New York: Harper, 1962).

16. See Morris Kline, Mathematics: The Loss of Certainty (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980).

17. See "The Doctrine of Necessity Examined," in The Philosophical Writings of Peirce, ed. and introd. Justus Buchler (New York: Dover, 1955), 327.

18. See Paul Feyerabend, Against Method (London: Verso, 1978).

1. See, e.g., Charles Taylor, "The Opening Arguments of the Phenomenology," in Hegel: A Collection of Critical Essays, ed. Alasdair MacIntyre (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1972), 151-187.

2. See, e.g., Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, §16, B 132-136, pp. 152-155.

3. See Pierre-Jean Labarrière, Structures et mouvement dialectique dans la Phénoménologie de l'esprit (Paris: Aubiers-Montaigne, 1968).

4. See John Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, ed. Alexander Campbell Fraser (New York: Dover, 1959), pt. 2, chap. 2, p. 145.

5. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, B 1, p. 41.

6. Ibid., B 72, p. 90.

7. Ibid., B 119, p. 121.

8. Hegel, The Encyclopedia Logic, 2.97.

9. G. W. F. Hegel, Lectures on the History of Philosophy, III, esp. pp. 170-178; and Hegel, Werke in zwanzig Bänden, ed. Eva Moldcnhauer and Karl Markus Michel (Frankfurt am Main, 1971), XX: 203-224.

10. See G. W. F. Hegel, Lectures on the History of Philosophy: The Lectures of 1825-1826, ed. Robert F. Brown, trans. R. F. Brown and J. M. Stewart, with the assistance of H. S. Harris (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1990), 3:172.

11. Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 521.

12. This argument originates in his reading of Husserl. See the introduction to Edmund Husserl, L'origine de la géométrie, trans, and introd. Jacques Derrida (Pads: Presses Universitaires de France, 1974), 3-171, esp. sec. 10, pp. 155-171. See also Jacques Derrida, Le problème de la genèse dans la philosophic de Husserl (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1990).

13. See, e.g., R. J. Hirst, The Problems of Perception (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1959).

14. "Perception," in The Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. Paul Edward (London: Macmillan; New York: Free Press and Collier Macmillan, 1967), VI:79.

15. See Aristotle, Metaphysics, K, 1, 1059b25-26.

16. Ibid., M, 9, 1086b2-7.

17. See Aristotle, Categories, 2b15.

18. Descartes, The Philosophical Works of Descartes, I:155-156.

19. "The Third Set of Objections," in The Philosophical Works of Descartes, II :3.

20. See Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, bk. 1, chap. 32, p. 521.

21. See "Principles of Human Knowledge," in Berkeley, Selections, ed. Mary W. Caulkins (New York: Scribner's, 1929), §10, 108-109.

22. See §§430-435, in Hegel's Philosophy of Mind, trans. A. V. Miller (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), 170-176.

23. See, e.g., Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, §17, B 136-139, pp. 155-157.

24. Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, I, 6, 1096a11-1097a14.

25. Hegel, The Encyclopedia Logic, §38, 77.

26. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, B 249, p. 228.

27. Hegel, The Encyclopedia Logic, §136, 205-208; see also §137, 208-209. For an analysis of Herder's view of knowledge, see Marion Heinz, Sensualstischer Idealismus, Untersuchungen zur Erkenntnistheorie des jungen Herder (Hamburg: Felix Meiner Verlag, 1994).

28. See "Kant's Critique and Cosmology," in Karl R. Popper, Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge (New York: Harper and Row, 1965), 175-183.

29. See Berkeley, De Motu (On Motion), trans. A. A. Luce, in Philosophical Works, ed. M. K. Ayers (London: Dent, 1975), 209-228.

30. Edmund Husserl, Logische Untersuchungen: Untersuchungen zur Phänomenologie und Theorie der Erkenntnis (Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1968), II/1, p. 6; and Martin Heidegger, Being and Time, trans. John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson (New York: Harper and Row, 1962), 50.

31. Michael R. Matthews, ed., The Scientific Background to Modern Philosophy: Selected Readings (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1989), 152.

32. Hegel, Hegel's Philosophy of Nature, §267, Remark, pp. 57-59.

33. Ibid., §270, Zusatz, p. 82.

34. See "The Inverted World," in Hans-Georg Gadamer, Hegel's Dialectic: Five Hermeneutical Studies, trans. P. Christopher Smith (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976), 54-74. See also Findlay, Hegel: A Re-examination, 92-93.

35. G. W. F. Hegel, "The Essence of Philosophical Criticism Generally, and Its Relationship to the Present State of Philosophy in Particular," in Between Kant and Hegel, 283.

36. See On the Soul, III, 8, 431b20-23, in The Complete Works of Aristotle, ed. Jonathan Barnes (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), I:686.

37. Salomon Maimon, Versuch über die Transzendentalphilosophie (rpt. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1963).

1. See "Discourse on Method," pt. 3, in The Philosophical Works of Descartes, I:98

2. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, B xxix, p. 28.

3. See Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, §16, B 131-136, pp. 152-155.

4. See Dieter Henrich, Fichtes ursprüngliche Einsicht (Frankfurt am Main: Vittorio Klostermann, 1967). Self-consciousness is discussed prior to German idealism, even prior to modern philosophy. See, e.g., Jens Holfwasjen, Geist und Selbstbewußtsein, Studien zu Plotin und Numenios (Mainz: Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur; Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1994).

5. "Second Introduction to the Science of Knowledge," in Fichte: Science of Knowledge, 37.

6. See Fichte, Foundations of the Entire Science of Knowledge (1794), in Fichte, 230-231. See also Edith Düising, Intersubjektivität und Selbstbewußtsein: Behavioristische, phänomenologische und idealistische Begründungstheorien bei Mead, Schutz, Fichte und Hegel (Köln: Dinter Verlag, 1986).

7. Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding.

8. See David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature, ed. L. A. Selby-Bigge (Oxford: Oxford at the Clarendon Press, 1968).

9. See G. W. F. Hegel, Vorlesungen über die Geschichte der Philosophie, III, in Hegel-Werke, XIX:136-142. See also Hegel, Lectures on the History of Philosophy: The Lectures of 1825-1826, III:139-145.

10. See "Foundations of the Entire Science of Knowledge," in Fichte: Science of Knowledge, 172-173.

11. For a classical discussion, see Jean Hyppolite, Genesis and Structure of Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit, trans. Samuel Cherniak and John Heckman (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1974), 156-177. For more recent discussion, see, e.g., George Armstrong Kelly, "Notes on Hegel's 'Lordship and Bondage,'" in Hegel: A Collection of Critical Essays, ed. Alasdair MacIntyre (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor, 1972), 189-2l8.

12. For his criticism of Hegel, see the "Critique of Hegel's Dialectic and General Philosophy," in the third of the "Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts," in Karl Marx: Early Writings, trans. T. B. Bottomore (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964), 195-219. For his theory of alienation, see his discussion "Alienated Labour," ibid., 120-134.

13. See Alexandre Kojève, Introduction to the Reading of Hegel: Lectures on the Phenomenology of Spirit assembled by Raymond Queneau, ed. Allan Bloom, trans. James H. Nichols, Jr. (New York: Basic Books, 1969).

14. Georg Lukács, The Young Hegel: Studies in the Relations between Dialectics and Economics, trans. Rodney Livingstone (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1976).

15. Georg Lukács, Zur Ontologie des geselhchaftlichen Seins, 2 vols., ed. Frank Benseler (Darmstadt/Neuwied: Luchterhand, 1984).

16. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract and Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, ed. and introd. Lester G. Crocker (New York: Washington Square Books, 1971), 7.

17. Rousseau, The Social Contract, 16.

18. Hegel, Philosophy of Right, §§241-244, 148-150.

19. See Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, I, 7, 1097a15-1097b20.

20. J. G. Fichte, "The Closed Commercial State," in Political Thought of the German Romantics, 1793-1815, ed. H. S. Reiss and E Brown (Oxford: Black-well, 1955), 86-102.

2. . See chapter 9: "Hegel and the Social Function of Reason," in Tom Rockmore, On Hegel's Epistemology and Contemporary Philosophy (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1996).

2. . See "Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right: Introduction," in Karl Marx: Early Writings, 41-60.

23. See "Class Consciousness," in Georg Lukács, History and Class Consciousness, trans. Rodney Livingstone (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1971), 46-82.

24. See "Universal Self-Consciousness," §§36-4-37 in Hegel's Philosophy of Mind, trans. A. V. Miller (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), 177-178.

25. Hegel, Encyclopedia, e.g., §§459, 640, and 670. See also Robert Williams, Hegel's Ethics of Recognition (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).

26. For Marx's theory of alienation, see the first of the "Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts," in Karl Marx: Early Writings, 120-134.

27. Jean-Paul Sartre, "Being and Doing: Freedom," in Sartre, Being and Nothingness, trans. Hazel E. Barnes (New York: Washington Square Press, 1966), 559-712.

28. "The Pre-Reflective Cogito and the Being of the Percipere," in Sartre, Being and Nothingness, 9-17.

29. See his discussion of universal self-consciousness in Encyclopedia, III: Hegel's Philosophy of Mind, §§436-437, 176-178.

30. See "Relationship of Skepticism to Philosophy, Exposition of Its Different Modifications and Comparison to the Latest Form with the Ancient One," in Between Kant and Hegel, 325.

31. See Martin Heidegger, Phänomenologische Interpretationen zu Aristoteles: Einführung in die phänomonologische Forschung, ed. Walter Bröcker and Käte Bröcker-Oltmanns (Frankfurt am Main: Vittorio Klostermann, 1985), 195-199.

32. Jean Wahl, Le Malheur de la conscience dans la philosophie de Hegel (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1951).

33. See, e.g., Hegel, Philosophy of Right, §270, Addition, p. 169.

34. Kant, "Der Streit der Fakultäten," in Kant-Werke, IX:305-306.

35. See Fichte, "Beiträge zur Berichtigung der Urtheile über die fran-zösische Revolution," in Fichtes-Werke, 150.

36. See Ludwig Feuerbach, The Essence òf Christianity, trans. George Eliot (New York: Harper and Row, 1957).

37. Hegel, Lectures on the History of Philosophy: The Lectures of 1825-1826, III:47.

1. See "The Essence of Philosophical Criticism Generally, and Its Relationship to the Present State of Philosophy in Particular," in Between Kant and Hegel, 283.

2. Hegel, The Encyclopedia Logic, §45, Addition, p. 88.

3. See "Refutation of Idealism," in G. E. Moore, "Refutation of Idealism," in Mind 12 (October 1903): 433-453. For discussion of Moore's view, see Ludwig Wittgenstein, On Certainty, ed. G. E. M. Anscombe and G. H. yon Wright, trans. Denis Paul and G. E. M. Anscombe (New York: Harper and Row, 1972).

4. "Refutation of Idealism," in Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, B 274-279, pp. 244-247.

5. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, B 176-187, pp. 180-217.

6. "Discourse on Method," in The Philosophical Works of Descartes, I:107.

7. See, e.g., Einleitung zu: Ideen zu einer Philosophie der Natur als Einleitung in das Studium dieser Wissenschaft, in F. W. J. Schelling, Ausgewählte Schriften, 6 vols., ed. Manfred Frank (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1985), 1:244-294.

8. See, e.g., Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft, in Immanuel Kant, Kant-Werke, 10 vols., ed. W. Weischedel (Darmstadt: Wissen-schaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1975), 8:7-136.

9. G. W. F. Hegel, Hegel's Philosophy of Nature, trans. A. V. Miller (Oxford: Oxford at the Clarendon Press, 1970).

10. For instance, in the preface to a recent scholarly work, H. S. Harris claims that "Hegel's conception of the philosophy of nature is one of his most vital legacies for the present day." See H. S. Harris, Hegel's Development: Night Thoughts (Jena 1801-1806) (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983), xi. In the foreword to a recent translation of Hegel, J. N. Findlay notes: "It will in fact be plain that Hegel, like Aristotle and Descartes and Whitehead, is one of the great philosophical interpreters of nature, as steeped in its detail as he is audacious in his treatment of it." See Hegel, Hegel's Philosophy of Nature, viii-ix.

11. Hegel, Hegel's Philosophy of Nature, §249, p. 20.

12. Hegel, Philosophy of Right, 10.

13. Rom Harré, Laws of Nature (London: Duckworth, 1993).

14. See Montesquieu, The Spirit of Laws, trans. David Wallace Carrithers (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1977).

15. See §75: "The Concept of an Objective Purposiveness of Nature Is a Critical Principle of Reason for the Reflective Judgment," in Immanuel Kant, Critique of Judgment, trans. J. H. Bernard (New York: Hafner, 1951), 245-z48.

16. Henri Bergson, Creative Evolution, trans. Arthur Mitchell (New York: Random House, 1944).

17. Henri Bergson, Time and Free Will, trans. F. L. Pogson (New York: Harper and Bros., 1960).

18. Lynn Rudder Baker, Saving Belief.' A Critique of Physicalism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987).

19. "Mind Subjective," esp. "Psychology: Mind," in Hegel's Philosophy of Mind, 25-240.

20. Nicholas Boyle, Goethe: The Poet and His Age (New York: Oxford, 1992), I: The Poety of Desire.

21. Rudolf Carnap, "Logical Foundations of the Unity of Science," in Readings in philosophical Analysis, ed. Herbert Feigl and Wilfrid Sellars (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1949), 408-423.

22. Joseph Margolis, Philosophy of Psychology (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1984). See, e.g., Paul Churchland, Matter and Consciousness: A Contemporary Introduction to Philosophy of Mind (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1984).

23. Johann Wolfgang Goethe, Faust I, lines 1236-1237: "Mir hilft der Geist! Auf einmal seh'ich Rat. und schreibe getrost: im Anfang war die Tat." See also Goethe, Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre, bk. 6: "Tätig zu sein, sagte er, ist des Menschen erste Bestimmung, und alle Zwischenzeiten, in denen er auszuruhen genötigt ist, sollte er anwenden, eine deutliche Erkenntnis der äiusserlichen Dinge zu erlangen, die ihm in der Folge abermals seine Tätigkeit erleichtert."

24. Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, I, 10, 1100a10-30.

25. "The Passions of the Soul," art. XXXI, in The Philosophical Writings of Descartes, I:345-346.

26. See, e.g., Joseph Margolis, Philosophy of Psychology (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1984), 21, 27-28, 63, 76, 77.

27. John Haugeland, Artificial Intelligence: The Very Idea (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1985); see also Ron McClamrock, Existential Cognition: Computational Minds in the World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995).

28. Søren Kierkegaard, Concluding Unscientific Postscript, trans. David F. Swenson and Walter Lowrie (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968), 99-108.

29. Friedrich Schiller, On the Aesthetic Education of Man, in a Series of Letters, ed. Elizabeth M. Wilkinson and Leonard Ashley Willoughby (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967).

30. See Tom Rockmore, Fichte, Marx and German Philosophy (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1980).

31. Hegel, Philosophy of Right, §4, 20-21.

32. J. G. Fichte, The Science of Ethics According to the Principles of Philosophy, trans. A. E. Kroger, ed. W. T. Harris (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Tübner, 1897).

33. Monique Castillo, Kant et l’avenir de la culture (Paris: Presses Univer-sitaires de France, 1990).

34. See Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, I, 2, 1094b9-12.

35. See "Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of the State," in Writings of the Young Marx on Philosophy and Society, trans. Loyd D. Easton and Kurt H. Guddat (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday Anchor, 1967), 151.

36. Hegel, Philosophy of Right, §§189-208, 126-134.

37. See "System of Needs," in Hegel, Philosophy of Right, §§189-208, 126-134.

38. See, e.g., Hegel, Philosophy of Right, §§241-245, 148-150.

39. See "Le coeur," in Blaise Pascal, Pensées, ed. Jacques Chevalier (Paris: Livre de poche, 1962, 236-239.

40. See Jean-Paul Sartre, Existentialism Is a Humanism, in Existentialism from Dostoyevsky to Sartre, ed. and introd. Walter Kaufmann (New York: Meridian, 1956), 287-311.

41. Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue (Notre Dame, Ind.: Notre Dame University Press, 1984).

42. See Norman S. Care and Charles Landesman, eds., Readings in the Theory of Action (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1968).

43. "The German Ideology," in Writings of the Young Marx on Philosophy and Society, 424-425.

44. See Immanuel Kant, Critique of Practical Reason, trans. Lewis White Beck (New York: LLA, 1956), 169.

45. Kant, "Der Streit der Fakultäten," in Kant-Werke, IX:310.

46. See G. E. Lessing, Ü ber den Beweis des Geistes und der Kraft (Braun-schweig: Waisenhaus-Buchhandlung, 1777).

47. "The Positivity of the Christian Religion," in Hegel, Early Theological Writings, 79.

48. See Hegel, Early Theological Writings, 215.

49. Aristotle, Rhetoric, I, 13, 136869; I, 13, 1373b5; I, 13, 1374a19 ff.; I, 14, 1375al5 ff.; I, 15, 1375b7.

1. See the article on "spirit," in Michael Inwood, A Hegel Dictionary (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992), 128-131. See also "Geist," in Historisches Wörterbuch der Philosophie, ed. Joachim Ritter (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesell-schaft), III:154-203; as concerns Hegel's conception of "Geist," see pp. 191-199.

2. See, e.g., Hyppolite, Genesis and Structure of Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit, 321-333.

3. See Alan M. Olson, Hegel and the Spirit: Philosophy as Pneumatology (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992).

4. See "Doctrine of the Holy Ghost and of the Trinity," in Adolph Harnack, History of Dogma, trans. E. B. Speirs and James Millar (London: Williams and Norgate, 1898), IV:108-137.

5. See "The Three and the One," in Jaroslav Pelikan, The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine, I: The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100-600) (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971), 211-218.

6. See Harnack, History of Dogma, IV:110.

7. Gregory of Nazianus, Or. 21.33 (PG 35: 1121), cited in Pelikan, The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100-600), 213.

8. See Olson, Hegel and the Spirit, 16.

9. See Montesquieu, The Spirit of Laws, 289.

10. See Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit, in J. G. Herder, Ideen zur Kulturphilosophie, ed. Otto Braun and Nora Braun (Leipzig: Insel-Verlag, 1911), 260.

11. See bk. 3: "Faith," in Johann Gottlieb Fichte, The Vocation of Man, trans. Roderick M. Chisholm (Indianapolis: LLA, 1950), 83-154.

12. See the Seventh and Eighth Addresses in Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Addresses to the German Nation, trans. George A. Kelly (New York: Harper, 1968), 92-130.

13. See G. W. F. Hegel, Early Theological Writings, trans. T. M. Knox, with an introduction and fragments translated by Richard Kroner (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1971), 182-301.

14. See Hegel-Werke, Berliner Schriften, XI:69.

15. Ibid., XVII: 327.

16. Ibid., XX: 49. 17. Ibid., 50.

18. Ibid., 50.

19. Ibid., 123.

20. Ibid., 48.

21. Ibid., 123.

22. Ibid., 127.

23. See Cyril O'Regan, The Heterodox Hegel (Albany: SUNY Press, 1994).

24. See, e.g., Quentin Lauer, Hegel's Concept of God (Albany: SUNY Press, 1982).

25. Hegel, Faith and Reason, 191.

26. See Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Das System der Sittenlehre nach den Prinzipien der Wissenschaftslehre (1798) (rpt. Hamburg: Meiner Verlag, 1963).

27. See "Das Apriori der Kommunikationsgesellschaft und die Grundlagen der Ethik, zum Problem einer rationalen Begründung der Ethik im Zeitalter der Wissenschaft," in Karl-Otto Apel, Transformation der Philosophic (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1973), II:357-435. Habermas has written widely on this theme. See, e.g., Jürgen Habermas, Justification and Application: Remarks on Discourse Ethics, trans. Ciaran P. Cronin (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press,

1993. ; and Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action, trans. Christian Lenhardt and Shierry Weber Nichoison (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1993).

28. G. W. F. Hegel, Natural Law: The Scientific Way of Treating Natural Law, Its Place in Moral Philosophy, and Its Relation to the Positive Sciences of Laws, trans. H. M. Knox (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1975).

29. See Johann Gottlieb Fichte, The Science of Rights, trans. A. E. Kroeger (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1970).

30. Hegel, Reason in History, 44.

31. Hegel, Hegel's Philosophy of Right, §20, 20: "This growth of the universality of thought is the absolute value in education [Bildung]."

32. See, e.g., the Jena Wissenschaftslehre, in Fichte: Science of Knowledge, 155. See also Arnold Gehlen, "Über die Geburt der Freiheit aus der Entfremdung," in Studien zur Anthropologie und Soziologie (Neuwied/Berlin: Luchterhand, 1971).

33. See Goethe's criticism, cited in a letter from Goethe to Schiller, dated 28 October 1794, in Johann Christian Friedrich Schiller, Briefwechsel zwischen Schiller und Goethe, ed. H. Hauff (Stuttgart: Cotta'sche Buchhandlung, 1856), I:56. For a similar criticism, see Josiah Royce, Lectures on Modern Idealism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1964), 97.

34. Habermas has used this idea in his proposed reconstruction of historical materialism. See "Toward a Reconstruction of Historical Materialism," in Jürgen Habermas, Communication and the Evolution of Society, trans. Thomas McCarthy (Boston: Beacon, 1979), 130-177.

35. See Ludwig Feuerbach, The Essence of Christianity, trans. George Eliot (Evanston: Harper, 1957).

36. See Peter Gay, The Enlightenment: An Interpretation, 2 vols. (New York: Norton, 1977).

37. See "An Answer to the Question: What Is Enlightenment?" in Immanuel Kant, Perpetual Peace and Other Essays, trans. Ted Humphrey (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1983), 41-48.

38. Karl Kautsky, Foundations of Christianity: A Study of Christian Origins (New York: International Publishers, 1925).

39. Immanuel Kant, Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals, trans. Thomas K. Abbott (New York: LLA, 1949), 12.

40. Heidegger develops this insight as readiness to hand (Zuhandenheit ), which precedes presence to hand (Vorhandenheit ). See Martin Heidegger, Being and Time, trans. John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson (New York: Harper and Row, 1962).

41. See "Der Streit der Fakultäten," in Kant-Werke, ed. Wilhelm Weischedel (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1975), IX:358, 364.

42. See Hegel to Schelling, Bern, Chistmas Eve, 1794, in Hegel: The Letters, 29.

43. See Joachim Ritter, Hegel and the French Revolution.. Essays on the Philosophy of Right, trans. Richard Dien Winfield (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1982).

44. Hegel, Philosophy of Right, 10.

45. Jean-Paul Sartre, Critique of Dialectical Reason, trans. Alan Sheridan-Smith (London: New Left Books, 1976).

46. Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences, trans. Alan Sheridan-Smith (New York: Random House, 1970).

47. Immanuel Kant, Critique of Practical Reason, trans. Lewis White Beck (Indianapolis: LLA, 1956), 129.

48. Ibid., 134.

49. Ibid., 128-136.

50. Kant, Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals, 57.

51. "On the Extreme Limits of Practical Philosophy," in Kant, Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals, 72-80, esp. p. 79.

52. See "Bad Faith," in Sartre, Being and Nothingness, 86-116.

53. See Martin Luther, D. Martin Luthers Werke, Kritische Gesamtausgabe (Weimar: Hermann Böhlau, 1883-), 7:838.

54. See Søren Kierkegaard, Either/Or, 2 vols. trans. David F. Swenson, Lillian Marvin Swenson, Howard A. Johnson, and Walter Lowrie (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday Anchor, 1959).

55. Hegel, Vorlesungen über die Philosophic der Geschichte, in Hegel-Werke, XII:48.

56. See J. W. Goethe, Elective Affinities (1808-1809), trans. J. Anthony Froude and R. Dillon Boylan (New York: F. Ungar, 1962), pt. 2, chap. 5.

1. See Emil L. Fackenheim, The Religious Component in Hegel's Thought (Boston: Beacon, 1967).

2. See, e. g., James Hutchison Sterling, The Secret of Hegel (London: Long-man, Roberts and Green, 1865).

3. For the most recent right-wing, or religious, reading of Hegel, see Cyril O'Regan, The Heterodox Hegel (Albany: SUNY Press, 1994).

4. For a recent, nonreligious reading of Hegel, see H. S. Harris, "Hail and Farewell to Hegel: The Phenomenology and the Logic," The Owl of Minerva 25, no. 2 (Spring 1994): 163-172. See also H. S. Harris, Hegel: Phenomenology and System (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1996).

5. See Immanuel Kant, Religion Within the Limits of Reason Alone, trans. Theodore M. Greene and Hoyt M. Hudson (New York: Harper, 1960).

6. "Versuch einer Kritik aller Offenbarung," in Fichtes Werke, ed. I. H. Fichte (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1971), V:9-174.

7. See, e.g., Dominique Janicaud, Le Tournant théologique de la phénoménologie française (Combas: Editions de l'Eclat, 1991), and Phénoménologie et Théologie, ed. Jean-François Courtine (Paris: Criterion, 1992).

8. See G. W. F. Hegel, Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion, trans. R. F. Brown, P. C. Hodgson, and J. M. Stewart, with the assistance of H. S. Harris (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1988).

9. Friedrich Nietzsche, The Genealogy of Morals, in Nietzsche, The Birth of Tragedy and The Genealogy of Morals, trans. Francis Golffing (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday Anchor, 1956).

10. See Karl Kautsky, Foundations of Christianity (New York: S. A. Russell, 1953).

11. "Das Leben Jesu," in Hegels theologische Jugendschriften (1907), ed. Herman Nohl, rpt. (Frankfurt am Main: Minerva, 1966), 75.

12. Hegel, Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion, 212.

13. See Nohl, Hegels theologische Jugendschriften, 78.

14. Ibid., 84.

15. Hegel, Early Theological Writings, 68.

16. Ibid., 71.

17. Ibid., 78.

18. Ibid., 128.

19. "The Positivity of the Christian Religion," in Hegel, Early Theological Writings, 167.

20. Hegel, Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion, 209-327.

21. See Auch eine Philosophie der Geschichte zur Bildung der Menschheit, in J. G. Herder, Ideen zur Kulturphilosophie, ed. Otto Braun and Nora Braun (Leipzig: Insel-Verlag, 1911), 148.

22. J. I. Winckelmann, The History of Ancient Art, ed. G. H. Lodge (Boston: J. R. Osgood, 1880).

23. Sec Dominique Janicaud, Hegel et le destin de la Grèce (Paris: Vrin, 1975).

24. Georg Wilhelm Fricdrich Hegel, Hegel's Aesthetics, 2 vols., trans. T. M. Knox (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975).

25. Sec Ernest Barker, Greek Political Theory (London: Methuen, 1901), 7.

26. See The Birth of Tragedy, in Nietzsche, The Birth of Tragedy and The Genealogy of Morals.

27. Friedrich Nietzsche, The Will to Power, trans. Walter Kaufmann and R. J. Hollingdale (New York: Vintage, 1908), 45.

28. See William James, The Varieties of Religious Experience (New York: Mentor, 1901).

1. For the view that it is, see Findlay; Hegel: A Re-examination, 144.

2. See Michael Inwood, A Hegel Dictionary (Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1992), 27.

3. See "Anaximander," in John Burnet, Early Greek Philosophy (Cleveland: World, 1961), 50-71.

4. See "Principiorum primorum cognitionis metaphysicae nova dilucidatio/Neue Erhellung der ersten Grundsätze metaphysischer Erkenntnis," in Kant, Kant-Werke, I:401-510.

5. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, B 380, p. 317.

6. Ibid., B 382, p. 317.

7. J. G. Fichte, Science of Knowledge, 117, 149.

8. Fichte, Science of Knowledge, 116; Grundlage der gesamten Wissenschafts-lehre, S. 41.

9. Fichte, Science of Knowledge, 247.

10. F.W.J. Schelling, System of Transcendental Idealism, trans. Peter Heath (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1978), 4: "This deduction of history leads directly to the proof that what we have to regard as the ultimate ground of harmony between the subjective and the objective in action must in fact be conceived as an absolute identity; though to think of this latter as a substantial or personal identity would in no way be better than to posit it in a pure abstraction—an opinion that could be imputed to idealism only through the grossest of misunderstanding."

11. Ibid., 16.

12. Ibid., 23; Schelling's emphasis.

13. Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, Sämmtliche Werke, ed. K. F. A.Schelling (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1985), I/4, 115.

14. Ibid., 114.

15. Ibid., 12.9.

16. Ibid., 127.

17. Ibid., 368-369.

18. Ibid., 374-390.

19. See "Absolute Idealism as Historical Relativism," on which this discussion draws, in Tom Rockmore, On Hegel's Epistemology and Contemporary Phi losophy (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1996).

20. Hegel, The Difference Between Fichte's and Schelling's System of Philoso phy, 87.

21. Ibid., 94; Hegel's emphases.

22. Ibid., 97.

23. Ibid., 93.

24. Ibid., 95.

25. Ibid., 90.

26. Ibid., 96.

27. Ibid., 100.

28. Hegel, Faith and Knowledge, 56.

29. Ibid., 61.

30. Ibid., 64.

31. The most significant reference in this work occurs in a passage on the relation between states, which Hegel subordinates to absolute spirit as the absolute judge. See Hegel's Philosophy of Right, §2.59, 2.79. This point presupposes but does not further develop the view of the absolute that Hegel expounds in his other writings.

32. Hegel does not discuss the absolute in the second part, devoted to philosophy of nature.

33. Hegel, Hegel's Logic, §213, 2.74.

34. Hegel develops this point in the Science of Logic, p. 759.

35. Hegel, Hegel's Logic, §213, 2.75.

36. Ibid., §236, 292; translation modified.

37. Ibid., §237, 2.92.

38. See Denise Souche-Dagues, Hégélianisme et dualisme: Réflexions sur le phénomène (Paris: Vrin, 1990).

39. Martin Heidegger, Being and Time, §44, 257-274.

1. See Findlay, Hegel: A Re-examination.

2. See "Introduction: The Critique of Contemporary Empiricism," in Challenges to Empiricism, ed. Harold Morick (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1972), 1-46.

3. See Francis Bacon, The New Organon, ed. Fulton H. Anderson (Indianapolis: LLA, 1960), 29.

4. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, A 367, p. 344.

5. See J. L. Austin, Sense and Sensibilia (New York: Oxford University Press, 1964), 2-3.

6. See, e.g., A. J. Ayer, The Foundations of Empirical Knowledge (London: Macmillan; New York: St. Martin's, 1969).

7. Aristotle, Politics, bk. 1, chap. 2, 1253a10.

8. Aristotle, Metaphysics, IX, bk. Theta, esp. 1, 1045b35-1046a11 and 6, 1048a25-b4.

9. Aristotle, Politics, bk. 1, 2, 1253a2-3.

10. See "Reification and the Consciousness of the Proletariat," in Georg Luká, History and Class Consciousness, trans. Rodney Livingstone (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1971), 83-222. For discussion, see chapters 3-5 in Tom Rockmore, Irrationalism: Lukács and the Marxist View of Reason (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992), 103-174.

11. See Erich Auerbach, MIMESIS: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature, trans. Willard Trask (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday Anchor, 1957).

12. See Joseph C. Flay, Hegel's Quest for Certainty (Albany: SUNY Press, 1984).

13. See Die Jugendgeschichte Hegels (1905), in Wilhelm Dilthey, Gesammelte Schriften IV, ed. Hermann Nohl (Stuttgart: B. G. Teubner; Göttingen: Van-denhoek and Ruprecht, 1959).

1. Ayer, an English apostle of the Vienna Circle, realistically acknowledges the historical relativity of standards in noting that "we define a rational belief as one which is arrived at by the methods which we now consider reliable." A. J. Ayer, Language, Truth and Logic (New York: Dover, 1970), 100.

2. See Hilary Putnam, Renewing Philosophy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992), x.

3. See "On the Very Idea of a Conceptual Scheme," in Donald David-son, Inquiries into Truth and Interpretation (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), 183-198.