1. Articulations of and explanations for such dislocation vary widely. See, for example, Charles Newman, "The Post-Modern Aura: The Act of Fiction in an Age of Inflation," Salmagundi 63-64 (Spring-Summer 1984): 5-170; Julia Kristeva, "Women's Time," Signs 7, no.1 (Autumn 1981): 13-35; Christopher Lasch, Haven in a Heartless World (New York: Basic Books, 1977); Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno, Dialectic of Enlightenment (New York: Herder & Herder, 1972); and Sheldon Wolin, Politics and Vision (Boston: Little, Brown, 1960), chap. 10.

2. Expressions of this vertigo and its consequences are abundant. Examples include the essays in Jonathan Arac, ed., Postmodernism and Politics (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986); Samuel Weber, ed., Demarcating the Disciplines: Philosophy, Literature, Art (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986); Richard J. Bernstein, ed., Habermas and Modernity (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1985); and Kenneth Baynes, James Bohman, and Thomas McCarthy, eds., After Philosophy: End or Transformation? (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1987).

3. On the disruptive effects of feminist theories, see Seyla Benhabib and Drucilla Cornell, eds., Feminism as Critique (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987); Carol Pateman and Elizabeth Gross, eds., Feminist Challenges: Social and Political Theory (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1986); and Eva Feder Kittay and Diana T. Meyers, eds., Women and Moral Theory (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman & Littlefield, 1987). On psychoanalysis and reason see Sigmund Freud, "Fixation to Traumas: The Unconscious," in Sigmund Freud, Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis , trans. James Strachey (New York: W. W. Norton, 1965). On the concept and functions of metanarrative,

see Jean-Francois * Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984), especially pp. 27-37.

4. I realize this is a drastic reduction of complex ideas. For more nuanced views of the Enlightenment, see Steven Seidman, Liberalism and the Origins of European Social Theory (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1983); Robert Anchor, The Enlightenment Tradition (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1967); Ernst Cassirer, The Philosophy of the Enlightenment (Boston: Beacon Press, 1955); and Peter Gay, The Enlightenment: An Interpretation (New York: Knopf, 1966).

5. Baynes, Bohman, and McCarthy develop this idea in their "General Introduction" to After Philosophy ; the problems of the self are a central focus of the essays that follow. Cassirer provides an especially clear discussion of science and philosophy as knowledge in chaps. 2 and 3 of Philosophy of the Enlightenment .

6. Jacques Derrida, Marges de la philosophie (Paris: Editions de Minuit, 1972). Perhaps the most succinct and influential statement of Enlightenment beliefs is Immanuel Kant, "What Is Enlightenment?" reprinted with his Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1959). See also Jean Le Rond D'Alembert, Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1963). For an attack on many Enlightenment beliefs, see especially Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Discourse on the Sciences and Arts (First Discourse) in The First and Second Discourses , ed. Roger Masters (New York: St. Martins, 1964).

7. Horkheimer and Adorno, Dialectic , especially pp. 3-42.

8. See Max Weber, "Politics as a Vocation," in From Max Weber , ed. and trans. H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills (New York: Oxford University Press, 1958).

9. Theodor Adorno, Negative Dialectics (New York: Seabury Press, 1973), p. 364.

10. Walter Benjamin, "Theses on the Philosophy of History," in Illuminations , ed. Hannah Arendt (New York: Schocken, 1969), p. 257.

11. On the idea of "foundational illusions," see Richard Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (Princeton N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1979), p.6.

12. Ibid., p. 7.

13. See Norman Jacobson's interesting discussion of political theory and its functions in Pride and Solace (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1978), chap. 1.

14. A successor project would be isomorphic to (and on the same scale as) the failed "grand theory."

15. Sigmund Freud, "Constructions in Analysis," in Collected Papers , vol. 5 (New York: Basic Books, 1959).

1. Cf. the diametrically opposed views of the "true" Freud in Frank Sulloway, Freud: Biologist of the Mind (New York: Basic Books, 1979); and Bruno Bettelheim, Freud and Man's Soul (New York: Knopf, 1983). For examples of confrontations, see Clay Whitehead, "Additional Aspects of the Freudian-Kleinian Controversy: Towards a 'Psychoanalysis' of Psychoanalysis," International Journal of Psychoanalysis 56 (1975): 383-396; and Marie Balmary, Psychoanalyzing Psychoanalysis: Freud and the Hidden Fault of the Father (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982).

2. Such considerations are lacking, for example, in the otherwise excellent review of psychoanalytic theory by Jay R. Greenberg and Stephen A. Mitchell, Object Relations in Psychoanalytic Theory (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983).

3. Works by Jacques Lacan include Speech and Language in Psychoanalysis , trans. Anthony Wilden (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1968); The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis (New York: W. W. Norton, 1973); Ecrits: A Selection (New York: W. W. Norton, 1977); and Feminine Sexuality , ed. Juliet Mitchell and Jacqueline Rose (New York: W. W. Norton, 1985). Object relations theorists include D. W. Winnicott, The Maturational Processes and the Facilitating Environment (New York: International Universities Press, 1965); and Michael Balint, The Basic Fault (New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1979).

4. A representative sample of recent feminist theories would include Barbara Smith, ed., Home Girls: A Black Feminist Anthology (New York: Women of Color Press, 1983); Cherrie Moraga and Gloria Anzaldua, eds., This Bridge Called My Back (Watertown, Mass.: Persephone Press, 1981); Elizabeth Abel, Marianne Hirsch, and Elizabeth Langland, The Voyage In: Fictions of Female Development (Hanover, N.H., and London: University Press of New England, 1983); Zillah R. Eisenstein, ed., Capitalist Patriarchy and the Case for Socialist Feminism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1979); Hunter College Women's Studies Collective, Women's Realities, Women's Choices (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983); Sherry B. Ortner and Harriet Whitehead, eds., Sexual Meanings: The Cultural Construction of Gender and Sexuality (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Nancy C. M. Hartsock, Money, Sex and Power (New York: Longman, 1983); Ann Snitow, Christine Stansell, and Sharon Thompson, eds., The Powers of Desire: The Politics of Sexuality (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1983); Sandra Harding and Merill B. Hintikka, eds., Discovering Reality: Feminist Perspectives on Epistemology, Metaphysics, Methodology and Philosophy of Science (Boston: D. Reidel, 1983); Alison M. Jagger, Feminist Politics and Human Nature (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman & Allanheld, 1983); Elaine Marks and Isabelle de Courtivron, New French Feminisms (New York: Schocken Books, 1981); Joyce Trebilcot, ed., Mothering: Essays in Feminist

Theory (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman & Allanheld, 1984); Alice Jardine, Gynesis: Configurations of Woman and Modernity (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1985); Carol Gilligan, In a Different Voice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982).

5. Max Weber, "Science as a Vocation," in From Max Weber , ed. H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills (New York: Oxford University Press, 1958).

6. See the work of Evelyn Fox Keller on the gendered character of our views of the "natural world," especially her essays "Gender and Science," reprinted in Harding and Hintikka, Discovering Reality ; and ''Cognitive Repression in Physics," American Journal of Physics 47 (1979): 718-721.

7. On the problem of the Archimedes point, see Myra Jehlen, "Archimedes and the Paradox of Feminist Criticism," Signs 6, no. 4 (Summer 1981): 575-601.

8. Especially influential works include Friedrich Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil (New York: Vintage, 1966), and his The Will to Power (New York: Vintage, 1968); Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings 1972-77 , ed. Colin Gordon (New York: Pantheon, 1980), and his Language, Counter-Memory, Practice , ed. Donald F. Bouchard (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1980); Jacques Derrida, Marges de la philosophie (Paris: Editions de Minuit, 1972), and his Writing and Difference , trans. Alan Bass (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Giles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, On the Line (New York: Semiotext[e], 1983), and their Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1983); Stanley Cavell, The Claim of Reason (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979); Roland Barthes, S/Z , trans. Richard Miller (New York: Hill & Wang, 1974), and his The Fashion System , trans. Matthew Ward and Richard Howard (New York: Hill & Wang, 1983). Already there is a large and ever-growing literature on and in postmodernism. Among the works I have found most helpful are Terence Hawkes, Structuralism and Semiotics (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977); Herbert L. Dreyfus and Paul Rabinow, Michel Foucault: Beyond Structualism and Hermeneutics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); Harvey West, ed., The Idea of the Post-Modern (Seattle: Henry Art Gallery, University of Washington, 1981); Quentin Skinner, ed., The Return of Grand Theory in the Human Sciences (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Michael Ryan, Marxism and Deconstruction: A Critical Articulation (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982); Vincent Descombes, Modern French Philosophy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982); Fredric Jameson, "The Cultural Logic of Capital," New Left Review 146 (July-August 1984): 53-92; Henry Louis Gates, Jr., ed., 'Race,' Writing and Difference (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986); John Rajchman and Cornel West, eds., Post-Analytic Philosophy (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985);

Christopher Norris, Derrida (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1987); and Feminist Studies 14, no. 1 (Spring 1988).

9. What follows is a summary of some of the ideas of Derrida, Foucault, Lyotard, and Rorty. For more detail and differentiation see Chapter 6.

10. Cf. Jacques Derrida, "Positions," in Jacques Derrida, Positions , trans. Alan Bass (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981); and Foucault, "Two Lectures," in Foucault, Power/Knowledge .

11. Jean-François Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984), pp. 27-41.

12. Derrida, "Violence and Metaphysics," in Derrida, Writing and Difference .

13. David Hoy draws many interesting parallels between hermeneutics and deconstruction in his essay, "Derrida," in Skinner, The Return of Grand Theory .

14. Derrida, "Positions," in Derrida, Positions .

15. These "normalizing discourses" are the subject of the essays and interviews in Foucault, Power/Knowledge.

1. For Horney's views, see Karen Horney, New Ways in Psychoanalysis (New York: W. W. Norton, 1939); and Susan Quinn, A Mind of Her Own: The Life of Karen Horney (New York: Summit Books, 1987), especially chap. 15. Kohut moves somewhat from this position in Heinz Kohut, How Does Analysis Cure? (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984).

2. A previous return was made by the critical theorists of the "Frankfurt School" after their (at least partial) disillusionment with Marxist theory and practice. Cf. Max Horkheimer, "Authority and the Family," in Max Horkheimer, Critical Theory (New York: Herder & Herder, 1972). An interesting history of contemporary Western thought could be written by tracking intellectuals' alternating loyalties between Marx and Freud.

3. Frederick M. Watkins, "Political Theory as a Datum of Political Science," in Approaches to the Study of Politics , ed. Roland Young (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1958), p. 154.

4. Freud uses this evocative phrase in his essay "Analysis Terminable and Interminable," in Collected Papers , ed. James Strachey (New York: Basic Books, 1959), 5:357. The collection will be abbreviated in this chapter as CP .

5. As in "Analysis Terminable," in which Freud discusses the new difficulties the discovery of the "modification of the ego" creates for analytic technique. See also Sigmund Freud, The Ego and the Id , ed. James Strachey (New York: W. W. Norton, 1960), pp. 7-17.

6. Freud, "Female Sexuality," in CP 5:253-254.

7. Sigmund Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams , trans. James Strachey (New York: Avon, 1965), pp. 642-643. Freud never abandons this idea. Cf. one of his very last works, An Outline of Psychoanalysis , trans. James Strachey (New York: W. W. Norton, 1949), p. 2.

8. The exact relation between the constancy principle, the pleasure principle, and the nirvana principle remains unclear in Freud's work. Cf. his essay "The Economic Problem in Masochism" in CP 2:255-257.

9. Freud, "Instincts and Their Vicissitudes," in CP 4:63, 65.

10. Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents , trans. James Strachey (New York: W. W. Norton, 1961), p. 23.

11. Freud, "On Narcissism: An Introduction," in CP 4:47; see also his "Instincts," in CP 4:81.

12. Freud, "Mourning and Melancholia," in CP 4:162.

13. Freud, "Instincts," in CP 4:82.

14. Freud, The Ego , p. 19.

15. One later object relations theorist is Harry Guntrip, Personality Structure and Human Interaction (New York: International Universities Press, 1964), chap. 6.

16. Freud, "The Passing of Oedipus Complex," in CP 2:272, 72.

17. Freud, "Mourning," in CP 4:159.

18. Sigmund Freud, An Autobiographical Study , trans. James Strachey (New York: W. W. Norton, 1952), p. 74.

19. Sigmund Freud, Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality , trans. James Strachey (New York: Basic Books, 1962), pp. 78, 63-66; Freud, "The Passing of Oedipus," in CP 2:270.

20. Freud, Three Essays , p. 63.

21. Ibid. p. 29

22. Ibid., pp. 77, 74, 29, 27, 11.

23. Ibid., p. 34.

24. Freud, "The Unconscious," in CP 4:120.

25. Freud, The Ego , p. 8.

26. Ibid.,p.25.

27. Ibid., p. 46.

28. Ibid., p. 38.

29. Ibid., pp. 15, 14, 16, 38, 42.

30. Ibid., pp. 38, 39.

31. For example, Husserl's transcendental phenomenology, especially the epoche . Cf. Edmund Husserl, The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1970), especially part 3B, #69. René Descartes, Discourse on Method and Other Writings

(Baltimore: Penguin, 1968), especially Second and Third Meditations; Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness , trans. Hazel Barnes (New York: Washington Square Press, 1966), especially part 2, chap. 1. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (Baltimore: Penguin, 1987), part 1.

32. Freud, An Autobiographical Study , p. 111.

33. Sigmund Freud, "Explanations, Applications and Orientations," in Sigmund Freud, New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis , trans. James Strachey (New York: W. W. Norton, 1965), pp. 156-157.

34. Freud, An Autobiographical Study , p. 109.

35. Sigmund Freud, "The Question of a Weltanschauung," in Freud, New Introductory Lectures , pp. 179, 158.

36. Ibid., p. 159.

37. Freud, An Outline , pp. 16, 53.

38. Ibid., pp. 53-54.

39. Ibid., p. 54.

40. Ibid., p. 16.

41. Ibid., p. 15.

42. Freud, "The Question of a Weltanschauung," in Freud, New Introductory Lectures , p. 159.

43. Freud, An Outline , p. 15.

44. Freud, "The Question of a Weltanschauung," in Freud, New Introductory Lectures , p. 159.

45. Ibid., p. 170.

46. Ibid., pp. 166, 175, 174-175, 171.

47. Cf. Jürgen Habermas, Knowledge and Human Interests (Boston: Beacon Press, 1971), especially chap. 10; and his Communication and the Evolution of Society (Boston: Beacon Press, 1979), chaps. 1-3; and Donald Spence, Narrative Truth and Historical Truth: Meaning and Interpretation in Psychoanalysis (New York: W. W. Norton, 1982).

48. Sigmund Freud, "Observations on 'Wild' Psychoanalysis," in CP 2:301-302.

49. Adolf Grünbaum, "Epistemological Liabilities of the Clinical Appraisal of Psychoanalytic Theory," Psychoanalysis and Contemporary Thought 2 (1979): 451-526.

50. Cf. Merton M. Gill, Analysis of Transference , vol. 1 (New York: International Universities Press, 1982).

51. Freud uses martial imagery frequently. Cf. Sigmund Freud, The Question of Lay Analysis (New York: W. W. Norton, 1965), pp. 61-62; and his "Analysis Terminable," in CP 5:343. Freud uses the metaphor of a surgeon in his "Recommendations for Physicians on the Psychoanalytic Method of Treatment," in CP 2; and in his "Turnings in the Ways of Psycho-analytic Therapy,"

in CP 2. On the influences of medical practices on Freud's understanding of himself and psychoanalysis, see Leo Stone, The Psychoanalytic Situation (New York: International Universities Press, 1961), pp. 9-66.

52. Freud, "Analysis Terminable," in CP 5:351-352.

53. Sigmund Freud, "Constructions in Analysis," in CP 5, presents both these claims.

54. Freud, "Analytic Therapy," in Freud, Introductory Lectures , p. 282.

55. Sigmund Freud, "Further Recommendations in the Technique of Psycho-Analysis. Recollection, Repetition and Working Through," in CP 2:374-376.

56. Ibid., p. 331.

57. Freud, An Outline , p. 43.

58. Freud, "Constructions in Analysis, "in CP 5:368.

59. Sigmund Freud, "Dynamics of Transference," in CP 2:319.

60. Ibid., pp. 314-319.

61. Cf. the accounts of patients' experiences with Freud in Hendrix M. Ruitenbeek, ed., Freud as We Knew Him (Detroit: Wayne University Press, 1973): and HD, Tribute to Freud (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1956).

62. I discuss this debate and its limitations in Jane Flax, "Philosophy and the Philosophy of Science: Critique or Resistance?" Journal of Philosophy 78, no. 10 (October 1981): 561:569. See also Louis Breger, Freud's Unfinished Journey (Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1981).

63. Cf. Peter Gay, Freud, Jews and Other Germans (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1981), chap. 1.

64. On the ideas of container and containing, see W. R. Bion, Attention and Interpretation (London: Tavistock, 1970). On patients' and analysts' feeling states see Harold Searles, Counter-transference and Related Subjects: Selected Papers (New York: International Universities Press, 1979); and Michael Balint, The Basic Fault (New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1979).

65. I am thinking here of Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations (New York: Macmillan, 1970), especially part 2, sec. 9; G. W. F. Hegel, The Phenomenology of Mind (New York: Harper & Row, 1967), parts A and B; Hans-Georg Gadamer, Philosophical Hermeneutics (Berkley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1976); Habermas, appendix to Knowledge ; Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962); Freidrich Nietzsche's playfulness in Thus Spoke Zarathustra (New York: Viking Press, 1954) and his attempt to recapture and revalue the "dionysian" also provide important clues.

66. Freud, Question of Lay Analysis , pp. 93-94.

67. Kate Millet, Sexual Politics (New York: Doubleday, 1969), represents an early and influential example of the first approach. Juliet Mitchell, Psychoanalysis and Feminism (New York: Pantheon, 1974), especially pp. xv-15, rep-

resents an example of the third. Recently Mitchell seems to have become less comfortable with this position. See her essays, "Psychoanalysis: Child Development and Femininity" and "The Question of Femininity and the Theory of Psychoanalysis," in Juliet Mitchell, Women: The Longest Revolution (London: Virago Press, 1984). My own work represents the second approach. I am referring to the following essays by Freud: "Female Sexuality," in CP 5; "Femininity,'' in Freud, New Introductory Lectures ; and "Some Psychological Consequences of the Anatomical Distinction Between the Sexes," in CP 5.

68. The recent works by Spence, Narrative Truth , Gill, Analysis of Transference , and Breger, Freud's Unfinished Journey , although excellent in many ways, make no mention of the distorting effects of gender on Freud's work or psychoanalytic theory as a whole. Such absences also pervade another highly praised recent work, Jay R. Greenberg and Stephen A. Mitchell, Object Relations in Psychoanalytic Theory (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983).

69. Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents (New York: W. W. Norton, 1961), pp. 50-51.

70. Contrary to the (non-gender conscious) claims of such writers as Peter Gay or Norman Jacobson, Pride and Solace: The Functions and Limits of Political Theory (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1978). These writers portray Freud as a "ruthlessly honest" revealer of the "secrets" of modern culture. In Peter Gay's recent book, Freud: A Life for Our Time (New York: W. W. Norton, 1988), he mentions the powerful ties between Freud and his mother and that this relationship remained largely untouched by Freud's self-analysis. Although Gay suggests that this material may have affected Freud's writing on women, he does not explore such a possibility in any depth. Gay does not seem to find gender a very significant factor in the content of Freud's work as a whole, cf. especially pp. 501-522 of his Freud .

71. Freud, "Femininity," in Freud, New Introductory Lectures , p. 134.

72. Freud, Civilization , p. 19.

73. Ibid., pp. 12, 15.

74. Melanie Klein puts special emphasis on these aspects of early infantile experience. See "Love, Guilt and Reparation," in her Love, Guilt and Reparation (New York: Dell, 1975). For a powerful feminist application of these insights, see Dorothy Dinnerstein, The Mermaid and the Minotaur: Sexual Arrangements and the Human Malaise (New York: Harper & Row, 1976).

75. Freud, "Analysis Terminable," in CP 5:357.

76. Freud, Civilization , pp. 51, 50.

77. Ibid., p. 118

78. Freud, "Analysis Terminable," in CP 5:357.

79. Freud, Civilization , p. 50.

80. Freud, "Femininity," in Freud, New Introductory Lectures , p. 133.

81. Freud, "Analysis Terminable," in CP 5:356-357.

82. Freud, An Outline , p. 50.

83. Freud, "Analysis Terminable," in CP 5:355.

84. Ibid., pp. 354-355.

85. Sigmund Freud, "Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of Hysteria," in CP 3 (the case of Dora), reveals clearly the contributions of unanalyzed countertransference to the failure of the analysis.

1. This happens, for example, when commentators treat these premises as evidence of the radical (if unpalatable) "truth" of Lacan's work. Some commentators on Lacan ignore the fact that a narcissistic ontology is by definition self-enclosed and other excluding, hence not open to disproof within its own premises. Among the writers who are too uncritical of or are captured within Lacan's premises (and style), I would include Jane Gallop, The Daughter's Seduction: Feminism and Psychoanalysis (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1982); Stuart Schneiderman, Jacques Lacan: The Death of an Intellectual Hero (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983); Juliet Mitchell, "Introduction-I," and Jacqueline Rose, "Introduction-II,'' to Jacques Lacan, Feminine Sexuality , trans. Jacqueline Rose (New York: W. W. Norton, 1985). Catherine Clément, The Lives and Legends of Jacques Lacan , trans. Arthur Goldhammer (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983), presents a more distanced and complex view of Lacan's work. Sherry Turkle, Psychoanalytic Politics: Freud's French Revolution (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1981), is still very helpful in placing Lacan and his ideas in their historical and social context.

2. Jacques Lacan, Ecrits: A Selection , trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: W. W. Norton, 1977), p. 24.

3. Clément, The Lives , stresses the centrality of this concept within Lacan's work. See especially her discussion of the mirror stage on pp. 84-92. For Winnicott's view, see D. W Winmcott, "Mirror Role of Mother and Family in Child Development," in D. W. Winnicott, Playing and Reality (New York: Basic Books, 1971). In this essay Winnicott mentions Lacan's discussion of the same subject and some of his differences with Lacan. Heinz Kohut discusses the meanings and importance of mirroring extensively in his The Analysis of the Self (New York: International Universities Press, 1983), part 2.

4. Lacan, Ecrits , p. 2.

5. Ibid., p. 4.

6. Ibid., p.2.

7. Ibid., p. 4.

8. Ibid., pp. 5-6. Obviously, Lacan is drawing heavily on Hegel's ideas

here, especially Hegel's notions of dialectics and the "unhappy consciousness." Cf. G. W. F. Hegel, The Phenomenology of Mind , trans. J. B. Baillie (New York: Harper & Row, 1967), part 3B. However, unlike Hegel, Lacan does not believe that any Aufhebung of this phase is possible. In Lacan's work self-consciousness can never go any further than a recognition of its permanently split (and stuck) state. See also Jacques Lacan, "The Subject and the Other: Aphanisis," in his The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis , trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: W. W. Norton, 1981), pp. 219-220.

9. Lacan, "The Meaning of the Phallus," in Lacan, Feminine Sexuality , pp. 80-81. My understanding of narcissism depends not only on Freud's account but also on the work of Kohut, Kernberg, and Masterson. In the work of the last three writers, narcissism is treated not as an ontological given but rather as a potentially pathological and changeable condition. On narcissism see Sigmund Freud, "On Narcissism: An Introduction," In his Collected Papers , vol. 4, trans. Joan Riviere, ed. James Strachey (New York: Basic Books, 1959). This collection will be abbreviated in this chapter as CP . Kohut, Analysis of the Self ; Otto Kernberg, Borderline Conditions and Pathological Narcissism (New York: Jason Aronson, 1975), part 2; James F. Masterson, The Narcissistic and Borderline Disorders (New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1981). Kohut also distinguishes between healthy and self-affirming forms of narcissism and pathological and self-isolating ones.

10. Jacques Lacan, "The Subject and the Other: Alienation," in Lacan, Four Fundamental Concepts , p. 207.

11. Lacan, "The Meaning," in Lacan, Feminine Sexuality , p. 80. See also Jacques Lacan, "From Love to the Libido," in Lacan, Four Fundamental Concepts , p. 188.

12. Lacan, "From Love," in Lacan, Four Fundamental Concepts , p. 191.

13. Lacan, "The Meaning," in Lacan, Four Fundamental Concepts , p. 79. My critique of Lacan's theory of language is derived partially from Hanna Pitkin's treatment of the parallel moves in social science toward nominalism, formalistic concepts, and a pseudo-emptying out or neutralizing of the social history and meanings of language and language use. See Hanna Pitkin, Wittgenstein and Justice (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1972), especially chaps. 5-6, 10-11. Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations , trans. G. E. M. Anscombe (New York: Macmillan, 1970), presents a very different theory of language than that of Lacan. He too moves from a purely representational theory of language but locates subsequent discussions of language in relation to "forms of life," not an abstract, ahistoric "binary logic."

14. Lacan, "The Meaning," in Lacan, Four Fundamental Concepts , p. 79.

15. Ibid., p. 78.

16. Ibid., p. 79. See also Lacan, "The Subject," in Lacan, Four Fundamental Concepts , p. 203: "The Other is the locus in which is situated the chain of the signifier that governs whatever may be made present of the subject—it is the field of that living being in which the subject has to appear," and p. 207.

17. Lacan, "Seminar of 21 January 1975," in Lacan, Feminine Sexuality , p. 165.

18. Lacan, "The Subject," in Lacan, Four Fundamental Concepts , p. 203.

19. Lacan, "The Meaning," in Lacan, Four Fundamental Concepts , p. 78.

20. Jacques Lacan, "Guiding Remarks for a Congress on Feminine Sexuality," in Lacan, Feminine Sexuality , p. 91.

21. Lacan, "The Meaning," in Lacan, Four Fundamental Concepts , p. 83.

22. Ibid.

23. Ibid.

24. Jacques Lacan, "From Interpretation to the Transference," in Lacan, Four Fundamental Concepts , p. 246.

25. Lacan is basing his argument here on a parallel one by Claude Levi-Strauss, The Elementary Structures of Kinship (Boston: Beacon Press, 1969), especially pp. 3-68, 478-497.

26. Jacques Lacan, "God and the Jouissance of the Woman. A Love Letter," in Lacan, Feminine Sexuality , p. 144.

27. Ibid., p. 145.

28. Ibid., pp. 144-145.

29. Lacan, "The Meaning," in Lacan, Four Fundamental Concepts , p. 89.

30. Ibid., p. 75.

31. Cf. Gallop, Daughter's Seduction ; Mitchell and Rose, "Introduction."

32. Lacan, "The Subject," in Lacan, Four Fundamental Concepts , p. 203.

33. Jacques Lacan, "Intervention on Transference," in In Dora's Case: Freud-Hysteria-Feminism , ed. Charles Bernheimer and Claire Kahane (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), p. 99.

34. See especially D. W. Winnicott, "Mind and Its Relation to the Psyche-Soma," in his Through Paediatrics to Psycho-analysis (New York: Basic Books, 1975).

35. For an example of his clinical work, see D. W. Winnicott, The Piggle: An Account of the Psychoanalytic Treatment of a Little Girl (New York: International Universities Press, 1977).

36. For Lacan's view of the psychoanalytic situation, see his "Intervention on Transference," in Bernheimer and Kahane, In Dora's Case . Schneiderman gives an account of his own analysis with Lacan in Jacques Lacan .

37. Sigmund Freud, "Mourning and Melancholia," in CP 4:154.

38. Sigmund Freud, Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety , trans. Alix Strachey (New York: W. W. Norton, 1959), p. 96.

39. For a discussion of some of the differences among object relations theorists, see Jay R. Greenberg and Stephen A. Mitchell, Object Relations in

Psychoanalytic Theory (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983), part 2. In addition to Winnicott's writings, I have also drawn upon Harry Guntrip, Personality Structure and Human Interaction (New York: International Universities Press, 1961), and his Psychoanalytic Theory, Therapy and the Self (New York: Basic Books, 1971); Melanie Klein, Love, Guilt and Reparation (New York: Dell, 1977), Envy and Gratitude (New York: Dell, 1975), Narrative of a Child Analysis (New York: Dell, 1975); and W. R. D. Fairbairn, Psychoanalytic Studies of the Personality (Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1952).

40. Lacan's denial of the possible existence of a true self and of the possibility and power of early social relatedness helps account for his hostility to the object relations theorists. Lacan is transparently eager to replace the object relations analysts' emphasis on the concrete relations between mother and child with his focus on the "phallic function." See, for example, Lacan's opening comments in "Guiding Remarks," in Lacan, Feminine Sexuality, p. 87.

41. D. W. Winnicott, "Anxiety Associated with Insecurity," in Winnicott, Through Paediatrics, p. 99.

42. This phrase is Margaret Mahler's. See Margaret Mahler, Fred Pine, and Anni Bergman, The Psychological Birth of the Human Infant (New York: Basic Books, 1975). Mahler's work has a complex status. She wants to retain and rescue Freud's drive theory, but her observations and the developmental scheme she derives from them do not really confirm or accord with drive theory. Her work has been utilized most successfully by object relations-oriented clinicians and theorists (e.g., Masterson).

43. Winnicott, "Mind and Its Relation," in Winnicott, Through Paediatrics, pp. 246-247.

44. For a sensitive account of how adult eating disorders may occur, see Hilda Bruch, The Golden Cage: The Enigma of Anorexia Nervosa (New York: Vintage, 1979).

45. Winnicott, "Mind and Its Relation," in Winnicott, Through Paediatrics, pp. 246-247.

46. Recent infant research indicates that even the neonate is a much more complex and competent being than scientists and many analysts (including Lacan) used to (or still do) believe. For excellent summaries of recent research on infant development, see Kenneth Kaye, The Mental and Social Life of Babies (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); and Daniel Stern, The Interpersonal World of the Infant (New York: Basic Books, 1985).

47. The concepts of symbiosis and separation-individuation are Mahler's. Winnicott objects to the term symbiosis because it is too well rooted in biology to be acceptable to him. Cf. Winnicott, "Interrelating Apart from Instinctual Drive and in Terms of Cross Identifications," in Winnicott, Playing and Reality, p. 130.

48. D. W. Winnicott, "Ego Distortion in Terms of True and False Self," in

D. W. Winnicott, The Maturational Processes and the Facilitating Environment (New York: International Universities Press, 1965).

49. Winnicott, "Anxiety Associated," in Winnicott, Through Paediatrics, p. 99.

50. Mahler, Pine, and Bergman, Psychological Birth, p. 48.

51. D. W. Winnicott, "Primary Maternal Preoccupation," in Winnicott, Through Paediatrics .

52. Ibid., p. 305.

53. D. W. Winnicott, "Aggression in Relation to Emotional Development," in Winnicott, Through Paediatrics, p. 216.

54. Winnicott, "Mind and Its Relation," in Winnicott, Through Paediatrics, p. 245.

55. Winnicott, "Primary Maternal," in Winnicott, Through Paediatrics, p. 304.

56. Winnicott, "Aggression in Relation," in Winnicott, Through Paediatrics, p. 215. See also his "The Use of an Object," in Winnicott, Playing and Reality, pp. 93-94.

57. D. W. Winnicott, "Primitive Emotional Development," in Winnicott, Through Paediatrics, p. 153.

58. Cf. D. W. Winnicott, "The Capacity to Be Alone," in Winnicott, Maturational Processes .

59. D. W. Winnicott, "The Depressive Position in Normal Emotional Development," in Winnicott, Through Paediatrics, pp. 270-271.

60. Winnicott, "Creativity and Its Origins," in Winnicott, Playing and Reality, p. 71.

61. D. W. Winnicott, "Transitional Objects and Transitional Phenomena," in Winnicott, Playing and Reality, p. 11.

62. Ibid.

63. Ibid., p. 12.

64. Ibid.

65. D. W. Winnicott, "The Use of an Object and Relating Through Identifications," in Winnicott, Playing and Reality, p. 89.

66. Winnicott, "Transitional Objects," in Winnicott, Playing and Reality, p. 13.

67. Winnicott, "The Use of an Object," in Winnicott, Playing and Reality, p. 94.

68. D. W. Winnicott, "The Location of Cultural Experience," in Winnicott, Playing and Reality, p. 97.

69. Ibid., p. 102.

70. Winnicott, "Transitional Objects," in Winnicott, Playing and Reality, p. 13.

71. This point has been made by feminist theorists such as Nancy Chodorow, The Reproduction of Mothering: Psychoanalysis and the Sociology of Gender

(Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1978); Dorothy Dinnerstein, The Mermaid and the Minotaur: Sexual Arrangements and the Human Malaise (New York: Harper & Row, 1976); and Juliet Mitchell, Psychoanalysis and Feminism (New York: Pantheon, 1974), and her Women: The Longest Revolution (London: Virago, 1984), part 3. Winnicott does have some interesting things to say about gender in "Creativity and Its Origins," in Winnicott, Playing and Reality, pp. 76-85; and The Family and Individual Development (New York: Tavistock, 1968), pp. 163-165.

72. On gender and core identity see Robert Stoller, "Facts and Fancies: An Examination of Freud's Concept of Bisexuality," in Women & Analysis, ed. Jean Strouse (New York: Dell, 1974); and John Money and Anke A. Ehrhardt, Man and Woman, Boy and Girl (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972), especially pp. 176-194.

73. Mahler, Pine, and Bergman, Psychological Birth, p. 102.

74. Examples of this blaming include Frankfurt Institute for Social Research, "The Family," in Frankfurt Institute for Social Research, Aspects of Sociology (Boston: Beacon Press, 1972); and Christopher Lasch, Haven in a Heartless World (New York: Harper & Row, 1977), especially chap. 8. On the tendency to blame the mother, see also Nancy Chodorow and Susan Contratto, "The Fantasy of the Perfect Mother," in Rethinking the Family: Some Feminist Questions, ed. Barrie Thorne with Marilyn Yalom (New York: Longman, 1982); and Bonnie Dill, "The Dialectics of Black Womanhood," Signs 4, no. 3 (Spring 1979): 543-555.

75. Chodorow, The Reproduction of Mothering, and Dinnerstein, The Mermaid and the Minotaur, discuss some of the reasons for this in more detail. See also Jane Flax, "Contemporary American Families: Decline or Transformation?" in Families, Politics and Public Policy, ed. Irene Diamond (New York: Longman, 1983).

76. Sigmund Freud discusses this in "Some Psychological Consequences of the Anatomical Distinction Between the Sexes," in CP 5. See also Chodorow, The Reproduction of Mothering, chap. 11.

77. Winnicott has an interesting discussion of the good enough mother's inevitable and necessary "hate" of her infant in his "Hate in the Countertransference," in Winnicott, Through Paediatrics, pp. 201-202.

78. Sigmund Freud, "The Question of a Weltanschauung," in Sigmund Freud, New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis, trans. James Strachey (New York: W. W. Norton, 1965), p. 176.

1. Simone de Beauvoir, The Second Sex (New York: Bantam, 1961), p. 667.

2. A representative sample of contemporary feminist theorists would include Barbara Smith, ed., Home Girls: A Black Feminist Anthology (New York:

Kitchen Table: Women of Color Press, 1983); Cherrie Moraga and Gloria Anzaldua, eds., This Bridge Called My Back (Watertown, Mass.: Persephone Press, 1981); Elizabeth Abel, Marianne Hirsch, and Elizabeth Langland, The Voyage In: Fictions of Female Development (Hanover, N.H., and London: University Press of New England, 1983); Zillah R. Eisenstein, ed., Capitalist Patriarchy and the Case for Socialist Feminism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1979); Vivian Gornick and Barbara K. Morgan, eds., Woman in Sexist Society (New York: Mentor, 1971); Annette Kuhn and Ann Marie Wolpe, eds., Feminism and Materialism (Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978); Hunter College Women's Studies Collective, Women's Realities, Women's Choices (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983); Elaine Marks and Isabelle de Courtivron, eds., New French Feminisms (New York: Schocken Books, 1981); Joyce Trebilcot, ed., Mothering: Essays in Feminist Theory (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman & Allanheld, 1984); Sherry B. Ortner and Harriet Whitehead, eds., Sexual Meanings: The Cultural Construction of Gender and Sexuality (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Nancy C. M. Hartsock, Money, Sex and Power (New York: Longman, 1983); Ann Snitow, Christine Stansell, and Sharon Thompson, eds., The Powers of Desire: The Politics of Sexuality (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1983); Sandra Harding and Merill B. Hintikka, eds., Discovering Reality: Feminist Perspectives on Epistemology, Metaphysics, Methodology and Philosophy of Science (Boston: D. Reidel, 1983); Carol C. Gould, Beyond Domination: New Perspectives on Women and Philosophy (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman & Allanheld, 1984); Allison M. Jagger, Feminist Politics and Human Nature (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman & Allanheld, 1983); Martha Blaxall and Barbara Reagan, eds., Women and the Workplace (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976); Isaac D. Balbus, Marxism and Domination (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982); Bell Hooks, Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center (Boston: South End Press, 1984); Audre Lorde, Sister Outsider (Trumansberg, N.Y.: Crossing Press, 1984); Gloria T. Hull, Patricia Bell Scott, and Barbara Smith, All the Women Are White, All the Blacks Are Men, But Some of Us Are Brave: Black Women's Studies (Old Westbury, N.Y.: Feminist Press, 1982); Sandra Harding, The Science Question in Feminism (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1986); and Virginia Sapiro, The Political Integration of Women (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984). On the history of the "second wave" of feminism, see Vicky Randall, Women and Politics: An International Perspective, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987); Ethel Klein, Gender Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1984); and Sara Evans, Personal Politics (New York: Vintage, 1980).

3. Helene Cixous, "The Laugh of the Medusa," in Marks and de Courtivron, New French Feminisms .

4. De Beauvoir, Second Sex, p. 673. See also Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique (New York: Dell, 1963), pp. 332-364.

5. On the reconsideration of the quotidien, see Nancy Hartsock, "The

Feminist Standpoint: Developing the Ground for a Specifically Feminist Historical Materialism," in Harding and Hintikka, Discovering Reality; Caroline Whitbeck, "Afterword to the 'Maternal Instinct,'" in Trebilcot, Mothering; Dorothy Smith, "A Sociology for Women," in The Prism of Sex: Essays in the Sociology of Knowledge, ed. J. Sherman and E. T. Beck (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1979); and Sara Ruddick, "Maternal Thinking," in Trebilcot, Mothering .

6. Friedan, Feminine Mystique, chap. 1.

7. This is Richard Rorty's phrase in his Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1979), pp. 389-394.

8. For discussion of the feminist standpoint, see Hartsock, "The Feminist Standpoint," in Harding and Hintikka, Discovering Reality, and her Money, Sex and Power; and Harding, The Science Question, chaps. 6 and 7.

9. In Sandra Harding, "The Instability of the Analytical Categories of Feminist Theory," Signs 11, no. 4 (Summer 1986): 645-664. I think her argument rests in part on a too uncritical appropriation of a key Enlightenment equation of knowing, naming, and emancipation. Feminists who are more critical of the Enlightenment legacy include Alice A. Jardine, Gynesis: Configurations of Woman and Modernity (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1985); Julia Kristeva, "Women's Time," Signs 7, no. 1 (Autumn 1981): 13-35; Kathy E. Ferguson, The Feminist Case Against Bureaucracy (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1984); and Luce Irigaray, Speculum of the Other Woman, trans. Gilian C. Gill (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1985).

10. See Max Weber, "Politics as a Vocation," in From Max Weber, ed. H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills (New York: Oxford University Press, 1958); and Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno, Dialectic of Enlightenment (New York: Herder & Herder, 1972).

11. Jean-François Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984), pp. 81-82.

12. On the concept of "grand theory," see Quentin Skinner, ed., The Return of Grand Theory in the Human Sciences (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985). In Skinner's introduction to this book, he mentions the "women's movement" as a source of insights for the resurgence of grand theorizing (p. 6) but, as is often the case, fails even to cite any work in feminist theory, much less include a review of such theorizing in this collection. These "gaps and omissions" are replicated in all the essays printed in this volume.

13. Gayle Rubin, "The Traffic in Women: Notes on the 'Political Economy' of Sex," in Toward an Anthropology of Women, ed. Rayna Rapp Reiter (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1975), pp. 159, 166, 168, 169.

14. Ibid., p. 177.

15. Ibid., p. 178.

16. Ibid., pp. 183, 197.

17. Radical feminist works that have a determinist tenor include Mary Daly, Gyn/Ecology: The Metaethics of Radical Feminism (Boston: Beacon Press, 1978); and Andrea Dworkin, Woman Hating (New York: Dutton, 1974).

18. For a more complete critique of Rubin's structuralism, see the appendix to Hartsock, Money, Sex and Power .

19. Rubin, "The Traffic in Women," p. 205.

20. Ibid., pp. 209-210.

21. Ibid., p. 203.

22. Juliet Mitchell, Women's Estate (New York: Pantheon, 1971), pp. 101, 171-172.

23. Jean Bethke Elshtain, Public Man, Private Woman (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981), pp. 314, 328-329, 331-333, 310.

24. Ibid., p. 311.

25. In Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Women and Economics (New York: Harper & Row, 1966), written in 1898, there is a brilliant discussion of the social transformations and uses of women's physical characteristics. Female athletes' recent achievements make one wonder about the "natural" limits of female bodies.

26. See the collections of essays in Eisenstein, Capitalist Patriarchy, and Kuhn and Wolpe, Feminism and Materialism, for some of the best work by socialist feminists; see also Lydia Sargent, ed., Women and Revolution (Boston: South End Press, 1981).

27. On Marx's method see Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, The German Ideology (New York: International Publishers, 1970), especially part 1. For an application and extension of his method, see Karl Marx, Capital (New York: International Publishers, 1967), vol. 1, especially part 1.

28. On productive and nonproductive labor see Marx, Capital, pp. 84-94, 177-211.

29. On the sexual division of labor, see the essays in Blaxall and Reagan, Women in the Workplace .

30. On the "double day" see the essays by Hartmann and Boulding in ibid.

31. Ann Ferguson, "On Conceiving Motherhood and Sexuality: A Feminist Materialist Approach," in Trebilcot, Mothering .

32. See Phyllis Marynick Palmer, "White Women/Black Women: The Dualism of Female Identity and Experience in the United States," Feminist Studies 9, no. 1 (Spring 1983): 151-170, on the economic differences between black and white women.

33. Cf. Gloria Joseph's critique in "The Incompatible Menage a Trois: Marxism, Feminism, and Racism," in Sargent, Women and Revolution .

34. Cf. Balbus, Marxism, especially chap. 1; Jane Flax, "Do Feminists Need Marxism?" in Building Feminist Theory, ed. Quest Staff (New York: Longman,

1981); and Jane Flax, "The Family in Contemporary Feminist Thought: A Critical Review," in The Family in Political Thought , ed. Jean Bethke Elshtain (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1982), pp. 232-239.

35. Cf. Albert O. Hirschman, The Passions and the Interests (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1977), for an interesting discussion of the historical emergence and construction of a specifically capitalist mentality.

36. Annette Kuhn, "Structures of Patriarchy and Capital in the Family," in Kuhn and Wolpe, Feminism and Materialism , p. 53.

37. Cf. Balbus, Marxism , on the ecological problems of Marxism; and Hilde Scott, Does Socialism Liberate Women? (Boston: Beacon Press, 1974); Judith Stacey, Patriarchy and Socialist Revolution in China (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1983); and Gail Warshofsky Lapidus, Women in Soviet Society (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1978), on women in socialist societies.

38. Ferguson, The Feminist Case , pp. 160-161.

39. Karl Marx, Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844 , in The Marx-Engels Reader , 2nd ed., ed. Robert C. Tucker (New York: W. W. Norton, 1978), p. 116. Balbus, Marxism , chaps. 1-3, stresses Marx's relation to and repetition of Enlightenment assumptions, especially those concerning nature and history. He also persuasively reveals the blindnesses to gender relations without which basic categories in Marxist analysis (such as labor) would collapse.

40. Adrienne Rich, Of Woman Born: Motherhood as Experience and Institution (New York: W. W. Norton, 1976).

41. Dorothy Dinnerstein, The Mermaid and the Minotaur: Sexual Arrangements and the Human Malaise (New York: Harper & Row, 1976), especially pp. 76-82, 207-228.

42. Juliet Mitchell, Psychoanalysis and Feminism (New York: Pantheon, 1974), pp. xv-xxiii, 113-119.

43. The primary alternative theories Mitchell discusses in Psychoanalysis are those of Wilhelm Reich and R. D. Laing. Even in her more recent work, for example, the essays on psychoanalysis in her Women and Revolution (London: Virago, 1984), there is no sustained grappling with any type of psychoanalysis other than the work of Freud and Lacan.

44. Mitchell, Psychoanalysis , p. 413.

45. Dinnerstein, The Mermaid and the Minotaur , p. 20.

46. Nancy Chodorow, The Reproduction of Mothering: Psychoanalysis and the Sociology of Gender (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1978), p. 10.

47. Ibid., pp. 169-170.

48. Ibid., p. 218.

49. Lilian B. Rubin, Worlds of Pain: Life in the Working-Class Family (New York: Basic Books, 1976), is a good example of this approach.

50. For an example of such arguments, cf. Balbus, Marxism , pp. 303-352. Balbus still seems under Marx's (metatheoretical) spell in his search for a cause or ordering principle structuring all of human history.

51. The theorists of difference themselves differ, of course. In this rather broad category I would include the work of Luce Irigaray; Hélène Cixous; Sara Ruddick; Carol Gilligan, In a Different Voice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982); Julia Kristeva, Desire in Language (New York: Columbia University Press, 1980), and her essays in The Future of Difference , ed. Hester Eisenstein and Alice Jardine (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1985). Furthermore some American feminists work with a Lacanian framework. Cf., for example, most of the essays in Charles Bernheimer and Claire Kahane, eds., In Dora's Case: Freud-Hysteria-Feminism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985).

52. The work of Cixous; Irigaray; and Toril Moi, Sexual Textual Politics (London: Methuen, 1985), exemplifies the first emphasis; that of Carol Gilligan, Sara Ruddick, and Caroline Whitbeck, ''The Maternal Instinct," in Trebilcot, Mothering , exemplifies the second.

53. Judith Stacey, "The New Conservative Feminism," Feminist Studies 9, no. 3 (Fall 1983): 559-583; and Domna Stanton, "Difference on Trial: A Critique of the Maternal Metaphor in Cixous, Irigaray and Kristeva," in The Poetics of Gender , ed. Nancy Miller (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986).

54. Hélène Cixous, "Sorties," in Hélène Cixous and Catherine Clément, The Newly Born Woman (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986), p. 93.

55. Luce Irigaray, "Questions," in Luce Irigaray, This Sex Which Is Not One (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1985), p. 28.

56. Ibid., p. 199. On woman as mirror for man, see also Virginia Woolf, A Room of One's Own (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1963), pp. 37-38.

57. Irigaray, This Sex , pp. 25, 196.

58. Cixous and Clément, Newly Born Woman , p. 68.

59. Catherine Clément, "The Guilty One," in Cixous and Clément, Newly Born Woman , p. 29.

60. Irigaray, This Sex , pp. 108-109.

61. Cixoux and Clément, Newly Born Woman , p. 67; Irigaray, This Sex , pp. 128-130.

62. Cixous and Clément, Newly Born Woman , pp. 64, 65; also Irigaray, Speculum of the Other Woman , esp. pp. 13-66, 203-240.

63. Irigaray, This Sex , p. 74; see also Cixous and Clément, Newly Born Woman , pp. 70-71, 78-83.

64. Irigaray, This Sex , p. 171.

65. Ibid., p. 166.

66. Cixous and Clément, Newly Born Woman , p. 93.

67. Irigaray, This Sex , p. 196.

68. Cixous and Clément, Newly Born Woman , p. 97.

69. Hélène Cixous and Catherine Clément, "Exchange," in Cixous and Clément, Newly Born Woman , p. 157. This emphasis on libido and the revolutionary qualities of imagination recalls Herbert Marcuse's romantic-aesthetic period. Cf. Herbert Marcuse, An Essay on Liberation (Boston: Beacon Press, 1969); and his The Aesthetic Dimension (Boston: Beacon Press, 1978).

70. I develop this critique further in "Re-membering the Selves," Michigan Quarterly Review 26, no. 1 (Winter 1987): 92-110.

71. Irigaray, This Sex , p. 164.

72. Jessie Redmond Fauset, Plum Bun: A Novel Without a Moral (London: Pandora Press, 1985), p. 54. This novel, originally published in 1928, is the story of a woman light enough to "pass" for white, what she discovers of the benefits and cost of doing so, and of the painful perversities of the social relations of race and selfhood in the United States. On the centrality and diversity of race relations in the lives of women of color, see also the essays in Smith, Home Girls ; Moraga and Anzaldua, This Bridge; and Hooks, Feminist Theory .

73. Barbara Smith, "Introduction," in Smith, Home Girls , p. xlv. For a historical overview of the "sexual history" of the United States and black women's place within it, see Barbara Omolade, "Hearts of Darkness," in Snitow, Stansell, and Thompson, Powers of Desire .

74. Alice Walker, "In Search of Our Mothers' Gardens," in her In Search of Our Mothers' Gardens: Womanist Prose (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1983), p. 237. On the misconstruing of black women's qualities and experiences, see Bonnie Thornton Dill, "The Dialectics of Black Womanhood," Signs 4, no. 3 (Spring 1979): 543-555; Michele Wallace, Black Macho and the Myth of the Super Woman (New York: Dial, 1978); and Angela T. Davis, Women, Race and Class (New York: Random House, 1981), especially pp. 3-29.

75. Audre Lorde, "Eye to Eye," in Lorde, Sister Outsider , p. 158; see also Bernice Johnson Reagon, "My Black Mothers and Sisters or on Beginning a Cultural Autobiography," Feminist Studies 8, no. 1 (Spring 1982): 81-96.

76. Paule Marshall, Brown Girl, Brownstones (Old Westbury, Conn.: Feminist Press, 1981), p. 46. See also Lorde, "Eye to Eye," in Lorde, Sister Outsider; and Gloria I. Joseph and Jill Lewis, Common Differences (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1981), pp. 75-126.

77. On the barriers to and costs of not "speaking differences," see Maxine Baca Zinn, Lynn Weber Cannon, Elizabeth Higginbotham, and Bonnie Thornton Dill, "The Costs of Exclusionary Practices in Women's Studies," Signs 11, no. 2 (Winter 1986): 290-303; Marie C. Lugones and Elizabeth V.

Spelman, "Have We Got a Theory for You! Feminist Theory, Cultural Imperialism and the Demand for the Woman's Voice," in Women and Values , ed. Marilyn Pearsall (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1986); Palmer, "White Women/Black Women"; Audre Lorde, "Age, Race, Sex and Class," in Lorde, Sister Outsider ; and Margaret A. Simons, "Racism and Feminism: A Schism in the Sisterhood," Feminist Studies 5, no. 2 (Summer 1979): 384-401. However I do not think the solution to these exclusionary practices is, as Donna Haraway does in "A Manifesto for Cyborgs,'' Socialist Review 80 (1983): 65-107, to create a mythic "most oppressed" woman (Third World, working in a multinational corporate factory in a repressive, poor state) and to have her represent woman as such. This tactic results in the reification of the incredibly diverse experiences of women of color and hence recreates their absence from feminist theory as concrete beings.

78. Moi, Sexual Textual Politics , p. 23.

79. Elaine Marks and Isabelle de Courtivron, "Introductions," in Marks and de Courtivron, New French Feminisms , p. 4.

80. The work of Cixous and Irigaray seems to exemplify this tendency and its problems.

81. Elshtain makes these arguments in Public Man , chap. 6, and in her "Introduction," in Elshtain, The Family in Political Thought .

82. Stacey, "The New Conservative Feminism," provides a sensitive discussion of the often muddled feminist views of families.

83. As Smith points out in her "Introduction," in Smith, Home Girls .

84. Catherine MacKinnon, "Feminism, Marxism, Method and the State: An Agenda for Theory," Signs 7, no. 3 (Spring 1982): 531.

85. Cf. Cixous's work; also Adrienne Rich, "Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence," Signs 5, no. 4 (Summer 1980): 515-544. Stanton provides a sharp critique of the ontological and essentialist assumptions of these writers.

86. Iris Young, "Is Male Gender Identity the Cause of Male Domination?" in Trebilcot, Mothering , p. 140. In this essay Young replicates the split Mitchell posits in Psychoanalysis and Feminism between kinship/gender/superstructure and class/production/base.

87. As in Shulamith Firestone, The Dialectic of Sex (New York: Bantam, 1970); MacKinnon, "Feminism"; and Dworkin, Woman Hating .

88. On this point see the essay by Nancy Chodorow and Susan Contratto, "The Fantasy of the Perfect Mother," in Rethinking the Family , ed. Barrie Thorne with Marilyn Yalom (New York: Longman, 1983).

89. Trebilcot, Mothering; and Thorne and Yalom, Rethinking the Family .

90. I consider MacKinnon's essay, "Feminism," an example of this viewpoint. See also Jeffner Allen, "Motherhood: The Annihilation of Women," in Trebilcot, Mothering .

91. Important recent sources for such work include Haleh Afshar, ed., Women, State and Ideology: Studies from Africa and Asia (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987); Paula S. Rothenberg, ed., Racism and Sexism: An Integrated Study (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1988); Janet Henshall Momsen and Janet Townsend, Geography of Gender in the Third World (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987); and Johnnetta B. Cole, ed., All American Women: Lines that Divide, Ties that Bind (New York: Free Press, 1986).

92. Exceptions to the lack of self-reflection by white women about the impotance of race include Palmer, "White Women/Black Women"; see also the dialogues between Joseph and Lewis, Common Differences; and Lugones and Spelman, "Have We Got a Theory for You!"

93. Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge , ed. Colin Gordon (New York: Random House, 1981), pp. 109-133.

94. Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents (New York: W W. Norton, 1961), pp. 50-51.

1. I am indebted to the following essays, which clarify the relationships between postmodernism, modernism, and the "crisis" of philosophy: Richard J. Bernstein, "Introduction," in Habermas and Modernity , ed. Richard J. Bernstein (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1985); Kenneth Bayes, James Bohman, and Thomas McCarthy, "General Introduction," in After Philosophy: End or Transformation , ed. Kenneth Baynes, James Bohman, and Thomas McCarthy (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1978); Alice A. Jardine, Gynesis: Configurations of Women and Modernity (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1985); Jonathan Culler, On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism After Structuralism (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1982); Andreas Huyssen, "Mapping the Postmodern,'' in The Crisis of Modernity: Recent Critical Theories of Culture and Society in the United States and West Germany , ed. Gunter H. Lenz and Kurt L. Shell (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1986); Samuel Weber, "Demarcations: Deconstruction, Institutionalization and Ambivalence," in Lenz and Shell, Crisis of Modernity; John Rajchman, Michel Foucault: The Freedom of Philosophy (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); Jonathan Arac, "Introduction," in Postmodernism and Politics , ed. Jonathan Arac (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986); David Hoy, "Jacques Derrida," in The Return of Grand Theory in the Human Sciences , ed. Quentin Skinner (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Mark Philp, "Michel Foucault," in Skinner, The Return; Hubert L. Dreyfus and Paul Rabinow, Michel Foucault: Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics , 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); and Vincent Descombes, Modern French Philosophy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1980).

2. For arguments about the need to protect, redeem, or fulfill the promises of Enlightenment and modernity, see Jürgen Habermas, "Neo-Conservative Culture Criticism in the United States and West Germany: An Intellectual Movement in Two Political Cultures," and "Questions and Counterquestions," both in Bernstein, Habermas and Modernity; Herbert Marcuse, "On Hedonism,'' in his Negations (Boston: Beacon Press, 1968); and also Martin Jay, "Habermas and Modernism," in Bernstein, Habermas and Modernity .

3. Most notably in Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno, The Dialectic of Enlightenment , trans. John Cumming (New York: Herder & Herder, 1972); but see also Max Horkheimer, Critique of Instrumental Reason (New York: Seabury, 1974).

4. The work of Adolf Grünbaum; for example, his "Epistemological Liabilities of the Clinical Appraisal of Psychoanalytic Theory," Psychoanalysis and Contemporary Thought 2 (1979): 451-526, is an instance of the reassertion of the philosopher's role as adjudicator of knowledge claims.

5. Karl Marx, "Theses on Feuerbach," reprinted in The Marx-Engels Reader , ed. Robert C. Tucker (New York: W. W. Norton, 1978), p. 145.

6. "Defiance and infatuation are one and the same thing, and whoever defies them is thereby lost to the myth against which he set himself," Horkheimer and Adorno, The Dialectic , pp. 58-59. This is a note from "Excursus I," in Horkheimer and Adorno, The Dialectic , in which the authors utilize the story of Odysseus and the Sirens as a metaphor for the complex relations between myth, enlightenment, and the seduction or cunning of reason. On the relation(s) between postmodernism and earlier themes in critical theory, see Rainer Nagele, "The Scene of the Other: Theodor W. Adorno's Negative Dialectic in the Context of Post-structuralism," in Arac, Postmodernism and Politics; and Albrecht Wellmer, "Reason, Utopia, and the Dialectic of Enlightenment ," in Bernstein, Habermas and Modernity .

7. Richard Rorty, "Pragmatism and Philosophy," in Baynes, Bohman, and McCarthy, After Philosophy , p. 47.

8. See, for example, Melanie Klein, "The Importance of Symbol-Formation in the Development of the Ego," in Melanie Klein, Love, Guilt and Reparation (New York: Delta, 1975). I am not claiming Klein's approach is the correct one; however I mention her work to suggest there may be many far more radical ways to "displace philosophy" than internal critiques or theories of writing.

9. I owe a great debt to Naomi Schor, "Dreaming Dissymetry: Barthes, Foucault and Sexual Difference," in Men in Feminism , ed. Alice Jardine and Paul Smith (New York: Methuen, 1987), for alerting me to some of these gaps.

10. Jacques Derrida, "Positions," in Jacques Derrida, Positions , trans. Alan Bass (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), p. 51. I will quote Derrida

extensively in this section because he emphasizes the importance of style as content; my own style of writing is quite different from his.

11. Jacques Derrida, "Violence and Metaphysics," in Jacques Derrida, Writing and Difference, trans. Alan Bass (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), pp. 91-92, 96.

12. Ibid., pp. 103-104. In its being as "face," and "absence," Derrida's "other'' has strong similarities to Lacan's "mother."

13. Ibid., pp. 147, 103.

14. Jacques Derrida, "Freud and the Scene of Writing," in Derrida, Writing and Difference, pp. 196, 200. On being, writing, and other, see also Jacques Derrida, "Difference," in Jacques Derrida, Margins of Philosophy, trans. Alan Bass (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), especially pp. 25-27.

15. Derrida, "Freud," in Derrida, Writing and Difference, pp. 211-212.

16. Ibid., pp. 230, 227. On this point see also Jacques Derrida, "Signature Event Context," in Derrida, Margins .

17. Jacques Derrida, "From Restricted to General Economy: A Hegelianism Without Reserve," in Derrida, Writing and Difference, pp. 259-260, 263, 268.

18. Ibid., pp. 269-272.

19. Derrida, "Violence," in Derrida, Writing and Difference, p. 147.

20. Derrida, "From Restricted to General Economy," in Derrida, Writing and Difference, p. 274.

21. Jacques Derrida, "Implications," in Derrida, Positions, p. 14.

22. Derrida, "Positions," in Derrida, Positions, p. 45.

23. Richard Rorty, "Pragmatism and Philosophy," in Baynes, Bohman, and McCarthy, After Philosophy, p. 28.

24. Derrida, "Positions," in Derrida, Positions, n. 32, p. 105.

25. Rorty, "Pragmatism," in Baynes, Bohman, and McCarthy, After Philosophy, p. 60.

26. Ibid., pp. 32-33, 57.

27. Ibid., p. 28.

28. Ibid.

29. Ibid., pp. 30-31.

30. Ibid., pp. 32, 54.

31. Richard Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1979), p. 379.

32. Rorty, "Pragmatism," in Baynes, Bohman, and McCarthy, After Philosophy, p. 62.

33. Jean-François Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, trans. Geoff Bennington and Brian Massumi (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984), p. 30.

34. Ibid., p. xxiii.

35. Ibid., p. 31.

36. Ibid., pp. 32, 35.

37. Ibid., pp. 33-35.

38. Michel Foucault, "Truth and Power," in Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge, ed. Colin Gordon (New York: Pantheon, 1980), p. 131.

39. Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition, pp. xxiv, 81.

40. Ibid., p. 127.

41. Michel Foucault, "What Is an Author?" in Michel Foucault, Language, Counter-memory, Practice, ed. Donald F. Bouchard (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1977), p. 120. Rorty is also critical of Derrida's concept of writing. He does not believe there is any "beyond," and his concept of "language" is very different than Derrida's. Cf. Richard Rorty, Consequences of Pragmatism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1982), chaps. 6, 8.

42. Cf. Richard Rorty, "Postmodernist Bourgeois Liberalism," in Hermeneutics and Praxis, ed. Robert Hollinger (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1985).

43. Foucault, "Truth and Power," in Foucault, Power/Knowledge, p. 114.

44. Michel Foucault, "Nietzsche, Genealogy, History," in Foucault, Language, p. 142.

45. Michel Foucault, "The Discourse on Language," in the appendix to Michel Foucault, The Archaeology of Knowledge, trans. A. M. Sheridan Smith (New York: Harper Colophon, 1976), p. 229.

46. Ibid.

47. Foucault, "Nietzsche," in Foucault, Language, p. 151.

48. Ibid., p. 163.

49. Michel Foucault, "Revolutionary Action: 'Until Now,'" in Foucault, Language, pp. 221-222.

50. Foucault, "Truth and Power," in Foucault, Power/Knowledge, p. 119.

51. Ibid., p. 125.

52. Michel Foucault, "On the Genealogy of Ethics: An Overview of Work in Progress," in Dreyfus and Rabinow, Michel Foucault, pp. 235-237.

53. Richard J. Bernstein, "Philosophy in the Conversation of Mankind," in Hollinger, Hermeneutics and Praxis; Paul A. Bove, "The Ineluctibiity of Difference: Scientific Pluralism and the Critical Intelligence," in Arac, Postmodernism and Politics; and Cornel West, "The Politics of American Neo-Pragmatism," in Post-Analytic Philosophy, ed. John Rajchman and Cornel West (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), discuss this problem from nonfeminist view-points.

54. Kathy Ferguson's work suggests some of the alterations that would result. See especially her The Feminist Case Against Bureaucracy (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1984), chap. 2.

55. It would be interesting, for example, to compare Linda Gordon, Woman's Body, Woman's Right: A Social History of Birth Control in America (New York: Viking Press, 1976), with Foucault's methods and histories in relation to gender; see also Ferguson, The Feminist Case, especially the preface and chap. 5; and Susan Rubin Suleiman, ed., The Female Body in Western Culture (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1985).

56. Jacques Derrida, Spurs: Nietzsche's Styles, trans. Barbara Harlow (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), p. 51. My reading of this text has benefited from Jardine's analysis of it in Gynesis, chap. 9. However I find her reading insufficiently critical of the gendered nature of Derrida's categories.

57. Derrida, Spurs, pp. 101, 103.

58. Jardine, Gynesis, p. 194.

59. Derrida, Spurs, pp. 61, 65, 67, 107.

60. Schor, "Dreaming Dissymmetry," p. 110.

61. For a discussion of Plato, cf. Luce Irigaray, Speculum of the Other Woman, trans. Gillian C. Gill (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1985), especially "Plato's Hysteria." On Rousseau cf. Susan Moller Okin, Women in Western Political Thought (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1979), especially part 2. I have also discussed the (unconscious) effects of gender relations on Plato and Rousseau's philosophies in Jane Flax, "Political Philosophy and the Patriarchal Unconscious: A Psychoanalytic Perspective on Epistemology and Metaphysics," in Discovering Reality: Feminist Perspectives on Epistemology, Metaphysics, Methodology and Philosophy of Science, ed. Sandra Harding and Menu Hintikka (Boston: D. Reidel, 1983).

62. Cf. Okin, Women in Western, for an extended discussion of this point.

63. Luce Irigaray, "Commodities Among Themselves," in Luce Irigaray, This Sex Which Is Not One, trans. Catherine Porter (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1985).

64. This is Schor's suggestion. See her "Dreaming Dissymmetry," p. 109.

65. Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition, p. 82.

66. Cf. Richard Rorty's apt critique of Lyotard in his "Habermas and Lyotard on Postmodernity," in Bernstein, Habermas and Modernity .

67. One could not integrate the traits of the good enough mother as presented by D. W. Winnicott (cf. Chapter 4) with Foucault's aesthetic subjectivity.

68. Cf. Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness (New York: Washington Square Press, 1966), especially pp. 747-748. Foucault tries to distinguish his views from Sartre's in his "On the Genealogy of Ethics," in Dreyfus and Rabinow, Michel Foucault, p. 237.

69. On the problems of reconciling Foucault's politics and ideas, see Rajchman, Michel Foucault, chap. 2; and Dreyfus and Rabinow, Michel Foucault, pp. 253-264. Problems of gender or child rearing are not addressed in

either of these works. Foucault was evidently rethinking some of his ideas about subjectivity shortly before his death. See Luther H. Martin, Huck Gutman, and Patrick H. Hutton, Technologies of the Self (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1988).

70. Richard Rorty, "Freud and Moral Reflection," in Pragmatism's Freud: The Moral Disposition of Psychoanalysis, ed. Joseph H. Smith and William Kerrigan (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986). Derrida naturally reconstructs the unconscious as the scene of "writing," the other, and chance. See his "My Chances/ Mes chance: A Rendezvous with Some Epicurean Stereophonies," in Taking Chances: Derrida, Psychoanalysis and Literature , ed. Joseph H. Smith and William Kerrigan (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984).

71. Rorty, "Freud," in Smith and Kerrigan, Pragmatism's Freud, pp. 5, 7.

72. I discuss part of the treatment of a borderline patient in Jane Flax, "Remembering the Selves: Is the Repressed Gendered?" Michigan Quarterly Review 26, no. 1 (Winter 1987): 92-110.

73. Rorty, "Pragmatism and Philosophy," in Baynes, Bohman, and McCarthy, After Philosophy, p. 52, suggests, "some intuitions should be deliberately repressed."

74. Hanna Pitkin, "Justice: On Relating Private and Public," Political Theory 9, no. 3 (August 1981): 327-352.

1. Sandra Harding has suggested to me in private correspondence that the dualism true/false is in need of deconstruction. She argues that perhaps there could be concepts of falsehood that are not dependent on a notion of truth. I find her suggestion interesting but not immediately useful for my purposes.

2. On Jürgen Habermas's notion of communicative competence and some of the problems with it from a feminist point of view, see Nancy Fraser, "What's Critical About Critical Theory: The Case of Habermas and Gender," in Feminism as Critique, ed. Seyla Benhabib and Drucilla Cornell (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987). For Habermas's own views see Jürgen Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action (Boston: Beacon Press, 1984).

3. Cf. Julia Kristeva, Desire in Language (New York: Columbia University Press, 1980). Kristeva is ambivalent about the meanings of feminism and its relation to her work. See also Luce Irigaray, Speculum of the Other Woman, trans. Gillian C. Gill (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1985).

4. Luce Irigaray, This Sex Which Is Not One, trans. Catherine Porter (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1985), pp. 95-96.

5. Ibid., p. 94.

6. Donald McIntosh, "The Empirical Bearing of Psychoanalytic Theory,"

International Journal of Psychoanalysis 60 (1979): 405-431, provides an excellent commentary on this literature.

7. Cf. Naomi Scheman, "Individualism and the Objects of Psychology," and Jane Flax, "Political Philosophy and the Patriarchal Unconscious," both in Discovering Reality, ed. Sandra Harding and Merill Hintikka (Dordrecht, Netherlands: D. Reidel, 1983); and Sandra Harding, The Science Question in Feminism (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1986), especially chaps. 7-9.

8. Susan Moller Okin, Women in Western Political Thought (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1979), especially chaps. 7, 10, 11.

9. A recent example is Carol Pateman, Participation and Political Theory (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1970).

10. Cf. Richard Rorty, "Postmodernist Bourgeois Liberalism," in Hermeneutics and Praxis, ed. Robert Hollinger (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1985); and Jean-François Lyotard and Jean-Loup Thebaud, Just Gaming (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1985).

11. See, for example, Judith Stacey, Patriarchy and Socialist Revolution in Socialist China (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1983); Hilda Scott, Does Socialism Liberate Women? (Boston: Beacon Press, 1974); and Sheila Rowbotham, Women, Resistance and Revolution (New York: Vintage, 1974).

12. Herbert Marcuse, Eros and Civilization (Boston: Beacon Press, 1955); Heinz Hartmann, Ego Psychology and the Problem of Adaptation (New York: International Universities Press, 1958); Jacques Lacan, Ecrits: A Selection (New York: W. W. Norton, 1977); and D. W. Winnicott, The Maturational Process and the Facilitating Environment (New York: International Universities Press, 1965).

13. Irigaray, This Sex, chaps. 9, 11.

14. This question of doing right initiates the dialogue on justice in Plato, The Republic, trans. Allan Bloom (New York: Basic Books, 1968).

15. Richard Rorty, "Habermas and Lyotard on Postmodernity," in Habermas and Modernity, ed. Richard J. Bernstein (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1985), p. 174.