Shanghai on the Métro "endnotes"

Notes

Introduction

1. Service historique de l'armée de terre, Paris (hereafter, SHAT) 3H 137, 28 April, 7 May, 14 May, 31 August, 10 September, 19 September, 6 October, 8 November 1928; Ministère des affaires étrangères, Paris (hereafter, MAE) Maroc/Tunisie 1917-1940 Maroc 1214, 16 October 1929, pp. 154-64. On Impex, see chapter 1; on Langenheim see chapter 2. A First Lieutenant v. Horn turns up in an intelligence report from 1925 on supposed recruitment of former German officers to fight with the Riffians in the Rif war. See SHAT 3H 102, 17 June 1925.

2. Archives de la préfecture de police, Paris (hereafter, APP) BA 1745, 12 March 1937 (circular from Ministère de l'intérieur [et de la décentralisation], Paris [hereafter, MI]); ibid., May 1937. (During my years of research the police archives reclassified a number of series; the designations I use correspond to box numbers at the time of my original consultation.) In 1939 the Romanian police arrested in Bucharest a German spy disguised as a circus clown. See Julius Mader, Hitlers Spionagegenerale sagen aus (Berlin: Verlag der Nation, 1970), 318. The motif of the traveling circus of spies is an old one. See chapter 1.

3. Although the literature on espionage is vast, intelligent writing about intelligence is not. Among the best examples of professional work are Christopher Andrew, Secret Service: The Making of the British Intelligence Community (London: Heinemann, 1985); David Kahn, Hitler's Spies: German Military Intelligence in World War II (New York: Collier, 1985); Friedrich Katz, The Secret War in Mexico: Europe, the United States, and the Mexican Revolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983); Ernest R. May, ed., Knowing One's Enemies: Intelligence

Assessment Before the Two World Wars (Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1984); Wesley K. Wark, The Ultimate Enemy: British Intelligence and Nazi Germany, 1933-1939 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985).è

4. For a discussion of some recent reconsiderations see Sandra Horvath-Peterson, ''Introduction," French Historical Studies 17 (Fall 1991): 302-3. See also Olivier Barrot and Pascal Ory, eds., Entre deux guerres: la création franaise entre 1919 et 1939 (Paris: Editions François Bourin, 1990).

5. Archival records at the Ministry of Interior, I have been told, were recycled into new paper during a paper shortage immediately following the Second World War.

Chapter One War

1. My sources for sales or printing figures are Monique Jeanin (for books published by Fayard), Monsieur Grey-Draillart (for books published in the Secret War series by Baudinière), Franoise Tallon (for Fu Manchu novels and books published by the Librairie des Champs-Elysées), Madame Daudier (for books published by Payot), Jean-Pierre Dauphin (for books published by Gallimard), Brigitte Martin (for books published by Plon), Monsieur Mery (for books published by Grasset), Monsieur Henriquez (for books published by Tallandier), and Monsieur de Lignerolles (for books published by Berger-Levrault).

2. Maurice Dekobra, The Madonna of the Sleeping Cars , trans. Neal Wainwright (New York: Payson and Clarke, 1927; originally published as La madone des sleepings [Paris: Baudinière, 1925]); André Malraux, The Conquerors , trans. Stephen Becker (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976; originally published as Les conquérants [Paris: Grasset, 1928]); André Malraux, La voie royale (1930; reprint, Paris: Livre de Poche, 1967), 16; André Malraux, Man's Fate , trans. Haakon M. Chevalier (New York: Random House, 1961; originally published as La condition humaine [Paris: Gallimard, 1933]). According to Paul Fussell, Dekobra's Madonna , including its translations, sold over a million copies. Paul Fussell, Abroad: British Literary Traveling Between the Wars (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), 64.

3. Bertrand Gauthier, La cinquième colonne contre la paix du monde: l'internationale des espions, des assassins, des cagoulards, et des provocateurs au service du fascisme (Paris: Bureau d'Editions, 1938).

4. The Brown Network , trans. Clement Greenberg (New York: Knight Publications, 1936). The original edition, Das braune Netz , was published in 1935 by Editions du Carrefour whose leading figure was Willi Münzenberg. See Gilbert Badia et al., Les barbelés de l'exil (Grenoble: Presses universitaires de Grenoble, 1979), 397-402. A 1936 French translation, Le filet brun , exists, although a file in the Archives nationales (hereafter, AN) suggests it was out by September 1935. AN F7 13434, 10 September 1935.

5. George Orwell, Homage to Catalonia (1938; reprint, Boston: Beacon Press, 1955), 140ff., 170ff.

6. Le Petit Parisien , 2 April 1935. The newspaper's circulation was roughly one and one-half million until 1935, declining to about a million by 1939. Claude Bellanger et al., Histoire générale de la presse franaise (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1972), 3:512.

7. AN BB18 6476, 4 October 1937 (report of Commissaire de police mobile Delrieu); ibid., 6 May 1938; SHAT 5N 578, 20 May 1940 (from the Attaché militaire, ambassade de France en Italie); SHAT 5N 601, 27 May 1940 (from Jean Ybarnégaray).

8. Among fifth-column books see Peter de Polnay, The Germans Came to Paris (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1943); Henry Torrès, Campaign of Treachery (New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1942); Heinz Pol, Suicide of a Democracy , trans. Heinz and Ruth Norden (New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 1940); Alexander Werth, The Last Days of Paris (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1940); Yves R. Simon, The Road to Vichy , trans. James A. Corbett and George J. McMorrow (New York: Sheen and Ward, 1942); André Simone, J'accuse: The Men Who Betrayed France (New York: The Dial Press, 1940); Pierre Lazareff, Deadline: The Behind-the-Scenes Story of the Last Decade in France , trans. David Partridge (New York: Random House, 1942); Jean Quéval, Première page, cinquième colonne (Paris: J. Fayard, 1945); Albert Bayet, Pétain et la 5e colonne (Paris: Editions Franc-tireur, 1944); Maurice Gamelin, Servir (Paris: Librairie Plon, 1946), 1:97, 357, 368; ibid., 2:462. The best book for distinguishing fact from myth is Louis de Jong's German Fifth Column in the Second World War , trans. C. M. Geyl (1956; reprint, New York: Howard Fertig, 1973). See also Max Gallo, Et ce fut la défaite de 40: la cinquième colonne (Paris: Plon, 1970).

9. The Nazi Conspiracy in Spain , trans. Emile Burns (London: Victor Gollancz, 1937), an English translation of Franz Spielhagen [alias of Otto Katz], Spione und Verschwörer in Spanien (Paris: Editions du Carrefour, 1936); on this edition see Badia, Barbelés , 402, 417. Although this volume was based on confiscated documents from Nazi headquarters in Barcelona, it, and its predecessor, should be read with caution. Both were packed with innuendo and claims that strain credibility and extend far beyond what French and German archives have recorded.

10. L'Illustration , 18 April 1936.

11. Most of these phrases were clichés. See especially Vu et Lu , 3 November 1937; Match , 16 February 1939.

12. Among these see Jean Camentron, Le danger aéro-chimique (Paris: Charles-Lavauzelle, 1936); Armand Charpentier, Ce que sera la guerre des gaz (Paris: André Delpeuch, 1930); Walt Wilm and A. Chaplet, Gaz de guerre et guerre des gaz (Paris: Publications Papyrus, 1936); Le document , March 1939. See also Uri Bialer, The Shadow of the Bomber: The Fear of Air Attack and British Politics 1932-1939 (London: Royal Historical Society, 1980).

13. Florian-Parmentier, L'abîme (Paris: Albert Messein, 1934); Victor Méric, La «Der des Der» (Paris: Editions de France, 1929). For a turnaround on the gas war theme, see Michel Corday's vision of a pink gas spread over the world and preventing war by turning people into more humane individuals with a heightened consciousness of human potential. Michel Corday, Ciel rose (Paris: Flammarion, 1933).

14. Florian-Parmentier, Abîme , 45. Albert de Pouvourville, La guerre prochaine: Paris l'invincible (Paris: Baudinière, 1935), 5:22, 54-55; Florimond Bonte, La guerre de demain: aérienne, chimique, bactériologique (Lille: Editions Prolétariennes, n.d.), 21-22. Bauer is cited in Wilm, Gaz , 118.

15. Jean Bardanne, La guerre et les microbes (Paris: Baudinière, 1937); Pierre Yrondy, De la cocaïne . . . aux gaz!!! (Paris: Baudinière, 1934), 10-11. Charles Lucieto, La guerre des cerveaux: livrés à l'ennemi (Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1928); Charles Robert-Dumas, «Ceux du S.R.»: l'idole de plomb (Paris: Fayard, 1935); Jean Bommart, Hélène et le poisson chinois (Paris: Librairie des Champs-Elysées, 1938); Georges Ladoux, L'espionne de l'empereur (Paris: Librairie des Champs-Elysées, 1933); Marcel Nadaud and André Fage, L'armée du crime: la coco; l'espionnage d'après-guerre (Paris: Georges-Anquetil, 1926), 211.

16. SHAT 7N 3179, August 1935, 25 November 1936 (from Deuxième Bureau), 1 July 1937 (from Deuxième Bureau), 16 March 1939, pp. 28-29; APP BA 1706, 26 November 1935.

17. SHAT 7N 2462, 15 October 1939; AN F7 13986, 13 March 1940.

18. APP BA 61, 27 [24?] January 1934.

19. MAE Affaires diverses politiques Allemagne 38 bis 1889, 8 May 1889 (from MI, Sûreté générale to MAE). The instruction of the Direction politique at the MAE has no date, but a note was sent to the MI on 10 May 1889.è

20. MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Allemagne 791, 23 May 1940 (from Direction politique et commerciale/Europe to Monsieur l'amiral de la flotte commandant les forces maritimes franaises); ibid., 9 May 1940 (from Charles Roux, Rome-Saint Siège to MAE); ibid., 23 April 1940 (from Jean Dobler to MAE). The report from the Polish High Command also warned that saboteurs had dressed in the clothing of workers, beggars, priests, and monks. AN F7 13986, 13 March 1940.

21. Paul and Suzanne Lanoir, Espions espionnage (Paris: Delandre 1917), 2:280-81; Walter Nicolai, Forces secrètes , trans. Henri Thies (Paris: Editions de la Nouvelle Revue Critique, 1932), 145; Raoult de Rudeval, Etude pratique du service des renseignements (Paris: H. Charles-Lavauzelle, 1910), 46. Catholic priests played a considerable role in the Lux and Dame blanche intelligence networks in occupied Belgium and France during World War I. Andrew, Secret Service , 156-60.

22. I. F. Clarke, Voices Prophesying War, 1763-1984 (London: Oxford University Press, 1966); Andrew, Secret Service , chap. 2; David French, "Spy Fever in Britain 1900-1915," Historical Journal 21 (June 1978): 355-70. On Germany see Philip Knightly, The Second Oldest Profession (New York: W. W. Norton, 1986), 34.

23. Lanoir, Espions , 2:239; Jean Tillet, Dans les coulisses de la guerre: espionnage, contre-espionnage (Paris: Imprimerie du Reveil économique, 1933), 16-17.

24. Knightly, Second , 3; Andrew, Secret Service , 1-9; "Espionnage," La grande encyclopédie: inventaire raisonné des sciences, des lettres, et des arts , 2d ed., 16:367-69; M. R. D. Foot, SOE in France: An Account of the Work of the British Special Operations Executive in France, 1940-1944 (Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America, 1984), 1; Garrett Mattingly, The Armada , 30, 48; Alison Plowden, The Elizabethan Secret Service (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester

Wheatsheaf, 1991). Paul Muller, L'espionnage militaire sous Napoléon Ier (Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1896); Fernand Routier, L'espionnage et la trahison en temps de paix et en temps de guerre (Paris: Charles-Lavauzelle, 1913), 39-45.è

25. Léon Daudet, L'avant-guerre: études et documents sur l'espionnage juifallemand en France depuis l'affaire Dreyfus (Paris: Nouvelle Librairie Nationale, 1913), viii-ix. This book was preceded by a series of articles in the Action Franaise . For background and sales figures, Eugen Weber, Action Française (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1962), 89. See also François Loyal, L'espionnage allemand en France (Paris: Albert Savine, 1887), 96, 103; L'Intransigeant , 24 March 1896; J. Santo, La France envahie, trahie, vendue (Paris: J. Santo, 1912).

26. Bundesarchiv, Abteilung Militägeschichte, Freiburg im Breisgau (hereafter, MA) RW5/654 (Gempp, Geheimer Nachrichtendienst und Spionageabwehr des Heeres ), 13-20, 28, 257-59, 272; Kahn, Hitler's Spies , 31-34, 555; Leopold Auerbach, Denkwürdigkeiten des geheimen Regierungsrathes Dr. Stieber (Berlin: Verlag von Julius Engelmann, 1884); Gert Buchheit, Der deutsche Geheimdienst: Geschichte der militärischen Abwehr (Munich: Paul List Verlag, 1967), 18. Michael Howard's authoritative work on the Franco-Prussian War makes no mention of Stieber: The Franco-Prussian War (London: Methuen, 1981).

27. MA RW5/654 (this theme runs through Gempp's account), especially pp. 3, 72, 80, 300-304; Nicolai, Forces , 26-27, 31-32; von Lettow-Vorbeck, ed., Die Weltkriegspionage (Munich: Verlag Justin Moser, 1931), 78-79 (also on the supposed superiority of French prewar intelligence); SHAT 7N 2501, 24 October 1925 ("Fonctionnement d'un poste de SR dépendant du GQG pendant la guerre"); Henri Navarre et un groupe d'anciens membres du S. R., Le service de renseignements, 1871-1944 (Paris: Plon, 1978), 15-18; Buchheit, Geheimdienst , 18-20; Andrew, Secret Service . Kahn, Hitler's Spies , 32, claims that IIIb's funding was second only to that of Russian intelligence by the early twentieth century. But his source—a 1912 Foreign Office report on the published budgets of European secret services—cannot be accepted as authoritative. Information on European intelligence operations before World War I remains sketchy. The best overview is in May, ed., Knowing Ones Enemies .

28. MA RW5/654, pp. 116, 118, 131, 395; MA RW5/657 (Gempp), pp. 10, 51, 201-6; Nicolai, Forces , 29; Ulrich Trumpener, "War Premeditated? German Intelligence Operations in July 1914," Central European History 9 (March 1976): 58-85. On the Balkans see MA RW5/660 (Gempp), pp. 13-16. On sabotage, see Trumpener, "War," 74-75; MA RW5/654, pp. 126, 128 (red number); MA RW5/657, pp. 27-28.

29. Paul and Suzanne Lanoir, Les grands espions (Paris: G. Ficker, 1911), 190-233. See also Paul Lanoir, L'espionnage allemand en France (Pads: Publications Littéraires Illustrées, n. d. [before 1914]; Victor Tissot, La police secrète prussienne (Paris: E. Dentu, 1884).

30. Jules-Louis Lewal, Etudes de guerre: tactique des renseignements (Pads: Librairie Militaire de J. Dumaine, 1881), 1:73-74; Routier, L'espionnage , 19-23, 48; James Violle, L'espionnage militaire en temps de guerre (Paris: Librairie de la Société du Recueil des lois et des arrêts, 1903), 82; "Espionnage," Grande encyclopédie . See also A. Froment, L'espionnage militaire et les fonds secrets de la guerre (Paris: Librairie Illustrée, 1887), 105, 118-19; Rudeval, Etude , 32, 41.

31. Lanoir, Grands , 234-39; Lanoir, Espionnage allemand ; Lanoir, Espions , 1:7-13; 2:173; Routier, L'espionnage , 23-27. On traveling circuses, see also Loyal, Espionnage , 95; APP BA 1332, 22 September 1886.

32. Le Petit Parisien , 9 September 1886; L'Aurore , 24 September 1897; Le Petit Journal , 15 May 1911.

33. Capitaine Danrit [Emile Augustin Cyprien Driant], L'alerte (Paris: Flammarion, 1910).

34. Three works by Danrit: La guerre au vingtième siècle: l'invasion noire (Paris: Flammarion, 1894); L'invasion jaune (1909; reprint, Paris: Flammarion, 1926); and La guerre fatale: France-Angleterre (Paris: Flammarion, 1903).

35. On the literature and spy fears coming out of this war see chapter 4.

36. AN F7 12644 n. d. The letter is in the October 1897 folder in this file.

37. All of these affairs were discussed in the French press. On German secret police, including the Haupt affair, see Dieter Fricke, Bismarcks Prätorianer: Die Berliner Politische Polizei im Kampf gegen die deutsche Arbeiterbewegung (1871-1898) (Berlin: Rütten und Loening, 1962). Fricke describes a police operation spread to a number of European cities (although numbers of agents abroad were not high) that primarily maintained surveillance over socialist activities and the smuggling of socialist literature into Germany. He does not confirm the wilder charges directed at Krüger. A police report reproducing an article in the Tribune de Genève also provides a fairly sober account of the Haupt affair: APP BA 1333, 30 December 1887. Speculation on Krüger's connection with Russian terrorists can be found in the Lanterne , 28-31 December 1887 and Le Petit Parisien , 29-31 December 1887, 2 January 1888. See also note 45, below. Police files on the Seliverstov assassination include APP BA 1212; MI 25358. Apparently Seliverstov was connected with the Okhrana. On Russian affairs see also AN F7 14605, 29 June 1914, "La police russe en France."

38. See chapter 3.

39. APP BA 913, 13 October 1893, February 1894, 26 December 1894; AN F7 12519/12520A; AN F7 12521; AN F7 12894. See also the following two reports on the potential for violence and militant action from Russian and Italian émigrés in France: AN F7 12894, 10 December 1907 (report from Préfecture de police communicated to Président du conseil on 16 December 1907); AN F7 13065, 16 December 1912 ("Les révolutionnaires étrangers en France").

40. AN F7 14605, 19 June 1914 ("Note sur les polices étrangères en France"); AN F7 14605, 29 June 1914 ("La police russe"); APP BA 1693, 29 October 1913; Le Matin , 24 July 1909.

41. Ibid.

42. Ibid. Apparently the Okhrana continued to appoint a police delegate to Paris. Norman Cohen ascribes a number of violent acts to Rachkovskii and his agents, including a bombing in Liège in 1894 and Seliverstov's assassination, arguing that Seliverstov had been sent to investigate Rachkovskii: Norman Cohen, Warrant for Genocide: The Myth of the Jewish World-Conspiracy and the Protocols of the Elders of Zion (New York: Harper, 1967), 79ff. See also Boris Nikolajewsky, Aseff the Spy , trans. George Reavey (Garden City: Doubleday, Doran and Co., 1934), 18-21, 118-19.

43. AN F7 12519/12520A, 28 November 1901; Le Matin , 14 July 1909;

A. T. Wassilieff, Police russe et révolution , trans. Henri Thies (Paris: Editions de la Nouvelle Revue Critique, 1936), 16, 23; P. Zavarzine, Souvenirs d'un chef de l'Okhrana , trans. J. Jeanson (Paris: Payot, 1930), 42. Maurice Laporte suggests a somewhat larger operation in Histoire de l'Okhrana (Paris: Payot, 1935). On the Okhrana files, see table of contents to Register, Russia, Departament Politsii: Zagranichnaia Agentura , Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace.

44. AN F7 14605, 19 June 1914 ("Note" and "Los sociétés italiennes dans les Alpes-Maritimes"). There is also a good discussion of an earlier spy case involving an Italian general in Maurice Baumont, Au coeur de l'affaire Dreyfus (Paris: Editions Mondiales, 1976), 46-56.

45. MAE Affaires diverses politiques Allemagne 38 bis, 18 November 1889 (Préfecture de police to Sûreté générale and then apparently forwarded to MAE); APP BA 1333, January 1888 (sent 10 January 1888), 1 January 1888, 31 (December?) 1887; APP BA 1693, 28 July 1892. See also Alan Mitchell, "The Xenophobic Style," The Journal of Modern History 52 (September 1980): 417-18. The role of a German political police operating independently of German intelligence is difficult to delineate. The revelations about Haupt disclosed that such a police was tracking socialists abroad, a discovery confirmed in Fricke, Bismarcks Prätorianer . There are also a number of reports in French archives on German police intrigues with Russian revolutionaries in Switzerland. All are clustered in the late 1880s and in 1890 and are rather sketchy, although they do suggest that there might be some substance to the press charges against Krüger at the time of the Haupt affair. Gempp notes that Krüger was removed from his position in 1890 and not replaced. Most likely, as Fricke suggests, German police agents abroad were mainly concerned with socialist circles and their numbers were probably limited. See AN F7 12519/12520A, 14 April 1887, 23 (?) April 1887, 23 May 1890, 29 May 1890, 19 August 1890; APP BA 1745, 21 June 1890, 23 August 1890; MA RW5/654, p. 272.

46. MAE Affaires diverses politiques Allemagne 50, 28 March 1894, 30 March 1894.

47. Ibid., 7 March 1894, 16 March 1894, 24 April 1894. For a good discussion of the pursuit of spies, spy mania, and some real cases at the time of the Dreyfus affair see Baumont, Coeur , 13-79.

48. APP BA 1332, 13 September 1873; APP BA 1745, 23 June 1890.

49. APP BA 1332, 11 August 1882.

50. See, e.g., material in boxes APP BA 1745; APP BA 1332; APP BA 1333; AN F7 12641; Mitchell, "Xenophobic."

51. AN F7 12644, 12 August 1897; APP BA 1333, 12 November 1891. There are many other telegrams in these boxes, as well as in AN F7 12645 and APP BA 1332, APP BA 1334.

52. Mitchell, "Xenophobic"; Jean Jacques Becker, Le carnet B (Paris: Klincksieck, 1973).

53. Becker, Carnet . For statistics on eastern France see 155-60.

54. See chapter 2.

55. See especially on this point William D. Irvine, The Boulanger Affair Reconsidered: Royalism, Boulangism, and the Origins of the Radical Right in France (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 33, 78.

56. Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (Berkeley:

University of California Press, 1984), 38-46; Gordon Wright, France in Modern Times , 3d ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1981), 112.

57. Lanoir, Espionnage allemand ; Paul Mahalin, Les espions de Paris (Paris: Librairie Illustrée, 1897), 234, 302; Paul d'Ivoi and Royet, La patrie en danger: histoire de la guerre future (Paris: H. Geffroy, 1905), 254, 814; AN F7 12644, 19 October 1888; APP BA 1745, 6 May 1890.

58. Ian Nish, "Japanese Intelligence and the Approach of the Russo-Japanese War" in The Missing Dimension: Governments and Intelligence Communities in the Twentieth Century , ed. Christopher Andrew and David Dilks (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984), 25, 29.

59. La Patrie , 21 June 1905; Rudeval, Etude , 21, 33, 41, 78; Routier, L'espionnage , 51; Pierre Giffard, Lunes rouges et dragons noirs (Paris: Librairie Félix Juven, 1906); D'Ivoi and Royet, Patrie , 1007.

60. Lewal, Etudes , 1:29, 73-74, 120; Lieutenant-colonel Rollin, Le service des renseignements militaires en temps de paix (Paris: Nouvelle Librairie Nationale, 1908), 41-42.

61. Navarre, Service , 15. In the second stage of the fighting, Gambetta and Freycinet did establish a bureau des reconnaissances , whose responsibilities included destruction of German communication lines: Howard, Franco-Prussian War , 243.

62. Christopher Andrew, "France and the German Menace," in Knowing One's Enemies , ed. May, 132, 135; Mitchell, "Xenophobic," 416.

63. According to an archivist at the SHAT, the Deuxième Bureau's operational records no longer exist.

64. Navarre, Service , 16; Guy Chapman, The Dreyfus Case (New York: Reynal and Company, 1955), 49.

65. Christopher Andrew, "Codebreakers and Foreign Offices: The French, British, and American Experience," in Missing Dimension , ed. Andrew and Dilks, 33-42; Andrew, "German Menace"; Jan Karl Tanenbaum, "French Estimates of Germany's Operational War Plans," in Knowing One's Enemies , ed. May; Navarre, Service , 18.

66. MA RW5/654, pp. 302-3.

67. Navarre, Service , 17.

68. SHAT, 7N 2501, 24 October 1925 ("Fonctionnement"). The reporter here was Andlauer.

69. Andrew, Secret Service , chap. 2.

70. In addition to Danrit, L'invasion noire , see also Paul d'Ivoi, L'espion X. 323: le canon du sommeil (Paris: A. Méricant, 1909).

71. Rollin, Service , 79-80.

72. Max Ronge, Espionnage: douze années au service des renseignements , trans. Adrien Vochelle (Paris: Payot, 1932), 18, 24-28, 37-38, 47-57. Ronge worked with Austro-Hungarian intelligence. See also Norman Stone, "Austria-Hungary," in Knowing One's Enemies , ed. May, 37-61; William C. Fuller, Jr., "The Russian Empire," in ibid.

71. Rollin, Service , 79-80.

73. J. Kim Munholland, "The French Response to the Vietnamese Nationalist Movement, 1905-1914," The Journal of Modern History 47 (December 1975): 674; AN F7 12894, 10 December 1907; Archives d'Outre-mer, Paris,

Slotform (hereafter, OM SL) III 56, n. d. On Morocco see the last section of this chapter and on Japanese spy networks see chapter 4. On the Great Game there is Kipling's incomparable Kim , although this gives an exaggerated picture. See also Peter Hopkirk, The Great Game: The Struggle for Empire in Central Asia (New York: Kodansha, 1992); Andrew, Secret Service , 5, 11; Gerald Morgan, "Myth and Reality in the Great Game; Asian Affairs 60 (February 1973): 55-65; L. P. Morris, "British Secret Service Activity in Khorossan, 1887-1908," The Historical Journal 27 (September 1984): 657-75; Alastair Lamb, Britain and Chinese Central Asia: The Road to Lhasa, 1767-1905 (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1960), x. On the Middle East see H. V. F. Winstone, The Illicit Adventure (Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America, 1982), 3-123. Winstone has written a very interesting book, but the picture he provides may appear overdone to some.

74. "Espionnage," Grande encyclopédie; Le Journal , 24 September 1897; Le Petit Parisien , 9 September 1886, 2 March 1888, 10 December 1888; L'Evénement , 22 February 1885; Lewal, Etudes , 1:99-102; Violle, L'espionnage ; Rudeval, Etude , 77-78. Paul d'Ivoi wrote two spy novels whose protagonist is the master spy X 323: Canon , and L'espion X 323: l'homme sans visage (Paris: A. Méricant 1909). In the latter he says of his hero: "But what is particularly unusual about this spy is his honesty. He signals his actions, warning his adversaries that he is on their trail. . . . My very honorable spy is completely disinterested," 3. In Patrie , d'Ivoi and Royet write of German spies: "On the other bank of the Rhine, all administrative fondness is centered on a single bacillus: that of espionage, the hideous leprosy through which Germany hopes to conquer the universe and which, in reality, has lowered character, killed nobility, bankrupted devotedness," 252-53. The evil/dishonorable spy theme is particularly strong in the spy novels. See also Mahalin, Espions ; Danrit, Yellow . For an interesting counterpoint, see Gempp's discussion of the psychological difficulty for German officers who disliked spying but were assigned to intelligence work: MA RW5/ 657, 47-48. French espionage in the days of Napoleon was favorably looked upon. See Paul Muller, L'espionnage militaire .

75. Stone, "Austria-Hungary," 41; Ronge, Espionnage , 309.

76. Ronge, Espionnage , 164, 171-72, 226-28.

77. For Germany: Kahn, Hitler's Spies , 36, 39; for England: Andrew, Secret Service , 138, 169, 174. Andrew numbers MI1b's staff at eighty-four by war's end. This was the military's code breaking unit. He does not give a figure for the Admiralty's more celebrated unit, Room 40.

78. Georges Ladoux, Les chasseurs d'espions (Paris: Librairie des Champs-Elysées, 1932), 197; Navarre, Service , 19; Tillet, Coulisses , 32; SHAT 7N 1082, 13 July 1917.

79. SHAT 7N 2501, 24 October 1925; Andrew, Secret Service , 144-45.

80. Ronge, Espionnage , 64, 94-95; Kahn, Hitler's Spies , 35; P.-Louis Rivière, Un centre de guerre secrète: Madrid, 1914-1918 (Paris: Payot, 1936); Andrew, Secret Service , chap. 3 and 138.

81. Trevor Wilson, The Myriad Faces of War: Britain and the Great War, 1914-1918 (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1986), 364-66; Kahn, Hitler's Spies , 34-35.

82. SHAT 7N 2501, 24 October 1925; Tillet, Coulisses , 24.

83. Andrew, Secret Service , 141, 156-61, 168-71; Tillet, Coulisses ; SHAT 16N 1303, 1304.

84. Navarre, Service , 20-21.

85. SHAT 16N 916 ("Relève chronologique et analyse succincte concernant le service des renseignements"); ibid. ("Contre-espionnage: répertoire chronologique des notes, instructions, ou directives d'ordre général"); Nicolai, Forces , 125-26; George Hill, Go Spy the Land: Being the Adventures of I. K. 8 of the British Secret Service (London: Cassell, 1932; translated by Lucien Thomas as Ma vie d'espion [I.K. 8] [Paris: Payot, 1933], 61-68). On Hill's credibility, see Andrew, Secret Service , 215-16. Andrew also notes that the British sent only a handful of agents by air, and these by balloon, 161-62.

84. Navarre, Service , 20-21.

86. Paul Ignatieff, Ma mission en France , (Paris: Librairie des Champs-Elysées, 1933), 123-33. The book was published posthumously from the author's notes.

87. SHAT 16N 916 ("Relève chronologique"); MA RW5/70 (Gempp), pp. 47-58.

88. SHAT 16N 916 ("Contre-espionnage"); Tillet, Coulisses , 22; Ladoux, Chasseurs , 173-74. On ink see SHAT 16N 1589, 23 December 1915. The identification of semen is in Andrew, Secret Service , 149.

89. SHAT 16N 1589, 6 October 1915.

90. The first parrot story is reported in Richard Wilmer Rowan, Spy and Counterspy: The Development of Modern Espionage (New York: Viking Press, 1928), 87-88. There is a good discussion of the use of carrier pigeons in the war in Andrew, Secret Service , 142-43, 161-65. See also Illustration , 18 April 1936; Bauermeister, La guerre dans l'ombre: souvenirs d'un officier du service secret du haut commandement allemand , trans. Th. Lacaze (Paris: Payot, 1933), 62-66; Nicolai, Forces , 125-26. The Japanese pigeon story is from Jacques Deval, Rives pacifiques (Paris: Gallimard, 1937), 119-20. The parakeet story is from the Syracuse Post-Standard , 9 July 1991, and the Cher Ami story comes from another issue of the same paper, in an article by Isabel Wolseley (unfortunately my alertness in cutting it out after breakfast was not equaled by attention to marking the date of the clipping). For discussions of the espionage uses of carrier pigeons before the war, see Le Petit Parisien , 11 December 1890; Rollin, Service , 127-28.

91. MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Allemagne 711, 18 December 1933, p. 143 ("Projet de note pour Monsieur Blanchet").è

92. Service historique de la marine, Paris (hereafter, MM) SSM40, 17 September 1915, 20 December 1915; SHAT 16N 916 ("Contre-espionnage"); SHAT 16N 1589, 13 September 1915, 10 April 1916; Emanuel Victor Voska and Will Irwin, Spy and Counterspy (New York: Doubleday, Doran and Co., 1940) 18-19. The discussion of the Jewish gang is in L. Lacaze, Adventures d'un agent secret franais, 1914-1918 (Paris: Payot, 1934), 145.

93. The imagery is taken from Fussell, Abroad , 31-36.

94. Ronge, Espionnage , 47-48, 56, 86-87, 199-200; SHAT 7N 926, 15 May 1917; SHAT 16N 916 ("Relève chronologique"; "Contre-espionnage"); Max Wild, Mes aventures dans le service secret, 1914-1918 , trans. Lucien Thomas (Paris: Payot, 1932), 138-48; SHAT 7N 2501, 24 October 1925; Lettow-Vorbeck, Weltkriegspionage , 306.

95. The source for the following discussion is Rivière, Centre , 99-106. Rivière was a magistrate who worked in French cryptography during the war (see the preface to the book by Maxime Weygand). This background and the book's style of presentation make the author's account credible.

96. SHAT 7N 2105 (telegram initially received by MAE on 5 August 1921).

97. See below, chapter 3.

98. Rivière, Centre , 60-71; Georges Ladoux, Mes souvenirs (contre-espionnage) (Paris: Editions de France, 1937), 53-105; Andrew, Secret Service , 115-20; SHAT 7N 926, 20 October 1917, 27 April 1918 (on Norway).

99. Ladoux, Souvenirs , 119; AN F7 12895, 31 December 1917 (on Lugano).

100. SHAT 16N 1589, 4 March 1916, 8 April 1916, 10 April 1916.

101. W. Somerset Maugham, "Miss King," in Collected Short Stories (London: Pan Books, 1976; originally published as Ashenden [London: William Heinemann, 1928]), 3:26-27.

102. SHAT 7N 1082, 10 (16?) June 1918, 20 June 1918, 10 May 1918 (on Bratsaloff; Turkish agents); SHAT 7N 1590, 30 March 1918. See also SHAT 7N 1590, 27 March 1918; Lacaze, Aventures , 144; SHAT 16N 1589, 11 February 1916; Ignatieff, Mission , 81, 93; Frank G. Weber, Eagles on the Crescent: Germany, Austria, and the Diplomacy of the Turkish Alliance, 1914-1918 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1970), 180-81; William L. Cleveland, Islam Against the West (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1985), 91.

103. SHAT 5N 284, 7N 1590.

104. Lacaze, Aventures , 147-49, 206-14.

105. AN F7 12896, 19 October 1918.

106. Christopher Sykes, Wassmuss: "The German Lawrence" (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1936); Bernard Vernier, La politique islamique de l'Allemagne (Paris: Patti Hartmann, 1939), 12; Robert Boucard, Les dessous de l'intelligence service (Paris: Editions Documentaires, 1937), 195; Vu et Lu , 28 July 1937, p. 1012.

107. The best account on covert operations in the western hemisphere is Katz, Secret War , especially 328-67, 395-441. See also Rivière, Centre , 31-33, 110-14 (111-12 on Arnold); Barbara W. Tuchmann, The Zimmerman Telegram (New York: Ballantine, 1979), especially 66-87; Roger Lancelyn Green, A. E. W. Mason (London: Max Parrish, 1952), 149-52 (on the German radio station).

108. See below, chapter 4.

109. For general overviews see Vernier, Politique , 9-24; Fritz Fischer, Germany's Aims in the First World War (New York: Norton, 1967), 120-31. Fischer also describes German subversion in the Russian empire, 132-54. See also Frank G. Weber, Eagles ; Ulrich Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman Empire (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968). On Turkish secret service see Philip Hendrick Stoddard, "The Ottoman Government and the Arabs, 1911 to 1918: A Preliminary study of the Teskilat-I Mahsusa" (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1963), 69, 102-17. On Persia and Afghanistan see Ulrich Gehrke, Persien in der deutschen Orientpolitik während des ersten Weltkrieges (Stuttgart: W.

Kohlhammer, 1960); Renate Vogel, Die Persien- und Afghanistanenexpedition (Osnabrück: Biblio, 1976); Oskar von Niedermayer, Unter der Glutsonne Irans: Kriegserlebnisse der deutschen Expedition nach Persien und Afghanistan (Munich: Einhorn-Verlag, 1925), 14-15 (on Romania and the circus cover); Sykes, Wassmuss (Sykes also recounts the story of Niedermayer's baggage, 50-51). On Latin American agents and von Kalle, see Katz, Secret War , 400, 423-24; Rivière, Centre , 34-35. On Indochina see OM SLIII 56 (26-page report).

110. Paul Allard, La guerre des espions (Paris: Flammarion, 1936), 81-82.

111. SHAT 7N 2105, 15 September 1921, 24 November 1921, 7 December 1921 (''shady and suspect"), 21 June 1922, 1 December 1922, 2 February 1921; SHAT 3H 102, 25 January 1922; OM SLIII 92, 8 August 1922; AN F7 13413, 12 October 1925.

112. Edmund Burke, Prelude to Protectorate in Morocco (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976).

113. Edmund Burke, "Pan-Islam and Moroccan Resistance to French Colonial Penetration, 1900-1912," Journal of African History , 13 (1972): 97-118. On pan-Islam: Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey , 2d ed. (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), 340-43; N. R. Keddie, "Pan-Islam as Proto-Nationalism," The Journal of Modern History 41 (1969): 17-28; Jacob M. Landau, The Politics of Pan-Islam: Ideology and Organization (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), chaps. 1 and 2; Stoddard, "Ottoman Government," 4, 9-12, 78-87. I am indebted to the Burke article for calling my attention to Keddie and Stoddard.

114. Pierre Guillen, L'Allemagne et le Maroc de 1870 à 1905 (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1967), 55, 136-50, 372-80, 497-98; Burke, Prelude , 32-33. For government reports on gunrunning: AN F7 12836; MAE NS Maroc 175; MM SSEa4, especially the report dated 22 June 1912 (from Capitaine de vaisseau de Marliave). OPDR stood for Oldenburg-Portugiesische-Dampfschiffs-Reederei. The Woermann Line's principal trade in Africa was with west Africa south of Morocco. In addition to the good discussion in Guillen see Karl Brackmann, Fünfzig Jahre deutscher Afrikaschifffahrt. Die Geschichte der Woermann-Linie und der Deutschen Ost-Afrika-Linie (Berlin: Dietrich Reimer, 1935); Dirk Bavendamm et al., Wagnis Westafrika. Die Geschichte eines Hamburger Handelshauses, 1837-1987 (Hamburg: Verlag Hanseatischer Merkur, 1987).

115. Eugene Staley, "Mannesmann Mining Interests and the Franco-German Conflict Over Morocco," Journal of Political Economy 40 (1932), especially on German official exasperation with Mannesmann pigheadedness. Also on Mannesmanns: Claus Herbert Mannesmann, Die Unternehmungen der Brüder Mannesmann in Marokko (Würzburg: Richard Mayr, 1931), Forward, 17-26; David Henry Slavin, "Anticolonialism and the French Left: Opposition to the Rif War 1925-1926" (Ph.D. diss., University of Virginia, 1982), 13-21, 27-28; Neil Sherwood Lewis, "German Policy in Southern Morocco During the Agadir Crisis of 1911" (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1977), 27-28, 94-100, 154-55, 157ff.; MAE Maroc/Tunisie 1917-1940 Maroc 1214, 11, 18 June 1920 (on arms depot and geological expeditions); MAE NS Maroc 178,

6 November 1913, p. 30; MAE NS Maroc 226, 28 August 1912, p. 13; SHAT 7N 1200, 7 November 1913, 18 March 1914; SHAT 3H 108, 4 July 1919 ("L'action allemande au Maroc"), pp. 4-7; Burke, Prelude , 103, 140, 249; Louis Maurice, La politique marocaine de l'Allemagne (Paris: Plon, 1916). On other German intrigues see ibid; SHAT 3H 108, 4 July 1919 ("L'action") 2-7; Guillen, Allemagne , 56, 403, 405, 518-19; MAE NS Maroc 280, 7 June 1911, pp. 70-72; Douglas Porch, The French Foreign Legion: A Complete History of the Legendary Fighting Force (New York: Harper Perennial, 1992), 326-33; Fischer, Germany's Aims , 121-24; Robert Lewis Melka, "Max Freiherr von Oppenheim: Sixty Years of Scholarship and Political Intrigue in the Middle East," Middle Eastern Studies 9 (January 1973): 81-93.

116. Edmund Burke, "Moroccan Resistance, Pan-Islam, and German War Strategy, 1914-1918," Francia 3 (1975): 434-64; SHAT 3H 108, 4 July 1919 ("Rapport du commissaire résident général").

117. MM SSEa4, 16 August 1915, 16 September 1915, 29 December 1915; SHAT 3H 108 July 1918 ("Liste des principaux allemands dans la zone espagnole du Maroc").

118. Guillen, Allemagne , 405; Burke, "Moroccan," 447; Albert Bartels, Fighting the French in Morocco , trans. H. J. Stenning (London: Alston Rivers, 1932).

119. SHAT 3H 108, 4 July 1919; Rivière, Centre , 26.

120. Burke, "Moroccan"; SHAT 3H 108, July 1918 ("Liste"), 4 July 1919; SHAT 7N 2122, 20 April 1915, 26 April 1915 (Huot note forwarded to MAE), 3 June 1915.

121. OM Affaires politiques 905; SHAT 7N 2122, 3H 108.

122. Burke, "Moroccan"; SHAT 3H 108, 4 July 1919; Bartels, Fighting ; SHAT 7N 2105, 28 September 1918.

123. SHAT 7N 2122, Huot note.

124. On this affair see SHAT 7N 2122, 14, 16, 17, 20, 30 April 1915, 11 May 1915, 1 July 1915, 12 November 1915. Regenratz, whose real name was otherwise, was taken from an Italian liner coming from Argentina. There is no indication that this is the same person as the Regendanz referred to in Fischer, Germany's Aims , 131, or in Fritz Fischer, Griff nach der Weltmacht (Düsseldorf: Droste Verlag, 1961), 146.

125. Burke, "Moroccan"; SHAT 7N 2122 (Huot note); MM SSEa4, 12, 25 July 1917, 20, 21 September 1917 (Castex reports).

126. SHAT 7N 2122, 3 June 1915.

127. There are many reports from the first years of the 1920s on grand plots for global insurrections that would reconstitute wartime alliances or bridge these with new revolutionary forces to crack open the British and French empires. They can be found in OM Affaires politiques 902, 907 bis, 923; SHAT 7N 2105. See also Rif war dossiers for reports of former German intelligence agents in Spain during the First World War now to be found in the camp of the rebels or of several hundred German officers securing passage via the port of Genoa—a warning strikingly similar to Regenratz's wartime revelations of infiltration itineraries passing through that city (SHAT 3H 102, 1 September

1925, 7 June 1925). For down-to-earth qualifications of these, see David Woolman, Rebels in the Rif (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1968), 151; Slavin, "Anticolonialism," 234; SHAT 3H 102, 25 August 1925. On Morocco reports during World War I placing intrigues in a broader, global perspective see SHAT 7N 2122, 21 October 1914, 8 October 1915; OM Affaires politiques 907 bis, 14 November 1914, 16 December 1914, 28 October 1916.

128. On Rüggeberg and German wartime intelligence see Robert H. Whealey, Hitler and Spain (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1989), 149.è

129. See especially the 237-page exhaustive analysis of Fascist subversion of the Italian community in Morocco forwarded by Noguès: AN F60 201, 21 December 1938 ("La politique italienne en zone franaise du Maroc").

130. See the materials on the Bayda brothers (Baydaphone) and Theodore K. in AN F60 707, 25 July 1938, 2 May 1939; OM Affaires politiques 3435, 15 November 1937, p. 433.

131. Estimates of radio sets in the Arab world (including those owned by Europeans) totaled several hundred thousand by the late 1930s. Approximately one-fifth of the twenty-eight thousand receivers in Morocco belonged to Muslims, although collective listening practices like the attachment of radios to card loudspeakers significantly expanded the potential audience. Italy's Radio Bari and Germany's Radio Zeesen were the leaders in programming. The British countered with Radio Daventry and the French with Radio-Colonial, later Radio-Mondial, as well as attempts to jam the signals of others with repeated telegraph messages to a fake ship-at-sea. Materials on the guerre des ondes can be found in OM Affaires politiques 920, 1425; AN F60 707, 710, 753, 754; and MAE Maroc/Tunisie 1917-1940 Maroc 1240A. See also the following three articles: Daniel J. Grange, "La propagande arabe de Radio-Bari (1937-1939)," Relations internationales 5 (1976): 65-103; Daniel J. Grange, "Structure et techniques d'une propagande: les émissions arabes de Radio-Bari," Relations internationales 2 (1974): 165-85; Callum A. MacDonald, "Radio Bari: Italian Wireless Propaganda in the Middle East and British Countermeasures 1934-1938," Middle Eastern Studies 13 (May 1977): 195-207.

132. On Comintern activities see OM Affaires politiques 902, 12 October 1933; OM Affaires politiques 3435, 14 August 1936 (BRQM, annexe no. 1). The Bulletins de renseignements des questions musulmanes, or BRQMs, were put out by the Etat-major de l'armée, section d'outre-mer.

133. Cleveland, Islam , especially 39-40, 62-63, 134-59. For a sampling of French reports on Arslan see OM Affaires politiques 1416, 1 January 1937; AN F60 201, 21 December 1938; OM Affaires politiques 1425, 16 May 1938 (BRQM, p. 208); OM Affaires politiques 3435, 12 March 1936 (BRQM, p. 49).

134. Nicolai, Forces , 216.

Chapter Two Milieu

1. AN F7 13426, 18 April 1923; AN F7 13413, 12 October 1925. On Tangier and Cairo: Bundesarchiv, Koblenz (hereafter, BA) R58/954, 30 May 1938, p. 134; ibid., 4 November 1937, p. 33. On Langenheim: SHAT 3H 102, 24 January 1924; SHAT 3H 256, 1 June 1940. Julius Mader identifies Langenheim as an Abwehr agent in the 1930s. Mader, Hitlers Spionagegenerale , 227-28.

2. Andrew, Secret Service , chap. 11, especially 347.

3. AN F7 14774, 10 September 1936, 11 September 1936, 27 September 1937; L'Oeuvre , 20 November 1938.

4. Charles S. Maier, "Between Taylorism and Technocracy: European Ideologies and the Vision of Industrial Productivity in the 1920s," Journal of Contemporary History 5 (April 1970): 27-61; Charles S. Maier, Recasting Bourgeois Europe: Stabilization in France, Germany, and Italy in the Decade after World War I (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), 153; Maurice Lévy-Leboyer, "The Large Corporation in Modern France," in Managerial Hierarchies: Comparative Perspectives on the Rise of the Modern Industrial Enterprise , ed. Alfred D. Chandler and Herman Daems (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980), 126-27, 136-37; Victoria de Grazia, "Mass Culture and Sovereignty: The American Challenge to European Cinemas, 1920-1960," Journal of Modern History 61 (March 1989): 58, 61; Gary S. Cross, Immigrant Workers in Industrial France: The Making of a New Laboring Class (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1983), 18, 20, 34-35, 41-42, 46, 55-62; Le Petit Parisien , 12 June 1938 (on narcotics); Paris-Soir , 29 June 1938, 1 July 1938 (on narcotics); Alan A. Block, ''European Drug Traffic and Traffickers Between the Wars: The Policy of Suppression and its Consequences," Journal of Social History 23 (Winter 1989): 315-32; Edward J. Bristow, Prostitution and Prejudice: The Jewish Fight against White Slavery, 1870-1939 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), 71-78, 113. On the Croisière jaune see chapter 4. For additional discussion of organized immigration—in this case from Italy—see Claudio Segrè, Italo Balbo: A Fascist Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), 311-13.

5. Chalmers Johnson, An Instance of Treason: Ozaki Hotsumi and the Sorge Spy Ring , expanded edition (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990), quoted 69.

6. London Times , 6, 11, 16 April 1925, 4, 20, 21 May 1925.

7. AN F7 13413, 14 May 1925 (this report was filed by "un correspondant à même d'être fort documenté sur l'Angleterre, et dont les communications sont souvent d'un haut intéret"). See also Slavin, "Anticolonialism," 52-53, 147-48. Both the report and Slavin suggest possible Mannesmann collaboration with the British syndicate. A deposition by Charles Deboe, who claimed to have acted as an intermediary between Gardiner and Abd-el-Krim's brother, made no mention of the syndicate. The basic outline of Gardiner the adventurer-gunrunner remains. See AN F7 13413, 30 July 1925. Also, according to C. R. Pennell, Gardiner had developed his own commercial connections with the Rif

government and was passing himself off in London as "Minister-Plenipotentiary of the Government of the Riff." C. R. Pennell, A Country with a Government and a Flag: The Rif War in Morocco, 1921-1926 (Cambridgeshire: Menas Press, 1986), 210-11.

8. References to ex-army officers—American, British, Turkish, German—repeatedly turn up in intelligence reports on the Rif war. SHAT 3H 102, n. d. ("Fournitures à Abd-el-Krim"), 30 October 1925, 18 July [1925?] ("Maroc: officiers étrangers pour le Riff"). See also MAE Maroc 1917-1940 616, 4 June 1925, pp. 227-28.

9. New York Times , 13, 26, 30, 31 July 1935; National Archives, Washington, D.C., Shanghai Municipal Police files (hereafter, SMP) reel 34, D8000, 9, 11, 16 February 1938, 11 March 1938, 20 April 1938, 26 July 1940; SMP reel 60, N965, 7 April 1941 (on O.). H. D.'s name turns up in connection with other shady figures in the SMP files. See SMP reel 31, D7596, 16 July, 1938; SMP reel 58, D9478 (c), 11 December 1939. I consulted the SMP files on microfilm in Syracuse.

10. Sterling Seagrave, The Epic of Flight: Soldiers of Fortune (Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1981), 66-67.

11. MAE Maroc/Tunisie 1917-1940 Maroc 1214, 7 December 1928, pp. 110, 113, 28 December 1928, p. 111, 29 December 1928, p. 115, 29 January 1929, pp. 116-21, 31 January 1929, pp. 123-27; MAE Z Europe 1918-1929 Russie 601, 19 March 1929, pp. 289-90.

12. Marcel Nadaud and André Fage published their work, Armée , in 1926.

13. Andrew, Secret Service , 142-43, 158-59, 377-78.

14. BA R58/275, 9 February 1940, pp. 75-77.è

15. On Swirles: Auswärtiges Amt—Politisches Archiv, Bonn (hereafter, AA) Pol 1 M 240, AZ: PO15-1g, Agenten- u. Spionagewesen Einzelfälle, S-Z 1.39-11.39, Bd. 2 (hereafter, Pol 1 M 240), 16 January 1939, 18 February 1939, 31 March 1939, and document with no date but succeeding 16 January 1939 note. As is often the case with such reports, some of the biographical material on Swirles is contradictory, one report stating he had lived in Paris since 1929, another that he had left Germany only in the mid-1930s. On Stallmann: Navarre, Service , 66-67, 72-73; AA Pol 1 M 240, 18 February 1939; AA Pol 1 M 234, AZ: PO15-1g, Agenten- u. Spionagewesen Einzelfälle, A-K 6.39-9.39, Bd. 4 (hereafter, AA Pol 1 M 234), 25 May 1939; BA R58/1045, p. 119 (this report has no date; it is attached to a report that appears to have been written in early 1940, but the section on spies almost certainly was compiled after the French defeat); Michel Garder, La guerre secrète des services spéciaux franais, 1935-1945 (Paris: Plon, 1967), 84.

16. AN F7 14713, Norris file, 31 December 1935, 3 March 1936; AN F7 14671, 28 March 1935.

17. Bristow, Prostitution , 57-58, 129-30.

18. An example is the Captain Frogé affair of the early 1930s. There is a large dossier on this in AN BB18 6094.

19. AN F7 14754, 17 October 1934.

20. OM SLIII 56, 1 July 1922, 17 August 1922.

21. MI 25393/25394, 6 July 1937 (report of Commissaire de police mobile

Valentin, pp. 17-18). This report is in a dossier with 25393 written on it but belongs to the Troncoso file listed as 25394 in the inventory.

22. John Le Carré, A Perfect Spy (New York: Bantam, 1987).

23. The Antwerp reports can be found in AN F7 12836 (see especially 19 December 1908 on German government complicity); MAE NS Maroc 175; MM SSEa4.

24. Guillen, L'Allemagne , 371-72, 375-80.

25. In 1914 at Antwerp a beginning customs official took his duties seriously and insisted on inspecting a shipment of cement. When the consignee refused to open the containers in which the cement was packed, the customs man forbade the embarkment of the cargo. Antwerp customs, its hand forced, was thus obliged to proceed with an investigation, and the consignee withdrew the cargo altogether. Later, the novice douanier received a "paternal" talking-to, in effect a warning not to pull this stunt again. MAE NS Maroc 178, 10 February 1914, pp. 154-55.

26. AN F7 12836, 9 November 1907 (written from Brussels). The correspondent's reports to which he refers are in AN F7 12836, 12, 15, 23 October 1907.

27. MM SSEa4, especially 22 June 1912.

28. Charles Chenevier, La grande maison (Paris: Presses de la Cité, 1976), 61-71.

29. MI 25295, 23 October 1934. Royère was an Inspecteur principal de police mobile.

30. MI 25296, 29, 30 November 1934, 1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 14 December 1934. Barthelet also went to Vienna, Danzig, and Berlin. He was a Commissaire de police mobile. One cannot discount the possibility that the difficulties of Royère and Barthelet were compounded by the unwillingness of the French government to discover inconvenient evidence. At the time of the murders Franco-Italian relations were improving and the French had incentives to conduct an investigation that would not rupture this process. This hypothesis could explain why the government was powerless to prevent the humiliation of its police missions abroad.è

31. Henri Koch-Kent, Doudot: figure légendaire du contre-espionage franais (Paris: Casterman 1976); Navarre, Service , 61-62.

32. Navarre, Service , 87.

33. Ibid., 50-51.

34. AN F7 14755, March 1936 (attached to 20 April 1936), 9 January 1936, June 1936 (attached to 26 June 1936), 5 September 1936. The March and June reports differ a bit on the dates of Samuel I.'s arrival in Paris and his definitive departure.

35. AA Geheimakten 1920-1936, AZ: Spanien Pol 15, Agenten- u. Spionagewesen 4.20-26.35.

36. AA Inland II A/B 292/2, AZ: 83-78, Spionageabwehr, Vertrauensmänner 8.5.35-17.4.36, 6 May 1936; MA N104/4, 15 October 1939.

37. BA R58/954, 30 May 1938, p. 136. On AA complaints, see particularly AA Inland II A/B 292/3, AZ: 83-78, Spionageabwehr, Vertrauensmänner 1935-1940. SS was am acronym for Schutzstaffel.

38. AA Inland II A/B 291/3, AZ: 83-78, Spionageabwehr, Vertrauensmänner 18.12.33-31.7.34, 15 January 1934 and "Abschrift" that follows (on Schneekloth); AA Pol 1 M 234, 20 June 1939; AA Pol 1 M 240, 2 February, 1939.

39. BA R58/275, 3 October 1938, pp. 25-26.

40. MA RW49/529-530; BA R58/830, 13 June 1941; BA R58/472, 28 March 1940, p. 14 (Zsunke). AA Pol 1 M 240, 25 May 1939, 20 June 1939, 12 September 1939; AA Pol 1 M 241, AZ: PO15-1g, Agenten- u. Spionagewesen Einzelfälle, S-Z 11.39-4.40, Bd. 3 (hereafter, Pol 1 M 241), 27 November 1939 (Sparwasser). NA T77 884, pp. 12-13 (Xylander). On Rühle and telegram see the following reports in BA R58/472: n. d. (pp. 1-5), 18 April 1940 (pp. 18-20), 13 April 1940 (p. 15). On sabotage via Italy: ibid., 28 March 1940, p. 14. See also De Jong, Fifth , 202-3.

39. BA R58/275, 3 October 1938, pp. 25-26.

41. MI 25393/25394, 6 July 1937 (Valentin report); AN BB18 6476, especially the Delrieu report of 4 October 1937. Later reports from judicial sources presented a watered-down version of Delrieu's report based on Tamborini's later insistence that he understood French imperfectly and had difficulty with the police interrogators' accent, and based on attacks on the character and motivations of a POUM informant. Neither qualification is convincing, especially in light of Cantelli's confession, Valentin's report, the Giardini incident, the details and style of Delrieu's report, and SIM revelations following the war (see note 42). AN BB18 6476, 6 May 1938, 23 December 1938.

42. J.-R. Tournoux, L'histoire secrète (Paris: Plon, 1962), 324-61 (these are transcripts of documents). Joel Blatt has been helpful in confirming these documents, based on his work with Italian sources.

43. AN BB18 6095, Switz/Stahl file, especially 20 March 1934, 27 March 1934, 5 July 1934, 17 April 1935; APP BA 1743, May 1935, 29 April 1935. See also Le Journal , 21, 22 December 1933, 21 March 1934, 11 July 1934, 26 March 1935.

44. On circuits into France: APP BAP 69, 24 April 1924. On Germany: AN F7 13424; AN F7 13426 (especially 1924 dossier); Dan Jacobs, Borodin: Stalin's Man in China (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), 78-79, 86; John Erickson, "Threat Identification and Strategic Appraisal by the Soviet Union, 1930-1941," in Knowing One's Enemies , ed. May, 394. On Vienna: AN F7 13065, 28 June 1922, 5 January 1925; AN F7 14753, 12 December 1936; APP BAP 269, 16 March 1931; Elisabeth K. Poretsky, Our Own People: A Memoir of 'Ignace Reiss' and his Friends (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1970), 58. On global dimensions, see chapter 4. For an overall view of Soviet espionage in these years, including discussion of specific operations in Germany and France, the departure points are David J. Dallin, Soviet Espionage (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1955); and, more recently, John Costello and Oleg Tsarev, Deadly Illusions (New York: Crown, 1993).

45. Soviet secret police went through several name changes during the period. For the sake of consistency I use the letters GPU throughout this book.

46. Dallin argues that distance between agencies and local parties, to the extent it was practiced, was to protect the latter from charges of spying for a foreign country. Dallin, Soviet Espionage , 16-18.

47. On this point see Erickson, "Threat," in May, Knowing One's Enemies , 394.

48. Literature on German interwar intelligence has concentrated on the Nazi years. The best reviews are in Kahn, Hitler's Spies ; and Michael Geyer, "National Socialist Germany: The Politics of Information," in Knowing One's Enemies , ed. May, 310-46. See also Buchheit, Geheimdienst . On French reports from the 1920s, in addition to the Impex material, see AN F7 14713, May 1926 ("Les services secrets allemands").

49. AA Inland II A/B 292/1 AZ: 83-78, Spionageabwehr, Vertrauensmänner 1.8.34-18.4.35, Wesemann file, especially 26 July 1934, 8 April 1935; AN F7 14714, 20 March 1935.

50. Hans Georg Lehmann, In Acht und Bann: Politische Emigrations, NS-Ausbürgerung, und Wiedergutmachung am Beispiel Willy Brandts (Munich: Beck, 1976), 44, 61. The extent of Gestapo penetration in France is difficult to follow. A Foreign Office report refers to a number 9 menées terroristes list "relatif à la Gestapo," but this list is not to be found among the others. MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Allemagne 791, 14 May 1940, p. 177.

51. MA RW5/137, 22 November 1934, 25 June 1935, 16 July 1935, 21 October 1935, 20 November 1937, 25 November 1937.

52. De Jong, Fifth , 153; Mader, Hitlers Spionagegenerale , 309, 311-15.

53. De Jong, Fifth , 150; Donald Cameron Watt, How War Came: The Immediate Origins of the Second World War, 1938-1939 (New York: Pantheon, 1989), 61.

54. MA RW5/143, 5 October 1939; MA RW5/163, 4 July, 1939; De long, Fifth , 154-55, 182-206 (on May-June 1940 operations; de long emphasizes the limited role of treachery among resident populations). See also Mader, Hitlers Spionagegenerale , 321-22, 330-33; Paul Leverkuehn, German Military Intelligence , trans. R. H. Stevens (New York: Praeger, 1954), 45.

55. The phrase is Geyer's in "National Socialist," in May, Knowing One's Enemies , 311.

56. The following discussion, except details on Yugoslavia, relies primarily on Navarre, Service , especially 39-47, 53, 69-71, 117-22. This is a sober account put together by a former SR official who headed the German section of the SR Centrale from 1936 to 1940; other former intelligence officers supplied information to Navarre for this work. Down to 1930 the SR Marine maintained a station in Germany. For a positive assessment of the SR's effectiveness in obtaining strategically valuable intelligence, see, in addition to Navarre, Robert Young, "French Military Intelligence and Nazi Germany, 1938-1939," in Knowing One's Enemies , ed. May, 271-309. On Bertrand and Enigma, see also Jean Stengers, "Enigma, the French, the Poles, and the British, 1931-1940" in The Missing Dimension , ed. Andrew and Dilks, 126-29, 133. Dates for SR stations have been given only where precise information exists.

57. AA Pol 1 M 240, 6 April 1939, 26 April 1939; BA R58/275, 9 August 1939 (pp. 56-57), 13 [18?] January 1940 (pp. 67ff.). Freundt, in the German consulate in Zagreb, sent the original report on Hartwig. He said his information came from a former collaborator of Hartwig. Although Freundt noted that he lacked the time and means to verify this information, he believed it to be

highly credible because of the bestimmtheit (certainty; exactitude) with which the source stated his details and because of the way the source responded to his (Freundt's) questions. The repetition of these details in the RSHA report nine months later again suggests that the report was correct. It is possible that the informer was part of a French sting operation; the French SR did engage in disinformation. If so, this would, in a diferent way, demonstrate the sophistication of French intelligence in this period. Hartwig was related to the Baron Hartwig, Russian minister to Serbia, who died of a heart attack during the July crisis. His father was a former bank director in St. Petersburg.

58. On charts and organization circulars, see SHAT 7N 2486, particularly the "Liste des postes SR en temps de paix et en temps de guerre," 1925; SHAT 3H 434, especially 14 April 1937, 14 October 1937; SHAT 7N 2571, 21 July 1933 ("Note . . . gendarmerie au service du contre-espionage"), 30 April 1937. Menées terroristes lists are in AN F7 14684. On the Préfecture archives see APP BAP 65, 1 October 1940 (dossier D-11). The barge was blocked in the Seine and most of its contents recovered by the Germans.

59. Navarre, Service , 40-41, 68-72; Gunter Peis, The Man Who Started the War (London: Odhams Press, Ltd., 1960), 104-12; Kahn, Hitler's Spies , 279-93; AN F7 14713, 9 February 1935; AN F7 14662, 4 December 1939. MA RW5/137 (reports to Abwehr Ast. Dresden concerning experiments with sabotage materials). On Soviet wireless use, see The Rote Kapelle: The CIA's History of Soviet Intelligence and Espionage Networks in Western Europe, 1936-1945 (Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America, 1979), 20, 24.

60. Peis, Man , 106.

61. Charles Reber, Terrorisme et diplomatie (Paris: Baudinière, 1935), 18-20.

62. Andrew, Secret Service , 347. British cryptography, however, was very competent. British industrial intelligence was also comparatively advanced: Wark, Ultimate , 159-60.

63. On Reiss, see Poretsky, People and (on mobile assassination squads) Alexander Orlov, The Secret History of Stalin's Crimes (London: Jarrolds, 1954), 229-32.

64. Rote Kapelle , 13-20, 87-92, 105-10, 237-53, 367-73; Leopold Trepper, The Great Game: Memoirs of the Spy Hitler Couldn't Silence (New York: Mcgraw-Hill, 1977). In his memoirs, Trepper says there was a deception of his German captors that was not prearranged. See also Dallin, Soviet Espionage ; Gilles Perrault, The Red Orchestra , trans. Peter Wiles (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1969).

65. AN F7 13065, 12 May 1926. See also AN F7 13509, 1 June 1921, 20 September 1921. See also chapter 4.

66. Rote Kapelle , 70, 213, 312, 327, 360-61; Johnson, Instance , 68, 95. See also Costello and Tsarev, Deadly Illusions , 92-93, 209, 249.

67. Geyer, "National Politics," in May, Knowing One's Enemies , 311, 321-22.

68. Watt, How War Came , 58.

69. Henri de Monfreid, Les secrets de la mer Rouge (Paris: Grasset, 1932). On Monfreid see chapter 4. On the dimensions of the arms traffic in the Red Sea

see Agnès Piquart, "Le commerce des armes à Djibouti de 1888 à 1914," Revue franaise d'histoire d'outre-mer 58 (1971): 407-32.

70. Joseph Crozier, Mes missions secrètes, 1915-1918 (Paris: Payot, 1933). On the NOT, see chapter 3.

71. AN F7 14679. Alan Block has chronicled how League of Nations efforts in the 1920s to regulate the drug trade simply created greater opportunities for illicit drug traffickers and resulted in larger criminal networks of narcotics dealers, who, as well, might traffic in arms: Block, "European Drug Traffic."

72. Georges Castellan, Le réarmement clandestin du Reich, 1930-1935 (Paris: Plon, 1954), 274-94.

73. SHAT 3H 102, 17 June 1925 (quoted), 17 July 1925, 28 August 1925, 29 September 1925; MAE Asie 1918-1929 Chine 2ème Partie 162, 6 February 1928, p. 289.

74. AN BB18 6542, 27 July 1935, 29 July 1935, 27 September 1935, 29 October 1935, 12 December 1935, 24 March 1936; AN F7 14679, 24 July 1935 (translation of Associated Press clipping on Le Havre mayor).

75. AN F7 14679, 3 July 1939.

76. AN F7 14680, Corrigan.

77. Castellan, Réarmement , 175-98; MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Yougoslavie 135, 11 October 1934; AN BB18 3061/2, 2 August 1939 (Affaire du CSAR). See also MAE Maroc/Tunisie 1917-1940 Maroc 1214, 21 August 1934, pp. 222-23 on Wilhelm K. who was smuggling weapons into Morocco in the early 1930s.

78. SHAT 3H 102, 17 June 1925. The informant estimated that up to 800 persons had shown interest and that as of 1 June 500 had been accepted; but only one individual was named as definitely having departed for the Rif.

79. MAE Asie 1918-1929 Chine 2ème Partie 162, 13 December 1927, pp. 163-64, 198-203; ibid., 24 May 1927, pp. 115-16; ibid., 17 January 1928, pp. 240-41; OM SLIII 141, 17 July 1928 (Peking documents).

80. AN F7 14676, 13 April 1937. The newspaper was the Stockholm daily, Aftonbladet .

81. MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Espagne 147, 1 July 1937, pp. 38-39.

82. AN F7 14677, October 1937 (Goldberg dossier).

83. MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Espagne 147, 5 August 1937, p. 60.

84. On boats and false destinations: ibid., particularly 18 August 1937 (pp. 76-77), 30 August 1937 (pp. 86-87), 1 July 1937 (pp. 37-39). AN F7 14676, 17 November 1936, 13 April 1937. On hotel: AN F7 14676, 5 December 1936. On Jean A.: AN F7 14680, 22 August 1938.

83. MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Espagne 147, 5 August 1937, p. 60.

85. Poretsky, People , 210-11.

86. Walter Krivitsky, In Stalin's Secret Service (1939; reprint, Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America, 1985), 84-88. See also Hugh Thomas, The Spanish Civil War (New York: Harper Colophon, 1963), 295-96. Poretsky, People , 270, casts doubts on the veracity of Krivitsky's account.

87. MAE Z Europe 1939-1940 Espagne 147, 5 August 1937, pp. 58-60.

88. Daladier papers, 3 DA11 DR3, 26 January 1939, pp. 26-28, 37.

89. AN F7 14677, October 1937 (Goldberg dossier).

90. AN F60 201, 22 August 1937; ibid., n.d. ("Note pour Monsieur le président du conseil. Affaire d'espionage d'Oran").

89. AN F7 14677, October 1937 (Goldberg dossier).

90. AN F60 201, 22 August 1937; ibid., n.d. ("Note pour Monsieur le président du conseil. Affaire d'espionage d'Oran").

91. Veltjens may have had ties to the conspirators in Spain prior to their uprising, although the evidence on this remains inconclusive. In 1940 Göring used Veltjens for arms exports to Finland and during the Second World War for black market purchases in western Europe. Whealey, Hitler , 81-82; Hans-Henning Abendroth, Hitler in der Spanischen Arena (Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh, 1973), 19-20, 156, 179-81; Gerhard Weinberg, The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983; 1980), 1:286-87; 2:147.

92. AN F7 14677, October 1937 (Goldberg dossier).

93. MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Espagne 147, 1 July 1937, pp. 37-39.

94. AN F7 14677, October 1937 (Goldberg dossier); APP BA 1665, 24 August 1936; AN F7 14676, 25 February 1938; AN F7 14680, January 1939, 9 July 1938.

95. Fricke, Bismarcks Prätorianer .

96. MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Yougoslavie (hereafter, MAE Z Youg.) 136, 30 October 1934 (note no. 1), pp. 123-40. The author of this report was identified as "an informer who is often well informed." His personal acquaintance with Ustasha figures and his style of presentation alike appear to merit this appraisal.

97. On pre-1914 southern Slav terrorism, see Vladimir Dedijer, The Road to Sarajevo (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1966).

98. AN BB18 6473, 13 November 1934; MI 25296, 30 November 1934 (Barthelet report); MAE Z Youg. 135, 13 October 1934, p. 99; Reber, Terrorisme , 27, 49-56, 66.

99. On IMRO and their Ustasha association: MAE Z Youg. 136, 30 October 1934 (note no. 1); AN F7 14754, 11 October 1934 ("Au sujet de l'ORIM"); AN F7 14755, n.d. ("L'organisation révolutionnaire intérieure macédoine de 1928 à 1936"). Relations between the IMRO (the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization) and Ustashi preceded the 1932 agreement.

100. MAE Z Youg. 137, 17 November 1934, pp. 159, 165-76; AN F7 14754, 12 October 1934 (procès verbal of Pospisil).

101. MAE Z Youg. 136, 23 October 1934, pp. 21-22.

102. Ibid., 30 October 1934 (note no. 1); MAE Z Youg. 135, 11 October 1934, pp. 25-30. The two reports appear to be written by the same person.

103. MI 25297, "La vie secrète des émigrés criminels" by Jelka Pogorelec.

104. AN BB18 6473, 1 March 1935, 9 March 1935, 12 March 1935, 1 April 1935; MAE Z Youg. 135, 13 October 1934, p. 84. According to note no. 1, Duic committed suicide for personal reasons.

105. MAE Z Youg. 136, 30 October 1934 (note no. 1).

106. The problem of Yugoslav tendentiousness was recognized within the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs: MAE Z Youg. 135, 13 October 1934, p. 85. For reports indicating German complicity see: ibid., 15 October 1934, 16 October, especially p. 125; MAE Z Youg. 136, 30 October 1934 (note no. 2), pp. 141-45; MI 25295, 30 October 1934 ("Etude relative aux agissements . . . terroristes allemands"); ibid., 19 November 1934. Naggiar, the French repre-

sentative in Belgrade reported, however, that the Yugoslavs were certain that Berlin was not involved: MAE Z Youg. 138, 23 December 1934, p. 12. The author of note no. I also discounted German involvement. See also the report of Inspector Borel from Switzerland: MI 25296, 29 October 1934, p. 25. In general charges regarding Berlin came from questionable sources or people not likely to have good access to the facts.

107. AN F7 14754, 1 February 1935 (The French embassy in Rome argued, however, that all Croats in Italy were concentrated on the Lipari Islands: ibid, 19 February 1935); AN F7 14755, 26 March 1937; MI 25297, 25 January 1936; AN F7 14684, menées terroristes list no. 5, 16 April 1938, pp. 16, 19-20; ibid., list no. 7, 1 May 1939, pp. 35, 93; AN F7 14753, 26 June 1939; AN F7 14755, 9 June 1939, 19 December 1939; APP BAP 65, June 1938 ("Propositions d'expulsions"—bound booklet on 100 people; hereafter, 100-persons book), category 10.

108. APP BAP 278, September 1930; ibid., March 1928 (21-page report); APP BA 1711, 21 February 1930; AN BB18 6093, 6 September 1932.

105. MAE Z Youg. 136, 30 October 1934 (note no. 1).

108. APP BAP 278, September 1930; ibid., March 1928 (21-page report); APP BA 1711, 21 February 1930; AN BB18 6093, 6 September 1932.

105. MAE Z Youg. 136, 30 October 1934 (note no. 1).

108. APP BAP 278, September 1930; ibid., March 1928 (21-page report); APP BA 1711, 21 February 1930; AN BB18 6093, 6 September 1932.

105. MAE Z Youg. 136, 30 October 1934 (note no. 1).

108. APP BAP 278, September 1930; ibid., March 1928 (21-page report); APP BA 1711, 21 February 1930; AN BB18 6093, 6 September 1932.

109. AN F7 14744, 13 November 1926, 13 January 1927; AN BB18 6095, 23 May 1933, 12 February 1934, 7 May 1934.

110. MI 25344, n. d. The note is torn, making the last third of what is written on it difficult to read. The reference in the text, therefore, is to part of the note.

111. Robert C. Williams, Culture in Exile: Russian Emigrés in Germany, 1881-1941 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1972), especially 81-84, 111-24, 131-34, 284-85; Marc Raeff, Russia Abroad: A Cultural History of the Russian Emigration, 1919-1939 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), especially 4-5, 17-24, 41-42, 47-52, 61, 77 (on publishers); Robert H. Johnston, New Mecca, New Babylon: Paris and the Russian Exiles, 1920-1945 (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1988), especially 9, 53, 81, 85-90, 147-48. The one-million figure is from Michael Marrus, The Unwanted: European Refugees in the Twentieth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 61. Raeff suggests somewhat smaller figures, pp. 202-3. All authors point out the wildly varying estimates from the times that allow only approximate numbers.

112. Johnston, Mecca , 25-28.

113. Ibid., 3.

114. APP BAP 65, June 1938 (100-persons book), category 12.

115. APP BAP 65, June 1938 (100-persons book), category 12 (Eugène H.); AN F7 14676, 30 December 1936, April 1937; AN F7 14677, October 1937 (Goldberg dossier); AN F7 14680, 22 August 1938; AN F7 14676, 31 December 1936.

116. Marina Grey, Le général meurt à minuit (Paris: Plon, 1981), 62. This is the most thorough investigation into the Kutepov and Miller kidnappings.

117. APP BAP 291, September 1934, p. 10; Grey, Général , 60-61 (according to Grey, ZK. sold Yugoslav military secrets to the USSR at the behest of the Yugoslav general staff, for whom ZK. really was working); AN F7 14684, menées terroristes list no. 1, 10 April 1937; Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace, Stanford, B. I. Nicolaevsky register, box number 299 folder ID7 (hereafter, Hoover N.), 14 December 1937 ("Rapport: affaire de Miller";

hereafter, by date only), pp. 3-4, 35-36, 45-46; I consulted photocopies of these files in Syracuse. This report is largely compiled from White Russian papers seized during the investigation into the kidnapping of General Miller in 1937. It is written in an impressionable way and should be treated with caution.

118. Hoover N., 14 December 1937, pp. 12-13, 19, 38, 39 (quoted). The author of the quote on Koltypin was Zakrjevskii (in a note dated 6 December 1934). See also MI 25344, 3 March 1930.

119. APP BA 1708, June 1932.

120. For some sense of the scope of double agent penetration see MAE Europe 1918-1929 Russie 120, 27 October 1922, p. 6; ibid., 27 September 1923, pp. 105-6 (on Red agents among the entourage of Grand Duke Kirill, an exiled pretender to the throne); AN F7 14753, 17 December 1935 (on Red infiltration of White Russian groups in Belgrade). On the "trust" see Grey, Général , 24-45; Geoffrey Bailey, The Conspirators (New York: Harper, 1960); Paul W. Blackstock, The Secret Road to World War Two: Soviet Versus Western Intelligence 1921-1939 (Chicago: Quadrangle, 1969).

119. APP BA 1708, June 1932.

121. Grey, Général , 54, 111; Costello and Tsarev, Deadly Illusions , 68. On the Normandy coast invasions see MI 25344, 26-27 March, 5 April 1930.

122. Costello and Tsarev, Deadly Illusions , 297 confirms the GPU's role and Skoblin's complicity in the kidnapping. Theories about militant Whites and the Spanish civil war emanated mostly from White Russian groups, but they were also accepted by Sûreté commissaire Jean Belin, who participated in the investigation of the case and heard a confession from Skoblin's wife shortly before her death in prison (Jean Belin, Secrets of the Sûreté [New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1950]).

123. Georges London, Les grands procès de l'année 1938 (Paris: Editions de France, 1939), 228; Hoover N., 14 December 1937, p. 34; Hoover N., February 1938 (Roches to Directeur de la police judiciaire), p. 11.

124. Grey Général , 226.

125. Hoover N., 14 December 1937, p. 5. On amateurism see Hoover N., 12 July 1934, côte XIII, 19 April 1938, côte XXIX.

126. Hoover N., especially côtes III (on boat), V-VIII, XV, XIX-XX, XXXVII (listed erroneously as XXVII—on expenses).

127. For some examples see Krivitsky, Stalin's , 224-43; Robert Conquest, The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties (New York: Macmillan, 1968), 219; Grey, Général , pp. 191-203; Paul Paillole, Services spéciaux, 1935-1945 (Paris: Editions Robert Laffont, 1975), 46-52.

128. Material on Skoblin and the inner line is scattered throughout the Hoover documents. See in particular Hoover N., November 1937, pp. 4-5; ibid., 14 December 1937, pp. 2-3, 17-19. See also press coverage in the major Parisian dailies in September-October 1937; Grey, Général . Poretsky's charges are in Poretsky, People , 145-46, 165, 214. On mobile assassination squads see also Costello and Tsarev, Deadly Illusions , 285-86. On Von Petrov: Peter Wright, Spycatcher: The Candid Autobiography of a Senior Intelligence Officer (New York: Viking Penguin, 1987), 325.

129. MAE Maroc/Tunisie 1917-1940 Maroc 1214, 31 January 1929, pp. 123-25; MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 URSS 1089, 15 October, p. 251; MI

25344, 7 February 1930; Hoover N., February 1938 (Roches, p. 14), 1 February 1938.

130. Mader, Hitlers Spionagegenerale , 132; Andrew, Secret Service , 350; AA Jugoslav Pol. 15 1921-1934, 10 July 1921; BA R58/275, 13 January 1940; Watt, How War Came , 61. On Red Army spies: APP BAP 437, 2 February 1935, 26 March 1935.

131. Woolman, Rebels , 129; AN F7 13413, 19 June 1925, 20 June 1925, 22 June 1925, 9 January 1926.

132. Grey, Général , 187-91; Hoover N., February 1938 (Roches, p. 14), 14 December 1937, pp. 6-10; APP BAP 65, June 1938 (100-persons book), category 8.

133. Williams, Culture , 98-102, 160-67, 213-22, 288-90, 348. For French counterintelligence reports tracking early White conspiracies in Germany, see MAE Europe 1918-1929 Russie 119. In 1935 the French signed a pact with the USSR, although neither side ever took it seriously. Biskupskii, incidentally, turns up as one of the schemers in the files on the gunrunner W.è

134. MM 1BB7 93, 10 December 1936; Gabrielle Bertrand, Seule dans l'Asie troublée:Mandchouko-Mongolie, 1936-1937 (Paris: Plon, 1937), 53-62 (quoted, 57), 96; OM Affaires politiques 1416, 15 March 1938 (BMR [Bulletin mensuel de renseignements]: ''Les Russes blancs de la Chine du nord devant le conflit sino-japonais"), 45-54 (quoted, 47, 49); SHAT 7N 3124, 26 December 1935 (Consul de France at Harbin to Hoppenot, Chargé d'affaires de la République franaise en Chine); George Stewart, The White Armies of Russia: A Chronicle of Counter-Revolution and Allied Intervention (New York: Macmillan, 1933), 269.

135. MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 URSS 1089, 30 April 1934, pp. 170-71 (note dated 28 April); MAE E Asie-Océanie-Japon 1930-1940 150, 18 January 1939, p. 114; APP BA 1706, 26 November 1937.

136. APP BAP 291, September 1934 (also useful on intrigues between White Russians, Germans, and Japanese); APP BAP 407, February 1939 ("L'émigration en face de la perspective d'une guerre européene"), p. 8.

137. Among these: MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 URSS 1089, 30 April 1934, pp. 171-72; APP BAP 291, 11 June 1938; APP BAP 407, 18 January 1939; APP BAP 66, 4 April 1939. After World War II it was learned that Turkul had been a GPU agent. One might assume that his pro-German role was to divide the White Russians: Pierre Broué, "La main d'oeuvre 'blanche' de Staline," Cahiers Léon Trotsky 24 (December 1985): 81.

138. Bernard Wasserstein, Britain and the Jews of Europe, 1939-1945 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979), 83-90; Roger Daniels, The Decision to Relocate the Japanese Americans (Malabar, Fla.: Robert E. Krieger, 1986).

139. Exact figures are difficult to determine, in part because of distinctions between assembly centers where detainment could nevertheless last some time and actual internment camps. A 15,000 figure is given in SHAT 7N 2475, 15 November 1939 ("Situation du recrutement et de l'utilisation des étrangers ô la date du 12 novembre"). See also MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Allemagne 790, 9 December 1939 (by this date 6,000 had left the camps, one third of these for the Foreign Legion); Journal officiel , Chambre des députés, débats parlemen-

taires, séance of 8 December 1939, p. 2121; Michael R. Marrus and Robert O. Paxton, Vichy France and the Jews (New York: Basic Books, 1981), 65. For a higher figure see Gilbert Badia et al., Les Barbelés de l'exil (Grenoble: Presses universitaires de Grenoble, 1979), 176, 182. On May internments: MAE Z Europe 1930-1940, Allemagne 791, 15, 25 May 1940, pp. 90-93, 212.è

140. The starting point here is the work of Michael Marrus and Robert Paxton who have made the most thorough assessment of Vichy's Jewish policy and have stressed the similarities, as well as the differences, between wartime measures taken against Jews and the increasingly repressive refugee policies of the late Third Republic. For the challenging questions they have raised see Marrus and Paxton, Vichy , 14, 54, 58, 67. See also Badia, Barbelés ; Ralph Schor, L'opinion franaise et les étrangers en France, 1919-1939 (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 1985), 709, 728-29.

141. Marrus and Paxton, Vichy , chap. 2; Badia, Barbelés ; Schor, Opinion ; Marrus, Unwanted , chap. 3; Vicki Caron, "Loyalties in Conflict: French Jewry and the Refugee Crisis, 1933-1935," Leo Baeck Institute Year Book 36(1991)-305-38; Timothy Maga, "The United States, France, and the Refugee Problem, 1933-1947" (Ph.D. diss., McGill University, 1981).

142. AN F60 173.

143. APP BA 60, November 1933 ("Les réfugies allemands dans la région parisienne"/dossier établi par M. Chiappe); AN F60 497, 31 October 1938 ("Note sur la situation désespérée des réfugies"). The dating of this note is questionable since the suicides it describes are dated 1 and 2 November.

144. The most stringent measures—internments—came at a time of repression of the Communist party in France, and it has been suggested that the internments were political in motivation and an offshoot of anti-Soviet or anticommunist policy: Badia, Barbelés , 171-73. The trouble with this perspective is that it does not take into account the constant concern with German secret agents, the internment of only "enemy" nationals, and the ready association of communist and fascist saboteurs following the Nazi-Soviet non-agression pact. On the crackdown against the Communist party, see J. Kim Munholland, "The Daladier Government and the 'Red Scare' of 1938-1940," Proceedings of the Western Society of French Historical Studies (1982): 495-506; AN F60 988, 17 April 1940.

145. Marrus, Unwanted , 141-45.

146. See chapter 3.

147. Belin, Secrets , 245; AN F7 13505, 15 June 1933; APP BA 60, 31 July 1934; AN F7 14662, 12 October 1938, 29 November 1938; Journal officiel , Chambre des députés, débats parlementaires, séance of 8 December 1939, p. 2121 (on necessity to intern); SHAT 7N 2475, 26 October 1939 and AN F7 14662, 27 October 1939 (on boats).

148. That precise question was asked by a parliamentary review commission: AN F60 391, 16 November 1939.

149. APP BAP 407, 10 November 1933, pp. 12-13; ibid., February 1939 ("L'émigration en face de la perspective d'une guerre européenne"). The earlier report was not very favorably disposed toward the refugees and argued that political refugees (as opposed to Jewish ones) remained German to the core and might still represent a security threat.

148. That precise question was asked by a parliamentary review commission: AN F60 391, 16 November 1939.

150. APP BAP 407, 31 March 1939. See also APP BA 60, 3 November 1933 (response to Voilà article—in Chiappe file).

151. APP BAP 65, December 1938 (Préfet de police to Minister of the Interior/Sûreté nationale); AN F7 14776, n.d. (Interior to Finance Ministry); APP BAP 65, 23 July 1937, 28 March 1939.

152. AN F7 14711, 7 February 1939.

153. APP BAP 355, particularly reports of 24 April 1925, 16 May 1925, January 1927; APP BAP 65, 3 March 1928; Schor, Opinion , 281. See also Cross, Immigrant Workers , 149-52, 180-82. Refoulements referred to the withdrawal or nonrenewal of an identity card permitting residence in France; expulsions or deportations were a more direct and forcible form of expelling people from the country.

154. Mitchell, "Xenophobic"; SHAT 7N 676, 20 April 1906, 22 January 1909, 30 October 1913; SHAT 7N 658 (Dossier entitled "Question des étrangers résidant en France avant 1914/1913-1914"—quoted from "Historique'' and 20 March 1914 report in this dossier).

155. SHAT 16N 1589, 4 November 1915 ("Note sur les conditions de séjour des étrangers en France pendant la guerre"). As of November 1915 the French had established fifteen concentration camps for Germans, Austrians, and Turks (Turkish suspects were interned following a 9 November 1914 circular). Depots for hostages were in addition to these. There were also two depots for "Alsacien-Lorrains douteux" (I have used the simpler term "Alsatian" for the term "Alsacien-Lorrains" in this document; my apologies to the latter). And two special concentration camps in the Haute-Loire and the Sarthe confined French, Allied, and neutral suspects. Within three weeks of the general internment order, plans were being made for separating women, children, the elderly, and the infirm into special depots where they would await repatriation via Switzerland. Special exclusions and exceptions were made for those in this group who would prefer to remain in France.

156. Ibid.; APP BA 896. This commission was constituted at the very end of 1915. Among its initial purposes was a review of the military status of Russians and Italians, particularly the former who were charged with shirking enlistment in the army. The powers of the commission seem to have been primarily consultative.

157. Interministerial sorting out commissions followed the internments of 1939. MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Allemagne 790, 22 October 1939; AN F60 391, 16 November 1939. Even before the war, plans to release from internment those refugees able to present "garanties de loyalisme envers la France" called for the creation of "commissions de criblage." See SHAT 7N 2436, 3 December 1938, August 1939 (no. 158 or 10,000).

158. SHAT 7N 2436, 24 June 1926. The interned men were to be formed into work brigades. These general internments were applicable to frontier zones and the Seine region. Ibid., 4 April 1939. Among other projects and instructions from the interwar period, see ibid., 12 March 1923, 24 January 1929, 4 April 1930, 19 November 1937, 3 December 1938.

159. See chapter 1.

160. On hauling suspects off ships, see MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Allemagne 790 and 791 (the latter includes the Oran episode: 10 May 1940, pp.

26-27, 11 May 1940, p. 141). For prosecutions in France: AN F60 520. Jacques R.'s case is dated 27 May 1940.

161. SHAT Pacifique carton 6, 20 April 1939 (terrorists and explosives; my appreciation to Kim Munholland for showing me this); AN F7 14830, 6 June 1939 (Argentina; see also the earlier reports from 29 April 1939, 20 May 1939); AN F7 14662, 10 June 1939 (Czechs); ibid., 23 June 1939 (Italians); SHAT Pacifique carton 6, 8 July 1939 (timetables); SHAT 7N 2570, August 1939 (Gestapo/OVRA); AN F7 14830, 24 October 1939 (Lambert); AN F7 14662, 14 November 1939 (Romanians. See also AN F7 14684, 21 December 1939, 27 April 1940; AN F60 385, 27 April 1940); AN F60 234, 29 February 1940 (gasoline); AN F7 14830, 21 February 1940 (Communists); see chapter 1 for parachutists. The above are largely from Sûreté circulars.

160. On hauling suspects off ships, see MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Allemagne 790 and 791 (the latter includes the Oran episode: 10 May 1940, pp.

26-27, 11 May 1940, p. 141). For prosecutions in France: AN F60 520. Jacques R.'s case is dated 27 May 1940.

162. Buchheit, Geheimdienst , 313. A Soviet-organized ship sabotaging unit actually existed, but its targets were German ships or ships carrying war supplies to Germany. Dallin, Soviet Espionage , 126-32.

163. Donald Baker, "The Surveillance of Subversion in Inter-war France: The Carnet B in the Seine, 1922-1940," French Historical Studies 10 (1978): 486-516.

164. Of 133 listed on the 16 April 1938 sheets, only two French appeared (one naturalized). Of 185 listed on the 1 May 1939 sheets, there were thirteen French (one naturalized by marriage).

165. AN F7 14684, menées terroristes , list no. 3, 22 April 1937. There had been a warning that Ukrainian terrorists might make attacks on Soviet diplomats.

166. Koestler, Scum of the Earth (New York: MacMillan, 1941), 78-79; Bruno Frei, Die Männer von Vernet (1950; reprint, Hildesheim: Gerstenberg, 1980), 69-71; AN F60 493, 3 March 1941.

167. On special policies regarding Italians in France in the event of war, see internment projects in SHAT 7N 2436; SHAT 7N 2462, 7 May 1940, 13 May 1940; APP BAP 65, 1 October 1940, D-11, p. 3. According to government statistics from spring 1940, there were 66,504 Russians in France "sans nationalité" and 905,916 Italians: AN F60 391, 15 April 1940.

168. Lehmann, In Acht , 44, 118-21; AA Inland II A/B 291/3, 8 February 1934; AA Pol 1 M 240, 16 January 1939, 18 February 1939; BA R58/954, 12 March 1937, p. 1.

169. BA R58/954, 13 July 1937, p. 7. On refugee offers and German suspicions, see AA Inland II A/B 292/2.

170. APP BAP 65, 1 June 1938 (100-persons book), category 4—Lorenzi; AN F7 14662, 23 June 1939.

171. AN F7 14830, 7 May 1939.è

172. MAE E Asie-Océanie-Indochinc franaise 1930-1940 52, 31 December 1939.

173. The following discussion is based on documents in the following files: AN F7 14774, 14775, 14776; APP BAP 407, BAP 69.

174. See also Bristow, Prostitution , 294 on how immigration barriers in North America fostered an Eastern European market in counterfeit passports (probably, as well, providing an experience in this sort of trafficking to be turned toward the refugee clientele later).

175. AN F7 14774, 21, 28 December 1936; AN F7 14684, menées terroristes list no. 7, 1 May 1939, p. 29.

176. Kahn, Hitler's Spies , 279-83.

177. Dallin, Soviet Espionage , 92-103 (on Pass-Zentrale); Rote Kapelle , 19-20, 245; Gordon W. Prange, with Donald M. Goldstein and Katherine V. Dillon, Target Tokyo: The Story of the Sorge Spy Ring (New York: McGraw Hill, 1984), 99-100.

178. BA R58/275, 22 February 1939, 26 February 1940, pp. 34, 78; AA Pol 1 M 240, 31 March 1939.

179. AN F7 14717, 10 November 1931; AN F7 13498, 26 November 1927; APP BAP 69, 8 March 1933; AN F7 14662, 4 December 1939.

180. SHAT 7N 1590, 8 April 1918; Rote Kapelle , 20-21; OM SLII 23, 4 May 1938; AA Pol 1 M 234, 25 May 1939; AN F7 14662, 3 January 1940. The bulletin on Chilean and Argentine diplomats began with a notification that "certain foreigners of German nationality, ex-Austrians of Jewish extraction" (read refugees), were obtaining Latin American passports on the basis of false consular statements.

181. AN F7 14662, 13 December 1939.

182. APP BAP 69, 14 March 1940, 7 May 1938, 30 August 1938. See also AN F7 14680, 31 September 1939 on Ricardo D.

183. APP BAP 69, 14 March 1940; BA R58/275 (Italienische Spionage) pp. 129-34 (a 1941 German report drawn from French police records that fell into German hands during the occupation). See also Charles Chenevier, De la combe aux fées à Lurs: souvenirs et révélations (Paris: Flammarion, 1962), 33-36.

184. The quote is from the Cuban passport affair, APP BAP 69, 14 March 1940.

185. APP BAP 407, October 1938 (stamped as 25 October); ibid, 30 September 1938; AN F7 14662, 19 April 1939.

184. The quote is from the Cuban passport affair, APP BAP 69, 14 March 1940.

185. APP BAP 407, October 1938 (stamped as 25 October); ibid, 30 September 1938; AN F7 14662, 19 April 1939.

186. APP BAP 65, 1 June 1938.

187. SHAT 7N 2436, 4 April 1939, August 1939 (no. 158 or 10,000).

188. MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Allemagne 791, 24 January 1940, 2 May 1940, 20 May 1940, 22 May 1940, 24 May 1940, 6 June 1940, pp. 129, 172-87, 309.

189. AN F7 13986, 9 March 1940.

190. AN F7 14754, 23 October 1934; MI 25295, 12 November 1934 (note from Commissaire de police de Mohon, 30 October 1934).

191. MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 URSS 1089, 30 April 1934, pp. 17-71. For wartime suspicions and convictions, see the files in AN F7 12895-12896; AN F7 13506, 26 June 1918 ("Agissements des représentants du maximalisme en Suisse").

192. APP BAP 278, March 1928 (p. 6 of 21-page report on Italian Fascist and anti-Fascist groups in France); AN F60 201, 21 December 1938 ("La politique italienne"), p. 149; APP BA 60, 21 September 1933.

193. MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Allemagne 757; MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Allemagne 753, 14 December 1933, p. 170.

194. BA R58/275, 23 December 1939, p. 65. See as well other reports in this file on foreign (including French) secret service activity. In addition, see BA R58/1045, pp. 117-21.

195. An example is French reporting on Morocco in the late 1930s, at times tense or worrisome, but by the end of the decade and with the outbreak of war rather calm and sanguine.

196. The chart is in AN F60 707 n. d. ("L'action actuelle de propagande dans les pays musulmans: tableau comparatif"; its dossier placement suggests spring 1939). For other critiques, see OM Affaires politiques 1421, 23 November 1938; OM Affaires politiques 920, March 1938 (HCMAN report on radio broadcasts), pp. 8-9; AN F60 710, 11 January 1938, 12 March 1938; AN F60 707, 5 December 1938, 2 May 1939; SHAT 3H 256, 19 May 1940.

197. OM Affaires politiques 1421, 23 November 1938; OM Affaires politiques 920, March 1938 (HCMAN report), pp. 16-18; OM Affaires politiques 1425, 11 January 1940 (BRQM), p. 530; SHAT 3H 256, 19 May 1940; AN F60 707, 5 December 1938; AN F60 745 n. d. (91-page report "Les grands courants"), pp. 86-87; AN F60 753, 26-27 March 1939; AN F60 572, 13 October 1937; AN F60 710, 14 December 1937.

198. AN F60 234, 2 June 1940.

Chapter Three Stories

1. Le Journal , 11 August 1931. I have changed a few sentences from past to present tense to maintain the consistency that English requires.

2. The last article in the series was 20 August 1931. The closest circulation figure I have for the Journal is 1936:650,000 copies: Bellanger, Histoire , 3:521.

3. On consumerism and the war from a different perspective, see George L. Mosse, Fallen Soldiers: Reshaping the Memory of the World Wars (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 126-56.

4. Robert-Dumas, Idole . Book sales were 27,500 copies.

5. Yrondy, Cocaïne . This book was published in the Secret War series whose book sales per edition are estimated to have run from 15,000 to 20,000 copies.

6. Nadaud and Fage, Armée ; Marcel Montarron, Le poison blanc (Paris: Editions Denoël, 1938), 65; Charles Robert-Dumas, «Ceux du S.R.»: la marque du triangle (Paris: Fayard, 1939); Paul Darlix, Smyrne, dernière escale (Paris: Baudinière, 1930); Lucieto, Livrés . For the most celebrated example see Eric Ambler's Coffin for Dimitrios (1939; reprint, in Intrigue: Four Great Spy Novels of Eric Ambler , New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1943).

7. Or so claimed Paris-Soir , 9 June 1938. Lyon (or Lion), according to the article, had also been an arms dealer.

8. On Lawrence, see Victor Meulenijzer, Le colonel Lawrence agent de l'Intelligence Service (Brussels: Editions Rex, 1938); Pierre Apestéguy, Le roi des sables (Paris, Librairie des Champs-Elysées, 1939; 50,000 copies sold); Maurice Laporte, Bouddha contre l'Intelligence Service (Paris: Redier, 1933); Détective , 3 August 1939. On Abd-el-Krim and Arslan, see Henri Massis, Defence of the West , trans. E S. Flint (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1928; originally published as Défense de l'occident [Paris: Plon, 1927; 15,400 copies printed]), 17; Laporte,

Bouddha , 168; Boucard, Les dessous de l'Intelligence Service , 88-95; Jean Marquès-Rivière, L'U.R.S.S. dans le monde (Paris: Payot, 1935; 3,000 copies printed), 239-42; Gustave Gautherot, Le monde communiste (Paris: Editions Spes, 1925), 89; Paul Allard, Les espions de la paix (Paris: Baudineère, 1935), 155-71; Paris-Soir , 3 February 1937 On the criminal international: Jean Bardanne, Stavisky, espion allemand (Paris: Baudinière, 1935) (published in the Secret War series). Henry Champly, The Road to Shanghai: White Slave Traffic in Asia , trans. Warre B. Wells (London: John Long, 1934; originally published as Le chemin de Changhaï [Paris: Tallandier, 1933]).

9. Roger Lamblin, «Protocols» des sages de sion (Paris: Grasset, 1921); D. Petrovsky, La Russie sous les juifs (Paris: Baudinière, 1931); Lucien Pemjean, Vers l'invasion (Paris: Baudinière, 1933); Louis-Ferdinand Céline, Bagatelles pour un massacre (Paris: Editions Denoël, 1937); Léon de Poncins, La mystérieuse internationale juive (Paris: Gabriel Beauchesne 1936); Ilya Ehrenburg, Memoirs: 1921-1941 , trans. Tatania Shebunina (Cleveland:. World Publishing Co., 1963), 31. Norman Cohen has described the popularity of Protocols literature after the war, and has traced earlier Jewish conspiracy stories. Norman Cohen, Warrant for Genocide (New York: Harper, 1967). On earlier stories see Stephen Wilson, Ideology and Experience (Rutherford, N.J.: Farleigh Dickinson Press, 1982), 409-21.

10. Boucard, Les dessous de l'Intelligence Service; The Brown Network .

11. AN F7 14713, 3 July 1939; Stéphane Richter, Service secret: de l'école d'espionnage au poteau de Vincennes , trans. Jean Dolaine (Paris: Mignolet and Storz, 1934; originally published in Italian).è

12. Schor, Opinion ; Marrus and Paxton, Jews , chap. 2. For some contemporary examples, see Georges Mauco, Les étrangers en France: étude géographique sur leur rôle dans l'activité économique (Paris: Armand Colin, 1932); Raymond Millet, Trois millions d'étrangers en France: les indésirables, les bienvenus (Paris: Librairie de Médicis, 1938); René Gontier, Vers un racisme franais (Paris: Editions Denoël, 1939).

13. Voilà , 28 October 1933; Le Petit Parisien , 2 April 1935; Détective , 23 September 1937; Allard, Espions , 33-34; Dehilotte, Gestapo (Paris: Payot, 1940), 15; Jean Bardanne, L'espionne du Guépéou (Paris: Baudinière, 1937), 97-100 (the character Gruntz: French police informer, German spy, Moscow agent, and Jewish; this book was published in the Secret War series); Charles Robert-Dumas, «Ceux du S.R.»: l'homme à abattre (Paris: Fayard, 1934), 94-101 (the character Emil Seubert; the book sold 42,350 copies and was made into a movie); Yrondy, Cocaïne , 144-45; Cazal, La guerre! La guerre! Roman de demain (Paris: Tallandier, 1939), 1:177-78. On the potentially dangerous impact of such stories and reporting on antiforeigner sentiment, see Schor's comprehensive study, Opinion , 653, 704. I would argue for a more complex response: see the final section of this chapter. As for the impact of such literature on official policy, there is no way of demonstrating a causal connection nor even reason to believe one necessarily existed given the material security officials had them-selves accumulated on foreign intrigues. Influence may, in fact, have run in the reverse Robert-Dumas, for example, appears to have been a French counterintelligence agent: Paillole, Services , 187.

14. Serge de Chessin, La nuit qui vient de l'orient (Paris: Hachette, 1929); Sergey Petrovich Melgounov, The Red Terror in Russia (London: J. M. Dent, 1926; published in France as La terreur rouge en Russie [Paris: Payot, 1927]); Joseph Douillet, Moscou sans voiles: neuf ans de travail au pays des soviets (Paris: Editions Spes, 1928).

15. Charles Lucieto, La guerre des cerveaux: la vierge rouge du Kremlin (Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1927); Charles Lucieto, La guerre des cerveaux: le mystère de Monte Carlo (Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1932), quoted 69-70, 49-50; Lucieto, Livrés . Next to the frontispiece of the second work the following sales (or printing) figures are given respectively for the other two: 110,000, 100,000.è

16. Charles Robert-Dumas, «Ceux du S.R.»: le masque de vitriol (Paris: Fayard, 1935); Bardanne, Espionne , 19-24; Marc Le Guillerme, Goldman-Meyer, de Barcelone (Paris: Baudinière, 1938); Maurice Laporte, Espions rouges: les dessous de l'espionage soviétique en France (Paris: Librairie de la Revue Franaise, 1929), 48-49; Roman Goul, Les maîtres de la Tchéka: histoire de la terreur en U.R.S.S., 1917-1938 (Paris: Editions de France, 1938), 93-94, 166-68. Laporte was an ex-Communist. Goul (Gul) was a respected White Russian émigré writer.

17. Jean Bardanne, Documents secrets et faux passeports (Paris: Baudinière, 1938), 23-29. This book was published in the Secret War series.

18. AN F7 14689, May 1935 (Hanau file). Bardanne's real name was Georges B. and in 1935 the police were investigating his connections with a press agency suspected of collusion in speculation against the franc. Nevertheless in 1940-1941, a Jean Bardanne was negotiating for the release of captured British special operations agents until, as we are told, "sheer weight of numbers ran him out of money and he was arrested himself": Foot, SOE in France , 174.

19. Dehilotte, Gestapo , 207; Bardanne, Espionne , 48-49.

20. Malraux, Voie , 16.

21. Maurice Dekobra, La gondole aux chimères (Paris: Baudinière, 1926), quoted 175.

22. Hill, Go Spy , 74, 77; Andrew, Secret Service , 215-16.è

23. Pierre Boileau and Thomas Narcejac, Le roman policier (Paris: Payot, 1964); Fereydoun Hoveyda, Histoire du roman policier (Paris: Pavillon, 1965); Jean-Jacques Tourteau, D'Arsène Lupin à San-Antonio: le roman policier franais de 1900 à 1970 (Paris: Maison Mame, 1970); A. E. Murch, The Development of the Detective Novel (Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat Press, 1968). How far the correspondence between the two genres can be taken, however, is questionable. Before the war the French were also focusing considerably upon a spy threat, yet the spy novel was at best still in its infancy. Nor did the interwar spy novel replicate the puzzle-solving devices of much of interwar detective stories (or even the psychological realism of Simenon). See also Boileau and Narcejac, Roman , 193-94, on fundamental differences between the two genres.

24. The title of the series was "Collection de mémoires, études, et documents pour servir à l'histoire de la guerre mondiale?' Payot was the publisher. I have anglicized the titles.

25. Crozier, Mes missions . An earlier version was published under Crozier's pseudonum, Pierre Desgranges: Pierre Desgranges and [Lieutenant] de

Belleval, En mission chez l'ennemi (Paris: Redier, 1930). Part of the story of his secretary comes from this earlier version.

26. Marthe Richard, Mon destin de femme (Paris: Robert Laffont, 1974).

27. Georges Ladoux, Marthe Richard: espionne au service de la France (Paris: Librairie des Champs-Elysées, 1932).

28. Richard tells a more complete and contradictory talc—including initial suspicions by Ladoux that she was a foreign agent—of her recruitment into French intelligence, not the last time she confuses readers about what really happened.

29. Marthe Richer, Ma vie d'espionne: au service de la France (Paris: Editions de France, 1935). The author published under both this name and that of Richard, the one usually attributed to her.

30. Ladoux, Chasseurs . The cover also carried at the top, "Mémoires de guerre secrète." Ladoux, Souvenirs .

31. See the Crozier files in SHAT 7N 926, especially 27 October 1915, 7 December 1915, 5 January 1916, 29 January 1916.

32. MI 25345, 12 March 1918; L'Oeuvre , 20 March 1918; Le Temps , 20 March 1918, 10 May 1919; Le Petit Parisien , 31 January 1919; Bellanger, Histoire , 3:431-33.

33. For an example of the attacks on her life story, and one that refers to others, see Alphonse Boudard, La fermeture (Paris: Robert Laffont, 1986). Paris police officials have told me that their archives do not include a dossier on Richard.

34. Jean Violan, Dans l'air et dans la boue: mes missions de guerre (Paris: Librairie des Champs-Elysées, 1933), 219. Violan was the pen name of Davrichevii (or Davrichewy). P.-Louis Rivière, who worked with French intelligence during the war and was in a position to know the truth, refers to Ladoux's book on Richard as "a pleasant blending of fact and fiction designed above all to amuse the reader." Rivière, Centre , 63.è

35. For an example of this kind of writing see Jean Norton Cru, Témoins: essai d'analyse et de critique des souvenirs de combattants édités en franais de 1915 à 1928 (Paris: Les Etincelles, 1929).

36. On this point see also Boileau and Narcejac, Roman , 194-95.è

37. Allard, Espions ; Robert Boucard, Les dessous de l'espionnage franais (Paris: Editions de France, 1934). The movie appears to have been based on the Ladoux edition

38. Marthe Richard, Espions de guerre et de paix (1920-1938) (Paris: Editions de France, 1938); Marthe Richard, Mes dernières missions secrètes: Espagne 1936-1938 (Paris: Editions de France, 1939).

39. In addition to the two cited above is a work Crozier wrote under the name of Pierre Desgranges, Au service des marchands d'armes (Paris: Redier, 1934).

40. Allard, Espions , 15-16.

41. Joseph Kessel, Mermoz (Paris: Gallimard, 1938), 124-25, 143, 160, 166, 178-79, 201-2.

42. The best example is Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, Night Flight , trans. Stuart

Gilbert, and Wind, Sand, and Stars , trans. Lewis Galantière, both in Airman's Odyssey (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1984). The two stories were originally published respectively as Vol de nuit (Paris: Gallimard, 1931) and Terre des hommes (Paris: Gallimard, 1939). See also Bùi Xuân Bào, Naissance d'un héroisme nouveau dans les lettres franaises de l'entre-deux-guerres: aviation et littérature (Paris: Faculté des lettres et des sciences humaines de l'Université de Paris, 1961); Robert Wohl, "Par la voie des airs: l'entrée de l'aviation dans le monde des lettres françaises, 1909-1939," Le Mouvement Social 145 (December 1988): 41-64. The ties between the mystique of flying and business needs were also noted by Geoffry Stone in a 1932 review of Vol de nuit cited in Bào, Naissance , 201.

43. Kessel, Mermoz , 293-304, 400.

44. Ibid.; Yves Courrière, Joseph Kessel, ou sur la piste du lion (Paris: Plon, 1985), 496. For a different interpretation of the book, see Wohl, "Par la vole," 55.

45. For a fascinating discussion of mystique and technology in the German context, see Peter Fritzsche, A Nation of Fliers: German Aviation and the Popular Imagination (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992), Chapter 4.

46. Mermoz, Mes vols (Paris: Flammarion, 1937), 130-31.

47. See the wonderful account in Seagrave, Epic .

48. Violan, L'air , 26-27; Ladoux, Marthe , 31; Crozier, Missions , 19.

49. Dekobra, Madonna , 35.

50. Ibid., 306.

51. Paul Morand, Flèche d'Orient (Paris: Gallimard, 1932).

52. Joseph Kessel, Les nuits de Sibérie (Paris: Flammarion, 1928); Courrière, Kessel , 142-58 (quoted 155).è

53. Roger Vercel, Capitaine Conan (Paris: Albin Michel, 1934), 91, 140, 145, 148, 210. For an extended discussion of the novel see Maurice Rieuneau, Guerre et révolution dans le roman franais de 1919-1939 (Klincksieck, 1974), 349-60.

54. Richard, writing under the name of Richer, Vie , 4. It is interesting that one of the great pilot heroes from the war, Georges Guynemer, has been described thus: "Il tuait sans merci et semblait y prendre plaisir; il tenait la comptabilité de ses victoires avec la précision d'un professionel du gros gibier." Wohl, "Par la voie," 47. Fritzsche makes the same point in Nation , 96.

55. Ladoux, Souvenirs .

56. Richard, Espions , 61-62.

57. The old storytelling urges died hard and never disappeared altogether, returning in her 1974 memoirs. See Destin , 292-319.

58. Allard, Espions , 24.

59. Richard, Espions , 168.

60. Ladoux, Marthe , 85-86.

61. Teddy Legrand, Les sept têtes du dragon vert (Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1933). Estimated sales were between 5,000 and 10,000.

62. Détective , 6 February, pp. 4, 13; 13 February, pp. 4, 5.

63. Ibid., 25 November 1937, p. 2; 20 January 1938, p. 4; 3 February 1938, p. 5.

64. Le Journal , 17 February 1930; Le Matin , 29 September 1937. Le Matin's circulation was about 700,000 in 1920, down to about 500,000 by the mid 1930s, and 320,000 by the end of the thirties: Bellanger, Histoire , 3:311, 519.

65. Le Journal , 1 February 1930; Le Petit Parisien , 2 February 1930; Le Matin , 6 December 1938; Le Journal 26 September 1937; Paris-Soir , 25 September 1937.

66. Paris-Soir , 28 October 1938. Some earlier references to Schulz can be found in Robert G. L. Waite, Vanguard of Nazism (New York: Norton, 1969), 45, 242, 254. The article referred to him as Schultz. His name also turned up several years earlier as one of the presumed perpetrators in the Jacob kidnapping: Le Petit Journal , 23 March 1935; Le Journal , 2 April 1935.

67. Police Magazine , 10 October 1937, pp. 8-10.

68. De Jong, Fifth ; Paul Allard, Quand Hitler espionne la France (Paris: Editions de France, 1934). See also Allard, Espions , and La guerre des espions (Paris: Flammarion, 1936). The newspaper articles are from Match , 16 February 1939; Paris-Soir , 31 December 1938. Allard also published articles in Détective .

69. Bellanger, Histoire , 3:461.

70. Le Petit Parisien , 14 June, 1932. According to Paris-Soir , 4 November 1934, three trains were actually dynamited.

71. An earlier trial had been conducted in Austria in the summer of 1932, but it covered only the first two of Matuska's attempts.

72. Kiss had died several years before the dynamitings. Debates about Kiss, Matuska, and hypnotism thus raised the question as well whether suggestions could be implanted in advance in the mind of a subject. For a good discussion of late-nineteenth-century fascination with the criminological implications of hypnotism, see Ruth Harris, Murders and Madness (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), chap. 5.

73. Paris-Soir , 4-21 November 1934 (quoted at length 4 November); Détective , 19 November 1931. Le Petit Parisien provided a more sober account of the trial, although here too the accent was on the strange personality of Matuska and not on the ideological possibilities embedded in the case. For an example of courtroom and press theatrics in France, extending back to the Belle Epoque, see Edward Berenson, The Trial of Madame Caillaux (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992).

74. Paris-Soir , 4 October 1937.

75. Poretsky, People , especially chaps. 9, 10; Chenevier, Combes , 37-48; press accounts in Paris-Soir, Le Petit Parisien, Le Journal .

76. See also Le Petit Parisien , 3 October 1937 on the Reiss murder and its relation to other recent stories: "Magnificent scenario, moreover, for a film of mystery and blood. . . ."

77. APP BA 1667, 3 May 1937, 6 August 1937, 13 August 1937, 24 August 1937, 26 August 1937.

78. APP BA 1654, 13 February 1930.

79. Grégoire Bessedovsky, Oui, j'accuse: au service des soviets (Paris: Redier, 1930), 39-40, 45-46.

80. MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 URSS 1089, 5 March 1930.

81. Albert Londres, The Road to Buenos Ayres , trans. Eric Sutton (New York:

Blue Ribbon Books, 1928; originally published as Le chemin de Buenos-Aires [Paris: Albin Michel, 1927]), 62-63, 134-36 (quoted).

82. Albert Londres, Les comitadjis, ou le terrorisme dans les Balkans (Paris: Al-bin Michel, 1932), especially 78-79, 168; Jacques Deval, Rives pacifiques (Paris: Gallimard, 1937), 142-44 (see chap. 4); Jean Bommart, The Chinese Fish , trans. Milton Waldman (London: Longmans Green and Co., 1935; originally published as Le poisson chinois [Paris: Librairie des Champs-Elysées, 1934]); Bommart, Hélène , and La dame de Valparaiso: les débuts du poisson chinois (Paris: Librairie des Champs-Elysées, 1940). Part of Londres's Comitadjis appeared in the Petit Parisien . On Londres's life: Paul Mousset, Albert Londres, ou l'aventure du grand reportage (Paris: Grasset, 1972); Pierre Assouline, Albert Londres: vie et mort d'un grand reporter, 1884-1932 (Paris: Balland, 1989).

83. Edward R. Tannenbaum, 1900: The Generation Before the Great War (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1977), 237. Tannenbaum's chapter 6 on the evolution of popular culture at the end of the nineteenth century is perceptive throughout. See also Richard Terdiman, Discourse/Counter-Discourse: The Theory and Practice of Symbolic Resistance in Nineteenth-Century France (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985), chap. 2.

84. Le Journal , 26 September 1937.

85. Bommart, Fish , 12-14.

86. Michael B. Palmer, Des petits journaux aux grands agences: naissance du journalisme moderne (Paris: Aubier Montaigne, 1983), 23-32, 114, 171, 180-81, 253; Francine Amaury, Histoire du plus grand quotidien de la Troisième République: Le Petit Parisien, 1876-1944 (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1972); Bellanger, Histoire , 3:140-43, 220-22, 275-81, 295-316; Tannenbaum, 1900 , 228-37; Madeleine Varin d'Ainvelle, La presse en France: genèse et évolution de ses fonctions psycho-sociales (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1965), 201-25; Berenson, Trial , 211-17.

87. Bellanger, Histoire , 3:270-74. For these affairs see chapter 1.

88. L'Eclair , 14 December 1890, "AFFAIRE SELIVERSTOFF/COMMENT J'AI FAIT EVADER PADLEWSKI" by Georges De Labruyère.

89. Le Matin , 12 February 1909 (quoted), 17 February 1909 (on torture).

90. Bellanger, Histoire , 3:449-60; Amaury, Histoire , 101, 280-91, 420.

91. Bellanger, Histoire , 3:397, 122-30, 280, 476.

92. Ibid., 3:460.

93. Paris-Soir , 26 May 1938.

94. Bellanger, Histoire , 3:524-25.

95. Ibid., 527, 597-602; Catherine Maisonneuve, "Détective" (Mémoire de l'Université de droit, économie, et sciences sociales, Paris II, 1974), 5, 9-11, 64, 70-71; Courrière, Kessel , 330-34, 415; Marcel Montarron, Tout ce joli monde (Paris: Table Ronde, 1965).

96. Le Matin , 13 November 1937.

97. Paris-Soir , 23 February 1938.

98. Accounts of her life in newspapers vary. A good corrective is Grey, Général , 132-49.

99. Paris-Soir , 3 October 1937.

100. AA Botschaft Madrid, AZ: 700-709, Frankreich 1937-1940, December 1939.

101. Montarron, Tout , 39.

102. Le Petit Parisien , 12-17 December 1938.

103. For an example of an earlier argument for control, see Robert J. Young, In Command of France: French Foreign Policy and Military Planning, 1933-1940 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1978).

Chapter Four Shanghai

1. Jean Marquès-Rivière, La Chine dans le monde (Paris: Payot, 1935; 3,000 copies printed), 122; O.-P. Gilbert, Courrier d'Asie (Paris: Gallimard, 1937; 5,500 copies printed), 10; Albert Londres, La Chine en folie (Paris: Albin Michel, 1925), 191-92.

2. Betty Peh-T'i Wei, Shanghai: Crucible of Modern China (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), 5-8.

3. Ibid., 213; All About Shanghai: A Standard Guidebook (1934-1935; reprint, Oxford: Oxford Paperbacks, 1986), 33-34; Marie-Claire Bergère, The Golden Age of the Chinese Bourgeoisie, 1911-1937 , trans. Janet Lloyd (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 100.

4. Marc Chadourne, China , trans. Harry Block (New York: Covici-Friede, 1932; originally published as Chine [Paris: Plon, 1931; 19,470 copies printed]), 78.

5. Wei, Shanghai , 123-27, 154, 159-60. The source to see on Shanghai's Chinese entrepreneurs is Bergère, Golden Age . There is also a good discussion of foreign business in Nicholas Clifford's superb account of Shanghai in the 1920s: Spoilt Children of Empire: Westerners in Shanghai and the Chinese Revolution of the 1920s (Hanover: University Press of New England, 1991).

6. Marquès-Rivière, Chine , 118; Francis de Croisset, Le dragon blessé (Paris: Grasset, 1936), 54; Chadourne, China , 77.

7. All About Shanghai , 1, 29-32, 125. The statistics are from the early to mid-1930s.

8. MAE Asie 1918-1929 Chine 2e partie 1922-1929 336, 9 July 1923, pp. 32-37, 18 February 1924, pp. 52-70.è

9. All About Shanghai , 118 (on bodies); Vicki Baum, Shanghai '37 , trans. Basil Creighton (1939; reprint, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986), 345 (the book was first published in German in Amsterdam under the title Hotel Shanghai ); Charles B. Maybon and Jean Fredet, Histoire de la concession franaise de Changhaï (Paris: Plon, 1929), 249-50.

10. Jean Raynaud, Guerre en Asie (Dinard: Braun et Liorit, 1939), 86; Marc Chadourne, Tour de la terre: Extrême-Orient (Paris: Plon, 1935), 128; Gilbert, Courtier , 10.

11. SMP reel 7, D 3094.

12. Chennevier, Combe , 143-44 (on Buisson); AN F7 14679 (on the Corsican—Joseph T., and on Emmanuel Y.); SMP reel 66, IO 8983.

13. Wei, Shanghai , 113, 146.

14. Much of the following account is indebted to Brian G. Martin, '''The Pact with the Devil': The Relationship between the Green Gang and the French Concession authorities, 1925-1935," Papers on Far Eastern History 39 (March 1989): 93-116. See also SMP reel 56, D 9319, "Memorandum on Mr. Tu Yueh-sung alias Tu Yuin"; MAE Asie 1918-1929 Chine 2e partie 1922-1929 336, 18 February 1924, 21 July 1924; Wei, Shanghai , 3-4, 228-35; Clifford, Spoilt , 48-52, 251-56, 267-68.

15. There is also the case of the ex-detective Alfonsi who left the force in 1922. In 1924 he returned to Shanghai practically broke. Failing to regain his position with the concession police, he pimped for a while and then worked in a questionable capacity for a French lawyer. In 1930 he went to Indochina where he was arrested and convicted for contraband traffic in arms. Upon leaving prison he returned to Shanghai where he was suspected of being an arms and drug merchant. As of 1935 he was living in a room above a cheap Chinese restaurant. See SMP reel 23, D 6695, 18 May 1935.

16. Wei, Shanghai , 235 (which quotes Who's Who ).

17. MM 1BB7 93, 8 December 1938 (Service transit de Shanghai, "Situations et problèmes dans le Pacifique," 96-page report, p. 55).

18. Jean Fontenoy, Shanghaï secret (Paris: Grasset, 1938), 89-90.

19. All About Shanghai , xi.

20. SMP reel 34, D 8012, 3 July 1937, 19 July 1937.

21. Gilbert, Courrier , 8, 12, 207-8.

22. Champly, Road . For other descriptions of White Russian women see Gilbert, Courtier , 183-95 (quoted 187, "femmes russes"); R. D'Auxion de Ruffé, Chine et chinois d'aujourd'hui: le nouveau péril jaune (Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1926), 231-36; T'itaÿna, Nuits chaudes (Paris: Gallimard, 1934), 107-9; Chadourne, China , 96; G. E. Miller, Shanghai, The Paradise of Adventurers (New York: Orsay Publishing House, 1937), 31-33.

23. MI 25344, 6 February 1930 (on Semenov's organization in the Orient with its center in Shanghai); MM 1BB7 93, 10 December 1936 (Service transit de Shanghaï, "Compte-rendu de renseignements no. 14," p. 19: on Semenov's recruitment in Shanghai and his ties to the Japanese); OM Affaires politiques 1416, 15 March 1938 (Bulletin mensuel de renseignements [hereafter, BMR]; again on the Japanese, White Russians, and Semenov); Hoover N., letter dated 2 July 1937 (from Miller to Michel Sobludaeff).

24. SMP reel 34, D 8016, 20 July 1937. This report describes Znamenskii (Znamensky) as a highly nervous individual and raises questions about the reliability of the information he was providing, especially in regard to his language skills.

25. Barbara W. Tuckman, Stilwell and the American Experience in China, 1911-1945 (New York, Bantam, 1972), 119, 135-38.

26. SMP reel 50, D 8394, 25 July 1938, 13 March 1938, 14 March 1938.

27. SMP reel 56, D 9341 (on Dick); Paule Herfort, Sous le soleil levant (vo-

yage aventureux) (Paris: Baudinière, 1943), 104; Vu et Lu , "Shanghaï: sa grandeur, ses mystères," 25 August 1937; Malraux, Man's Fate ; Charles Plisnier, Faux passeports (Paris: R. A. Corréa, 1937). See also Gilbert, Courtier ; Champly, Road ; Baum, Shanghai ; Fontenoy, Shanghaï , 43, 204-5; Boucard, Les Dessous de L'intelligence service , 195.

28. OM PA 9, 3, 17 August 1912 ("Note" in Mission Przyluski juin-juillet 1912 dossier), 2 October 1913 (Beauvais to Sarraut).

29. AN F7 13498, 29 November 1926 ("Action bolchevique à Shanghaï"); C. Martin Wilbur and Julie Lien-ying How, Missionaries of Revolution: Soviet Advisers and Nationalist China, 1920-1927 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989), 322.

30. A renegade Soviet intelligence agent who called himself Captain Pick provided crucial information that allowed detectives in 1927 to shadow and ferret out Russians seeking to hide among the thousands of foreigners in the city; Pick published a book that detailed a vast Soviet conspiracy in the East. His real name was Eugen Kozhevnikov and he appears to have worked at one time for both American and British intelligence. In 1931 he was sentenced to a year in prison for having posed as a military adviser to the Chinese army in an arms deal worth nearly two million dollars—another life consistent with the age and one that reeks of the peculiar atmosphere of Shanghai. Wilbur, Missionaries , 422; SMP reel 6, D 2523, 22 September 1931, 10 May 1932; Eugene Pick, China in the Grip of the Reds (Shanghai: North China Daily News and Her-aid, 1927; published in France as La Chine dans les griffes rouges , trans. Michel Egrory [Paris: Editions Spes, 1928]).è

31. SMP reel 1, D 68, 25 February 1929, 28 January 1930 (on Bulgakova-Belskii/Boulgakova-Belsky); OM SLIII 133, 23 May 1930; Daniel Hémery, Révolutionnaires vietnamiens et pouvoir colonial en Indochine: communistes, trotskystes, nationalistes à Saigon de 1932 à 1937 (Paris: Editions Franois Maspero, 1975), 25-26; OM SLIII 59, April 1937; OM SLVIII 14, 11 February 1933 (22-page Straits settlements note); Johnson, Instance , 66-83, 103, 162-64; Rote Kapelle , 277-78, 286-87. Hamburger's brother was Jürgen Kuczynski, who was involved with Klaus Fuchs.

32. MAE E Asie-Océanie Affaires communes 1930-1940 90, 22 April 1936, pp. 204-6.

33. SMP reel 57, D 9388, 30 December 1940, 26 March 1941, 8 April 1941.

34. Mader, Hitlers Spionagegenerale , 306, 312; SMP reel 1, D 67, 25 February 1929; MA RW49/58, RW49/523, Otto Benecke (steward on the steamer Gneisenau ).è

35. MM 1BB7 93, 7 February 1929; MAE E Asie-Océanie Indochine franaise 1930-1940 52, 21 January 1938, 30 July 1938, 2 March 1939; OM SLIII 48, March-April 1931 ("Les associations anti-françaises," part I, p. 46).

36. SMP reel 58, D 9478(c); SMP reel 59, D 9543(c), 21 November 1939, 5 March 1941.

37. Wei, Shanghai , 178 (quoted), 185-204; Geoffrey Barraclough, An Introduction to Contemporary History (New York: Basic Books, 1964).

38. Johnson, Instance , 46-47.

39. Wilbur, Missionaries ; Franz Borkenau, World Communism: A History of the Communist International (1939; reprint, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1962), 289-93.

40. Marie-Claire Bergère, "'The Other China': Shanghai from 1919 to 1949 ," in Shanghai: Revolution and Development in an Asian Metropolis , ed. Christopher Howe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 11.

41. Wilbur, Missionaries , 60-61.

42. Malraux, Man's Fate .

43. Raynaud, Asie , 86-89.

44. Martin, "Pact; 98, 113.

45. All About Shanghai , 197-98. Altogether there were nine steamship lines one could take from Europe to Shanghai.

46. Joseph Kessel, Wagon-lit (Paris: Gallimard, 1932), 12-13; Chadourne, China , 96; de Croisset, Dragon , 79; Vu et Lu , 25 August 1937; Herfort, Sous le soleil , 101-2; Gilbert, Courrier , 8-12; Baum, Shanghai , 393-95; Edgar Snow, Journey to the Beginning (New York: Random House, 1958), 16-17. Fontenoy was a journalist and Havas agent who spent time in Shanghai in the late twenties or early thirties. He sent at least one intelligence report to the government from there. Later he became a follower of Eugène Deloncle (a Cagoule terrorist) and second in command of Deloncle's Mouvement socialiste révolutionnaire in 1940. During the Second World War he was to fight on the Russian front with the Anti-Bolshevik Legion. See Bertram Gordon, Collaborationism in France During the Second World War (Ithaca: Cornell Univesity Press, 1990), 69-71; OM SLIII 133, 23 May 1930.

47. For this and the next two place-names I have retained the original spelling from the French text.

48. SHAT, 7N 709, 30 April 1915.

49. OM Affaires politiques 900, 27 June 1936 (GG AOF to Ministry of Colonies).

50. OM Affaires politiques 1416, 26 February 1937 (BMR no. 12, annexe no. 1, p. 3—quoted). This report is signed by Colonel Jacomey, chef de la section d'études. On Ahlers: ibid., p. 16-17. See also Whealey, Hitler and Spain , 123, 125 (where he identifies Ahlers as an intelligence operative).

51. AN F60 707, 1 February 1938 ("L'action allemande en Afrique"), pp. 9-10; OM Affaires politiques 1416, 15 July 1938 (BMR, pp. 72-73); ibid., 15 June 1937 (BMR on Spanish Guinea); OM Affaires politiques 900, March 1936.

49. OM Affaires politiques 900, 27 June 1936 (GG AOF to Ministry of Colonies).

52. OM Affaires politiques 900, March 1936; AN F60 707, 1 February 1938 ("Action allemande"), p. 4; AN F60 754, 8 May 1935 ("La propagande étrangère en Maroc"), p. 7; OM Affaires politiques 1416, 15 July 1938 (BMR, pp. 70-71); OM Affaires politiques 900, n.d. (approx. 1935-1936; entitled ''Cameroun"). For earlier reports on German intrigues in Africa right after the war see OM SLIII92, 31 December 1919, 10 July 1920, 16 October 1920, 13 June 1922 (internal memo dated 10 August 1922), and the Impex reports cited in chapter 1. See also Schellenberg's description of his spy mission to Dakar in 1938 in Walter Schellenberg, The Labyrinth , trans. Louis Hagen (New York: Harper, 1956), 38-42.

53. OM SLIX 3, 22 July 1927; Mader, Hitlers Spionagegenerale , 306-7, 314, 318; MA RW49/528 (Benecke—steward); MA RW49/530 (Reck); MAE E Asie-Océanie Affaires communes 1930-1940 90, 7 January 1938, p. 252; OM Affaires politiques 1416 15 July 1938 (BMR, pp. 74-76); ibid., 15 August 1938 (BMR, pp. 86-87). Although the Germans trod softly in the Middle East during the 1930s to avoid antagonizing either the British or Mussolini, by late 1937 or at least 1938 they were adopting a more aggressive policy, including Abwehr activities: Robert Lewis Melka, "The Axis and the Arab Middle East: 1930-1945" (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1966), 36-76. See also Vernier, 38-39, 60-61.

54. See the discussion of White Russians and Japan in chapter 2. See also SHAT 7N 3124, 26 December 1935; Louis Allen, "Japanese Intelligence Systems," Journal of Contemporary History 22 (October 1987): 554-55.è

55. On Dutch East Indies: OM Affaires politiques 2655, 11 March 1933, 18 March 1933, 1 December 1937; OM Affaires politiques 1416, 10 July 1939 (BMR, p. 41). On China: MM 1BB7 93, 8 December 1938 (96-page Shanghai transit report, p. 44). On Indochina, MAE E Asie-Océanie Indochine franaise 1930-1940 30, 29 May 1935, pp. 44-45. On Port Said: MAE E Asie-Océanie Affaires communes 1930-1940 100, 11 June 1938, pp. 139-42. On European agents: OM SLII 23, 4 May 1938; AN F7 14758, 1 March 1939. From the OM SLII 23 dossier it is clear that the French were tapping Japanese embassy phone conversations. According to Paul Paillole, phone taps allowed French counterintelligence to uncover a Japanese attempt to steal the design plans to a French fighter plane engine. Paillole, Services , 83.è

56. Archival material on worldwide Comintern activity is voluminous. Some of the most interesting international reporting includes AN F7 13506, n.d. (probably from early 1920s; first page missing); OM SLIII 101, 31 December 1923 ("Note sur la propagande"); AN F7 13170, 29 November 1929 ("Chronique de l'action du komintern en Orient"); OM Affaires politiques 1416, 15 June 1937 (BMR). On centrals: SHAT 3H 102, "Fin août 1925'' (on transfers from Vienna); OM SLIII 133, 6 November 1933 ("Rapport de mission aux Straits settlements," p. 18); OM SLIII 59, January 1937 ("Note périodique no. 48"). On formal training in Russia: OM SLIII 133, especially 22 March 1933. On circuits: OM SLIII 141, 24 November 1931, 25 January 1932; OM SLIII 56, n.d. (approx. 1929, "La propagande communiste,' p. 22 on Bon Marché). On the Sûreté and Colonial intelligence: Hémery, Révolutionnaires , 157-60; OM SLIII 133, 14 April 1925, 6 November 1933 ("Rapport," p. 2 on "Typhoon"); MAE E Asie-Océanie Indochine franaise 1930-1940 52, 21 January 1938.è

57. OM SLIII 48, 23 October 1929 ("Les associations anti-franaises"), pp. 5-6.

58. See, e.g., Stephen Kern, The Culture of Time and Space: 1880-1918 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983), 223-58.

59. Barrie Cadwallader, Crisis of the European Mind: A Study of André Malraux and Drieu La Rochelle (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1981).

60. OM SLIII 133, 12 March 1935, 19 December 1934; OM SLIII 35, 19 June 1929 (on proposal of Chinese Nationalists to build a radio station that

could reach Chinese communities around the world); AN F60 710, 26 April 1939; Paris-Soir , 28 January 1938, 9 August 1939; see also chapters 1, 2. On the worldwide scope of radio see Arno Huth, La radiodiffusion: puissance mondiale (Paris: Gallimard, 1937). Initiatives toward setting up worldwide radio networks preceded the war. See Daniel R. Headrick, The Invisible Weapon: Telecommunications and International Politics, 1851-1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), chap. 7.

61. See, for example, the following assertions of a sense of control that accompanied warnings or identifications of suspicious characters: OM Affaires politiques 900, 27 June 1936 (GGAOF to Ministry of Colonies); OM Affairs politiques 920, March 1928 (Annex to report no. 1 of the Haut comité méditerranéen, pp. 69-70); AN F60 707, 1 February 1938 ("L'action allemande en Afrique"); OM SLIII 56, n. d. ("Note," p. 7).

62. Jean Marquès-Rivière, L'U.R.S.S ., 316, 345-46, 297; Antoine Zischaka, Le Japon dans le monde: l'expansion nippone, 1854-1934 (Paris: Payot, 1934 ), 145-46, 150-51; Pierre Dehillotte, Gestapo (Paris: Payot, 1940); Allard, Quand; Le Petit Journal , 24 April 1931; Titaÿna, Nuits , 122; Lucieto, Livrés ; Jean Bommart, La dame de Valparaiso: les débuts du poisson chinois (1940; reprint, Paris: Editions de Flore, 1948); Apestéguy, Roi (this book won the Grand Prix du Roman d'Aventures in 1939 and eventually sold 50,000 copies); Jean Joffroy, Espionnage en Asie (Paris: Baudinière, 1939). Espionnage was published in the Secret War series, and Joffroy may be a Marquès-Rivière pseudonym. Before 1914 only the Russo-Japanese War and pan-Islam seem to have educed much interest in spies in faraway places. See such works as R. Castex, Jaunes contre blancs: le problème militaire indo-chinois (Paris: Henri Charles-Lavauzelle, 1905), 25, 48-49; André Chéradame, Le monde et la guerre russo-japonaise (Paris: Plon, 1906); Landau, Pan-Islam , 65-67.

63. Bernard Wasserstein, The Secret Lives of Trebitsch Lincoln (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988).

64. Laporte, Bouddha ; Imré Gyomaï, Trebitsch Lincoln: le plus grand aventurier du siècle (Paris: Editions de France, 1939); Boucard, Les Dessous de L'intelligence service , 77-86; Victor Meulenijzer, Colonel , 221-29; Le Petit Journal , 3-4 May 1931; Paris-Soir , 26 March 1934, 28 June 1938; Vu , 24 June 1932, 11 November 1932; Lucieto, Livrés , 107; Legrand, Sept ; Bommart, Valparaiso . Much of the legend was built on Lincoln's own self-promotion. On this see Wasserstein, Secret , and the two books Lincoln published about himself, I. T. T. Lincoln, Revelations of an International Spy (New York: Robert M. McBride, 1916); J. T. Trebitsch Lincoln, The Autobiography of an Adventurer , trans. Emile Bums (New York: Henry Holt, 1932).

65. Wasserstein, Secret Lives , 120, 199, 219-20.

66. On Russo-Japanese conflict see Rend Pinon, La lutte pour le Pacifique: origines et résultats de la guerre russo-japonaise (Paris: Perrin, 1906), ix. See also Chéradame, Monde ; Castex, Jaunes . For a more sanguine view from these years see Louis Aubert, Paix japonaise (Paris: Armand Colin, 1906).

67. A. Demangeon, Le déclin de l'Europe (1920; reprint, Paris: Guenegaud, 1975), 12-13; Edouard Herriot, La Russie nouvelle (Paris: J. Ferenczi et Fils, 1922), 271; Pierre Lyautey, Chine ou Japon (1932-1933) (Pads: Plon, 1933;

5,500 copies printed), 235; Gregory Bienstock, La lutte pour le Pacifique , trans. André Guieu (Paris: Payot, 1938; 3,000 copies printed), 9-10; Chadourne, Extrême-Orient , 217 (12,100 copies printed); Roger Labonne, Le tapis vert du Pacifique (Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1936; estimated sales 2,000-3,000), vii; A. F. Legendre, La crise mondiale: l'Asie contre l'Europe (Paris: Plon, 1932).

68. Maurice Muret, The Twilight of the White Races , trans. Mrs. Touzalin (New York: Charles Scribner's, 1926; originally published as Le crépuscule des nations blancs [Paris: Payot, 1925]); Lothrop Stoddard, The Rising Tide of Color (New York: Charles Scribner's, 1920; trans. by Abdel Doysié as Le flot montant des peuples de couleur contre la suprématie mondiale des blancs [Paris: Payot, 1925; 3,000 copies printed]); Massis, Défense (15,400 copies printed); Chadourne, Extrême-Orient , 221; Paris-Soir , 11 November 1938 (advertising a forthcoming article in Match ); Herriot's remarks cited in Excelsior , 22 January 1933 (circulation about 100,000); each of Sax Rohmer's Fu Manchu novels published in France in the 1930s seems to have sold out its printing run in the course of the decade. For a good survey of yellow-peril literature in France see Jacques Decornoy, Péril jaune, peur blanche (Paris: Grasset, 1970). On Jews: Céline, Bagatelles , 77; Muret, Twilight , 45-58; Jérome Tharaud and Jean Tharaud, Quand Israël est roi (Paris: Plon, 1921; 40,000 copies printed), 19-29, 290-91; Jean Giraudoux, Pleins pouvoirs (Paris: Gallimard, 1939; 20,900 copies printed), 62; Champly, Road , 206; Paul Morand's discussion of Renaud's name change in Bouddha vivant (Paris: Grasset, 1927; 49,000 copies printed), 15-16. For earlier references to Asiatic Jews see Wilson, Ideology , 334, 475.

69. See, for example, the two descriptions of train travel in Chadourne, China , 172-73; Yvon Delbos, L'expérience rouge (Paris: Au Sans Pareil, 1933), 39.

70. Marc Chadourne, L'U.R.S.S. sans passion (Paris: Plon, 1932; 15,900 copies printed), v; Roland Dorgelès, Vive la liberté (Paris: Albin Michel, 1937), 14; Paul Morand, Rien que la terre (Paris: Grasset, 1926), 23.

71. De Chessin, Nuit , 5-6, 243. For some other examples see A. de Pouvourville, Griffes rouges sur l'Asie (Paris: Baudinière, 1933), 226-29; Legendre, Crise .

72. Meulenijzer, Colonel , 221.

73. Werner Otto von Hentig, Meine Diplomatenfahrt ins verschlossene Land (Berlin: Ullstein, 1918), quoted 108, 159; Vogel, Persien ; Gehrke, Persien .è

74. Good summaries of Arctic and tropical exploration can be found in Pierre Berton, The Arctic Grail: The Quest for the North West Passage and the North Pole, 1818-1909 (New York: Viking, 1988) and Alan Moorehead, The White Nile (New York: Vintage, 1983). On Lenz: Guillen, L'Allemagne , 118-20. On Caillié: Galbraith Welch, The Unveiling of Timbuctoo: The Astounding Adventures of Caillié (1939; reprint, New York: Carroll and Graf, 1991). On Przhevalskii: Donald Rayfield, The Dream of Lhasa: The Life of Nikolay Przhevalsky (1839-1888), Explorer of Central Asia (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1976). On French exploration: Numa Broc, "Les explorateurs franais du XIXe siècle reconsidérés," Revue française d'histoire d'outre-mer 69 (1982): 237-73; Numa Broc, Dictionnaire illustrée des explorateurs français du XIX siècle: Afrique (Paris: Editions du C.T.H.S., 1988). Hopkirk, Great Game .

75. Alain Gerbault, Seul à travers l'Atlantique (Paris: Grasset, 1924; 99,500 copies printed).

76. Oskar von Niedermayer, Unter der Glutsonne Irans. Kriegserlebnisse der deutschen Expedition nach Persien und Afghanistan (Munich: Einhorn, 1925); Vogel, Persien , 100-101. On Burton: Byron Farwell, Burton: A Biography of Sir Richard Francis Burton (London: Penguin, 1990); Edward Rice, Captain Sir Richard Francis Burton: The Secret Agent Who Made the Pilgrimage to Mecca, Discovered the Kama Sutra, and Brought the Arabian Nights to the West (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1990). Despite the grand title of the latter, there is no indication that Burton was acting in any official capacity on his voyage to Mecca nor indeed at any other time during his famous journeys aside from some earlier reconnaissance missions in India.

77. See, for example, L.C. Dunsterville, The Adventures of Dunsterforce (London: Edward Arnold, 1920).

78. Vera Brittain, Testament of Youth (1933; reprint, London: Penguin, 1989), 526; Emile Pagès, La grande étape: 1918; ceux de la «sans-fil» (Paris: Tallandier, 1931); Courrière, Kessel , chaps. 7-8.

79. Jean Lacouture, André Malraux , trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Pantheon, 1973; originally published as André Malraux: une vie dans le siècle [Paris: Seuil, 1973]), 17.

80. Jacobs, Borodin .

81. Wilbur, Missionaries , 7-15; Jacobs, Borodin , 153-56, 280-81; Vera Vishniakova-Akimova, Two Years in Revolutionary China, 1925-1927 , trans. Steven Levine (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971).

82. Ossendowski was the transliteration of the period under which his editions (including the English) were published.

83. Ferdinand Ossendowski, Bêtes, hommes, et dieux , trans. Robert Renard (Paris: Plon, 1924). Quotes are from the English edition, from which the French edition was translated: Beasts, Men, and Gods (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1922), 38, 78, 160.

84. Ibid., i. The Robinson Crusoe image was first used in a book review of the original edition. On earlier adventures see Ferdinand Ossendowski, L'homme et le mystère en Asie , trans. Robert Renard (Paris: Plon, 1925). According to this edition the earlier volume sold 40,000 copies.

85. Ella Maillart, Oasis interdites de Pékin au Cachemire (Paris: Grasset, 1937), 12, 14, 25-26.

86. Seagrave, Epic .

87. Luigi Barzini, Peking to Paris: A Journey Across Two Continents in 1907 , with introduction by Luigi Barzini Jr., trans. L. P. de Castelvecchio (1908; reprint, London: Penguin, 1986), xi, 344.

88. See the sections on Amudsen and Peary in Bertin, Arctic .

89. Georges-Marie Haardt and Louis Audoin-Dubreuil, La croisière noire: expédition Citroën centre-Afrique (Paris: Plon, 1927; 54,700 copies printed); Georges Le Fèvre, La croisière jaune (Paris: Plon, 1933), iv. By the mid-1920s the Croisière noire was the most ambitious expedition among what was becoming practically a fad to drive through or fly over Africa. In 1924-1925 alone there were seven French crossings of Africa by car or caravan and five aerial long-

distance runs over the continent. Some, like Marc Bernard's seaplane crossing of Africa in late 1926, shared in the sort of planning that characterized the Crosière noire. L'Illustration , 9 January 1926, pp. 28-32; Edmond Tranin, Sur le dixième parallèle (Paris: Grasset, 1926; 3,000 copies sold); Marc Bernard, En hydravion au dessus du continent noir (Paris: Grasset, 1927; 10,000 copies printed).

90. Roy Chapman Andrews, The New Conquest of Central Asia: A Narrative of the Explorations of the Central Asiatic Expeditions in Mongolia and China, 1921-1930 (New York: American Museum of Natural History, 1932), 5, 7, 13, 10, 16-17.

91. Andrews, New Conquest , 15, 62-63, 331.

92. L. V. S. Blacker, Mes patrouilles secrètes en haute Asie , trans. R. Hendry-Charcot (Paris: Payot, 1933); Dunsterville, Adventures ; Alma Jane Plotke, "The Dunsterforce Military/Intelligence Mission to North Persia in 1918" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 1987).

93. On the cattle drive see SHAT 7N 709, 26 April 1917.

94. Vernier, Politique , 97.

95. OM Affaires politiques 900, 27 June 1936; OM Affaires politiques 1416, 26 February 1937; AN F60 707, 1 February 1938.

96. Sven Hedin, My Life as an Explorer , trans. Alfhild Huebsch (Garden City: Garden City Publishing, 1925), quoted 15-16, 247; George Kish, To the Heart of Asia: The Life of Sven Hedin (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1984), quoted page preceding preface.

97. Wasserstein, Secret , 227; SMP reel 58, D 9478 (c), 11 December 1939.

98. Nish, "Japanese Intelligence," 17; Hopkirk, Great Game , 204; Win-stone, Illicit .

99. OM Affaires politiques 900, 27 June 1936, 26 July 1934; MAE E Asie-Océanie Affaires communes 63, 21 March 1928, p. 74; Vernier, Politique , 50-51, 18 (there is a copy of Vernier in AN F60 707); Melka, "Axis," 49-50; Mader, Hitlers Spionagegenerale , 325.

100. Gehrke, Persien , 23, 25; Kish, Heart , 2, 94-95, 126-29. A book entitled Germany and World Peace was published in Sweden in 1937, but not in Germany because Hedin refused to delete certain passages that differed from Nazi ideology.

101. Kish, Heart , 111-23; Andrew D. W. Forbes, Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A Political History of Republican Sinkiang, 1911-1949 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), especially 40 (on Schomberg); Lars-Erik Nyman, Great Britain and Chinese Russian and Japanese Interests in Sinkiang, 1918-1934 (Maimö: Esselte Studium 1977); AA Forschungsexpedition Sven Hedins, 11 September 1926; Sven Hedin, Across the Gobi Desert , trans. H. J. Cant (1931; reprint, New York: Greenwood, 1968).

102. Kish, Heart , 115-21; Nyman, Great Britain , 55-56, 92-96.

103. Zischaka, Japon , 253-59.

104. Le Fèvre, Croisière jaune , xv.

105. MAE E Asie 1918-1929 Affaires communes 63, 8 October 1924.

106. Ibid., 24 April 1928. This includes a note dated January 1927, pp. 57-65, and a follow-up note, dated 27 December 1927, pp. 66-71.

107. MAE E Asie-Océanie Affaires communes 1930-1940 116, 6 October

1930, p. 52 (on the release of Bertrand). On Waddington see ibid., 31 March 1931, p. 289.

108. I have left the French transliteration because the family name may have been regularized in France.

109. Le Fèvre, Croisière jaune , xxv-ix; MAE E Asie-Océanie Affaires communes 116, 13 March 1930, p. 5, 26 September 1930, p. 42, "Questionnaire pour le lieutenant de vaisseau Point," pp. 42-44.

110. MAE E Asie 1918-1929 Affaires communes 63, 16 March 1929 (quoted); Le Fèvre, Croisière jaune , ix. On Goerger and negotiations for passage through the Soviet Union, see also MAE E Asie 1918-1929 Affaires communes 64; MAE E Asie-Océanie Affaires communes 1930-1940 116.

111. Other sponsors included the Société de géographie de France, the Muséum d'histoire naturelle, the Institut d'ethnologie, and the Musée Guimet. Haardt made two trips to the United States to firm up the National Geographic Society's support (including financial) of the expedition.

112. L'Illustration , 28 February, 1931, 263-67; Le Fèvre, Croisière jaune , xxi.

113. Le Fèvre, Croisière jaune , xxx-ii.

114. Ibid., xxx, xxxiii-iv; MAE E Asie-Océanie Affaires communes 1930-1940 117, 4 April 1931, 30 April 1931, 24 April 1931.

115. Le Fèvre, Croisière jaune , 4. Quoted also from L'Illustration , 28 February 1931, "La croisière jaune," 267; ibid., 30 May 1931, "Sur la route de Bagdad,' 209; Le Fèvre, Croisière jaune , 33. The following account of the expedition, unless otherwise noted, is from Le Fèvre.

116. MAE E Asie-Océanie Affaires communes 1930-1940 116, 18 February 1931; MAE E Asie-Océanie Affaires communes 1930-1940 118, 7 July 1931, 11 July 1931. When the film from the voyage premiered in Paris in 1934 under the title Croisière jaune , it was boycotted by the Chinese ambassador. Citroën insisted that the title was necessary to guarantee the success of the movie. The Quai found the tide regrettable, but decided there was nothing to do but tell Wellington Koo that there was no intention to slight the Chinese and that the international press was responsible for the continued use of the name. MAE E Asie-Océanie Affaires communes 120, 17 January 1934.

117. Forbes, Warlords , 38-127; Nyman, Great Britain , especially 100-111 on Ma Chung-ying, Kemal Kaya, and the Soviets.

118. In his negotiations preceding the voyage, Point had agreed to a request of Chin to provide him with several cars and radio sets. These had been forwarded by Citroën, but were held up at Soochow by the revolt. In August Citroën sent three new cars and two radios to replace the first consignment. At the time of Points captivity in Urumchi, these were still on the way.

119. In Audouin-Dubreuil's version of the trip, Salesse arrived on 11 November and his coming was expected by Haardt. That night Reymond celebrated with a ditty, "String up the Governor," that could have gotten them in hot water if the Chinese had understood the lyrics. Audoin-Dubreuil, Sur la route de la soie: mon carnet de route de la Méditerranée à la mer de Chine (Paris: Plon, 1935; 6,600 copies printed), 170-77.

120. Six months later Victor Point would also be dead, committing suicide

in the south of France over a woman he had had an affair with for the past four years. Le Petit Parisien , 8, 9 August 1932.

121. L'Illustration , "Sur la route de Bagdad," 30 May 1931, 207.

122. Georg Vasel, My Russian Jailers in China , trans. Gerald Griffin (London: Hurst and Blackett 1937), caption opposite 64.

123. Audoin-Dubreuil, Sur la route , 64; André Goerger, En marge de la croisière jaune (Paris: Rieder, 1935), 165-69.

124. Fabien Sabates and Sylvie Schweitzer, André Citroën: les chevrons de la gloire (Paris: E.P.A., 1980), 11-12.

125. New York Times , 17 March 1932; London Times , 17 March 1932; Le Petit Parisien , 17 March 1932; Le Fèvre, Croisière jaune , ii-iii, xiv.

126. Le Fèvre, Croisière jaune , xxxii.

127. L'Illustration , 27 August, 1932, "Le chemin du retour," 547, 549.

128. Fussell, Great War , 321.

129. Vernier, Politique , 24, 110-11; NA T77-884, 10-3.-39 (original emphasis); Segrè, Italo Balbo , 193, 215-18, 230-65.

130. Goerger, En marge , 233.

131. Robert Métais, Cellule 20 (Paris: Baudinière, 1937); Yrondy, Cocaine , 117. On Pierre Darlix see below.

132. Paris-Soir , 24 September 1937 (phantom ships); Le Matin , 3 June 1932, Le Petit Parisien , 5 June 1932 ( Georges-Philippar ); Paris-Soir , 20 April 1939, 2, 4 May 1939 ( Paris ); AN F7 13170, 17 January 1929; OM SLIII 133, 6 November 1933, pp. 21-22; OM SLIII 59, December 1936, p. 12; OM SLIII 141, 24 November 1931; OM SLIII 35, 26 May 1930; SMP reel 1, D68, 28 January 1930; SMP reel 1, D40, 11 January 1930; MA RW49/528, RW5/305, RW49/529; AN F60 754, 22 February 1935 (Irène Z.).

133. Le Petit Parisien , 10 March 1932, 29 September 1937; Bardanne, Documents , 48. See also Montarron, Poison , 68.

134. AN F7 14744, 13 November 1926; MA RW5/304; Paillole, Services , 101.

135. L'Echo de Paris , 1 September 1932.

136. Londres, Comitadjis , 235-36; Ehrenburg, Memoirs , 262; Reber, Terrorisme , 116.è

137. Société nationale des chemins de fer franais Archives, Paris (hereafter, SNCF) 29 J21, Guide européene , 1936; Plaisir de France , July-December 1938.

138. John Maxtone-Graham, The Only Way to Cross (New York: Macmillan/ Collier, 1972), 255, 273, 286, 289; Le Petit Parisien , 4 June 1935; Paris-Soir , 4 June 1935; Plaisir de France , July-December 1938.

139. Morand, Flèche , 16-17. This book was published in a series subsidized by the businesses or firms each book salivated over: Courrière, Kessel , 415.

140. George Clare, Last Waltz in Vienna (New York: Avon 1983), 155; SNCF, Livre d'or 1937 Exposition internationale, 118; Plaisir de France , July-December 1938; All About Shanghai , ii, 101; L'Illustration , 18 April, 1936, 4 January 1936.

141. SNCF 29 J7, Compagnie des chemins de fer PLM, Exposition coloniale internationale, Paris 1931; SNCF, Livre d'or 1937 (on CGT figures); John Stilgoe, Metropolitan Corridor: Railroads and the American Scene (New Haven:

Yale University Press, 1983), 57-61; Fussell, Abroad , 63-64, 132-33; Maxtone-Graham, Only , 242-43, 267-93; The New Yorker Twenty-fifth Anniversary Album, 1925-1950 (New York: Harper, 1951). See also the coverage of the Normandie's maiden voyage in Paris-Soir .

142. Goerger, En marge , 191-92, 35, 49, 175, 228; Morand, Rien , 65; Deval, Rives , 111.

143. Morand, Rien , 237-39.

144. Emile Schreiber, Cette année à Jérusalem (Paris: Plon, 1933; 6,600 copies printed), 37; Chadourne, Orient , 183; de Croisset, Jade , 3-4; Morand, Rien , 243-44; Titaÿna, La caravane des morts (Paris: Editions des Portiques, 1930), 93; Goerger, En marge , 67. For a more favorable view of East Asian hotels, see René Jouglet, Dans le sillage des jonques (Paris: Grasset, 1935; 8,000 copies printed), 105.

145. H. Celarié, Promenades en Indochine (Paris: Baudinière, 1937), 9-10.

146. Jean-Baptiste Duroselle, Politique étrangère de la France: la décadence, 1932-1939 (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1979), 185-88 (Duroselle does acknowledge a large travel literature however, 195-96).

147. Printing figures of travel books varied, some going through one edition of several thousand copies (a somewhat standard printing ran between the wars), others ranging into four and five figures. Chadourne's Chine , for example, had a printing of 19,470, de Croisset's Dragon 20,000, and Morand's Rien enjoyed a printing of 32,000.

148. Robert Wohl, The Generation of 1914 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979), 226-29.

149. Bertrand, Seule , 26.

150. Guy de Larigaudie, La route aux aventures: Paris-Saigon en automobile (Paris: Plon, 1939; 6,600 copies printed), 93, 143, 167, v-vi. Lest it be thought such focuses were sui generis, it is wise to remember that the magazine Plaisir de France , devoted to the travels and homes of the rich, was launched in the midst of the depression in 1934 and had a printing per edition of 45,000 in 1939. Bellanger, Histoire , 3:598.

151. Claude Blanchard, De notre envoyé spécial Claude Blanchard: quelques-uns de ses meilleurs reportages (Paris: Editions Défense de la France, 1948), 61; Goerger, En marge , 293; Andrée Viollis, Indochine S.O.S . (Paris: Gallimard 1935), 38-39; de Croisset, Dragon , 130; Vishniakova-Akimova, Two Years , 146.

152. Deval, Rives , 94-95, 139, 142-44; 3,300 copies were printed.

153. André Gide, Back from the U.S.S.R ., trans. Dorothy Bussy (London: Martin Secker and Warburg, 1937; originally published as Retour de L'U.R.S.S . [Paris: Gallimard 1936]), 49; Schreiber, Comment on vit en U.R.S.S . (Paris: Plon, 1931; 14,300 copies printed), 59, 200-201; Delbos, L'expérience , 14; Goerger, En marge , 13, 62 (story); Chadourne, China , 157-58; Maurice Dekobra, Confucius en pull-over, ou le beau voyage en Chine (Paris: Baudinière, 1934), 52; Emile Schreiber, On vit pour 1 franc par jour: Indes-Chine-Japon 1935 (Paris: Baudinière, 1935), 137; Deval, Rives , 128-29; Jouglet, Sillages , 50-54; Pierre Billotey, L'Indochine en zigzags (Paris: Albin Michel, 1929), 8-9.

154. Andrée Viollis, Le Japon et son empire (Paris: Grasset, 1933; 6,000 copies printed), 101; L'Illustration , 8 August, 1931, 503-4; Schreiber, On vit , 238;

Schreiber, Jérusalem , 31-32; Claude Farrère, Le grand drame de l'Asie (Paris: Flammarion, 1938), 134; Jean Dorsenne, Faudra-t-il évacuer l'Indochine? (Paris: Nouvelle Société d'Edition, 1932), especially 21-33, 212ff.; Billotey, Zigzags , 15-16, 24, 77; Louis Roubaud, Viet Nam: la tragédie indo-chinoise (Paris: Lib-rairie Valois, 1931), 276-84; Celarié, Promenades , 82, 88-89.

155. Oliver Sayler, Russia, White or Red (Boston: Little Brown, 1919), 62, 64; Voska, Spy and Counterspy , 234-35; Alya Rachmanova, Flight from Terror , trans. Ida Zeitlin (New York: John Day, 1933); Ehrenburg, Memoirs , 72. NEP stands for new economic policy, a partial return to the market in the 1920s.

156. Delbos, L'expérience , 22.

157. Georges Le Fèvre, Un bourgeois au pays des soviets (Paris: Tallandier, 1929), 65, 70; Schreiber, On vit , 297.

158. Dorgelès, Vive , 263; Maillart Oasis , 25-26; Goerger, En marge , 224-28; Bertrand, Seule , 31-32, 36; de Croisset, Dragon , 79, 125, 191.

159. Barzini, Peking , xviii-xix; Palmer, Petits journaux , 68-69, 96, 215-18, 231. On more extensive foreign networks after the war, see Bellanger, Histoire , 3:479.

160. Viollis, Japon ; Viollis, Indochine S.O.S. ; Roubaud, Viet Nam ; Dorsenne, Faudra-t-il ; Lyautey, Chine ; Raynaud, Guerre , 85, 149.

161. For a good example of this kind of writing see Marc Chadourne's China and the two volumes of Tour de la terre. All are lightweight fare yet nevertheless of the China or U.S. Today genre. The urge to report turns up in nearly every travel account I have looked at, e.g., Morand, Rien ; Deval, Rives ; Maillart, Oasis ; Jouglet, Sillages ; Goerger, En marge ; and Schreiber's books.

162. Delbos, L'expérience , 13.è

163. Kupferman, Au pays des soviets: le voyage franais en Union soviétique, 1917-1939 (Paris: Gallimard, 1979), 172-82.

164. In addition to books cited above on travel to the USSR, see: Alfred Fabre-Luce, Russie 1927 (Paris: Grasset, 1927; 5,300 copies sold by 1940); Pierre Herbart, En U.R.S.S . (Paris: Gallimard, 1937); Alfred Silbert, U.R.S.S. et nouvelle Russie (Paris: Editions Denoël, 1938); Charles Vildrac, Russie neuve (voyage en U.R.S.S.) (Paris: Emile-Paul Frères, 1937).

165. Schreiber, U.R.S.S ., 214-16; Chadourne, U.R.S.S ., 218-20 (15,900 copies printed); Dorgelès, Vive , 305-11; Le Fèvre, Bourgeois , 246.

166. Wohl, Generation , 226-29.

167. Pierre Darlix, Terrorisme sur le monde (Paris: Baudinière, 1932), 196-99; Darlix, Un soir en pullman . . . (Paris: Baudinière, 1929), 8-9; Darlix, Smyrne , 111-12, 127.

168. Kessel, Wagon-lit , 13; Morand, Rien , 31-32; Londres, Chine , 21.

169. Bertrand, Seule , 8-9, 153-54, 160-62, 216ff., 284, 151; 4,400 copies were printed.è

170. Lyautey, Chine , 20-21 (on "Boy"); Fabre-Luce, Russie , 244-45 (on Caucasus); Celarié, Promenades , 94; Le Fèvre, Croisière jaune , 14; Viollis, S.O.S ., 3; de Croisset, Jade , 9; Louis Malleret, L'exotisme indochinois dans la littérature franaise depuis 1860 (Paris: Larose, 1934), 2 (Ajalbert quoted); Tranin, Dixième , 12.

171. Kessel, Wagon-lit , 12-13, 15-16, 27, 51, 50, 54, 57, 143-44, 170,

186-87. On the publishing background to the novel, see Courrière, Kessel , 415-16. The book sold about 25,000 copies.

172. Gilbert, Courrier , 23-24; Maurice Dekobra, Madame Joli-supplice , (Paris: Baudinière, 1934); Chadourne, China , 58; 25-26.

173. Quoted in Lesley Blanch, Pierre Loti: The Legendary Romantic (New York: Carroll and Graf, 1983), 249. The quote is from Loti's Vers Ispahan , published in 1904.

174. Titaÿna, Caravane , 156; Goerger, En marge , 111; Le Fèvre, Croisière jaune , 26.

175. Peter Bishop, The Myth of Shangri-La: Tibet, Travel Writing, and the Western Creation of Sacred Landscape (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), 116-17, 171-74, chap. 6 (especially 202-4).

176. Morand, Rien , 10-11; Maillart, Oasis , 70-71. Oasis ran to 8,000 copies, and Maillart's account was serialized in Le Petit Parisien , March-April 1936.

177. Audoin-Dubreuil, Soie , 8; Dorgelès, Vive , 238-39.

178. L'Illustration , "Les nouvelles routes du monde," 30 August, 1924, 166-67; Andrews, New Conquest , 13; Larigaudie, Route , 233.

179. Maillart, Oasis , 267; L'Illustration , "Un service de passagers sur la ligne Casablanca-Dakar," 20 June 1936, 257.

180. Titaÿna, Caravane , 10-11, 188.

181. René Pinon, Fièvres d'Orient , (Lyons: Editions de la Plus Grande France, 1938), 15; Chadourne, Extrême-Occident , 4 (12,100 copies printed).

182. Pierre Loti, Un pèlerin d'Angkor (Paris: Calmann-Lévy, 1912), 13-14, 20, 33, 45, 54-55 (quoted), 62-63, 79-81 (quoted), 138, 167; Chris Bongie, Exotic Memories: Literature, Colonialism and the Fin de Siècle (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991), 120.

183. SNCF 29 J21, Guide européene, 1936; Billotey, Zigzags , 243; de Croisset, Jade , 76-79, 27-28 (quoted) (13,000 copies printed).

184. Roland Dorgelès, On the Mandarin Road , trans. Gertrude Emerson (New York: The Century Co., 1926; originally published as Sur la route mandarine [Paris: Albin Michel 1925]), 233-35.

185. Ibid., 34-35, 47 (quoted), 200-201; Malleret, L'exotisme , 1 (the foreword was dated 1932).

186. Titaÿna, Une femme chez les chasseurs de têtes et autres reportages , ed. Francis Lacassin (Paris: Union Générale d'Editions, 1985), 7-16, 299-316; Vu et Lu , "Mes mémoires de reporter," 3, 10, 24 November 1937; 1, 8, 22, 29 December 1937; 5, 12 January 1938. Ten thousand copies of Nuits chaudes ( Hot Nights ) were printed.

187. De Monfreid converted to Islam, took the name Abd el Hai, and had himself circumcised. But he also married the daughter of the German governor of Strasbourg (the marriage took place fight before the First World War). On his life see Gisèle de Monfreid, De la mer Rouge à l'Ethiopie (Paris: France-Empire, 1985); Henri de Monfreid, Pearls, Arms, and Hashish , "collected and written down" by Ida Treat (New York: Coward-McCann, 1930), quoted 10, 12, 17.

188. De Monfreid, Pearls , 354.

189. De Monfreid, Secrets ; de Monfreid, Pearls ; de Monfreid, Hashish: The

Autobiography of a Red Sea Smuggler, trans>Autobiography of a Red Sea Smuggler , trans. Helen Buchanan Bell (1935; reprint, New York: Stonehill, 1973; originally published as La croisière de hachich [Paris: Grasset, 1933]), 2. De Monfreid, Trafic d'armes en mer Rouge: les grands aventuriers d'aujourd'hui (Paris: Grasset, 1935).

190. Courrière, Kessel , 349-76 (quoted 349).

191. Maurice Dekobra, A Frenchman in Japan: Travels by Maurice Dekobra , trans. Metcalfe Wood (London: T. Werner Laurie, 1936; originally published as Samouraï 8 cylindres [Paris: Baudinière, 1935]), 36 (Djibouti); Audoin-Dubreuil, Soie , 24, 198; Le Fèvre, Croisière jaune , 245; Pierre van Paassen, Days of Our Years (New York: Hillman-Curl, 1939), 328.

192. Klaus Mann, The Turning Point: Thirty-five Years in This Century ( 1942; reprint, New York: Markus Wiener, 1984), 87.

193. Morand, Flèche , 26-27.

194. Schreiber, On Vit , 286; de Croisset, Dragon , 202; Herfort, Sous le soleil , 168-69; Lyautey, Chine , 152; Bertrand, Seule , 55, 57, 65-66.

195. Joseph Kessel, Nuits de princes (1927; reprint, Paris: Plon, 1966), 111-13.

196. Joffroy, Espionnage , 17-18, 113-14, 35.

197. Détective , 14 October, 1937, p. 15.