1. To avoid any ambiguity, "philosophical position" will be understood throughout this book to be roughly synonymous with a given "philosopher's thought" or "philosophy."

2. See Karl Löwith, "Les implications politiques de la philosophie de l'existence chez Heidegger," Les Temps Modernes 2, no. 14 (novembre 1946): 343-360.

3. See Hugo Ott, Martin Heidegger: Unterwegs zu seiner Biographie (Frankfurt a.M. and New York: Campus, 1988).

4. See Victor Farias, Heidegger and Nazism , ed. Joseph Margolis and Tom Rockmore, French materials trans. Paul Burrell with the advice of Dominic Di Bernardi, German materials trans. Gabriel R. Ricci (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989). The original French edition of this work appeared in 1987.

5. For Levinas's view of Heidegger, see Emmanuel Levinas, É thique et infini: Dialogues avec Philippe Nemo (Paris: Fayard, 1982), pp. 27-34.

6. See Dieter Thomä, Die Zeit des Selbst und die Zeit danach: Zur Kritik der Textgeschichte Martin Heideggers 1910-1976 (Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp, 1990), pp. 31-35.

7. The disagreement is instructive. Janicaud, for example, proposes a so-called iron triangle consisting of the Führerprinzip , anti-Semitism, and imperialistic nationalism, none of which he finds in Heidegger's position. See Janicaud, L'ombre de cette pensée. Heidegger et la question politique (Grenoble: Jérôme Millon, 1990), chap. 2, esp. pp. 35-50. Others have denied that anti-Semitism is central to Nazism as Hitler originally conceived it. For Baum, the main themes were "sovereignty of the German people . . .; a national community without

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class conflict; militant anti-Marxism; the leadership principle; a flank espousal of meritocratic principles whereby, as in contemporary Western societies, rank was to be attained by achievement and talent rather than birth; chauvinism and glorification of war; and, of course, the antidemocratic stance." Rainer C. Baum, "HOLOCAUST: Moral Indifference as the Form of Modern Evil," in Echoes from the Holocaust: Philosophical Reflections from a Dark Time , ed. Alan Rosenberg and Gerald E. Myers (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988), p. 67. For a wide-ranging survey of fascism in general, see Eugen Weber, Varieties of Fascism: Doctrines of Revolution in the Twentieth Century (Malabar, Fla.: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company, 1982).

8. Paul de Man, Allegories of Reading: Figural Language in Rousseau, Nietzsche, Rilke, and Proust (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1979), p. 293.

9. See, e.g., Karsten Harries's introduction to Martin Heidegger and National Socialism: Questions and Answers , ed. Günther Neske and Emil Kettering, trans. Lisa Harries and Joachim Neugroschel (New York: Paragon House, 1990), p. xii.

10. See, e.g., John Sailis, Echoes: After Heidegger (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1990). Sailis employs the now familiar view that we have to let Heidegger's texts speak to us in order to suggest that when we take into account Heidegger's politics we cannot do so and, literally, cannot think. See ibid., p. 11.

11. See Charles E. Scott, The Question of Ethics: Nietzsche, Foucault, Heidegger (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1990). Scott considers ethics while suspending the very idea of its practical application, surely a questionable approach since ethics has always been understood as concerning proper action. See ibid., p. 4. Since he refers to none of the prior discussion concerning Heidegger's application of his philosophical thought to political practice, Scott at this late date is able to read the rectoral address without noticing Heidegger's concern in it to put his thought at the service of Nazism. See ibid., pp. 178-192.

9. See, e.g., Karsten Harries's introduction to Martin Heidegger and National Socialism: Questions and Answers , ed. Günther Neske and Emil Kettering, trans. Lisa Harries and Joachim Neugroschel (New York: Paragon House, 1990), p. xii.

10. See, e.g., John Sailis, Echoes: After Heidegger (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1990). Sailis employs the now familiar view that we have to let Heidegger's texts speak to us in order to suggest that when we take into account Heidegger's politics we cannot do so and, literally, cannot think. See ibid., p. 11.

11. See Charles E. Scott, The Question of Ethics: Nietzsche, Foucault, Heidegger (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1990). Scott considers ethics while suspending the very idea of its practical application, surely a questionable approach since ethics has always been understood as concerning proper action. See ibid., p. 4. Since he refers to none of the prior discussion concerning Heidegger's application of his philosophical thought to political practice, Scott at this late date is able to read the rectoral address without noticing Heidegger's concern in it to put his thought at the service of Nazism. See ibid., pp. 178-192.

9. See, e.g., Karsten Harries's introduction to Martin Heidegger and National Socialism: Questions and Answers , ed. Günther Neske and Emil Kettering, trans. Lisa Harries and Joachim Neugroschel (New York: Paragon House, 1990), p. xii.

10. See, e.g., John Sailis, Echoes: After Heidegger (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1990). Sailis employs the now familiar view that we have to let Heidegger's texts speak to us in order to suggest that when we take into account Heidegger's politics we cannot do so and, literally, cannot think. See ibid., p. 11.

11. See Charles E. Scott, The Question of Ethics: Nietzsche, Foucault, Heidegger (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1990). Scott considers ethics while suspending the very idea of its practical application, surely a questionable approach since ethics has always been understood as concerning proper action. See ibid., p. 4. Since he refers to none of the prior discussion concerning Heidegger's application of his philosophical thought to political practice, Scott at this late date is able to read the rectoral address without noticing Heidegger's concern in it to put his thought at the service of Nazism. See ibid., pp. 178-192.

12. Löwith already noted this tendency in the foreword to the second edition of his study of Heidegger, which elicited almost no real discussion in the literature. "Desgleichen hat des Verfassers Schrift zwar Ärgernis und Zustimmung erregt, aber keine kritische Entgegnung bekommen." Karl Löwith, "Vorwort zur zweiten Auflage," Denker in dürftiger Zeit , in Karl Löwith, S ä mtliche Schriften , ed. Klaus Stichweh and Marc de Launay (Stuttgart: Metzler, 1984), 1:124.

13. For Rawls's view of the veil of ignorance, see John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971).

14. Blitz is correct to write: "The peculiar need to analyze Being and Time is even more obvious when we remember that Heidegger collaborated with the Nazi regime in the first year of its power. Many argue that Heidegger's 'politics' is completely irrelevant for understanding his thought. This argument is useful because indignation seriously interferes with understanding. Ultimately, however, this dismissal of Heidegger's politics is both philosophically ridiculous and

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politically dangerous. The precise nature of the connection between a thinker's thought and his practical speeches and deeds is a difficult and revealing subject, hardly to be dismissed with the prejudice that no connection is relevant. It would be both philosophically strange and politically frightening to discover that the thought of the deepest thinkers does not, cannot, inform their practical concerns." Mark Blitz, Heidegger's Being and Time and the Possibility of Political Philosophy (Cornell: Cornell University Press, 1981), p. 18. See also Karsten Harries's introduction to Martin Heidegger and National Socialism: Questions and Answers , pp. xviii-xix.

1. On this point, see Richard Wolin, The Politics of Being: The Political Thought of Martin Heidegger (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990), p. xi.

2. For the locus classicus of Marx's view of ideology, see Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The German Ideology, Part One , ed. C. J. Arthur (New York: International Publishers, 1970). For a form of Marxism that maintains Marx's claim that ideology tends to conceal the state of society which would otherwise be transformed as a result of becoming aware of it, see Georg Lukács, History and Class Consciousness: Studies in Marxist Dialectics , trans. Rodney Livingstone (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1971).

3. See Martin Heidegger, Being and Time , trans. John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson (New York and Evanston: Harper and Row, 1962), pp. 60ff.

4. See ibid., p. 60.

5. Ibid., p. 51.

3. See Martin Heidegger, Being and Time , trans. John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson (New York and Evanston: Harper and Row, 1962), pp. 60ff.

4. See ibid., p. 60.

5. Ibid., p. 51.

3. See Martin Heidegger, Being and Time , trans. John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson (New York and Evanston: Harper and Row, 1962), pp. 60ff.

4. See ibid., p. 60.

5. Ibid., p. 51.

6. For Heidegger's theory, which is crucial to his entire view of Being, see Being and Time , § 44, "Dasein, Disclosedness, and Truth," pp. 256-273. For criticism of Heidegger's supposed confusion of disclosure with truth, see Ernst Tugendhat, "Heideggers Idee von Wahrheit," in Heidegger: Perspektiven zur Deutung seines Werkes , ed. Otto Pöggeler (Köln and Berlin: Kiepenhauer and Witsch, 1969), pp. 286-297. See also Ernst Tugendhat, Der Wahrheitsbegriffbei Husserl und Heidegger (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1967).

7. See Heidegger, Being and Time , p. 260.

8. See ibid., p. 264.

7. See Heidegger, Being and Time , p. 260.

8. See ibid., p. 264.

9. For discussion of the conception of concealment in Heidegger's theory, see Hans-Georg Gadamer, Philosophical Hermeneutics , trans. and ed. David E. Linge (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1977), p. 234.

10. See Martin Heidegger, Basic Writings , ed. David Farrell Krell (New York: Harper and Row, 1977), p. 132.

11. Martin Heidegger, On Time and Being , trans. Joan Stambaugh (New York: Harper and Row, 1972), p. 69; Heidegger's emphases.

12. Kant held that an original thinker is likely not to be aware of the nature of his or her own thought, which is only later established by epigones who bring out ideas applied but not completely understood by the original thinker. See

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Immanuel Kant, Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason , trans. Norman Kemp Smith (London: Macmillan and New York: St. Martin's Press, 1961), B 862, pp. 654-655.

13. Heidegger's main work concerns, as its title suggests, the relation of Being and time. Although there is an immense literature concerning his thought, Dastur says that with the exception of a single dissertation, apparently none of it, besides her own recent work, directly addresses the topics of the temporality and of time. See Françoise Dastur, Heidegger et la question du temps (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1990), p. 126.

14. See Heidegger, Being and Time , pp. 138-139.

15. See ibid., p. 62.

16. See ibid., § 32, pp. 188-194.

14. See Heidegger, Being and Time , pp. 138-139.

15. See ibid., p. 62.

16. See ibid., § 32, pp. 188-194.

14. See Heidegger, Being and Time , pp. 138-139.

15. See ibid., p. 62.

16. See ibid., § 32, pp. 188-194.

17. This problem is ingredient in much of the later hermeneutic discussion, for instance in the work of Gadamer. See Hans-Georg Gadamer, Truth and Method , trans. Garrett Barden and John Cumming (New York: Crossroad, 1988).

18. See Kant, Critique of Pure Reason , B 864, p. 655.

19. See Heinrich W. Petzet, Auf einen Stern zugehen: Begegnungen mit Martin Heidegger 1929-1976 (Frankfurt a.M., 1983).

20. For Heidegger's view of "destruction," see Martin Heidegger, Being and Time , § 6, "The Task of Destroying the History of Ontology."

21. See John D. Caputo, Radical Hermeneutics: Repetition, Deconstruction, and the Hermeneutic Project (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1987), pp. 82-83. According to Dreyfus, Heidegger incompletely acknowledges his debt to Kierkegaard. See Hubert L. Dreyfus, Being-in-the-WorM: A Commentary on Heidegger's Being and Time, Division I (Cambridge, Mass., and London: MIT Press, 1991), p. 298. Dreyfus provides an extensive discussion of the relation of Heidegger to Kierkegaard. See Dreyfus, Being-in-the-World , pp. 283-340.

22. See Jacques Taminiaux, "La présence de Nietzsche dans 'Etre et Temps.' "in " Etre et Temps" de Martin Heidegger. Questions de méthode et voies de recherche , ed. Jean-Pierre Cometti and Dominique Janicaud (Marseilles: Sud, 1989). pp. 59-76.

23. See Michael Zimmerman, Heidegger's Confrontation with Modernity. Technology, Politics, Art (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1990).

24. See Kant, Critique of Pure Reason , trans. Smith, B xiii, p. 20.

25. For Ryle's view of a category mistake, which may well be derived from Heidegger, whose thought he admired, see Gilbert Ryle, The Concept of Mind (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1949).

26. For instance, in a recent letter to me Prof. Friedrich-Wilhelm von Herrmann specifically denied permission to see the manuscript of a lecture on technology, "Die Gefahr," delivered by Heidegger in Bremen in 1949, and already cited in the literature, on the grounds that none of Heidegger's Nachlass could be seen prior to publication. Heidegger's Beiträge zur Philosophie , his longest work, has recently been published. See Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe , vol.

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65, Beitr ä ge zur Philosophie (Vom Ereignis ), ed. Friedrich-Wilhelm von Herrmann (Frankfurt a.M.: Vittorio Klostermann, 1989). According to Thomä, there are at least two other unpublished manuscripts of comparable size in the Heidegger Archives. See Thomä, Die Zeit des Selbst (see introd., n. 6), pp. 761-762.

27. Nazism is a form of totalitarianism. Heidegger is certainly not the only major thinker to adhere to totalitarianism. An example that comes readily to mind is the adherence of the Hungarian philosopher, Georg Lukács, to Stalinism. His justification of his adherence to Stalinism on the grounds that it was necessary to defeat Nazism is the obverse of hints in Heidegger's writings that Heidegger's Nazism was partially motivated by anticommunism. Heidegger's anticommunism was typical among conservative intellectuals and also part of National Socialist ideology.

28. For instance, Derrida's limitation of his recent study of Heidegger's Nazism to Heidegger's relation to official, Hitlerian Nazism, simply excludes from consideration Heidegger's later interest in an ideal form of Nazism. See Jacques Derrida, De l'esprit: Heidegger et la question (Paris: Éditions Galilée, 1988). If for no other reason, Derrida's explanation that in 1933 Heidegger was himself prey to the metaphysics which he had not yet overcome in his Fundamen-talontologie is unconvincing in its failure to explain Heidegger's continued concern with Nazism in later years.

29. For the concept of the turning, which Heidegger applies to his own thought, see ''The Letter on Humanism,'' in Heidegger, Basic Writings , p. 208. Derrida's interpretation of Heidegger's Fundamentalontologie as still not having overcome metaphysics represents the application to Heidegger's position of the critique that in this text Heidegger applies to humanism, particularly to Sartre.

30. See "Only a God Can Save Us: Der Spiegel's Interview with Martin Heidegger," Philosophy Today 20 (Winter 1976): 275: "I gave a lecture course with the title, Poetizing and Thinking . This was in a certain sense a continuation of my Nietzsche lectures, that is to say, a confrontation with National Socialism."

31. For the most recent, full-scale defense, see Silvio Vietta, Heideggers Kritik am Nationalsozialismus und an der Technik (Tübingen: Niemeyer Verlag, 1989). Wolin identifies an example of the politically evasive ways in which some Heideggerians describe their own actions in a review of Hans-Georg Gadamer's Philosophical Apprenticeships . See Sheldon Wolin, "Under Siege in the 'German Ivory Tower,' " New York Times Book Review , 28 July 1985. p. 12.

32. For the passage in question, see Martin Heidegger, An Introduction to Metaphysics , trans. Ralph Mannheim (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1977), p. 199.

33. See Wolfgang Schirmacher, Technik und Gelassenheit (Freiburg: Alber, 1983), p. 25: "Ackerbau ist jetzt motorisierte Ernährungsindustrie, im Wesen das Selbe wie die Fabrikation von Leichen in Gaskammern und Vernichtungslagern, das Selbe wie die Blockade und Aushungerung von Läindern, das Selbe wie die Fabrikation von Wasserstoffbomben."

34. For instance, Schneeberger's book, which is the first documentary study, was published by the author himself in order to protect against legal action from

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the Heidegger family. See Guido Schneeberger, Nachlese zu Heidegger: Dokumente zu seinem Leben und Denken (Bern, 1962).

1. Steiner sees this as the question which Heidegger's critics, including Adorno and Habermas, have failed to answer. See George Steiner, "Heidegger, abermals," Merkur 43, no. 2 (February 1989): 95.

2. Sartre seems to have thought that in principle a total explanation of human behavior was indeed possible. See Jean-Paul Sartre, L'idiot de la famille: Gustave Flaubert de 1821 à 1857 , 3 vols. (Paris: Gallimard, 1971).

3. The distinction between philosophical and nonphilosophical analyses of Heidegger's turn to Nazism neatly divides the French discussion of his politics into two camps. On the one hand, there are those who regard his Nazism as an isolated episode, unrelated to his position, such as Fédier and Aubenque. On the other, there are those, such as Derrida and Lacoue-Labarthe, more sophisticated, who accept a link between his thought and Nazism, which, they argue, is overcome in the later evolution of his thought.

4. For this list and discussion, see Gerald E. Myers, "The Psychology of Man after Auschwitz," in Echoes from the Holocaust (see Introd., n. 7), p. 313. Myers insists on the role of Hitler as a central cause of the Holocaust.

5. This information is derived from Fritz Stern, Dreams and Delusions. National Socialism in the Drama of the German Past (New York: Vintage, 1989), pp. 130-131.

6. For a classic formulation of this argument, see Franz Neumann, Behemoth: The Structure and Practice of National Socialism 1933-1944 (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1944), p. 3.

7. For a recent effort to present a synthetic view of the Weimar Republic in its entirety, see Reinhard Kühnl, Die Weimarer Republik: Errichtung, Machtstruktur und Zerstörung einer Demokratie (Hamburg: Rowohlt, 1985).

8. Löwith reports a series of articles that appeared in the Frankfurter Zeitung in December 1931 by Paul Tillich, Eduard Spranger, Karl Jaspers, and others under the title "Gibt es noch eine Universität?" See Karl Löwith, Mein Leben in Deutschland vor und nach 1933: Ein Bericht (Frankfurt a.M.: Fischer, 1989), p. 24.

9. Peter Gay, Weimar Culture: The Outsider as Insider (New York: Harper and Row, 1970), p. 144.

10. See Neumann, Behemoth , p. 14.

11. See Leonard Krieger, The German Idea of Freedom: History of a Political Tradition (Boston: Beacon, 1957), p. 467.

12. For a discussion of the rise of Nazism as a conservative revolution, see Jeffrey Herf, Reactionary Modernism: Technology, Culture, and Politics in Weimar and the Third Reich (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), chap. 2, "The Conservative Revolution in Weimar," pp. 18-48.

13. For a presentation of these possibilities, see Kühnl, Die Weimarer

Republik , pp. 8-9. He argues that like the First World War, the demise of the Weimar Republic is due not to economic determinism but to conscious action on the part of those who controlled the economic levers of power. See ibid., "Nachwort," pp. 241-248.

12. For a discussion of the rise of Nazism as a conservative revolution, see Jeffrey Herf, Reactionary Modernism: Technology, Culture, and Politics in Weimar and the Third Reich (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), chap. 2, "The Conservative Revolution in Weimar," pp. 18-48.

13. For a presentation of these possibilities, see Kühnl, Die Weimarer

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Republik , pp. 8-9. He argues that like the First World War, the demise of the Weimar Republic is due not to economic determinism but to conscious action on the part of those who controlled the economic levers of power. See ibid., "Nachwort," pp. 241-248.

14. For a short summary, see Peter Gay, "A Short Political History of the Weimar Republic," in Gay, Weimar Culture , pp. 147-164.

15. For a discussion of the Nazi assumption of power, see Karl Dietrich Bracher, Wolfgang Sauer, and Gerhard Schulz, Die nationalsozialistische Machtergreifung: Studien zur Errichtung des totalitären Herrschaftssystems in Deutschland, 1933-1934 (Cologne: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1960).

16. Löwith has expressed a similar view. "Die deutsche Revolution von 1933 begann mit dem Ausbruch des Weltkriegs. Was seit 1933 in Deutschland geschieht, ist der Versuch, den verlorenen Krieg zu gewinnen. Das Dritte Reich ist das Bismarcksche Reich in zweiter Potenz und der 'Hitlerismus' ein gesteigerter 'Wilhelmismus,' zwischen denen die Weimarer Republik nur ein Zwischenakt war." Löwith, Mein Leben in Deutschland , p. 1.

17. For an account of German intellectuals up to the Nazi seizure of power, see Fritz Ringer, The Decline of the German Mandarins: The Academic Communit)' 1890-1933 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1969).

18. For a discussion of romantic anti-capitalism, see Michael Löwy, Georg Lukács-From Romanticism to Bolshevism , trans. by Patrick Camiller (London: New Left Books, 1979), pp. 22-66.

19. See Rainer Lepsius, cited by Baum "HOLOCAUST" (see Introd., n. 7), p. 63.

20. See Dagmar Barnouw, Weimar Intellectuals and the Threat of Modernit y (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1988), p. 18. For a good survey of the attitude of German intellectuals toward the Weimar Republic, see ibid., pt. 1: "Tempted by Distance: Intellectuals and the Grey Republic," pp. 11-42.

19. See Rainer Lepsius, cited by Baum "HOLOCAUST" (see Introd., n. 7), p. 63.

20. See Dagmar Barnouw, Weimar Intellectuals and the Threat of Modernit y (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1988), p. 18. For a good survey of the attitude of German intellectuals toward the Weimar Republic, see ibid., pt. 1: "Tempted by Distance: Intellectuals and the Grey Republic," pp. 11-42.

21. See Max Scheler, Man's Place in Nature , trans. Hans Meyerhoff (Boston: Beacon, 1961). p. 4.

22. Cited in Barnouw, Weimar Intellectuals , p. 2.

23. See Hans Blumenberg, The Legitimacy of the Modern Age , trans. Robert M. Wallace (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1985).

24. See Martin Heidegger, Heraklit: Freiburger Vorlesungen Sommer-semester 1943 und Sommersemester 1944 , ed. Manfred S. Frings (Frankfurt a.M.: Vittorio Klostermann, 1987), p. 181.

25. For exceptions, see W. F. Haug, ed., Deutsche Philosophen 1933 (Hamburg: Argument, 1989), and Thomas Laugstien, Philosophieverhaltnisse im deutschen Faschismus (Hamburg: Argument, 1990).

26. See Helmut Kuhn, "German Philosophy and National Socialism," in Encyclopedia of Philosophy , ed. Paul Edwards (New York and London: Macmillan, 1967), 3-4:310.

27. See Martin Heidegger to Karl Jaspers, Marburg, 2 Dec. 1926, in Martin Heidegger-Karl Jaspers, Briefwechsel 1920-1963 , ed. Walter Biemel and Hans Saner (Frankfurt a.M., München and Zürich: Vittorio Klostermann and Piper,

1990), p. 69. Jaspers seems to have become aware of the problem of anti-Semitism very late. For instance, in a letter of 20 April 1933 to Heidegger, when Hitler had already come to power and Heidegger was about to become the philosophical Führer of the University of Freiburg, after a visit to Berlin Jaspers routinely distinguished between Jewish and German nationalist intellectual circles. See ibid., p. 153.

26. See Helmut Kuhn, "German Philosophy and National Socialism," in Encyclopedia of Philosophy , ed. Paul Edwards (New York and London: Macmillan, 1967), 3-4:310.

27. See Martin Heidegger to Karl Jaspers, Marburg, 2 Dec. 1926, in Martin Heidegger-Karl Jaspers, Briefwechsel 1920-1963 , ed. Walter Biemel and Hans Saner (Frankfurt a.M., München and Zürich: Vittorio Klostermann and Piper,

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1990), p. 69. Jaspers seems to have become aware of the problem of anti-Semitism very late. For instance, in a letter of 20 April 1933 to Heidegger, when Hitler had already come to power and Heidegger was about to become the philosophical Führer of the University of Freiburg, after a visit to Berlin Jaspers routinely distinguished between Jewish and German nationalist intellectual circles. See ibid., p. 153.

28. See George M. Kren, "The Holocaust as History," in Echoes from the Holocaust (see Introd., n. 7), pp. 37-38.

29. For discussion of Ian Kershaw's view, which omits anti-Semitism from Hitler's main themes in his rise to power, see Baum, "HOLOCAUST," pp. 66-67.

30. See Edmund Husserl, The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology: An Introduction to Phenomenological Philosophy , trans. David Carr (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1970), p. 12.

31. See Laugstien, Philosophieverhältnisse , p. 52.

32. See ibid., p. 79.

33. See ibid., p. 25.

34. See ibid., p. 202.

35. See ibid.

36. See ibid., p. 27.

37. See ibid.

38. See ibid., p. 90.

39. See ibid., pp. 85-86.

40. See ibid., p. 90.

31. See Laugstien, Philosophieverhältnisse , p. 52.

32. See ibid., p. 79.

33. See ibid., p. 25.

34. See ibid., p. 202.

35. See ibid.

36. See ibid., p. 27.

37. See ibid.

38. See ibid., p. 90.

39. See ibid., pp. 85-86.

40. See ibid., p. 90.

31. See Laugstien, Philosophieverhältnisse , p. 52.

32. See ibid., p. 79.

33. See ibid., p. 25.

34. See ibid., p. 202.

35. See ibid.

36. See ibid., p. 27.

37. See ibid.

38. See ibid., p. 90.

39. See ibid., pp. 85-86.

40. See ibid., p. 90.

31. See Laugstien, Philosophieverhältnisse , p. 52.

32. See ibid., p. 79.

33. See ibid., p. 25.

34. See ibid., p. 202.

35. See ibid.

36. See ibid., p. 27.

37. See ibid.

38. See ibid., p. 90.

39. See ibid., pp. 85-86.

40. See ibid., p. 90.

31. See Laugstien, Philosophieverhältnisse , p. 52.

32. See ibid., p. 79.

33. See ibid., p. 25.

34. See ibid., p. 202.

35. See ibid.

36. See ibid., p. 27.

37. See ibid.

38. See ibid., p. 90.

39. See ibid., pp. 85-86.

40. See ibid., p. 90.

31. See Laugstien, Philosophieverhältnisse , p. 52.

32. See ibid., p. 79.

33. See ibid., p. 25.

34. See ibid., p. 202.

35. See ibid.

36. See ibid., p. 27.

37. See ibid.

38. See ibid., p. 90.

39. See ibid., pp. 85-86.

40. See ibid., p. 90.

31. See Laugstien, Philosophieverhältnisse , p. 52.

32. See ibid., p. 79.

33. See ibid., p. 25.

34. See ibid., p. 202.

35. See ibid.

36. See ibid., p. 27.

37. See ibid.

38. See ibid., p. 90.

39. See ibid., pp. 85-86.

40. See ibid., p. 90.

31. See Laugstien, Philosophieverhältnisse , p. 52.

32. See ibid., p. 79.

33. See ibid., p. 25.

34. See ibid., p. 202.

35. See ibid.

36. See ibid., p. 27.

37. See ibid.

38. See ibid., p. 90.

39. See ibid., pp. 85-86.

40. See ibid., p. 90.

31. See Laugstien, Philosophieverhältnisse , p. 52.

32. See ibid., p. 79.

33. See ibid., p. 25.

34. See ibid., p. 202.

35. See ibid.

36. See ibid., p. 27.

37. See ibid.

38. See ibid., p. 90.

39. See ibid., pp. 85-86.

40. See ibid., p. 90.

31. See Laugstien, Philosophieverhältnisse , p. 52.

32. See ibid., p. 79.

33. See ibid., p. 25.

34. See ibid., p. 202.

35. See ibid.

36. See ibid., p. 27.

37. See ibid.

38. See ibid., p. 90.

39. See ibid., pp. 85-86.

40. See ibid., p. 90.

41. Löwith insists on the relation between Schmitt's view of resoluteness and Hitler's rise to power. "Das Pathos der Entscheidung für die nackte Entschiedenheit hatte zwischen den beiden Weltkriegen einen allgemeinen Anklang gefunden. Es hat die Entscheidung für Hitlers Entschiedenheit vorbereitet und den politischen Umsturz als 'Revolution des Nihilismus' möglich gemacht." Karl Löwith, "Der okkasionnelle Dezisionismus von C. Schmitt," in Löwith, Sämtliche Schriften (see Introd., n. 12), 1:61

42. Hitler wrote: "So ist die Voraussetzung zum Bestehen eines höheren Menschentums nicht der Staat, sondern das Volkstum, das hierzu befähigt ist." Cited in Thomä, Die Zeit des Selbt (see Introd., n. 6), p. 559. Thomä points to the way in which Heidegger's view that the state can only be understood on the basis of the Volk coincides with Hitler's view. See ibid., p. 559.

41. Löwith insists on the relation between Schmitt's view of resoluteness and Hitler's rise to power. "Das Pathos der Entscheidung für die nackte Entschiedenheit hatte zwischen den beiden Weltkriegen einen allgemeinen Anklang gefunden. Es hat die Entscheidung für Hitlers Entschiedenheit vorbereitet und den politischen Umsturz als 'Revolution des Nihilismus' möglich gemacht." Karl Löwith, "Der okkasionnelle Dezisionismus von C. Schmitt," in Löwith, Sämtliche Schriften (see Introd., n. 12), 1:61

42. Hitler wrote: "So ist die Voraussetzung zum Bestehen eines höheren Menschentums nicht der Staat, sondern das Volkstum, das hierzu befähigt ist." Cited in Thomä, Die Zeit des Selbt (see Introd., n. 6), p. 559. Thomä points to the way in which Heidegger's view that the state can only be understood on the basis of the Volk coincides with Hitler's view. See ibid., p. 559.

43. G. W. E Hegel, Jenaer Realphilosophie I: Die Vorlesungen von 1803/4 , ed. J. Hoffmeister (Leipzig, 1932), p. 239, cited in Shlomo Avineri, Hegel's Theory of the Modern State (London: Cambridge University Press, 1972). p. 93.

44. Lukács has shown that alienation is a central theme in Hegel's thought. See Georg Lukács, The Young Hegel: Studies in the Relations between Dialectics and Economics , trans. Rodney Livingstone (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1976).

45. For a discussion of this point, see Karl Löwith, From Hegel to Nietzsche :

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The Revolution in Nineteenth Century Thought , trans. David E. Green (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1967).

46. Bürger has argued that the difference between aestheticism and the avant-garde lies in the latter's concern to erect a theory of art into a theory of life. See Peter Bierget, Theory of the Avant-Garde , trans. Michael Shaw (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984).

47. See Craine Brinton, "Romanticism," in Encyclopedia of Philosophy , ed. Edwards, 7-8:209.

48. See Jacques Droz, "Romanticism in Political Thought," in Dictionary of the History, of Ideas , ed. Philip P. Wiener (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973), 4:205-208.

49. See Herr, Reactionary Modernism (see n. 12), p. 15.

50. See Nathan Rotenstreich, "Volksgeist," in Dictionary of the History of Ideas , ed. Weiner, 4:490-496.

51. See G. W. F. Hegel, "Fragmente fiber Volksreligion und Christentum (1793-1794)," in G. W. F. Hegel, Werke in zwanzig Bänden , ed. Eva Moldenhauer and Karl Markus Michel (Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp, 1971), vol. 1, Frühe Schriften , pp. 9-103, e.g., pp. 34, 42, etc.

52. See Rotenstreich, "Volksgeist," p. 493.

53. See Pierre Bourdieu, L'ontologie politique de Martin Heidegger (Paris: Éditions de minuit, 1988), pp. 16-18.

54. See George Mosse, The Crisis of German Ideology: Intellectual Origins of the Third Reich (New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1964). pp. 14-15. For a description of the conception of the Volk in the context of modern German anti-Semitism, see Lucy S. Dawidowicz, The War against the Jews 1933-1945 (New York: Bantam, 1986). pp. 23-48.

55. See Alfred Rosenberg, Der Mythus des zwanzigsten Jahrhunderts: Eine Wertung der seelischgeistigen Gestaltenkämpfe unserer Zeit (Munich: Hoheneichen, 1930).

56. For the category of romantic disillusionment, see Georg Lukács, La théorie du roman , trans. Jean Clarevoye (Paris: Éditions Gonthier, 1963), pp. 115ff.

57. Isaiah Berlin, "Joseph de Maistre and the Origins of Fascism," The New York Review of Books 37, no. 14 (27 September 1990): 64. For a fuller account of Berlin's effort to revise the usual antiromantic reading of Maistre, see Isaiah Berlin, The Crooked Timber of Humanity (London: John Murray; New York: Knopf, 1991).

58. On this point, see Michael Dummett, Frege: Philosophy of Language (London: Duckworth, 1973), p. xii. Although he died in 1925, Frege was also an early enthusiast of National Socialism. Entries in his Tagebuch (that has not yet been published) from 10 March to 9 May 1924 record: his desire for someone, although not a centrist, to free Germany from French pressure; his conviction that there were too many Jews in Germany and that he finally understood anti-Semitism; his preoccupation with, in his words, the "enormous difficulty" of distinguishing Jews from others; his suggestion that when new racial laws are

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established Jews should wear something that enables one to recognize them as Jews; and so on. (I owe this reference to Hans Sluga.)

59. See Pierre Aubenque, "Encore Heidegger et le nazisme," Le Débat no. 48 (janvier-février 1988): 119.

60. See Janicaud, L'ombre de cette pensée (see Introd., n. 7), p. 58. But note that Janicaud holds that Heidegger's rejection of politics is in effect an "apolitic" ( apolitique ), that is, a particular form of political theory. See ibid., pp. 51-76.

59. See Pierre Aubenque, "Encore Heidegger et le nazisme," Le Débat no. 48 (janvier-février 1988): 119.

60. See Janicaud, L'ombre de cette pensée (see Introd., n. 7), p. 58. But note that Janicaud holds that Heidegger's rejection of politics is in effect an "apolitic" ( apolitique ), that is, a particular form of political theory. See ibid., pp. 51-76.

61. See Wolin, The Politics of Being (see chap. 1, n. 1).

62. See Plato's Republic , trans. G. M. A. Grube (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1974) 1.352, p. 25.

63. See Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics , trans. Martin Ostwald (New York: Library of Liberal Arts, 1962), 1.2.1094b, p. 4.

64. For a discussion of Heidegger's critique of the Aristotelian conception of human being, see Janicaud, L'ombre de cette pensée , pp. 58-64.

65. See Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics , 10.9.1181b, p. 302.

66. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 74, "The Basic Constitution of Historicality."

67. Martin Heidegger, Der Satz vom Grund (Pfullingen: Neske, 1957), pp. 210-211.

68. For an example of the argument that Stalinism is contained in Marx's theory, see Leszek Kolakowski, "Marxist Roots of Stalinism," in Stalinism: Essays in Historical Interpretation , ed. Robert C. Tucker (New York: Norton, 1979); and Leszek Kolakowski, "Die sogenannte Entfremdung," Zukunft , February 1978. For an analysis, see Tom Rockmore, ''Kolakowski and Markovic on Stalinism, Marxist and Marx," Philosophy and Social Criticism 6, no. 3 (1979).

69. There is an enormous and rapidly growing secondary literature on Heidegger's position. The best general account of Heidegger's thought of which I am aware is Pöggeler's classic study. See Otto Pöggeler, Der Denkweg Martin Heideggers (Pfullingen: Neske, 1963, 3d ed., 1990).

70. Heidegger, Being and Time , p. 19.

71. See ibid., §4, p. 32: "As ways in which man behaves, sciences have the manner of Being which this entity—man himself—possesses. This entity we denote by the term ' Dasein.' "

70. Heidegger, Being and Time , p. 19.

71. See ibid., §4, p. 32: "As ways in which man behaves, sciences have the manner of Being which this entity—man himself—possesses. This entity we denote by the term ' Dasein.' "

72. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 4, p. 32.

73. Ibid.

74. Ibid., § 4, p. 33.

75. Ibid.

76. See ibid.

77. Ibid., § 4, p. 34; see also p. 35.

78. Ibid., § 5, p. 38.

79. See ibid.

72. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 4, p. 32.

73. Ibid.

74. Ibid., § 4, p. 33.

75. Ibid.

76. See ibid.

77. Ibid., § 4, p. 34; see also p. 35.

78. Ibid., § 5, p. 38.

79. See ibid.

72. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 4, p. 32.

73. Ibid.

74. Ibid., § 4, p. 33.

75. Ibid.

76. See ibid.

77. Ibid., § 4, p. 34; see also p. 35.

78. Ibid., § 5, p. 38.

79. See ibid.

72. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 4, p. 32.

73. Ibid.

74. Ibid., § 4, p. 33.

75. Ibid.

76. See ibid.

77. Ibid., § 4, p. 34; see also p. 35.

78. Ibid., § 5, p. 38.

79. See ibid.

72. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 4, p. 32.

73. Ibid.

74. Ibid., § 4, p. 33.

75. Ibid.

76. See ibid.

77. Ibid., § 4, p. 34; see also p. 35.

78. Ibid., § 5, p. 38.

79. See ibid.

72. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 4, p. 32.

73. Ibid.

74. Ibid., § 4, p. 33.

75. Ibid.

76. See ibid.

77. Ibid., § 4, p. 34; see also p. 35.

78. Ibid., § 5, p. 38.

79. See ibid.

72. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 4, p. 32.

73. Ibid.

74. Ibid., § 4, p. 33.

75. Ibid.

76. See ibid.

77. Ibid., § 4, p. 34; see also p. 35.

78. Ibid., § 5, p. 38.

79. See ibid.

72. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 4, p. 32.

73. Ibid.

74. Ibid., § 4, p. 33.

75. Ibid.

76. See ibid.

77. Ibid., § 4, p. 34; see also p. 35.

78. Ibid., § 5, p. 38.

79. See ibid.

80. Goldmann has argued that Being and Time is intended as a response to Lukács's History and Class Consciousness . See Lucien Goldmann, Lukács and Heidegger: Towards a New Philosophy , trans. William Q. Boelhower (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1977).

81. Heidegger's analysis includes numerous aspects that appear to be based on an appropriation or rethinking of Kierkegaardian concepts, including fear, death, anxiety, authenticity, repetition, etc.

82. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 2, p. 24.

83. See ibid., § 9, p. 68.

84. See ibid., § 9, p. 67.

85. Ibid., p. 68.

86. See ibid., p. 69.

87. See ibid., § 10, "How the Analytic of Dasein Is to Be Distinguished from Anthropology, Psychology, and Biology," pp. 71-77.

81. Heidegger's analysis includes numerous aspects that appear to be based on an appropriation or rethinking of Kierkegaardian concepts, including fear, death, anxiety, authenticity, repetition, etc.

82. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 2, p. 24.

83. See ibid., § 9, p. 68.

84. See ibid., § 9, p. 67.

85. Ibid., p. 68.

86. See ibid., p. 69.

87. See ibid., § 10, "How the Analytic of Dasein Is to Be Distinguished from Anthropology, Psychology, and Biology," pp. 71-77.

81. Heidegger's analysis includes numerous aspects that appear to be based on an appropriation or rethinking of Kierkegaardian concepts, including fear, death, anxiety, authenticity, repetition, etc.

82. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 2, p. 24.

83. See ibid., § 9, p. 68.

84. See ibid., § 9, p. 67.

85. Ibid., p. 68.

86. See ibid., p. 69.

87. See ibid., § 10, "How the Analytic of Dasein Is to Be Distinguished from Anthropology, Psychology, and Biology," pp. 71-77.

81. Heidegger's analysis includes numerous aspects that appear to be based on an appropriation or rethinking of Kierkegaardian concepts, including fear, death, anxiety, authenticity, repetition, etc.

82. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 2, p. 24.

83. See ibid., § 9, p. 68.

84. See ibid., § 9, p. 67.

85. Ibid., p. 68.

86. See ibid., p. 69.

87. See ibid., § 10, "How the Analytic of Dasein Is to Be Distinguished from Anthropology, Psychology, and Biology," pp. 71-77.

81. Heidegger's analysis includes numerous aspects that appear to be based on an appropriation or rethinking of Kierkegaardian concepts, including fear, death, anxiety, authenticity, repetition, etc.

82. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 2, p. 24.

83. See ibid., § 9, p. 68.

84. See ibid., § 9, p. 67.

85. Ibid., p. 68.

86. See ibid., p. 69.

87. See ibid., § 10, "How the Analytic of Dasein Is to Be Distinguished from Anthropology, Psychology, and Biology," pp. 71-77.

81. Heidegger's analysis includes numerous aspects that appear to be based on an appropriation or rethinking of Kierkegaardian concepts, including fear, death, anxiety, authenticity, repetition, etc.

82. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 2, p. 24.

83. See ibid., § 9, p. 68.

84. See ibid., § 9, p. 67.

85. Ibid., p. 68.

86. See ibid., p. 69.

87. See ibid., § 10, "How the Analytic of Dasein Is to Be Distinguished from Anthropology, Psychology, and Biology," pp. 71-77.

81. Heidegger's analysis includes numerous aspects that appear to be based on an appropriation or rethinking of Kierkegaardian concepts, including fear, death, anxiety, authenticity, repetition, etc.

82. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 2, p. 24.

83. See ibid., § 9, p. 68.

84. See ibid., § 9, p. 67.

85. Ibid., p. 68.

86. See ibid., p. 69.

87. See ibid., § 10, "How the Analytic of Dasein Is to Be Distinguished from Anthropology, Psychology, and Biology," pp. 71-77.

88. Heidegger's view of authentic thought bears a close relation to Kant's idea of maturity, of thinking for oneself as the criterion of appropriate thought. For Kant's view, see "An Answer to the Question: What Is Enlightenment?" in Immanuel Kant, Perpetual Peace and Other Essays , trans. Ted Humphrey (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1985).

89. Heidegger does not claim that authenticity must be realized in practice, although it would make sense to do so. Wolin argues that authenticity is meaningful only if it is in fact realized. But the passage he cites, from Being and Time , p. 312, merely indicates that Heidegger is concerned at that point with a form of authenticity which is in fact realized, not that authenticity is meaningful only when this is the case. See Wolin, The Politics of Being , p. 34.

90. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 44, p. 264.

91. Ibid.

92. See ibid., § 60, p. 344. For a general discussion of resoluteness that does not emphasize the lack of criteria nor discuss the political consequences, see Charles M. Sherover, "The Hermeneutic Structure of Resoluteness: A Preliminary Exploration," in Hermeneutic Phenomenology: Lectures and Essays , ed. Joseph J. Kockelmans (Washington, D.C.: Center for Advanced Research in Phenomenology and University Press of America, 1988), pp. 41-66.

90. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 44, p. 264.

91. Ibid.

92. See ibid., § 60, p. 344. For a general discussion of resoluteness that does not emphasize the lack of criteria nor discuss the political consequences, see Charles M. Sherover, "The Hermeneutic Structure of Resoluteness: A Preliminary Exploration," in Hermeneutic Phenomenology: Lectures and Essays , ed. Joseph J. Kockelmans (Washington, D.C.: Center for Advanced Research in Phenomenology and University Press of America, 1988), pp. 41-66.

90. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 44, p. 264.

91. Ibid.

92. See ibid., § 60, p. 344. For a general discussion of resoluteness that does not emphasize the lack of criteria nor discuss the political consequences, see Charles M. Sherover, "The Hermeneutic Structure of Resoluteness: A Preliminary Exploration," in Hermeneutic Phenomenology: Lectures and Essays , ed. Joseph J. Kockelmans (Washington, D.C.: Center for Advanced Research in Phenomenology and University Press of America, 1988), pp. 41-66.

93. Heidegger, Being and Time , § 61, p. 349.

94. See ibid., § 74, "The Basic Constitution of History."

93. Heidegger, Being and Time , § 61, p. 349.

94. See ibid., § 74, "The Basic Constitution of History."

95. For an expression of this view, see Caputo, Radical Hermeneutics (see chap. 1, n. 21), pp. 88-89.

96. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 74, p. 435.

97. See ibid., § 74, pp. 435-436.

98. See ibid., § 74, p. 436; see also § 26, p. 159.

99. See ibid., § 74, p. 436.

100. See ibid., §74, p. 437.

96. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 74, p. 435.

97. See ibid., § 74, pp. 435-436.

98. See ibid., § 74, p. 436; see also § 26, p. 159.

99. See ibid., § 74, p. 436.

100. See ibid., §74, p. 437.

96. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 74, p. 435.

97. See ibid., § 74, pp. 435-436.

98. See ibid., § 74, p. 436; see also § 26, p. 159.

99. See ibid., § 74, p. 436.

100. See ibid., §74, p. 437.

96. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 74, p. 435.

97. See ibid., § 74, pp. 435-436.

98. See ibid., § 74, p. 436; see also § 26, p. 159.

99. See ibid., § 74, p. 436.

100. See ibid., §74, p. 437.

96. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 74, p. 435.

97. See ibid., § 74, pp. 435-436.

98. See ibid., § 74, p. 436; see also § 26, p. 159.

99. See ibid., § 74, p. 436.

100. See ibid., §74, p. 437.

101. In partial defense, it should be noted that not only the National Socialists but other segments of society also, apparently including Communists as well as Catholics, likewise honored Schlageter's memory. For an analysis of Heidegger's homage to Schlageter, see Farias, Heidegger and Nazism (see In-trod., n. 4), pp. 87-95. According to Löwith, Heidegger's praise of Schlageter was based on Tolstoy's "Death of Ivan Ilitch." See Löwith, Mein Leben in Deutschland (see n. 8), p. 36.

102. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 74, p. 438. This concept has attracted extensive attention in the literature. For a survey of the main approaches, see Thomä, Die Zeit des Selbst und die Zeit danach (see Introd., n. 6), pp. 153-162.

103. For instance, in the Gutachten that formed the basis for Heidegger's suspension from his teaching functions after the Second World War, Jaspers stated that Heidegger's personal excuse should be partly acknowledged since Heidegger was by his very nature not political. See Ott, Martin Heidegger (see Introd., n. 3), p. 316.

104. See Martin Heidegger, Die Grundbegriffe der Metaphysik. Welt — Endlichkeit — Einsamkeit: Freiburger Vorlesung Wintersemester 1929/30 , ed. Friedrich-Wilhelm yon Herrmann (Frankfurt a.M.: Vittorio Klostermann, 1983). For an analysis of the significance of this text for Heidegger's Nazism, see Winfried Franzen, "Die Sehnsucht nach Härte und Schwere: Über ein zum NS-Engagement disponierendes Motiv in Heideggers Vorlesung 'Die Grundbegriffe der Metaphysik' yon 1929/30," in Heidegger und die praktische Philosophie , ed. Annemarie Gethmann-Siefert and Otto Pöggeler (Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp, 1989).

105. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 29: "Being There as State-of-Mind," pp. 172-179.

106. See ibid.. p. 178.

105. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 29: "Being There as State-of-Mind," pp. 172-179.

106. See ibid.. p. 178.

107. Heidegger's formulation reads in part ( Die Grundbegriffe der Metaphysik , p. 244): "aber keiner ist der Verwalter der inneren Grösse des Daseins und seiner Notwendigkeiten." This passage calls for two comments. First, it is possible, as Zimmerman thinks, that Heidegger is here thinking of a F ü hrer . See Zimmerman, Heidegger's Confrontation with Modernity (see chap. 1, n. 23), p. 33. But it is also equally likely that he is saying that no one is really master of himself or herself. Second, it is startling to see that Heidegger here employs a locution, viz. "the inner greatness," very similar to the locution employed after his period as rector, in the Introduction to Metaphysics , where he speaks of the "inner truth and greatness of National Socialism.'' The significant point, beyond the linguistic similarity, is that in both cases he is referring to the problems of the authenticity of Dasein and ultimately to knowledge of Being.

108. Heidegger, Die Grundbegriffe der Metaphysik , p. 243.

109. See ibid., § 18c, "Die tiefe Langeweile als die verborgene Grundstimmung der kulturphilosophischen Deutungen unserer Lage," pp. 111-116.

110. See ibid., p. 243.

111. Ibid., p. 248; Heidegger's emphases.

112. Ibid.

113. See ibid., p. 249.

108. Heidegger, Die Grundbegriffe der Metaphysik , p. 243.

109. See ibid., § 18c, "Die tiefe Langeweile als die verborgene Grundstimmung der kulturphilosophischen Deutungen unserer Lage," pp. 111-116.

110. See ibid., p. 243.

111. Ibid., p. 248; Heidegger's emphases.

112. Ibid.

113. See ibid., p. 249.

108. Heidegger, Die Grundbegriffe der Metaphysik , p. 243.

109. See ibid., § 18c, "Die tiefe Langeweile als die verborgene Grundstimmung der kulturphilosophischen Deutungen unserer Lage," pp. 111-116.

110. See ibid., p. 243.

111. Ibid., p. 248; Heidegger's emphases.

112. Ibid.

113. See ibid., p. 249.

108. Heidegger, Die Grundbegriffe der Metaphysik , p. 243.

109. See ibid., § 18c, "Die tiefe Langeweile als die verborgene Grundstimmung der kulturphilosophischen Deutungen unserer Lage," pp. 111-116.

110. See ibid., p. 243.

111. Ibid., p. 248; Heidegger's emphases.

112. Ibid.

113. See ibid., p. 249.

108. Heidegger, Die Grundbegriffe der Metaphysik , p. 243.

109. See ibid., § 18c, "Die tiefe Langeweile als die verborgene Grundstimmung der kulturphilosophischen Deutungen unserer Lage," pp. 111-116.

110. See ibid., p. 243.

111. Ibid., p. 248; Heidegger's emphases.

112. Ibid.

113. See ibid., p. 249.

108. Heidegger, Die Grundbegriffe der Metaphysik , p. 243.

109. See ibid., § 18c, "Die tiefe Langeweile als die verborgene Grundstimmung der kulturphilosophischen Deutungen unserer Lage," pp. 111-116.

110. See ibid., p. 243.

111. Ibid., p. 248; Heidegger's emphases.

112. Ibid.

113. See ibid., p. 249.

114. Mosse describes this concept as follows:" 'Volk' is one of those perplexing German terms which connotes far more than its specific meaning. 'Volk' is a much more comprehensive term than 'people,' for to German thinkers ever since the birth of German romanticism in the late eighteenth century 'Volk' signified the union of a group of people with a transcendental 'essence.' The 'essence' might be called 'nature' or 'cosmos' or 'mythos,' but in each instance it

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was fused to man's innermost nature, and represented the essence of his creativity, his depth of feeling, his individuality, and his unity with other members of the Volk." Mosse, The Crisis of German Ideology (see n. 54), p. 4.

115. There are at present two available translations into English due respectively to Karsten Harries and to Lisa Harries in collaboration with Karsten Harries. See "The Self-Assertion of the German University: Address, Delivered on the Solemn Assumption of the Rectorate of the University Freiburg [and] The Rectorate 1933/34: Facts and Thoughts," trans. Karsten Harries, Review of Metaphysics 38 (March 1985): 467-502, and "The Self-Assertion of the German University," in Martin Heidegger and National Socialism: Questions and Answers (see Introd., n. 9), pp. 5-14. The same volume also has a translation of Heidegger's article, "The Rectorate: Facts and Thoughts," pp. 15-32. To avoid confusion, and because of the relatively greater availability of the earlier translations of the speech and the article, I shall refer to Karsten Harries's translations of both the rectoral address and the article "Facts and Thoughts" as ''Rectoral Address-Facts and Thoughts,'' followed by the page number.

116. On this point, see Karl Jaspers, Die Schuldfrage: Zur politischen Haftung Deutschlands (Munich and Zurich: Piper, 1987), p. 64.

117. For discussion, see Farias, Heidegger and Nazism (see Introd., n. 4), pp. 96-112; Ott, Martin Heidegger , pp. 146-166; and Reiner Alisch, "Heideggers Rektoratsrede im Kontext," in Deutsche Philosophen 1933 , ed. Haug (see n. 25).

118. For detailed discussion of this speech, see Farias, Heidegger and Nazism , chap. 9, "The Rector's Address: Its Assumptions and Its Effects," pp. 99-112; Ott, Martin Heidegger , "Das soldatische Umfeld der Rektoratsrede," pp. 146-166; and Alisch, "Heideggers Rektoratsrede im Kontext," pp. 69-98. For Ott's analysis of Heidegger's use of Göring as a model, see Ott, Martin Heidegger , pp. 145-148. For a recent analysis which largely follows Heidegger's self-justification of his actions, see Scott, The Question of Ethics (see Introd., n. 11), chap. 5, pp. 148-172.

119. See Ott, Martin Heidegger , pp. 147f.

120. See Löwith, Mein Leben in Deutschland , pp. 57-58.

121. Cited in Emil L. Fackenheim, To Mend the World: Foundations of Future Jewish Thought (New York: Schocken Books, 1982), p. 267.

122. See Fackenheim, To Mend the World , pp. 266-267. According to Fackenheim, this was Fichte's sole moment of truth. On Huber, see also Laugstien, Philosophieverhältnisse (see n. 25), pp. 58ff.

123. The Platonism of Heidegger's turn to politics has been seen, particularly in the French discussion, where stress has been placed on the metaphysical aspect of Heidegger's political turn in order to argue that his later thought overcomes the metaphysical dimension by bringing his position in line with its own attempt to "destroy" the history of ontology. See Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe, L'imitation des modernes. Typographies H (Paris: Éditions Galilée, 1986), pp. 135-200, and Jacques Derrida, De l'esprit (see chap. 1, n. 28). I am less interested here in the internal consistency of Heidegger's position than in his apparent reliance on a quasi-Platonic model for the political role of philosophy.

124. The parallels in this respect between Lukács and Heidegger are rarely explored. For an interesting discussion, see István M. Fehér, "Heidegger und Lukács. Eine Hunderjahrebilanz," in Wege und Irrwege des neueren Urngangs reit Heideggers Werk: Ein deutsch-ungarisches Symposium (Berlin: Duncker und Humblot, forthcoming).

125. See Leszek Kolakowski, Main Currents of Marxism , trans. P.S. Falla (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), vol. 3, chap. 7, "György Lukács: Reason in the Service of Dogma," pp. 253-307.

126. Harries helpfully notes the first two senses of " Selbstbehauptung " but apparently misses the third, relevantly philosophical sense that was presupposed in Heidegger's claim for the role of philosophy in the realization of Nazism. See "Rectoral Address-Facts and Thoughts," p. 468.

127. Ibid., p. 470.

126. Harries helpfully notes the first two senses of " Selbstbehauptung " but apparently misses the third, relevantly philosophical sense that was presupposed in Heidegger's claim for the role of philosophy in the realization of Nazism. See "Rectoral Address-Facts and Thoughts," p. 468.

127. Ibid., p. 470.

128. Thomä, who fails to notice the discussion of the conception of the Volk in Being and Time , sees a shift in position between the conception of Dasein in Heidegger's fundamental ontology and the conception of the Volk developed here. See Thomä, Die Zeit des Selbst und die Zeit danach , p. 553.

129. For the term "spiritual leader," see "Ernennung eines Kanzlers an der Universität Freiburg," Der Alemanne.' Kampfblatt der Nationalsozialisten Ober-badens . . ., Folge 178, 30 June 1933, p. 2, cited in Schneeberger, Nachlese zu Heidegger (see chap. 1, n. 34), p. 73. For an analysis of Heidegger's Nazism through the concept of leadership ( Fuhrung ) and the leader ( Führer ), see Hans Ebeling, Geschichte einer Täuschung (W ü rzburg: Königshausen und Neumann, 1990), "Das Ereignis des Führers: Heidegger's Antwort,'' pp. 9-34.

130. On the leading role of the party, see V. I. Lenin, What Is to Be Done? , trans. Joe Fineberg and George Hanna, ed. Victor J. Jerome (New York: International Publishers, 1969). For Marx's view of the philosophers as the head of the revolution and the proletariat as its heart, see "Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right," in Karl Marx, Early Writings , trans. and ed. T. B. Bottomore (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963).

131. See Ernst Cassirer, The Myth of the State (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1971), p. 290ff.

132. See Plato's account of the Myth of Er, in Plato's Republic , trans. G. M. A. Grube (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1974), 10.616f.. pp. 258f.

133. Heidegger, Being and Time , p. 436.

134. For a good discussion of this point, see Otto Püggeler, "Den Fuhrer führen? Heidegger und kein Ende," Philosophischer Rundschau 32, no. 1/2 (1985): 26-67.

135. The same reaction was produced by Spengler, who enthusiastically welcomed the Nazi accession to power without ever mentioning Hitler. See Oswald Spengler, Jahre der Entscheidung, Erster Teil, Deutschland und die welt-geschichtliche Entwicklung (Munich: C. H. Beck, 1933).

136. "Rectoral address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 471.

137. See Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit , trans. A. V. Miller (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977), p. 6.

138. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 471.

139. Ibid., p. 472.

138. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 471.

139. Ibid., p. 472.

140. See, e.g., Martin Heidegger, Nietzsche (Pfullingen: Neske, 1961) 2:398, 413.

141. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 473.

142. Heidegger renders the Greek word " techne " as " Wissen, " or "knowledge.'' In a recent translation of Plato's Symposium the term is rendered as "profession," "science,'' and "expertise." See Plato: Symposium , trans. Alexander Nehemas and Paul Woodruff (Indianapolis and Cambridge: Hackett, 1989), p. xxvii. According to Liddell and Scott, the Greek term means "art," "skill," "craft," "cunning of hand," etc. These are all forms of knowing how, but not knowledge in the ordinary sense of the word. See Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon , 9th ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), p. 1785.

143. For this argument, related to his turn to the concept of thought ( Denken ) as distinguished from philosophy, see "The Letter on Humanism."

144. For a classic statement of this reading of Plato's theory, see Werner Jaeger, Aristotle: Fundamentals of the History of His Development , trans. Richard Robinson (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962).

145. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 474.

146. See Martin Heidegger, Hölderlins Hymne "Der Ister": Freibürger Vorlesung, Sommersemester 1942 , ed. Walter Biemel (Frankfurt a.M.: Vittorio Klostermann, 1984), pp. 98, 106.

147. On the relation between Heidegger's language, the language of Messkirch, and the terminology of National Socialism, see Robert Minder, "Heidegger und Hebel oder die Sprache von Messkirch," in Robert Minder, " H ö lderlin unter den deutschen" und andere Aufsätze zur deutschen Literatur (Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp, 1968). For a specific study of Nazi language, see Berel Lang, "Language and Genocide," in Berel Lang, Act and Idea in the Nazi Genocide (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1990), pp. 81-102.

148. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 475; translation modified.

149. See for this view Hegel's letter of 28 October 1808 to Niethammer, in Briefe yon und an Hegel , ed. J. Hoffmeister, Hamburg: Meiner, 1952), 1:253: "Die theoretische Arbeit, überzeuge ich mich täiglich mehr, bringt mehr zustande in der Welt als die praktische; ist erst das Reich der Vorstellung revolu-tioniert, so hält die Wirklichkeit nicht aus."

150. See, e.g., Herbert Marcuse, Five Lectures (Boston: Beacon, 1970).

151. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 475.

152. For Marx's view, see "Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right," in Marx, Early Writings , pp. 41-60.

153. See Immanuel Kant, Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals , trans. Thomas K. Abbott (New York: Library of Liberal Arts, 1949), p. 12.

154. Freiburger Studentenzeitung . . . 8. Semester (15), Nr. 1, 3. November 1933, p. 1, cited in Schneeberger, Nachlese zu Heidegger , p. 136.

155. See "Only a God Can Save Us" (see chap. 1, n. 30), p. 271.

156. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 498.

157. See Kolakowski, Main Currents of Marxism 3:307.

158. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 476.

159. Heidegger's enumeration of three bonds of the German student recalls the appeal in May 1933 by von Papen for the cooperation of the Nazi movement, "Stalhelm" and "Konservative," which he regarded as "die drei grossen Säulen der nationalen Bewegung." See Haug, Deutsche Philosophen 1933 (see n. 25), p. 159.

160. See Being and Time , § 26, p. 159. This idea of authentic being with others is never developed by Heidegger either in this work or in his later writings, although it is presupposed in his conception of the Volk . It apparently serves as the basis of Sartre's later view of the distinction between seriality and the group in fusion. See Jean-Paul Sartre, Critique de la raison dialectique (Paris: Gallimard, 1960), trans. Alan Sheridan Smith as Critique of Dialectical Reason (London: New Left Books, 1976).

161. See Being and Time , §§ 46-53.

162. This episode is still not fully clarified. For a discussion, see Ott, Martin Heidegger , pp. 214-223.

163. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 477.

164. Ibid.; see also p. 478 for a restatement of the same theme.

165. Ibid., p. 477.

163. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 477.

164. Ibid.; see also p. 478 for a restatement of the same theme.

165. Ibid., p. 477.

163. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 477.

164. Ibid.; see also p. 478 for a restatement of the same theme.

165. Ibid., p. 477.

166. Heidegger's stress on Kampf , in connection with the realization of the Volk , which is one of the most noticeable aspects of this speech, directly recalls Hitler's view in Mein Kampf See Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf (Munich, 1934), p. 418, cited in George Mosse, Nazi Culture: A Documentary History (New York: Schocken Books, 1981), p. xxiii: "Every world-view, be it correct and useful a thousand times over, will be without importance for the life of a Volk unless its basic tenets are written upon the banners of a fighting movement." In this text, neither Hitler nor the National Socialist movement is directly mentioned. But there is an obvious link between Heidegger's repeated stress on the concept of Kampf and Hitler's book. Heidegger's awareness of this obvious link is a plausible reason for his determined effort in his article on the rectorate, at a time when he wishes to project the view that he has officially broken with Nazism of every form, to reinterpret the concept of Kampfin terms of Heraclitus's thought.

167. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 479.

168. Ibid.

167. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 479.

168. Ibid.

169. Heidegger, Being and Time , p. 436.

170. The extent of Spengler's influence on Heidegger is not often acknowledged. But it is important, particularly for the analysis of technology, as will emerge below. See chap. 6.

171. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," pp. 479-480.

172. Ibid., p. 480.

173. Ibid.

171. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," pp. 479-480.

172. Ibid., p. 480.

173. Ibid.

171. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," pp. 479-480.

172. Ibid., p. 480.

173. Ibid.

174. See "Le dossier d'un nazi 'ordinaire,' " Le Monde , 14 October 1988, p. 12.

175. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 480. Once again, Hei-

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degger appears deliberately to have taken liberties with the Greek, which does not mention a storm and literally reads "the great [things] are precarious."

176. For a detailed discussion of Heidegger's mistranslation of this passage, see Bernd Martin, "'Alles Grosse ist gefährdet'—Der Fall Heidegger(s)," in Martin Heidegger und das "Dritte Reich": Ein Kompendium , ed. Bernd Martin (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1989), pp. 3-13.

177. Thomä, who throughout his study relatively deemphasizes the central role of Being in Heidegger's thought, curiously insists on the importance of Heidegger's effort to find a solution for the problem of the self, arising out of Being and Time , in the Nazi turn in 1933: "Die 'Läsung' des Jahres 1933 besteht dann darin, Handeln und Sprache gewaltsam zusammenzuzwingen." Thomä, Die Zeit des Selbt und die Zeit danach , p. 643. Thomä maintains that Heidegger finally finds the solution he was seeking in National Socialism in his theory of art. See ibid., p. 704.

176. For a detailed discussion of Heidegger's mistranslation of this passage, see Bernd Martin, "'Alles Grosse ist gefährdet'—Der Fall Heidegger(s)," in Martin Heidegger und das "Dritte Reich": Ein Kompendium , ed. Bernd Martin (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1989), pp. 3-13.

177. Thomä, who throughout his study relatively deemphasizes the central role of Being in Heidegger's thought, curiously insists on the importance of Heidegger's effort to find a solution for the problem of the self, arising out of Being and Time , in the Nazi turn in 1933: "Die 'Läsung' des Jahres 1933 besteht dann darin, Handeln und Sprache gewaltsam zusammenzuzwingen." Thomä, Die Zeit des Selbt und die Zeit danach , p. 643. Thomä maintains that Heidegger finally finds the solution he was seeking in National Socialism in his theory of art. See ibid., p. 704.

178. For a well-known attack on the antidemocratic consequences of Platonism, see Karl Popper, The Open Society and Its Enemies , 2 vols. (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1945).

1. For some representative reactions, see Schneeberger, Nachlese zu Heidegger (see chap. 1, n. 34), pp. 50-51, 76-80, 82-84, 84-87.

2. See Löwith, Mein Leben in Deutschland (see chap 2, n. 8), p. 57.

3. For Heidegger's admission that he briefly saw the Nazi rise to power as a propitious moment, see "Only a God Can Save Us" (see chap. 1, n. 30).

4. See Georg Lukács, Existentialismus oder Marxismus? (Berlin: Aufbau-Verlag, 1951).

5. See Jean-Paul Sartre, Search for a Method , trans. Hazel E. Barnes (New York: Vintage, 1968), p. 38; Sartre's emphasis.

6. See "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts" (see chap. 2, n. 115), pp. 468-469. For another short statement of the "official" view, see Michael Hailer, "Der Philosophen-Streit zwischen Nazi-Rechtfertigung und postmodernner Öko-Philosophie," in Die Heidegger Kontroverse , ed. Jürg Altwegg (Frankfurt a.M.: Athenäum, 1988), p. 202.

7. See Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts, p. 468.

8. In the United States, a major step in the transition from the arcane level of professional philosophical debate, which obviously repels rather than attracts wider attention, to the general public was taken by Michiko Kakutani's recent, withering review of the English-language translation of Antwort: Martin Heidegger im Gespräch (see n. 111 below), which appeared in German closely after Farias's book was published in French in order to limit the damage, so to speak. See "Friends of Heidegger and the Nazi Question," The New York Times , 14 December 1990.

9. The 1945 article appeared under the title "Das Rektorat 1933/34: Tatsachen und Gedanken" in the little volume edited by Hermann Heidegger.

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Curiously, the translator omits the section headings in the translation, although he inserts roman numerals to divide the text. The result, in the absence of the section headings which the original text contained, is to render the interpretation more, not less, difficult.

10. For a brief discussion, see "The End of the War and the Beginning of Polemos, " in Farias, Heidegger and Nazism (see Introd., n. 4), pp. 278-280. For a more detailed discussion, see "Die Auseinandersetzung um die politische Vergangenheit," in Ott, Martin Heidegger (see Introd., n. 3), pp. 291-327. My brief statement of the historical background is based on these two sources.

11. The relations between Heidegger and Jaspers are highly complex. The best record of their friendship, and of Jaspers's later disillusionment with Heidegger as a friend and a philosopher, is provided by their letters, which have recently been published. See Briefwechsel 1920-1963 (see chap. 2, n. 27). For Jaspers's never-completed effort to write a critical study of Heidegger's thought, see Karl Jaspers, Notizen zu Martin Heidegger , ed. Hans Saner (Muchin and Zurich: Piper, 1989).

12. For Jaspers's Gutachten on Heidegger, which was the basis of the decision, see Ott, Martin Heidegger , pp. 315-317.

13. For the report by the committee, see Ott, Martin Heidegger , pp. 305- 307. For a good analysis of this entire episode, see ibid., pp. 291-327.

14. See ibid., p. 296.

12. For Jaspers's Gutachten on Heidegger, which was the basis of the decision, see Ott, Martin Heidegger , pp. 315-317.

13. For the report by the committee, see Ott, Martin Heidegger , pp. 305- 307. For a good analysis of this entire episode, see ibid., pp. 291-327.

14. See ibid., p. 296.

12. For Jaspers's Gutachten on Heidegger, which was the basis of the decision, see Ott, Martin Heidegger , pp. 315-317.

13. For the report by the committee, see Ott, Martin Heidegger , pp. 305- 307. For a good analysis of this entire episode, see ibid., pp. 291-327.

14. See ibid., p. 296.

15. For Heidegger's own explanation of why he chose to remain in Freiburg, see Martin Heidegger, "Schöpferische Landschaft: Warurn bleiben wir in der Provinz?" in Martin Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe , vol. 13, Aus der Erfahrung des Denkens 1910-1976 , ed. Hermann Heidegger (Frankfurt a.M.: Vittorio Klos-termann, 1983).

16. Ott, Martin Heidegger , p. 305.

17. See Jaspers's letter to Heidegger of 23 August 1933, cited in Ott, Martin Heidegger , pp. 192-193.

18. For Croce's correspondence with Vossler, see Schneeberger, Nachlese zu Heidegger , pp. 110-112.

19. See Martin Heidegger, "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts."

20. That the text is repetitive is easily shown through the almost obsessive recurrence of certain themes, in similar language, e.g., the problem of science, "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," pp. 481, 497; technology, pp. 482, 497; historical vocation of the Western world. pp. 483, 497; political science, pp. 483, 496; Nietzsche and the will to power, pp. 485, 498; etc.

21. Ibid., pp. 492-493.

20. That the text is repetitive is easily shown through the almost obsessive recurrence of certain themes, in similar language, e.g., the problem of science, "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," pp. 481, 497; technology, pp. 482, 497; historical vocation of the Western world. pp. 483, 497; political science, pp. 483, 496; Nietzsche and the will to power, pp. 485, 498; etc.

21. Ibid., pp. 492-493.

22. See Hugo Ott, "Martin Heidegger und der Nationalsozialismus," in Heidegger und die praktische Philosophie (see chap. 2, n. 104), p. 67.

23. For a detailed study of how Heidegger was elected, see H. Ott, "Wie Heidegger Rektor wurde," in Heidegger und die praktische Philosophie , pp. 138-147.

24. I follow Thomä on this point. See Thomä, Die Zeit des Selbst (see In-trod., n. 6), p. 628.

25. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 481.

26. This is the same difference that Aristotle formalizes in his distinction between activity ( energeia ) and movement ( kinesis ). An activity is complete in itself and has no end external to it to which it serves as a means; a movement is a means to an end which is external to it and which is only reached when the means ceases to be. See Aristotle, Metaphysics , 9.6.1048b18-35.

27. Jaspers, Notizen zu Martin Heidegger , p. 18.

28. See Heidegger, Basic Writings , ed. Krell (see Introd., n. 11), pp. 91-112.

29. There is a close link between Heidegger's inaugural lecture, delivered in 1929, and his study of metaphysics in a wide variety of other writings, including his work on Kant's view of metaphysics and his own introduction to metaphysics. See Martin Heidegger, Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics , trans. James S. Churchill (Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press, 1962). and Heidegger, An Introduction to Metaphysics , trans. Mannheim (see chap. 1, n. 32).

30. See "What Is Metaphysics?" in Heidegger, Basic Writings , p. 95.

31. Carnap held that Heidegger's analysis of nothing was an example of a meaningless statement and argued for the elimination of metaphysics. See Rudolf Carnap, "The Elimination of Metaphysics through Logical Analysis of Language," in Logical Positivism , ed. A. J. Ayer (New York: Free Press, 1959). It is not impossible that Carnap, the apostle of rigorous thought from a scientific perspective, was put off by Heidegger's view, expressed in his lecture, that such forms of "exact" knowledge as mathematics are no more rigorous than others. See Heidegger, Basic Writings , p. 96.

32. See Heidegger, Basic Writings , p. 112.

33. Martin Heidegger, "Nachwort zu: 'Was Ist Metaphysik?'" in Wegmarken (Frankfurt a.M.: Vittorio Klostermann, 1967), p. 100.

34. Heidegger, Wegmarken , p. 107.

35. "Einleitung zu: 'Was Ist Metaphysik?'" in Heidegger, Wegmarken .

36. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," pp. 481-482.

37. Ibid., p. 482.

38. Ibid., pp. 482-483.

36. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," pp. 481-482.

37. Ibid., p. 482.

38. Ibid., pp. 482-483.

36. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," pp. 481-482.

37. Ibid., p. 482.

38. Ibid., pp. 482-483.

39. For Husserl's view of objectivism, see Husserl, The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology (see chap. 2, n. 30), para. 14: "Precursory characterization of objectivism and transcendentalism. The struggle between these two ideas as the sense of the struggle of modern spiritual history." pp. 68-70. For Heidegger's view that as reflective phenomenology is deeper than the positive sciences, see Being and Time , § 10, "How the Analytic of Dasein Is to Be Distinguished from Anthropology, Psychology, and Biology," pp. 71-77.

40. For his view of the relation of the special sciences to philosophical science, see the discussion of the divided line in Plato, The Republic , bk. 6, 509-511E.

41. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 486.

42. Ibid., p. 488.

43. Ibid., p. 496.

41. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 486.

42. Ibid., p. 488.

43. Ibid., p. 496.

41. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 486.

42. Ibid., p. 488.

43. Ibid., p. 496.

44. I agree with Lacoue-Labarthe on this point, who writes: "Et tel est très

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précisément ce que le 'Discours de rectorat' rappelle : en tous sens, le philosophique est la raison ou le fondement du politique." Lacoue-Labarthe, L'imitation des modernes: Typographies II (see chap. 2, n. 123), pp. 156-157.

45. This point is significant, and will be developed in the discussion of Heidegger's own Nietzsche interpretation. It is sufficient to note at this point that Heidegger's concern to provide an authentic reading of Nietzsche is doubly determined on the one hand by his view that National Socialism has provided an insufficient interpretation of Nietzsche's thought and on the other by his dissatisfaction with Baeumler. Jaspers points out that like C. Schmitt and Heidegger, Baeumler also sought to lead National Socialism. See his letter to Oehlkers of 22 December 1945, reprinted in Ott, Martin Heidegger , p. 317. For Baeumler's Nietzsche interpretation, see Alfred Baeumler, Nietzsche, der Philosoph und Politiker (Leipzig: Reclam, 1931). For a discussion of Baeumler's view, which is largely parallel to Heidegger's Nietzsche reading, in particular in the emphasis on the will to power and the negation and overcoming of the preceding tradition, see Endre Kiss, "Nietzsche, Baeumler oder fiber die Möglichkeit einer positiven faschistischen Metaphysik," in Annales 16 (1982): 157-174. For discussion of Nietzsche and Nazism in general, see Konrad Algermissen, Nietzsche und das Dritte Reich (Celle: Verlag Joseph Giesel, 1947). Heidegger further had a personal reason to dislike Baeumler because of the latter's vulgarization of the concept of resoluteness ( Entschlossenheit ), developed in Being and Time , in his own work, Münnerbund und Wissenschaft (Berlin: Junker und Dönnhaupt, 1934), p. 108. On this aspect of the relation between Heidegger and Büumler, see Karl Löwith. "Der okkasionelle Dezisionismus von C. Schmitt," in Löwith, Sámtliche Schriften (see Introd., n. 12), 1:64, n. 88.

46. This idea was a commonplace in the Third Reich. In an essay written in 1934, Bauemler portrays Nietzsche as a prophet who was able to foresee the future. See Alfred Bauemler, "Nietzsche und der Nationalsozialismus," in Alfred Bauemler, Studien zur deutschen Geistesgeschichte (Berlin: Junker und Dünnhaupt. 1943). p. 282. For a statement of the same idea in the context of Nietzsche's thought, see also his Nachwort to Friedrich Nietzsche, Der Wille zur Macht: Versuch einer Umwertung aller Werte (Leipzig: Alfred Kröner Verlag, 1930), p. 705.

47. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 483.

48. Ibid.. pp. 483-484. The translation of the first passage seems to me not to communicate adequately the strength of Heidegger's statement, although I am unable to improve on the rendering.

49. One can argue that in the attribution of a vocation to the German people, Heidegger is merely developing the concept of the vocation of man earlier sketched by Fichte and applied to the German nation. See Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Die Bestimmung des Menschen , in Fichtes Werke , ed. I. H. Fichte (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1971), 2:165-320, and Reden an die deutsche Nation , ibid., 7:257-502. For this argument, see André Glucksmann, Les maîtres penseurs (Paris: Grasset, 1977).

47. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 483.

48. Ibid.. pp. 483-484. The translation of the first passage seems to me not to communicate adequately the strength of Heidegger's statement, although I am unable to improve on the rendering.

49. One can argue that in the attribution of a vocation to the German people, Heidegger is merely developing the concept of the vocation of man earlier sketched by Fichte and applied to the German nation. See Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Die Bestimmung des Menschen , in Fichtes Werke , ed. I. H. Fichte (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1971), 2:165-320, and Reden an die deutsche Nation , ibid., 7:257-502. For this argument, see André Glucksmann, Les maîtres penseurs (Paris: Grasset, 1977).

47. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 483.

48. Ibid.. pp. 483-484. The translation of the first passage seems to me not to communicate adequately the strength of Heidegger's statement, although I am unable to improve on the rendering.

49. One can argue that in the attribution of a vocation to the German people, Heidegger is merely developing the concept of the vocation of man earlier sketched by Fichte and applied to the German nation. See Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Die Bestimmung des Menschen , in Fichtes Werke , ed. I. H. Fichte (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1971), 2:165-320, and Reden an die deutsche Nation , ibid., 7:257-502. For this argument, see André Glucksmann, Les maîtres penseurs (Paris: Grasset, 1977).

50. This idea was in the air at the time. For instance, Theodor Lessing, a philosopher who was assassinated by the Gestapo on 30 August 1933, shortly

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after Heidegger became rector, with an eye on the evolution of German politics wrote as early as 1925 in opposition to Hindenburg: "Nach Plato sollen die Philosophen Führer der Völker sein. Ein Philosoph würde mit Hindenburg nun eben nicht den Thronstuhl besteigen. Nun ein reprásentives Symbol, ein Fragezeichen, ein Zero. Man kann sagen: 'Besser ein Zero als ein Nero.' Leider zeigt die Geschichte, dass hinter einem Zero immer ein künftiger Nero verborgen steht." Cited in Laugstien, Philosophieverháltnisse (see chap. 2, n. 25), p. 80.

51. Letter from Martin Heidegger to Prof. Schuchardt, dean of the philosophy faculty, 19 July 1943, in Heidegger records, cited in Farias, Heidegger and Nazism , p. 269.

52. "And so far there seems to be no end in sight to this abuse of Nietzsche's work. In speaking here of Nietzsche, we mean to have nothing to do with all that—or with blind hero worship for that matter. The task in hand is too crucial and at the same time too sobering. It consists first of all, if we are to gain a true grasp of Nietzsche, in bringing his accomplishment to a full unfolding." Heidegger, An Introduction to Metaphysics , p. 36.

53. Heidegger, An Introduction to Metaphysics , pp. 36-37; translation modified.

54. See Being and Time , pt. 2, chap. 5: "Temporality and Historicality," particularly § 74, "The Basic Constitution of Historicality."

55. See "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 485. Heidegger never seems to realize that this doctrine is not original with Nietzsche. Others had, of course, considered this view before Heidegger. For Hegel's opinion that modern atheism and modern nihilism were like a generalization of the historical Good Friday, see G. W. F. Hegel, Faith and Knowledge , trans. Walter Cerf and H. S. Harris (Albany: SUNY Press, 1977), pp. 190-191. For Feuerbach's understanding of the death of God, see Ludwig Feuerbach, Principles of the Philosophy of the Future , trans. Manfred H. Vogel (Indianapolis and New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1966), § 21, pp. 31-34.

56. See "The World of Nietzsche: 'God is Dead,'" in Martin Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology and Other Essays , trans. by William Lovitt (New York: Harper and Row, 1977), pp. 53-112. The remark on the death of God is taken almost verbatim from the lecture. See ibid.. p. 57. For an interpretation of this claim as a factual ascertainment of the turn away from religion by a leading Nietzsche specialist of the time, see Bauemler, "Nietzsche und der Nationalsozialismus," p. 286.

55. See "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 485. Heidegger never seems to realize that this doctrine is not original with Nietzsche. Others had, of course, considered this view before Heidegger. For Hegel's opinion that modern atheism and modern nihilism were like a generalization of the historical Good Friday, see G. W. F. Hegel, Faith and Knowledge , trans. Walter Cerf and H. S. Harris (Albany: SUNY Press, 1977), pp. 190-191. For Feuerbach's understanding of the death of God, see Ludwig Feuerbach, Principles of the Philosophy of the Future , trans. Manfred H. Vogel (Indianapolis and New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1966), § 21, pp. 31-34.

56. See "The World of Nietzsche: 'God is Dead,'" in Martin Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology and Other Essays , trans. by William Lovitt (New York: Harper and Row, 1977), pp. 53-112. The remark on the death of God is taken almost verbatim from the lecture. See ibid.. p. 57. For an interpretation of this claim as a factual ascertainment of the turn away from religion by a leading Nietzsche specialist of the time, see Bauemler, "Nietzsche und der Nationalsozialismus," p. 286.

57. See Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology and Other Essays , p. 53.

58. See ibid., pp. 75-76.

59. See ibid., p. 76.

60. Ibid., p. 75.

57. See Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology and Other Essays , p. 53.

58. See ibid., pp. 75-76.

59. See ibid., p. 76.

60. Ibid., p. 75.

57. See Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology and Other Essays , p. 53.

58. See ibid., pp. 75-76.

59. See ibid., p. 76.

60. Ibid., p. 75.

57. See Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology and Other Essays , p. 53.

58. See ibid., pp. 75-76.

59. See ibid., p. 76.

60. Ibid., p. 75.

61. These remarks recur in somewhat different form in a later essay. See "Zur Seinsfrage." in Heidegger, Wegmarken , pp. 218-219.

62. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," pp. 484-485.

62. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," pp. 484-485.

63. Ibid., p. 485.

64. Ibid. It is noteworthy that in a variant of this theme, Ott suggests that had Heidegger not withdrawn from the Catholic Church his turn toward Nazism could have been avoided. See Ott, Martin Heidegger , pp. 344-346.

64. Ibid. It is noteworthy that in a variant of this theme, Ott suggests that had Heidegger not withdrawn from the Catholic Church his turn toward Nazism could have been avoided. See Ott, Martin Heidegger , pp. 344-346.

65. See, e.g., "The Question concerning Technology," in Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology and Other Essays , pp. 3-35.

66. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 485.

67. The German "ins Feld zu führen," which does not mention a battle, literally means "to lead into the field," although "to lead into battle" is perhaps an acceptable rendering of Heidegger's military metaphor.

68. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," pp. 485-486; translation modified.

69. See François Fédier, Heidegger: Anatomie d'un scandale (Paris: Éditions Robert Laffont, 1988). We will return to this interpretation in chap. 7 below.

70. See "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," pp. 491-492.

71. Ibid., p. 486.

70. See "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," pp. 491-492.

71. Ibid., p. 486.

72. See, e.g., Heidegger, Being and Time , pp. 57, 59-60.

73. See "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 487; translation modified. The translator's omission here of the term "translation" turns attention away from Heidegger's suggestion that his text requires interpretation according to his own theory of the relation between understanding and interpretation. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 32, "Understanding and Interpretation," pp. 188-194.

74. For this analysis, see Gadamer, Truth and Method (see chap. 1, n. 17), "Heidegger's Disclosure of the Fore-structure of the Understanding," pp. 235-240.

75. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 487.

76. Ibid..

77. Ibid., p. 492.

75. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 487.

76. Ibid..

77. Ibid., p. 492.

75. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 487.

76. Ibid..

77. Ibid., p. 492.

78. The distinction between the letter and the spirit is already present in the Bible. Kant, who was concerned that his work was misunderstood by his critics, complained that it was easy to find contradictions by comparing passages out of context, in order to arrive at an unfavorable impression of a work. For Kant's restatement of this distinction, see the "Preface to the Second Edition," in Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason , trans. Smith (see chap. 1, n. 12), B xliv, p. 37. Kant's distinction was widely influential in German idealism. See my article, "Idealist Hermeneutics and the Hermeneutics of Idealism," Idealistic Studies 12, no. 2 (1982): 91-102.

79. I am by no means alone in this way of reading the Rektoratsrede . Even Vietta, the author of the most complete effort to date to defend Heidegger, acknowledges that in the rectoral Address Heidegger was concerned with the future role of science in National Socialism. See Vietta, Heideggers Kritik am Nationalsozialismus und an der Technik (see chap. 1, n. 31), p. 21.

80. See "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 476.

81. See ibid., p. 477.

82. See ibid., p. 487.

83. Ibid.; translation modified. The translator's rendition of " Notwehr " as

"self-defense" fails to capture the sense of need, from " Not, " prominent in Heidegger's repeated allusions to the historical occasion represented by the Nazi rise to power in a time of historical need.

80. See "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 476.

81. See ibid., p. 477.

82. See ibid., p. 487.

83. Ibid.; translation modified. The translator's rendition of " Notwehr " as

"self-defense" fails to capture the sense of need, from " Not, " prominent in Heidegger's repeated allusions to the historical occasion represented by the Nazi rise to power in a time of historical need.

80. See "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 476.

81. See ibid., p. 477.

82. See ibid., p. 487.

83. Ibid.; translation modified. The translator's rendition of " Notwehr " as

"self-defense" fails to capture the sense of need, from " Not, " prominent in Heidegger's repeated allusions to the historical occasion represented by the Nazi rise to power in a time of historical need.

80. See "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 476.

81. See ibid., p. 477.

82. See ibid., p. 487.

83. Ibid.; translation modified. The translator's rendition of " Notwehr " as

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"self-defense" fails to capture the sense of need, from " Not, " prominent in Heidegger's repeated allusions to the historical occasion represented by the Nazi rise to power in a time of historical need.

84. For Heidegger's well-known criticism of Descartes, see, e.g., Being and Time , §§ 14-24.

85. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 476.

86. Ibid.

87. Ibid., p. 487.

88. See ibid., p. 472.

85. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 476.

86. Ibid.

87. Ibid., p. 487.

88. See ibid., p. 472.

85. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 476.

86. Ibid.

87. Ibid., p. 487.

88. See ibid., p. 472.

85. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 476.

86. Ibid.

87. Ibid., p. 487.

88. See ibid., p. 472.

89. For a statement of this view in Heidegger's early and middle periods, see Being and Time , § 44, and "On the Essence of Truth," in Heidegger, Basic Writings .

90. See Heidegger, An Introduction to Metaphysics , p. 62.

91. For a close reading of Heidegger's conception of polemos , see Gregory Fried, "Heidegger's Polemos," Journal of Philosophical Research , forthcoming.

92. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 486.

93. For Hegel's famous master-slave discussion, see Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit , trans. Miller (see chap. 2, n. 137), "Independence and Dependence of Self-Consciousness: Lordship and Bondage," pp. 111-118. For the analysis of mutual recognition, see Hegel's Philosophy of Mind , trans. A. V. Miller (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), sec. 1, "Mind Subjective," subsection B, "Phenomenology of Mind: Consciousness," a. ''Self-Consciousness," pt. g , "Universal Self-Consciousness,'' pp. 176-177.

94. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," pp. 488-489.

95. See ibid., p. 479.

96. See ibid., p. 489.

94. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," pp. 488-489.

95. See ibid., p. 479.

96. See ibid., p. 489.

94. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," pp. 488-489.

95. See ibid., p. 479.

96. See ibid., p. 489.

97. G. S. Kirk, J. E. Raven, and M. Schofield, The Presocratic Philosophers , 2d ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), p. 194.

98. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 489.

99. Ibid., p. 470.

100. Ibid., p. 489.

101. Ibid.

98. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 489.

99. Ibid., p. 470.

100. Ibid., p. 489.

101. Ibid.

98. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 489.

99. Ibid., p. 470.

100. Ibid., p. 489.

101. Ibid.

98. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 489.

99. Ibid., p. 470.

100. Ibid., p. 489.

101. Ibid.

102. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 35, "Idle Talk."

103. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," pp. 489-490. It is important to point to two slips in the translation of this important passage, in which Heidegger seeks to exonerate himself of blame by confronting the obvious reading of his rectoral address. The translator's substitution of "National Socialism" for" 'the' National Socialism" makes it appear that Heidegger is questioning National Socialism in general when he is rather making the point, by putting the accusative form of the definite article in scare quotes, that there is more than one form of Nazism. This is a crucial point for a comprehension of Heidegger's later Nazism. In his own careful way, through these linguistic devices Heidegger is holding open the possibility for a better, more authentic form of National Socialism than the vulgar variety in practice associated with the NSDAP. The rendering of " politischen Wissenschaft " or "political science" as "the political character of science" is an example of the substitution of an interpretation for a transla-

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tion. The most recent translation of Heidegger's article by Lisa Harries in collaboration with Karsten Harries silently corrects the latter misreading. But it preserves the crucial misrendering of "'den' Nationalsozialismus" as "National Socialism" that continues to obscure Heidegger's steadfast adherence, at a time when he claims to have broken his ties to the so-called movement, to the possibility of an authentic form of Nazism. See Martin Heidegger and National Socialism: Questions and Answers (see Introd., n. 9), p. 22.

104. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 9 and passim.

105. For a discussion along these lines, see Mark Okrent, Heidegger's Transcendental Pragmatism (Ithaca, N.Y., and London: Cornell University Press, 1989). On the contrary, Dreyfus considers Okrent's analysis as a trivializing reduction of Husserl's. See Dreyfus, Being-in-the-World (see chap. 1, n. 21), p. 345n.

106. There is no evidence that Heidegger ever adopted the Nazi view of race, although it is plausible to interpret his stress on the German people as a kind of metaphysical "racism." With the exception of an overt form of racism, in his failure to cite either the Nazi party or Hitler, Heidegger resembled Spengler. See Spengler, Jahre der Entscheidung (see chap. 2, n. 135).

107. In a letter to Prof. Dietz, Heidegger explicitly disclaims his intention to realize Nazi party doctrine in any other sense than through the respect for the university, whose spirit he intended to transform. "[E]s war nicht und nie meine Absicht, die Universität an die Parteidoktrin auszuliefern, sondern umgekehrt zu versuchen, innerhalb des Nationalsozialismus und in bezug auf diesen eine geistige Wandlung in Gang zu bringen." Letter of Heidegger to the president of the politischer Bereinigungsausschuss , Prof. v. Dietze (15 Dec. 1945), cited in Martin Heidegger und das "Dritte Reich, " ed. Martin (see chap. 2, n. 176), p. 208. In the same letter, Heidegger further presents himself as opposed to National Socialism but devoted to Hitler, who he believed would transcend Nazism after 1933: "Ich stand schon 1933/34 in derselben Opposition gegen die n.s. Weltanschauungslehre, war damals aber des Glaubens, dass die Bewegung geistig in andere Bahnen gelenkt werden könne und hielt diesen Versuch vereinbar mit den sozialen und allgemein politischen Tendenzen der Bewegung. Ich glaubte, Hitler werde, nachdem er 1933 in der Verantwortung für das ganze Volk stand, fiber die Partei und ihre Doktrin hinauswachsen und alles würde sich auf den Boden einer Erneuerung und Sammlung zu einer abendlándlischen Verantwortung zusammenfinden." Ibid., p. 210.

106. There is no evidence that Heidegger ever adopted the Nazi view of race, although it is plausible to interpret his stress on the German people as a kind of metaphysical "racism." With the exception of an overt form of racism, in his failure to cite either the Nazi party or Hitler, Heidegger resembled Spengler. See Spengler, Jahre der Entscheidung (see chap. 2, n. 135).

107. In a letter to Prof. Dietz, Heidegger explicitly disclaims his intention to realize Nazi party doctrine in any other sense than through the respect for the university, whose spirit he intended to transform. "[E]s war nicht und nie meine Absicht, die Universität an die Parteidoktrin auszuliefern, sondern umgekehrt zu versuchen, innerhalb des Nationalsozialismus und in bezug auf diesen eine geistige Wandlung in Gang zu bringen." Letter of Heidegger to the president of the politischer Bereinigungsausschuss , Prof. v. Dietze (15 Dec. 1945), cited in Martin Heidegger und das "Dritte Reich, " ed. Martin (see chap. 2, n. 176), p. 208. In the same letter, Heidegger further presents himself as opposed to National Socialism but devoted to Hitler, who he believed would transcend Nazism after 1933: "Ich stand schon 1933/34 in derselben Opposition gegen die n.s. Weltanschauungslehre, war damals aber des Glaubens, dass die Bewegung geistig in andere Bahnen gelenkt werden könne und hielt diesen Versuch vereinbar mit den sozialen und allgemein politischen Tendenzen der Bewegung. Ich glaubte, Hitler werde, nachdem er 1933 in der Verantwortung für das ganze Volk stand, fiber die Partei und ihre Doktrin hinauswachsen und alles würde sich auf den Boden einer Erneuerung und Sammlung zu einer abendlándlischen Verantwortung zusammenfinden." Ibid., p. 210.

108. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 491.

109. In the discussion concerning Heidegger's anti-Semitism, his defenders attach great weight to the fact that he interceded to help his student, Werner Brock, migrate to England. Müller, who notes this fact, also notes that from the moment that he became rector, Heidegger did not permit any of his Jewish students to finish their degrees. See Martin, Martin Heidegger und das "Dritte Reich, " p. 106. This view has recently been corroborated by Helene Weiss's niece. See letter by Miriam Lewin to The New York Times Book Review , 11 February 1990.

110. In a letter to Dietrich Mahnke dated 4 May 1933, that is, immediately

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after Heidegger and other German academics publicly joined the NSDAP, Husserl openly speaks of Heidegger's well known anti-Semitism. See Martin, Martin Heidegger und das "Dritte Reich, " p. 149. Husserl's claim of Heidegger's anti-Semitism is routinely denied in the secondary literature. But it is supported by Jaspers, who, in his Gutachten , states that in a certain sense in 1933, although not earlier, Heidegger was an anti-Semite. See Jaspers's letter to Friedrich Oehlkers of 22 December 1945, cited in Ott, Martin Heidegger , p. 316.

111. See, e.g., Hans L. Gottschalk, "Heideggers Rektorenzeit," in Antwort: Martin Heidegger in Gesprách , ed. Günther Neske and Emil Kettering (Pfullingen: Neske, 1988), p. 187.

112. See "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," pp. 491-492.

113. See Fédier, Heidegger (see n. 69), p. 67.

114. For this letter and a discussion of it, see Ulrich Sieg. "Die Verjudung des deutschen Geistes," Die Zeit , no. 52 (22 December 1989): 50. The vulgar term " Verjudung, " which is not contained in standard dictionaries, was common in contemporary forms of anti-Semitism, and was used by Hitler in Mein Kampf , especially in his discussion of "Volk und Rasse" in vol. 1, chap. 11. See, e.g., Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf (Munich: Zentralverlag der NSDAP, 1935), pp. 348-349: "Wie weir dabei die innere Verjudung unseres Volkes schon fortgeschritten ist ''I owe this reference to Gregory Fried.

115. Heidegger expresses his opposition to biological reductionism in various places, including the "Letter on Humanism" (see chap. 1, n. 29), p. 231. For an example of the view that Heidegger's antibiologism is incompatible with Nazism, see Alexander Schwan, Politische Philosophie im Denken Heideggers (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1989), p. 103. See also Luc Ferry and Alain Reinaut, Heidegger et les modernes (Paris: Bernard Grasset, 1988). pp. 224-225. Schwan erroneously sees Heidegger's refusal of biologism as leading to a break with Nazism. Ferry and Renaut erroneously infer that because Heidegger rejects biologism, he was also not anti-Semitic.

116. For passages from Luther's book From the Jews and Their Lies , see Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of the European Jews (New York: Harper and Row, 1961), p. 9.

117. For passages from a speech given before the Reichstag in 1895, see Hilberg, The Destruction of the European Jews , pp. 10-11.

118. For discussion of how and why the definition of an "Aryan" was formulated and applied, see Hilberg, The Destruction of the European Jews , 4: "Definition," pp. 43-53, esp. p. 45.

119. See "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," pp. 491-492.

120. The rectoral address took place on 27 May 1933. Heidegger became a member of the NSDAP on 1 May 1933. For a discussion, see Max Müller, "Bekenntnisse: Ein Gesprách mit Max Müller," in Martin Heidegger und das "Dritte Reich, " ed. Martin, p. 95. Other well-known philosophers who joined the NSDAP on 1 May 1933 include E. Rothacker, A. Gehlen, and J. Ritter. See Haug, Deutsche Philosophen 1933 (see chap. 2, n. 25). pp. 17, 190, 235. For newspaper reports on Heidegger's adherence to the Nazi party, see Schneeberger, Nachlese zu Heidegger (see chap. 1, n. 34), pp. 23-35.

121. Pöggeler reports that Mörchen was surprised to discover in 1931 that the entire Heidegger family had been converted to National Socialism. See Martin, Martin Heidegger und das "Dritte Reich, " p. 84. Pöggeler bases his comment on a radio talk by Mörchen. See ibid., p. 91, n. 21.

120. The rectoral address took place on 27 May 1933. Heidegger became a member of the NSDAP on 1 May 1933. For a discussion, see Max Müller, "Bekenntnisse: Ein Gesprách mit Max Müller," in Martin Heidegger und das "Dritte Reich, " ed. Martin, p. 95. Other well-known philosophers who joined the NSDAP on 1 May 1933 include E. Rothacker, A. Gehlen, and J. Ritter. See Haug, Deutsche Philosophen 1933 (see chap. 2, n. 25). pp. 17, 190, 235. For newspaper reports on Heidegger's adherence to the Nazi party, see Schneeberger, Nachlese zu Heidegger (see chap. 1, n. 34), pp. 23-35.

121. Pöggeler reports that Mörchen was surprised to discover in 1931 that the entire Heidegger family had been converted to National Socialism. See Martin, Martin Heidegger und das "Dritte Reich, " p. 84. Pöggeler bases his comment on a radio talk by Mörchen. See ibid., p. 91, n. 21.

122. See Otto Pöggeler, "'Praktische Philosophie' als Antwort an Heidegger," in Martin Heidegger und das "Dritte Reich, " ed. Martin, p. 66: ''Wenn es um Philosophie geht, dann muss mann damit fertig werden, dass 1933 Heidegger als der 'führende' Philosoph alle Hoffnungen auf den neuen 'Führer' Hitler setzte." This claim is supported by Weil. According to Weil, in 1932 at the latest Heidegger was a known Nazi. See Eric Weil, "Le cas Heidgger," reported in Lignes . 2 February 1988, p. 140.

123. Martin makes this point persuasively. See Martin, Martin Heidegger und das "Dritte Reich, " p. 36: "Doch auch nach seinem offiziellen Rückzug yon der Hochschulpolitik blieb er der Partei als Mitglied bis zum Zusammenbruch des Reiches verbunden und die NSDAP wiederum in einer Art von Dankesschuld dem Philosophen bis in die letzten Kriegsmonate gewogen."

124. This claim is rejected by most of Heidegger's defenders. Vietta, for instance, argues that the incorrect objection that Heidegger remained close to fascism is contradicted by the texts. See Vietta, Heideggers Kritik am Nationalsozialismus und an der Technik , p. 46.

125. See "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts." p. 494.

126. See ibid.

125. See "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts." p. 494.

126. See ibid.

127. See Farias, Heidegger and Nazism , chap. 14: "The End of the Rector-ate." pp. 177-187.

128. See "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts." p. 494.

129. See Farias, Heidegger and Nazism , "Attacks from Ernst Krieck and His Faction," pp. 168-169.

130. On this point, see Laugstien, Philosophieverháltnisse (see chap. 2, n. 25). p. 109.

131. In different ways, this point is made by Jaspers, Gadamer, and Schorcht. See Laugstien, Philosophieverháltnisse , pp. 107, 108, and 193 n. 28.

132. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 497; translation modified. It is better to translate " Zwiespalt " here by "discrepancy" since "rift," which the translator uses, suggests a prior relation that has later been torn asunder, which in fact is what happened, although Heidegger suggests that there never was any significant area of agreement. The translation of " wohl '' as "presumably" creates a doubt, whereas Heidegger insists that his view and National Socialism are incompatible.

133. For the effort by some National Socialists to depict Nazism as a Weltanschauung , see Alfred Baeumler, "Nietzsche and National Socialism," in Mosse, Nazi Culture (see chap. 2, n. 166), p. 97.

134. See the discussion of historicism and Weltanschauungphilosophie in Edmund Husserl, "Philosophy as Rigorous Science," in Phenomenology and the Crisis of Philosophy , trans. Quentin Lauer (New York: Harper, 1965), sec. 2: "The Concept of Philosophy and the World-View," pp. 4-11, and Heidegger, Beitráge zur Philosophie (see chap. 1, n. 26), § 14, pp. 36-41. Another factor in

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Heidegger's opposition to the conception of a Weltanschaaung was his early review of Jaspers's Philosophie der Weltanschauungen .

135. Rosenberg rejected philosophy in favor of a Weltanschauung . Rosenberg, Krieck, Alfred Klemmt, Heinrich Hártle, and others worked to develop a Nazi Weltanschauung . See Laugstein, Philosophieverháltnisse , pp. 72-77.

136. Like Heidegger, Krieck was also concerned to ground National Socialism, but as a Weltanschauung , in his Völkisch-politischen Anthropologie , published in Leipzig from 1936 to 1938. See Laugstien, Philosophieverháltnisse, p . 73.

137. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 497; translation modified.

138. See Martin Heidegger, "The Age of the World Picture," in Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology (see n. 56), pp. 115-154. Vietta follows this indication in his effort to show that, after 1938, Heidegger adopted a critical attitude toward National Socialism. See Vietta, Heideggers Kritik am Nationalsozialismus und an der Technik , chap. 3: "Heideggers metaphysikkritischer Ansatz und die Grundzüge seiner Kritik am Nationalsozialismus," pp. 19-47.

139. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 498.

140. For a representative view of the matter, see Frederick Ferré, Philosophy of Technology (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1988), p. 44: "Modern science, as it has developed since the seventeenth century, is the joint product of theoretical and practical intelligence, and so is modern technology. Neither gave birth to the other. They are non-identical twins of the same parents."

141. See "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 483.

142. See ibid., p. 487 and passim.

143. Ibid., p. 498.

141. See "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 483.

142. See ibid., p. 487 and passim.

143. Ibid., p. 498.

141. See "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 483.

142. See ibid., p. 487 and passim.

143. Ibid., p. 498.

144. Heidegger came to this conclusion at least as early as 1934, that is, immediately after his resignation from the rectorate. The idea that national salvation lies in poetry underlies his turn to Hölderlin as the poet of poets, as the one who sees into the German future. For an early form of this view, see Martin Heidegger, Hölderlins Hymnen "Germanien" und "Der Rhein": Freiburger Vorlesung, Wintersemester 1934/35 , ed. Susanne Ziegler (Frankfurt a.M.: Vittorio Klostermann, 1980).

145. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 502.

146. Ibid., p. 499.

145. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 502.

146. Ibid., p. 499.

147. See Fédier, Heidegger (see n. 69), p. 162.

148. See Jaspers's letter of 22 December 1945 to Oehlkers, cited in Ott, Martin Heidegger , p. 317.

149. See Jaspers, Die Schuldfrage (see chap. 2, n. 116), p. 85.

150. See Heidegger's letter of 8 April 1950 to Jaspers, in Briefwechsel 1920-1963 (see chap. 2, n. 27), p. 202.

151. For Heidegger's view of the hero, see Being and Time , § 74. For an analysis of his talk on Schlageter, see Farias, Heidegger and Nazism , pp. 87-95.

152. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," pp. 498-499.

153. Ibid., p. 502.

154. See ibid., p. 461.

152. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," pp. 498-499.

153. Ibid., p. 502.

154. See ibid., p. 461.

152. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," pp. 498-499.

153. Ibid., p. 502.

154. See ibid., p. 461.

155. "Wege zur Aussprache," in Alemannenland: Ein Buch yon Volkstum

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und Sendung , ed. Dr. Franz Kerber (Stuttgart: J. Engelhorns Nachf. 1937), pp. 135-139, reprinted in Schneeberger, Nachlese zu Heidegger , pp. 258-262.

156. Schneeberg, Nachlese zu Heidegger , p. 262.

157. Ibid., p. 258.

156. Schneeberg, Nachlese zu Heidegger , p. 262.

157. Ibid., p. 258.

158. "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 497.

159. Schneeberger, Nachlese zu Heidegger , p. 260.

160. For this view in the early Marx, see his essay, "Contributions to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right : Introduction," in Marx, Early Writings (see chap. 2, n. 130), pp. 41-60. Lukács bases his own influential reading of Marx on the supposed efficacy of class consciousness. See Lukács, History and Class Consciousness (see chap. 1, n. 2).

161. Schneeberger, Nachlese zu Heidegger , p. 260.

162. Lukács's own effort to enlist Marxism as a revolutionary form of thought in the service of oppressed humanity, relevantly similar to Heidegger's view here, is a constant in his long Marxist period.

163. Heidegger, "Letter on Humanism" (see chap. 1, n. 29), p. 239.

1. For instance, Grondin writes, in the context of a brief remark on the evolution of Heidegger's position: "Dans cet itinéraire, le rectorat n'aura sans doute été qu'un épisode (il rut en effet étonnament court, dont on aurait tort d'exagérer la portée philosophique, même si Heidegger lui-même a peut-être été le premier à se fourvoyer sur ce point." Jean Grondin, review of Martin Heidegger, Beiträge zur Philosophie and of Vom Wesen der Wahrheit , in Archives de philosophie 53, no. 3 (July-September 1990): 523.

2. See Aubenque, "Encore Heidegger et le nazisme" (see chap. 2, n. 59), pp. 113-128, and Vietta, Heideggers Kritik am Nationalsozialisrnus und an der Technik (see chap. 1, n. 31).

3. It is significant that Heidegger associates the purported failure to perceive the essence of National Socialism with a commitment to axiology, or values. See Heidegger, An Introduction to Metaphysics , trans. Mannheim (see chap. 1, n. 32), p. 199. This recalls Nietzsche's view of a transvaluation of values, which in turn suggests that Nietzsche may well have been ingredient in Heidegger's turning to real Nazism.

4. Heidegger initially took a softer line on the conception of a Weltanschauung . In his initial lecture series, he depicted the Weltanschauung as the immanent task of philosophy and finally identical with philosophy on the one hand, and as the limit of philosophy on the other. See Martin Heidegger, Zur Bestimmung der Philosophie: Frühe Freiburger Vorlesungen, Kriegsnotsemester 1919 und Sommersemester 1919 , ed. Bernd Heimbüchel (Frankfurt a.M.: Vittorio Klostermann, 1987), p. 10. The volume includes lectures titled "Die Idee der Philosophie und das Weltanschauungsproblem" and "Phánomenologie und Wertphilosophie" and an abridged version of a course titled "Über das Wesen der Universität und des akademischen Studiums."

5. "Only a God Can Save Us" (see chap. 1, n. 30), p. 274.

6. Aubenque, "Encore Heidegger et le nazisme," p. 121.

7. See Vietta, Heideggers Kritik am Nationalsozialismus und an der Technik , p. 50.

8 This lecture series was given during the summer semester 1935. See Martin Heidegger, Einführung in die Metaphysik: Freibürger Vorlesung Sommersemester 1935 (Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1953).

9. See Martin Heidegger, Hölderlins Hymne "Andenken": Freibürger Vorlesung Wintersemester 1941/42 , ed. Curd Ochwadt (Frankfurt a.M.: Vittorio Klostermann, 1982), and Hölderlins Hymne "Der Ister " (see chap. 2, n. 146).

10. Heidegger, Hölderlins Hymnen "Germanien" und "Der Rhein " (see chap. 3, n. 144).

11. See Beda Allemann, Hölderlin und Heidegger (Zurich: Atlantis Verlag, 1956), and Else Buddeberg, "Heidegger und die Dichtung: Hölderlin," Deutsche Vierteljahrschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Geistesgeschichte 26, no. 3 (1952): 293-330. See also Michel Deguy, "Sur le commentaire heideggérien de Hölderlin," Tel Quel , no. 8 (1962): 57-65; Otto Poggeler, "Heidegger's Begegnung mit Hölderlin," Man and World 10 (1977): 13-61, and Paul de Man, ''Heidegger's Exegeses of Hölderlin," in Paul de Man, Blindness and Insight. Essays in the Rhetoric of Contemporary Fiction (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1983), pp. 246-266.

12. See Jaspers, Notizen zu Martin Heidegger (see chap. 3, n. 11), esp. § 47, pp. 75-76. Jaspers thought that Heidegger, as a result of the abandonment of science, and hence of metaphysics, was led finally to a form of irrationalism and gnosticism. See ibid., §§ 38 and 187, pp. 68, 208-209.

11. See Beda Allemann, Hölderlin und Heidegger (Zurich: Atlantis Verlag, 1956), and Else Buddeberg, "Heidegger und die Dichtung: Hölderlin," Deutsche Vierteljahrschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Geistesgeschichte 26, no. 3 (1952): 293-330. See also Michel Deguy, "Sur le commentaire heideggérien de Hölderlin," Tel Quel , no. 8 (1962): 57-65; Otto Poggeler, "Heidegger's Begegnung mit Hölderlin," Man and World 10 (1977): 13-61, and Paul de Man, ''Heidegger's Exegeses of Hölderlin," in Paul de Man, Blindness and Insight. Essays in the Rhetoric of Contemporary Fiction (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1983), pp. 246-266.

12. See Jaspers, Notizen zu Martin Heidegger (see chap. 3, n. 11), esp. § 47, pp. 75-76. Jaspers thought that Heidegger, as a result of the abandonment of science, and hence of metaphysics, was led finally to a form of irrationalism and gnosticism. See ibid., §§ 38 and 187, pp. 68, 208-209.

13. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 44, "Dasein, Disclosedness, and Truth."

14. This essay first appeared in 1964. See Heidegger, On Time and Being , trans. Stambaugh (see chap. 1, n. 11), pp. 55-73.

15. Heidegger, Hölderlins Hymnen "Germanien" und "Der Rhein ," p. 1.

16. Ibid.

15. Heidegger, Hölderlins Hymnen "Germanien" und "Der Rhein ," p. 1.

16. Ibid.

17. See "Only a God Can Save Us," p. 277.

18. This theme recurs in almost exactly the same terminology three times. See Heidegger, Hölderlins Hymnen "Germanien" und "Der Rhein, " pp. 50, 58, 226.

19. See ibid., p. 213.

20. See ibid., p. 252.

21. See ibid., p. 294.

22. See ibid., p. 226: "... denn die Götter sind geflohen, wer der Mensch ist, wissen wir nicht."

23. See ibid., p. 30.

24. See ibid., p. 40.

25. See ibid., p. 51

26. See ibid., p. 74.

27. See ibid., p. 76.

28. See ibid., p. 116.

29. See ibid., pp. 121-122.

30. See ibid., p. 220.

31. Ibid., p. 221.

32. Ibid., p. 237.

33. Ibid., p. 255.

34. See ibid., p. 284.

35. Ibid., p. 294.

18. This theme recurs in almost exactly the same terminology three times. See Heidegger, Hölderlins Hymnen "Germanien" und "Der Rhein, " pp. 50, 58, 226.

19. See ibid., p. 213.

20. See ibid., p. 252.

21. See ibid., p. 294.

22. See ibid., p. 226: "... denn die Götter sind geflohen, wer der Mensch ist, wissen wir nicht."

23. See ibid., p. 30.

24. See ibid., p. 40.

25. See ibid., p. 51

26. See ibid., p. 74.

27. See ibid., p. 76.

28. See ibid., p. 116.

29. See ibid., pp. 121-122.

30. See ibid., p. 220.

31. Ibid., p. 221.

32. Ibid., p. 237.

33. Ibid., p. 255.

34. See ibid., p. 284.

35. Ibid., p. 294.

18. This theme recurs in almost exactly the same terminology three times. See Heidegger, Hölderlins Hymnen "Germanien" und "Der Rhein, " pp. 50, 58, 226.

19. See ibid., p. 213.

20. See ibid., p. 252.

21. See ibid., p. 294.

22. See ibid., p. 226: "... denn die Götter sind geflohen, wer der Mensch ist, wissen wir nicht."

23. See ibid., p. 30.

24. See ibid., p. 40.

25. See ibid., p. 51

26. See ibid., p. 74.

27. See ibid., p. 76.

28. See ibid., p. 116.

29. See ibid., pp. 121-122.

30. See ibid., p. 220.

31. Ibid., p. 221.

32. Ibid., p. 237.

33. Ibid., p. 255.

34. See ibid., p. 284.

35. Ibid., p. 294.

18. This theme recurs in almost exactly the same terminology three times. See Heidegger, Hölderlins Hymnen "Germanien" und "Der Rhein, " pp. 50, 58, 226.

19. See ibid., p. 213.

20. See ibid., p. 252.

21. See ibid., p. 294.

22. See ibid., p. 226: "... denn die Götter sind geflohen, wer der Mensch ist, wissen wir nicht."

23. See ibid., p. 30.

24. See ibid., p. 40.

25. See ibid., p. 51

26. See ibid., p. 74.

27. See ibid., p. 76.

28. See ibid., p. 116.

29. See ibid., pp. 121-122.

30. See ibid., p. 220.

31. Ibid., p. 221.

32. Ibid., p. 237.

33. Ibid., p. 255.

34. See ibid., p. 284.

35. Ibid., p. 294.

18. This theme recurs in almost exactly the same terminology three times. See Heidegger, Hölderlins Hymnen "Germanien" und "Der Rhein, " pp. 50, 58, 226.

19. See ibid., p. 213.

20. See ibid., p. 252.

21. See ibid., p. 294.

22. See ibid., p. 226: "... denn die Götter sind geflohen, wer der Mensch ist, wissen wir nicht."

23. See ibid., p. 30.

24. See ibid., p. 40.

25. See ibid., p. 51

26. See ibid., p. 74.

27. See ibid., p. 76.

28. See ibid., p. 116.

29. See ibid., pp. 121-122.

30. See ibid., p. 220.

31. Ibid., p. 221.

32. Ibid., p. 237.

33. Ibid., p. 255.

34. See ibid., p. 284.

35. Ibid., p. 294.

18. This theme recurs in almost exactly the same terminology three times. See Heidegger, Hölderlins Hymnen "Germanien" und "Der Rhein, " pp. 50, 58, 226.

19. See ibid., p. 213.

20. See ibid., p. 252.

21. See ibid., p. 294.

22. See ibid., p. 226: "... denn die Götter sind geflohen, wer der Mensch ist, wissen wir nicht."

23. See ibid., p. 30.

24. See ibid., p. 40.

25. See ibid., p. 51

26. See ibid., p. 74.

27. See ibid., p. 76.

28. See ibid., p. 116.

29. See ibid., pp. 121-122.

30. See ibid., p. 220.

31. Ibid., p. 221.

32. Ibid., p. 237.

33. Ibid., p. 255.

34. See ibid., p. 284.

35. Ibid., p. 294.

18. This theme recurs in almost exactly the same terminology three times. See Heidegger, Hölderlins Hymnen "Germanien" und "Der Rhein, " pp. 50, 58, 226.

19. See ibid., p. 213.

20. See ibid., p. 252.

21. See ibid., p. 294.

22. See ibid., p. 226: "... denn die Götter sind geflohen, wer der Mensch ist, wissen wir nicht."

23. See ibid., p. 30.

24. See ibid., p. 40.

25. See ibid., p. 51

26. See ibid., p. 74.

27. See ibid., p. 76.

28. See ibid., p. 116.

29. See ibid., pp. 121-122.

30. See ibid., p. 220.

31. Ibid., p. 221.

32. Ibid., p. 237.

33. Ibid., p. 255.

34. See ibid., p. 284.

35. Ibid., p. 294.

18. This theme recurs in almost exactly the same terminology three times. See Heidegger, Hölderlins Hymnen "Germanien" und "Der Rhein, " pp. 50, 58, 226.

19. See ibid., p. 213.

20. See ibid., p. 252.

21. See ibid., p. 294.

22. See ibid., p. 226: "... denn die Götter sind geflohen, wer der Mensch ist, wissen wir nicht."

23. See ibid., p. 30.

24. See ibid., p. 40.

25. See ibid., p. 51

26. See ibid., p. 74.

27. See ibid., p. 76.

28. See ibid., p. 116.

29. See ibid., pp. 121-122.

30. See ibid., p. 220.

31. Ibid., p. 221.

32. Ibid., p. 237.

33. Ibid., p. 255.

34. See ibid., p. 284.

35. Ibid., p. 294.

18. This theme recurs in almost exactly the same terminology three times. See Heidegger, Hölderlins Hymnen "Germanien" und "Der Rhein, " pp. 50, 58, 226.

19. See ibid., p. 213.

20. See ibid., p. 252.

21. See ibid., p. 294.

22. See ibid., p. 226: "... denn die Götter sind geflohen, wer der Mensch ist, wissen wir nicht."

23. See ibid., p. 30.

24. See ibid., p. 40.

25. See ibid., p. 51

26. See ibid., p. 74.

27. See ibid., p. 76.

28. See ibid., p. 116.

29. See ibid., pp. 121-122.

30. See ibid., p. 220.

31. Ibid., p. 221.

32. Ibid., p. 237.

33. Ibid., p. 255.

34. See ibid., p. 284.

35. Ibid., p. 294.

18. This theme recurs in almost exactly the same terminology three times. See Heidegger, Hölderlins Hymnen "Germanien" und "Der Rhein, " pp. 50, 58, 226.

19. See ibid., p. 213.

20. See ibid., p. 252.

21. See ibid., p. 294.

22. See ibid., p. 226: "... denn die Götter sind geflohen, wer der Mensch ist, wissen wir nicht."

23. See ibid., p. 30.

24. See ibid., p. 40.

25. See ibid., p. 51

26. See ibid., p. 74.

27. See ibid., p. 76.

28. See ibid., p. 116.

29. See ibid., pp. 121-122.

30. See ibid., p. 220.

31. Ibid., p. 221.

32. Ibid., p. 237.

33. Ibid., p. 255.

34. See ibid., p. 284.

35. Ibid., p. 294.

18. This theme recurs in almost exactly the same terminology three times. See Heidegger, Hölderlins Hymnen "Germanien" und "Der Rhein, " pp. 50, 58, 226.

19. See ibid., p. 213.

20. See ibid., p. 252.

21. See ibid., p. 294.

22. See ibid., p. 226: "... denn die Götter sind geflohen, wer der Mensch ist, wissen wir nicht."

23. See ibid., p. 30.

24. See ibid., p. 40.

25. See ibid., p. 51

26. See ibid., p. 74.

27. See ibid., p. 76.

28. See ibid., p. 116.

29. See ibid., pp. 121-122.

30. See ibid., p. 220.

31. Ibid., p. 221.

32. Ibid., p. 237.

33. Ibid., p. 255.

34. See ibid., p. 284.

35. Ibid., p. 294.

18. This theme recurs in almost exactly the same terminology three times. See Heidegger, Hölderlins Hymnen "Germanien" und "Der Rhein, " pp. 50, 58, 226.

19. See ibid., p. 213.

20. See ibid., p. 252.

21. See ibid., p. 294.

22. See ibid., p. 226: "... denn die Götter sind geflohen, wer der Mensch ist, wissen wir nicht."

23. See ibid., p. 30.

24. See ibid., p. 40.

25. See ibid., p. 51

26. See ibid., p. 74.

27. See ibid., p. 76.

28. See ibid., p. 116.

29. See ibid., pp. 121-122.

30. See ibid., p. 220.

31. Ibid., p. 221.

32. Ibid., p. 237.

33. Ibid., p. 255.

34. See ibid., p. 284.

35. Ibid., p. 294.

18. This theme recurs in almost exactly the same terminology three times. See Heidegger, Hölderlins Hymnen "Germanien" und "Der Rhein, " pp. 50, 58, 226.

19. See ibid., p. 213.

20. See ibid., p. 252.

21. See ibid., p. 294.

22. See ibid., p. 226: "... denn die Götter sind geflohen, wer der Mensch ist, wissen wir nicht."

23. See ibid., p. 30.

24. See ibid., p. 40.

25. See ibid., p. 51

26. See ibid., p. 74.

27. See ibid., p. 76.

28. See ibid., p. 116.

29. See ibid., pp. 121-122.

30. See ibid., p. 220.

31. Ibid., p. 221.

32. Ibid., p. 237.

33. Ibid., p. 255.

34. See ibid., p. 284.

35. Ibid., p. 294.

18. This theme recurs in almost exactly the same terminology three times. See Heidegger, Hölderlins Hymnen "Germanien" und "Der Rhein, " pp. 50, 58, 226.

19. See ibid., p. 213.

20. See ibid., p. 252.

21. See ibid., p. 294.

22. See ibid., p. 226: "... denn die Götter sind geflohen, wer der Mensch ist, wissen wir nicht."

23. See ibid., p. 30.

24. See ibid., p. 40.

25. See ibid., p. 51

26. See ibid., p. 74.

27. See ibid., p. 76.

28. See ibid., p. 116.

29. See ibid., pp. 121-122.

30. See ibid., p. 220.

31. Ibid., p. 221.

32. Ibid., p. 237.

33. Ibid., p. 255.

34. See ibid., p. 284.

35. Ibid., p. 294.

18. This theme recurs in almost exactly the same terminology three times. See Heidegger, Hölderlins Hymnen "Germanien" und "Der Rhein, " pp. 50, 58, 226.

19. See ibid., p. 213.

20. See ibid., p. 252.

21. See ibid., p. 294.

22. See ibid., p. 226: "... denn die Götter sind geflohen, wer der Mensch ist, wissen wir nicht."

23. See ibid., p. 30.

24. See ibid., p. 40.

25. See ibid., p. 51

26. See ibid., p. 74.

27. See ibid., p. 76.

28. See ibid., p. 116.

29. See ibid., pp. 121-122.

30. See ibid., p. 220.

31. Ibid., p. 221.

32. Ibid., p. 237.

33. Ibid., p. 255.

34. See ibid., p. 284.

35. Ibid., p. 294.

18. This theme recurs in almost exactly the same terminology three times. See Heidegger, Hölderlins Hymnen "Germanien" und "Der Rhein, " pp. 50, 58, 226.

19. See ibid., p. 213.

20. See ibid., p. 252.

21. See ibid., p. 294.

22. See ibid., p. 226: "... denn die Götter sind geflohen, wer der Mensch ist, wissen wir nicht."

23. See ibid., p. 30.

24. See ibid., p. 40.

25. See ibid., p. 51

26. See ibid., p. 74.

27. See ibid., p. 76.

28. See ibid., p. 116.

29. See ibid., pp. 121-122.

30. See ibid., p. 220.

31. Ibid., p. 221.

32. Ibid., p. 237.

33. Ibid., p. 255.

34. See ibid., p. 284.

35. Ibid., p. 294.

18. This theme recurs in almost exactly the same terminology three times. See Heidegger, Hölderlins Hymnen "Germanien" und "Der Rhein, " pp. 50, 58, 226.

19. See ibid., p. 213.

20. See ibid., p. 252.

21. See ibid., p. 294.

22. See ibid., p. 226: "... denn die Götter sind geflohen, wer der Mensch ist, wissen wir nicht."

23. See ibid., p. 30.

24. See ibid., p. 40.

25. See ibid., p. 51

26. See ibid., p. 74.

27. See ibid., p. 76.

28. See ibid., p. 116.

29. See ibid., pp. 121-122.

30. See ibid., p. 220.

31. Ibid., p. 221.

32. Ibid., p. 237.

33. Ibid., p. 255.

34. See ibid., p. 284.

35. Ibid., p. 294.

18. This theme recurs in almost exactly the same terminology three times. See Heidegger, Hölderlins Hymnen "Germanien" und "Der Rhein, " pp. 50, 58, 226.

19. See ibid., p. 213.

20. See ibid., p. 252.

21. See ibid., p. 294.

22. See ibid., p. 226: "... denn die Götter sind geflohen, wer der Mensch ist, wissen wir nicht."

23. See ibid., p. 30.

24. See ibid., p. 40.

25. See ibid., p. 51

26. See ibid., p. 74.

27. See ibid., p. 76.

28. See ibid., p. 116.

29. See ibid., pp. 121-122.

30. See ibid., p. 220.

31. Ibid., p. 221.

32. Ibid., p. 237.

33. Ibid., p. 255.

34. See ibid., p. 284.

35. Ibid., p. 294.

36. For a statement of the idea of the poet as divinely inspired, see Ion , 534e: "By this example, above all, it seems to me, the god would show us, lest we doubt, that these lovely poems are not of man or human workmanship, but are divine and from the gods, and that the poets are nothing but interpreters of the gods, each one possessed by the divinity to whom he is in bondage." Ion , trans. Lane Cooper, in The Collected Dialogues of Plato including the Letters , ed. Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns (New York: Pantheon, 1961), p. 220. For the more developed critique of this view, see Republic , book 10.

37. According to Szilasi, with the exception of Hegel and Schelling no other important philosopher spent so much time interpreting other thinkers. See W. Szilasi, M. Heideggers Einfluss auf die Wissenschaften (Bern, 1949), pp. 73ff., cited in Löwith, Siimtliche Schriften (see Introd., n. 12), 1:196.

38. According to Heidegger, Hegel's history of philosophy is and will remain the only philosophical history until philosophy is forced to think historically. See Martin Heidegger, Nietzsche (see n. 143 below), vol. 2, The Eternal Recurrence of the Same (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1984), p. 186.

39. The widely accepted Young Hegelian view of the end of philosophy in Hegel's thought, a claim which Hegel never makes, is formulated by Heine in a famous passage. "Our philosophical revolution is concluded; Hegel has closed its great circle." Heinrich Heine, Religion and Philosophy in Germany: A Fragment , trans. John Snodgrass (1882; reprint, Albany: State University of New York Press, 1986), p. 156.

40. For instance, in a typical passage, Bochenski writes: "Heidegger is an extremely original thinker. The problem of his historical affiliations is not of primary concern here and we need only mention that he borrows his method from Husserl, that he is in many ways influenced by Dilthey, and that his general thesis is largely inspired by Kierkegaard." I. M. Bochenski, Contemporary, European Philosophy (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1961). p. 161. For a more detailed study, see Walter Schulz, "Über den philosophiegeschichtlichen Ort Martin Heideggers," Philosophische Rundschau 1 (1953-54): 65-93, 211-232.

41. See Martin Heidegger, Die Lehre vom Urteil im Psychologismus. Ein kritisch-positiver Beitrag zur Logik (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius Barth, 1913).

42. See Martin Heidegger, Die Kategorien- und Bedeutungslehre des Duns Scotus (Tübingen: Paul Siebeck, 1916).

43. For recent discussion of Heidegger's treatment of Hegel, see Denise Souche-Dagues, Hégélianisme et dualisme: Réflexions sur le phénomène (Paris: Vrin, 1990), pp. 20-31.

44. Löwith, who as Heidegger's student and later colleague knew him well,

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describes his relation to Kierkegaard as follows: "In dieser Suche nach dem Einen, was not tut und darum notwendig ist, orientierte sich Heidegger vor allem an Kierkegaard, mit dem er jedoch nicht verwechselt sein wollte, denn das Motiv und Ziel seiner Existentzialphilosophie war ja kein 'Aufmerksammachen aufs Christliche', sondern eine 'formale Anzeige' der weltlichen Existenz." Löwith, Mein Leben in Deutschland (see chap. 2, n. 8). p. 28.

45. Löwith links Heidegger's interest in both Kierkegaard and Luther as follows (Löwith, Mein Leben in Deutschland , p. 30): "Aus Luther stammte auch das unausgesprochene Motto seiner Existenzialontologie: 'Unus quisque robustus sit in existentia sua' was sich Heidegger ohne den Glauben an Christus damit verdeutschte, dass er immer wieder betonte, es komme nur darauf an, 'dass jeder das macht, was er kann', auf 'das je eigene Sein-können' oder die 'existentielle Beschränkung auf die eigene, historische Faktizität.' Dieses Können nahm er zugleich als ein Müssen in Anspruch oder als 'Schicksal.' Er schrieb mir 1921: 'Ich mache lediglich, was ich muss und was ich für nötig halte, und mache es so, wie ich es kann—ich frisiere meine philosophische Arbeit nicht auf Kulturaufgaben für ein allgemeines Heute. Ich habe auch nicht die Tendenz Kierkegaards. Ich arbeite aus meinem "ich bin" und meiner geistigen, überhaupt faktischen Herkunft. Mit dieser Faktizitát wütet (sic!) das Existieren.'"

46. See Heidegger, Being and Time , §§ 19-21.

47. See ibid., § 43a.

48. See ibid., § 77.

49. See ibid., § 82.

50. See ibid., § 1, p. 2.

51. See ibid., § 6.

52. See ibid., p. 42.

53. Ibid., p. 43.

54. Ibid., p. 44.

46. See Heidegger, Being and Time , §§ 19-21.

47. See ibid., § 43a.

48. See ibid., § 77.

49. See ibid., § 82.

50. See ibid., § 1, p. 2.

51. See ibid., § 6.

52. See ibid., p. 42.

53. Ibid., p. 43.

54. Ibid., p. 44.

46. See Heidegger, Being and Time , §§ 19-21.

47. See ibid., § 43a.

48. See ibid., § 77.

49. See ibid., § 82.

50. See ibid., § 1, p. 2.

51. See ibid., § 6.

52. See ibid., p. 42.

53. Ibid., p. 43.

54. Ibid., p. 44.

46. See Heidegger, Being and Time , §§ 19-21.

47. See ibid., § 43a.

48. See ibid., § 77.

49. See ibid., § 82.

50. See ibid., § 1, p. 2.

51. See ibid., § 6.

52. See ibid., p. 42.

53. Ibid., p. 43.

54. Ibid., p. 44.

46. See Heidegger, Being and Time , §§ 19-21.

47. See ibid., § 43a.

48. See ibid., § 77.

49. See ibid., § 82.

50. See ibid., § 1, p. 2.

51. See ibid., § 6.

52. See ibid., p. 42.

53. Ibid., p. 43.

54. Ibid., p. 44.

46. See Heidegger, Being and Time , §§ 19-21.

47. See ibid., § 43a.

48. See ibid., § 77.

49. See ibid., § 82.

50. See ibid., § 1, p. 2.

51. See ibid., § 6.

52. See ibid., p. 42.

53. Ibid., p. 43.

54. Ibid., p. 44.

46. See Heidegger, Being and Time , §§ 19-21.

47. See ibid., § 43a.

48. See ibid., § 77.

49. See ibid., § 82.

50. See ibid., § 1, p. 2.

51. See ibid., § 6.

52. See ibid., p. 42.

53. Ibid., p. 43.

54. Ibid., p. 44.

46. See Heidegger, Being and Time , §§ 19-21.

47. See ibid., § 43a.

48. See ibid., § 77.

49. See ibid., § 82.

50. See ibid., § 1, p. 2.

51. See ibid., § 6.

52. See ibid., p. 42.

53. Ibid., p. 43.

54. Ibid., p. 44.

46. See Heidegger, Being and Time , §§ 19-21.

47. See ibid., § 43a.

48. See ibid., § 77.

49. See ibid., § 82.

50. See ibid., § 1, p. 2.

51. See ibid., § 6.

52. See ibid., p. 42.

53. Ibid., p. 43.

54. Ibid., p. 44.

55. See Martin Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe , vol. 24, Die Grundprobleme der Phánomenologie (Frankfurt a.M.: Vittorio Klostermann, 1989), "Nachwort des Herausgebers," p. 471.

56. See Martin Heidegger, The Basic Problems of Phenomenology , trans. Albert Hofstadter (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1982), § 6, p. 23.

57. See Heidegger, The Basic Problems of Phenomenology , p. 35. These include Kant's thesis that being is not a real predicate, the medieval form of the Aristotelian view that the being of a being includes essence and existence, the modern ontological thesis that the basic ways of being include the being of nature or res extensa and the being of mind or res cogitans , and the logical thesis that all kinds of being can be discussed in terms of the "is" or copula.

58. See Heidegger, The Basic Problems of Phenomenology , p. 37.

59. See "Author's Preface to the Second Edition," in Heidegger, Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics , trans. Churchill (see chap. 3, n. 29), p. xxiii.

60. See Heidegger, Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics , p. xxiii.

61. See Heidegger, Being and Time , p. 45

62. See ibid., p. 49.

61. See Heidegger, Being and Time , p. 45

62. See ibid., p. 49.

63. See "Vorbemerkung zur dritten Auflage," in Martin Heidegger, Kant und das Problem der Metaphysik (Frankfurt a.M.: Vittorio Klostermann, 1965), p. 8. This passage does not appear in the English translation, which was made from the second German edition.

64. By the term "repetition" Heidegger roughly means "to rethink what was possible beyond what in fact took place," in his words "the disclosure of the primordial possibilities concealed in it." Heidegger, Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics , p. 211. The concept of repetition is already present, in undeveloped form, in Being and Time . For instance, in a passage on the limitations of the positive sciences, particularly ethnology, Heidegger states that they cannot wait for philosophy, which needs to repeat ontologically what has already been accomplished ontically. See Heidegger, Being and Time , p. 76. For an application of the concept of repetition to the problem of being in general, see Heidegger, An Introduction to Metaphysics , p. 36.

65. For Cassirer's view of Heidegger's Kant interpretation, see Ernst Cassirer, "Kant und das Problem der Metaphysik: Bemerkungen zu Martin Heideggers Kant-Interpretation," Kant-Studien 36 (1931): pp. 1-26.

66. See foreword to Heidegger, Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics , pp. xii-xiii.

67. See Heidegger, Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics , § 35, "The Basic Originality of the Established Ground," pp. 201-208, and "Author's Preface to the Second Edition," p. xxv.

68. See ibid., p. 206.

69. See ibid., p. 207.

70. Ibid.

67. See Heidegger, Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics , § 35, "The Basic Originality of the Established Ground," pp. 201-208, and "Author's Preface to the Second Edition," p. xxv.

68. See ibid., p. 206.

69. See ibid., p. 207.

70. Ibid.

67. See Heidegger, Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics , § 35, "The Basic Originality of the Established Ground," pp. 201-208, and "Author's Preface to the Second Edition," p. xxv.

68. See ibid., p. 206.

69. See ibid., p. 207.

70. Ibid.

67. See Heidegger, Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics , § 35, "The Basic Originality of the Established Ground," pp. 201-208, and "Author's Preface to the Second Edition," p. xxv.

68. See ibid., p. 206.

69. See ibid., p. 207.

70. Ibid.

71. See Alexandre Kojève, Introduction to the Reading of Hegel: Lectures on the Phenomenology of Spirit , trans. James H. Nichols, Jr. (New York: Basic Books, 1969). For Kojève's enormous influence on later French thought, or what Heidegger would call the "confirmation" of his textually arbitrary interpretation, see Vincent Descombes, Le même et l'autre. Quarante-cinq ans de philosophie française (1933-1978 ) (Paris: Éditions de Minuit, 1979).

72. Heidegger, Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics , p. xxv.

73. For Kant's distinction between the letter and the spirit, see Kant, Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason , trans. Smith (see chap. 1, n. 12), B xliv, p. 37. For a recent, quasi-Heideggerian approach to the history of philosophy, see Jürgen Habermas, Zur Rekonstruktion des historischen Materialismus (Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp, 1976), p. 9. What Habermas here refers to as "reconstruction" is a version of Heidegger's view of the historical and philosophical approach, which excludes a philological approach.

74. This is the reworked version of a lecture course delivered in the spring semester 1935.

75. See Heidegger, An Introduction to Metaphysics , p. 13. For another example, see Heidegger's remarks on the translation of energeia as actus in Heidegger, Nietzsche (see n. 85 below), 2:399,413.

76. Heidegger, An Introduction to Metaphysics , p. 13.

77. For Quine's argument for the indeterminacy of translation, see his article "Ontological Relativity," in W. V. Quine, Ontological Relativity and Other Essays (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969), pp. 26-68.

78. See Heidegger, An Introduction to Metaphysics , p. 176.

79. Ibid.

78. See Heidegger, An Introduction to Metaphysics , p. 176.

79. Ibid.

80. See Martin Heidegger, Holzwege (Frankfurt a.M.: Vittorio Klostermann, 1950); Vortráge und Aufsátze (Pfullingen: Neske, 1954); Wegmarken (see chap. 3, n. 33).

81. Volume 50 of the Gesamtausgabe includes the course on Nietzsche's metaphysics announced for 1941/42, which was never given, as well as "Einleitung in die Philosophie—Denken und Dichten," 1944/45.

82. See Martin Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe , vol. 43, Nietzsche: Der Wille zur Macht als Kunst: Wintersemester 1936/37 ; vol. 44, Nietzsches metaphysische Grundstellung im abendlándischen Denken: Die Lehre yon der ewigen Wiederkehr des Gleichen: Sommersemester 1937 ; vol. 46, Nietzsche H: Unzeitgemásse Betrachtung: Wintersemester 1938-39 ; vol. 47, Nietzsches Lehre vom Willen zur Macht als Erkenntnis: Sommersemester 1939 ; vol. 48, Nietzsche, der europáische Nihilismus. H. Trimester 1940 ; vol. 50, Nietzsches Metaphysik , announced for winter semester 1941/42, but not given; Einleitung in die Philosophie—Denken und Dichten: Wintersemester 1944/45 .

83. According to Vietta, between 1936 and the end of the war, Nietzsche was perhaps Heidegger's most important companion. See Vietta, Heideggers Kritik am Nationalsozialismus und an der Technik , p. 51.

84. See Martin Heidegger, "Nietzsches Wort 'Gott ist tot,'" in Holzwege ; and "Wer ist Nietzsches Zarathustra," in Vortráge und Aufsátze .

85. See Martin Heidegger, Nietzsche , 2 vols. (Pfullingen: Neske, 1961).

86. See David Farrell Krell, "Analysis," in Martin Heidegger, Nietzsche , vol. 1, The Will to Power as Art , trans. David Farrell Krell (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1979), p. 241.

87. See Gay, Weimar Culture (chap. 2, n. 9), pp. 31, 49, 125. See also Ernst Bertram, Nietzsche: Versuch einer Mythologie (Berlin: Georg Biondi, 1918). For more discussion on the interest of the George-Kreis in Nietzsche, see Walter Kaufmann, Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968), pp. 9-16 and 415-418.

88. See Ernst Gundolf and Kurt Hildebrandt, Nietzsche als Richter unsrer Zeit (Breslau: F. Hirt, 1922); see also Kurt Hildebrandt, Nietzsches Wettkampf mir Sokrates und Plato (Dresden: Sibyllenverlag, 1922), and Kurt Hildebrandt, Wagner und Nietzsche: Ihr Kampf gegen das neunzehnte Jarhhundert (Breslau, 1924).

89. See Wilhelm Windelband, A History of Philosophy , trans. James H. Tufts (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1958), p. 676.

90. For an appreciation of the relation between Nietzsche and Spengler, see Paul Hühnerfeld, In Sachen Heideggers: Versuch über ein deutsches Genie (Hamburg: Hoffmann und Campe), 1959, pp. 47-48: "Er [Spengler] gab Goethe und Nietzsche als die beiden Vorbilder an, denen er all verdanke. Aber es ist schwer, den weitsichtigen und weltmánnischen Einfluss des Weimaraners in Spenglers

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überpointiertem Buch [ Untergang des Abendlandes ] wiederzufinden (wenn man einmal von einigen Termini, wie zum Beispiel dem der 'Morphologie,' absieht). Und es ist ebenso schwer, in Spenglers Bemfihung etwas anderes zu spüren als das typische Missverstándnis, in dem sich das fin de siècle und das beginnende zwanzigste Jahrhundert Nietzsche gegenüber so kontinuierlich befand." Kaufmann suggests that Spengler accepts Nietzsche's denial of the unity of history but gives up Nietzsche's central point that the individual is not the pawn of the historical process. See Kaufmann, Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist , p. 415.

91. See Hans Vaihinger, Nietzsche als Philosoph (Berlin, 1902); and the chapter entitled "Nietzsche und seine Lehre vom bewusst gewollten Schein," in Die Philosophie des Als-Ob (Berlin, 1911).

92. Georg Simmel, Schopenhauer and Nietzsche , trans. Helmut Loiskandl, Deena Weinstein, and Michael Weinstein (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1986).

93. Krell ties these three approaches respectively to Bauemler, Klages, and Jaspers. See Heidegger, Nietzsche , vol. 1, The Will to Power as Art , pp. 241-243.

94. Jaspers, who is the main representative of the existentialist reading of Nietzsche, also represents the Christian reading of his thought. See Karl Jaspers, Nietzsche und das Christentum (Hameln: Verlag der Bücherstube Fritz Seifert, n.d.).

95. For a fuller discussion, see Eckhard Heftrich, "Nietzsche im Denken Heideggers," in Durchblicke (Frankfurt a.M.: Vittorio Klostermann, 1970).

96. See Gadamer, Truth and Method (see chap. 1, n. 17), p. 228.

97. See Pöggeler, Der Denkweg Martin Heideggers (see chap. 2, n. 69), p. 105 (1963ed.). See also Otto Pöggeler, Philosophie und Politik bei Heidegger (Freiburg and Munich: Karl Alber, 1972), p. 25.

98. See Heidegger, Nietzsche , vol. 1, The Will to Power as Art , pp. 245-246.

99. See Heidegger, Being and Time , pp. 308,317 n. 6, and 448.

100. See Taminiaux, "La présence de Nietzsche dans 'Etre et temps' "(see chap. 1, n. 22), p. 73: "Seul le traitement réservé à Nietzsche a l'allure d'un geste univoque de réappropriation sans distance."

101. See "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts" (see chap. 2, n. 115), p. 474.

102. See ibid., pp. 484-485.

101. See "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts" (see chap. 2, n. 115), p. 474.

102. See ibid., pp. 484-485.

103. See Heidegger, An Introduction to Metaphysics , p. 36: "The task in hand is too crucial and at the same time too sobering. It consists first of all, if we are to gain a true grasp of Nietzsche, in bringing his accomplishment to a full unfolding."

104. See her Nachwort to Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe , vol. 44, Nietzsches metaphysische Grundstellung im abendlándischen Denken , pp. 252-254. This paragraph is based on her discussion.

105. Cited in Heidegger, Nietzsches metaphysische Grundstellung , p. 254.

106. See Was heisst Denken? (Ttibingen, 1954). This volume is available in translation as Martin Heidegger, What Is Called Thinking? trans. J. Glenn Gray (New York: Harper and Row, 1968).

107. Heidegger, Being and Time , p. 44.

108. See ibid., pp. 43-44. For an explicit description of Suarez's role in systematizing and transmitting Aristotle's metaphysical views, which were originally stated in unsystematic fashion, see Heidegger, The Basic Problems of Phenomenology , pp. 79-80.

107. Heidegger, Being and Time , p. 44.

108. See ibid., pp. 43-44. For an explicit description of Suarez's role in systematizing and transmitting Aristotle's metaphysical views, which were originally stated in unsystematic fashion, see Heidegger, The Basic Problems of Phenomenology , pp. 79-80.

109. Heidegger, Being and Time , p. 95.

110. On this point, see the Beltráge zur Philosophie (see chap. 1, n. 26), "The Age of the World Picture" (see chap. 3, n. 138), and the "Letter on Humanism" (see chap. 1, n. 29).

111. See Heidegger, Being and Time , pp. 94-95.

112. See ibid., p. 45.

111. See Heidegger, Being and Time , pp. 94-95.

112. See ibid., p. 45.

113. See Heidegger, Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics , p. 208.

114. See Heidegger, Being and Time , p. 127.

115. See Heidegger, The Basic Problems of Phenomenology , p. 49.

116. See ibid., p. 55.

117. Ibid., p. 76.

115. See Heidegger, The Basic Problems of Phenomenology , p. 49.

116. See ibid., p. 55.

117. Ibid., p. 76.

115. See Heidegger, The Basic Problems of Phenomenology , p. 49.

116. See ibid., p. 55.

117. Ibid., p. 76.

118. See Heidegger, Being and Time , p. 250.

119. See ibid.

120. See ibid., p. 367.

121. See ibid., p. 369.

118. See Heidegger, Being and Time , p. 250.

119. See ibid.

120. See ibid., p. 367.

121. See ibid., p. 369.

118. See Heidegger, Being and Time , p. 250.

119. See ibid.

120. See ibid., p. 367.

121. See ibid., p. 369.

118. See Heidegger, Being and Time , p. 250.

119. See ibid.

120. See ibid., p. 367.

121. See ibid., p. 369.

122. For Sartre's view of Marx, see Sartre, Search for a Method (see chap. 3, n. 5), and Sartre, Critique de la raison dialectique (see chap. 2, n. 160).

123. See G. W. E Hegel, The Difference between Fichte's and Schelling's System of Philosophy , trans. H. S. Harris and Walter Cerf (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1977).

124. For a discussion of Hegel centered on the Differenzschrift , see Tom Rockmore, Hegel's Circular Epistemology (Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press, 1986).

125. See Alfred Baeumler, "Nietzsche und der Nationalsozialismus," in Baeumler, Studien zur deutschen Geistesgeschichte (see chap. 3, n. 46), pp. 281-294.

126. Carl August Emge, VB 6.4.1932, cited in Laugstien, Philosophieverháltnisse (see chap. 2, n. 25), p. 25.

127. See Algermissen, Nietzsche und das Dritte Reich (see chap. 3, n. 45), pp. 3-4. This paragraph is based on this passage from his book. See also D. Gawronsky, Friedrich Nietzsche und das Dritte Reich (Bern, 1935).

128. Cited in Algermissen, Nietzsche und das Dritte Reich, p. 3.

129. Cited ibid., p. 3.

130. Cited ibid.

128. Cited in Algermissen, Nietzsche und das Dritte Reich, p. 3.

129. Cited ibid., p. 3.

130. Cited ibid.

128. Cited in Algermissen, Nietzsche und das Dritte Reich, p. 3.

129. Cited ibid., p. 3.

130. Cited ibid.

131. See Ludwig Klages, Die psychologischen Errungenschaften Nietzsches (Leipzig: J. A. Barth, 1926).

132. See Baeumler, Nietzsche, der Philosoph und Politiker (see chap. 3, n. 45 ).

133. For a first acquaintance with the Nietzsche discussion in the Third Reich, see Alfredo Guzzoni, ed., Neunzig Jahre philosophische Nietzsche-Rezeption (Königstein, 1979); Wolfgang Müller-Lauter, Aufnahme und

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Auseinandersetzung: Nietzsche im 20. Jahrhundert (Berlin, 1982); Algermissen, Nietzsche und das Dritte Reich ; Karl Löwith, Nietzsches Philosophie der ewigen Wiederkehr des Gleichen (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1956), ''Anhang: Zur Geschichte der Nietzsche-Deutung (1894-1954)," pp. 199-225.

134. See Georg Lukács, The Destruction of Reason , trans. Peter Palmer (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1980), chap. 3, "Nietzsche as Founder of Irrationalism in the Modern Period," pp. 309-402.

135. See Lukács, The Destruction of Reason , pp. 536-537.

136. See Roderick Stackelberg. Idealism Debased. From Völkisch Ideology to National Socialism (Kent, Ohio: The Kent State University Press, 1981).

137. See Cassirer, The Myth of the State (see chap. 2, n. 131).

138. See Löwith, Nietzsches Philosophie der ewigen Wiederkehr des Gleichen , "Anhang: Zur Geschichte der Nietzsche-Deutung (1994-1954)," pp. 199-225.

139. See Jaspers's letter to Oehlkers, 22 December 1945, in Ott, Martin Heidegger , p. 317.

140. See Ott, Martin Heidegger , p. 186.

141. Derrida, for instance, has made this point. Before listing Heidegger's mises en garde concerning Nietzsche, Derrida correctly states that Heidegger's study of Nietzsche is less simple than it is commonly thought to be. See Jacques Derrida, Éperons. Les styles de Nietzsche (Paris: Flammarion, 1973), p.60.

142. See Heidegger, Nietzsche (German ed.; see n. 85).

143. See Martin Heidegger, Nietzsche , trans. David Farrell Krell let al.], 4 vols. (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1979-1987).

144. See Martin Heidegger, Nietzsche: Der Wille zur Macht als Kunst, Wintersemester 1936/37 , ed. Bernd Heimbuchel (Frankfurt a.M.: Vittorio Klostermann, 1985), and Martin Heidegger, Nietzsches metaphysisiche Grundstellung im abendlándischen Denken: Die ewige Wiederkehr des Gleichen: Sommersemester 1937 , ed. Marion Heinz (Frankfurt a.M.: Vittorio Klostermann, 1986).

145. Heidegger, The Will to Power as Art , p. 5.

146. The approach to Plato in terms of his unwritten dialogues has become popular in recent years. Two of the foremost examples of this approach in English are Whitehead and Findlay. See Alfred North Whitehead, "Mathematics and the Good," in A. N. Whitehead, The Interpretation of Science (Indianapolis and New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1961), pp. 187-203, and John Findlay, Plato: The Written and Unwritten Dialogues (New York: Humanities Press, 1974). For the influential Tübingen School discussion, see K. Geiser, Platons ungeschriebene Lehre (Stuttgart: Ernst Klett Verlag, 1963), and H. J. Krämer, Arete bei Platon und Aristoteles: Zum Wesen und zur Geschichte der platonischen Ontologie (Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitátsbuchhandlung, 1959).

147. Heidegger, The Will to Power as Art , p. 3.

148. See ibid., p. 10.

149. Ibid., p. 17.

150. See ibid., p. 21.

151. See ibid., p. 10.

152. See ibid., p. 11.

153. See ibid., chap. 4, "The Unity of Will to Power, Eternal Recurrence, and Revaluation," p. 18-24.

147. Heidegger, The Will to Power as Art , p. 3.

148. See ibid., p. 10.

149. Ibid., p. 17.

150. See ibid., p. 21.

151. See ibid., p. 10.

152. See ibid., p. 11.

153. See ibid., chap. 4, "The Unity of Will to Power, Eternal Recurrence, and Revaluation," p. 18-24.

147. Heidegger, The Will to Power as Art , p. 3.

148. See ibid., p. 10.

149. Ibid., p. 17.

150. See ibid., p. 21.

151. See ibid., p. 10.

152. See ibid., p. 11.

153. See ibid., chap. 4, "The Unity of Will to Power, Eternal Recurrence, and Revaluation," p. 18-24.

147. Heidegger, The Will to Power as Art , p. 3.

148. See ibid., p. 10.

149. Ibid., p. 17.

150. See ibid., p. 21.

151. See ibid., p. 10.

152. See ibid., p. 11.

153. See ibid., chap. 4, "The Unity of Will to Power, Eternal Recurrence, and Revaluation," p. 18-24.

147. Heidegger, The Will to Power as Art , p. 3.

148. See ibid., p. 10.

149. Ibid., p. 17.

150. See ibid., p. 21.

151. See ibid., p. 10.

152. See ibid., p. 11.

153. See ibid., chap. 4, "The Unity of Will to Power, Eternal Recurrence, and Revaluation," p. 18-24.

147. Heidegger, The Will to Power as Art , p. 3.

148. See ibid., p. 10.

149. Ibid., p. 17.

150. See ibid., p. 21.

151. See ibid., p. 10.

152. See ibid., p. 11.

153. See ibid., chap. 4, "The Unity of Will to Power, Eternal Recurrence, and Revaluation," p. 18-24.

147. Heidegger, The Will to Power as Art , p. 3.

148. See ibid., p. 10.

149. Ibid., p. 17.

150. See ibid., p. 21.

151. See ibid., p. 10.

152. See ibid., p. 11.

153. See ibid., chap. 4, "The Unity of Will to Power, Eternal Recurrence, and Revaluation," p. 18-24.

154. Heidegger's discussion is highly selective. It picks out Baeumler and Jaspers among all the many interpreters, and it is further limited to two works only: Baeumler, Nietzsche, der Philosoph und Politiker , and Karl Jaspers, Nietzsche: Einführung in das Verstándnis seines Philosophierens (Berlin and Leipzig: Walter de Gruyter, 1936). Significantly, he fails to take into account Jaspers's book on Nietzsche and Christianity as well as the many other writings by Bauemler in this domain.

155. The relation to the Nazi party is a significant factor. Ott reports that in 1936, Baeumler served as a Heidegger expert for the evaluation of Heidegger's personality by the Rosenberg Amt. See Ott, Martin Heidegger , p. 253.

156. See Heidegger, The Will to Power as Art , pp. 21-22. Heidegger's objections to Bauemler's reading concern his interpretation of the idea of the eternal recurrence. Löwith further reports that Bauemler misinterpreted the will to power as the will as power. See Löwith, Mein Leben in Deutschland (see chap. 2, n. 8), p. 140.

157. See Heidegger, The Will to Power as Art , pp. 22-23.

158. In a later passage in the lectures, which was omitted in the version published by Heidegger, he sharply attacks what he regards as Bauemler's clear misinterpretation of Nietzsche's doctrine of the will to power, which Bauemler allegedly tries merely to interpret away. See Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe , vol. 44, Nietzsches metaphysische Grundstellung im abendliindlischen Denken , p. 229.

159. As concerns Jaspers, see, e.g., Richard Lowell Howey, Heidegger and Jaspers on Nietzsche: A Critical Examination of Heidegger's and Jaspers's Interpretations of Nietzsche (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1973). See also Kaufmann, Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist , p. 34.

160. See Heidegger, The Will to Power as Art , p. 23

161. See ibid.

160. See Heidegger, The Will to Power as Art , p. 23

161. See ibid.

162. See Jaspers, Notizen zu Martin Heidegger (chap. 3, n. 11), §187, §38.

163. "Die bisherige Verfálschung der Philosophie Nietzsches," in Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe , vol. 43, Nietzsche: Der Wille zur Macht als Kunst , p. 278. This passage contrasts oddly with Heidegger's friendly remarks in two letters to Jaspers greeting the news that Jaspers is working on a book on Nietzsche. See Letter 120, Martin Heidegger to Karl Jaspers, 1 July 1935, Freiburg i.B., in Briefwechsel 1920-1963 (see chap. 2, n. 27), pp. 157f. Heidegger writes in part (p. 157): "Irgendwer berichtet mir gelegentlich, dass Sie an einem Nietz-schebuch arbeiteten, so darf ich mich darüber freuen, wie sehr das Strömen bei Ihnen auch nach dem großen Werk anhált." See also Letter 122, Martin Heidegger to Karl Jaspers, Freiburg, 16 May 1936, p. 160: "In Rom, wo ich den beiliegenden Vortrag über Hölderlin hielt, erfuhr ich, dass Sie an einem Werk über Nietzsche arbeiten. Im Februar dieses Jahres hatte ich für den kommenden Winter eine Vorlesung über Nietzsches 'Willen zur Macht' angekündigt; meine erste sollte es werden. Nur Ihr Werk vorliegt, brauche ich diesen Versuch nicht zu machen; denn eben dies war meine Absicht, was Sie im Vorwort klar und

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einfach sagen: zu zeigen, dass es an der Zeit sei, vom Nietzsche-Lesen zur Arbeit überzugehen. Nun kann ich in der náchsten Stunde einfach auf Ihr Werk, das zudem für die Studenten erschwinglich ist, hinweisen. Und für den Winter werde ich eine andere Vorlesung wáhlen."

164. For instance, at the beginning of the long discussion of the doctrine of the eternal return of the same, he comments negatively on Ernst Bertram's view in his book, Nietzsche: Versuch einer Mythologie (see n. 87). See Heidegger, The Eternal Recurrence of the Same , pp. 5-6.

165. See Heidegger, The Will to Power as Art , p. 18.

166. To take a single example, according to Moehling, Heidegger's Nietzsche lectures were "outspoken assaults upon the Nazis' attempts to assimilate Nietzsche into the pantheon of National Socialist forerunners." See Karl A. Moehling, "Heidegger and the Nazis," in Heidegger: The Man and the Thinker , ed. Thomas Sheehan (Chicago: Precedent, 1981), p. 38.

167. See Walter Kaufmann, "Editor's Introduction," in Friedrich Nietzsche, The Will to Power , trans. Walter Kaufmann and R. J. Hollingdale, ed. Walter Kaufmann (New York: Vintage, 1968), pp. xii-xiv.

168. "Nachwort" to Friedrich Nietzsche, Der Wille zur Macht , ed. Alfred Baeumler (Leipzig: Alfred Kröner Verlag, 1930). p. 699.

169. On this point, see Kaufmann, "Editor's Introduction," p. xvi.

170. See Heidegger, An Introduction to Metaphysics , pp. 36f.

171. See ibid., p. 57.

172. See ibid., pp. 39, 91.

173. See ibid., p. 175.

174. See ibid., p. 45.

175. See ibid., p. 36.

176. See ibid., pp. 16, 159-160.

170. See Heidegger, An Introduction to Metaphysics , pp. 36f.

171. See ibid., p. 57.

172. See ibid., pp. 39, 91.

173. See ibid., p. 175.

174. See ibid., p. 45.

175. See ibid., p. 36.

176. See ibid., pp. 16, 159-160.

170. See Heidegger, An Introduction to Metaphysics , pp. 36f.

171. See ibid., p. 57.

172. See ibid., pp. 39, 91.

173. See ibid., p. 175.

174. See ibid., p. 45.

175. See ibid., p. 36.

176. See ibid., pp. 16, 159-160.

170. See Heidegger, An Introduction to Metaphysics , pp. 36f.

171. See ibid., p. 57.

172. See ibid., pp. 39, 91.

173. See ibid., p. 175.

174. See ibid., p. 45.

175. See ibid., p. 36.

176. See ibid., pp. 16, 159-160.

170. See Heidegger, An Introduction to Metaphysics , pp. 36f.

171. See ibid., p. 57.

172. See ibid., pp. 39, 91.

173. See ibid., p. 175.

174. See ibid., p. 45.

175. See ibid., p. 36.

176. See ibid., pp. 16, 159-160.

170. See Heidegger, An Introduction to Metaphysics , pp. 36f.

171. See ibid., p. 57.

172. See ibid., pp. 39, 91.

173. See ibid., p. 175.

174. See ibid., p. 45.

175. See ibid., p. 36.

176. See ibid., pp. 16, 159-160.

170. See Heidegger, An Introduction to Metaphysics , pp. 36f.

171. See ibid., p. 57.

172. See ibid., pp. 39, 91.

173. See ibid., p. 175.

174. See ibid., p. 45.

175. See ibid., p. 36.

176. See ibid., pp. 16, 159-160.

177. Heidegger, The Will to Power as Art , p. 18.

178. See ibid., p. 19.

179. See ibid., p. 18.

180. Ibid.

181. Ibid., p. 20.

177. Heidegger, The Will to Power as Art , p. 18.

178. See ibid., p. 19.

179. See ibid., p. 18.

180. Ibid.

181. Ibid., p. 20.

177. Heidegger, The Will to Power as Art , p. 18.

178. See ibid., p. 19.

179. See ibid., p. 18.

180. Ibid.

181. Ibid., p. 20.

177. Heidegger, The Will to Power as Art , p. 18.

178. See ibid., p. 19.

179. See ibid., p. 18.

180. Ibid.

181. Ibid., p. 20.

177. Heidegger, The Will to Power as Art , p. 18.

178. See ibid., p. 19.

179. See ibid., p. 18.

180. Ibid.

181. Ibid., p. 20.

182. Heidegger, Being and Time, § 45, p. 278. See further "Time and Being," in Heidegger, On Time and Being , trans. Stambaugh (see chap. 1, n. 11), pp. 1-24.

183. Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe , vol. 43, Nietzsche: Der Wille zur Macht als Kunst , p. 278.

184. See ibid., pp. 275-290 passim. For further mention of the crucial distinction between the Leitfrage , which designates all earlier metaphysical thought, including Heidegger's own initial position, and the Grundfrage , toward which Heidegger now turns, see, e.g., Heidegger, The Eternal Recurrence of the Same (see n. 38), par. 25, "The Essence of a Fundamental Metaphysical Position: The Possibility of Such Positions in the History of Western Philosophy," pp. 184-197 passim.

183. Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe , vol. 43, Nietzsche: Der Wille zur Macht als Kunst , p. 278.

184. See ibid., pp. 275-290 passim. For further mention of the crucial distinction between the Leitfrage , which designates all earlier metaphysical thought, including Heidegger's own initial position, and the Grundfrage , toward which Heidegger now turns, see, e.g., Heidegger, The Eternal Recurrence of the Same (see n. 38), par. 25, "The Essence of a Fundamental Metaphysical Position: The Possibility of Such Positions in the History of Western Philosophy," pp. 184-197 passim.

185. Heidegger, The Will to Power as Art , p. 20; translation modified.

186. See ibid.

187. Ibid., p. 24. The translator's use of the word ''genuine" rather than "authentic" to translate " eigentlich " in this and other passages conceals rather than reveals the link between Heidegger's claim here and elsewhere to provide an authentic reading, which by implication differs in kind from others, and the concept of authenticity ( Eigentlichkeit ) in Being and Time .

188. Ibid.

186. See ibid.

187. Ibid., p. 24. The translator's use of the word ''genuine" rather than "authentic" to translate " eigentlich " in this and other passages conceals rather than reveals the link between Heidegger's claim here and elsewhere to provide an authentic reading, which by implication differs in kind from others, and the concept of authenticity ( Eigentlichkeit ) in Being and Time .

188. Ibid.

186. See ibid.

187. Ibid., p. 24. The translator's use of the word ''genuine" rather than "authentic" to translate " eigentlich " in this and other passages conceals rather than reveals the link between Heidegger's claim here and elsewhere to provide an authentic reading, which by implication differs in kind from others, and the concept of authenticity ( Eigentlichkeit ) in Being and Time .

188. Ibid.

186. See ibid.

187. Ibid., p. 24. The translator's use of the word ''genuine" rather than "authentic" to translate " eigentlich " in this and other passages conceals rather than reveals the link between Heidegger's claim here and elsewhere to provide an authentic reading, which by implication differs in kind from others, and the concept of authenticity ( Eigentlichkeit ) in Being and Time .

188. Ibid.

189. Derrida, who seems to suggest an opposition between metaphysics and nonmetaphysics, is wrong to attribute it to Heidegger. See Derrida, Éperons. Les styles de Nietzsche , p. 96.

190. See Immanuel Kant, Prolegornena to Any Future Metaphysics , introd. Lewis White Beck (Indianapolis and New York: Library of Liberal Arts, 1950).

191. This is the theme of Heidegger's brief meditation on the relation of the eternal return of the same and the will to power, which opens the second volume of the Nietzsche lectures. See "Die ewige Wiederkehr des Gleichen und der Wille zur Macht," in Heidegger, Nietzsche (German ed.; see n. 85), 2:7-29. The second volume opens with the following sentence, which provides a categorical statement of Heidegger's view (ibid., p. 7): "Kaum eine Spur von Recht besteht zunächst, Nietzsches Philosophie als die Vollendung der abendländischen Metaphysik in Anspruch zu nehmen; denn sie ist durch die Abschaffung der 'übersinnlichen Welt' als der 'wahren' eher schon die Absage an alle Metaphysik und der Schritt zu ihrer endgültigen Verleugnung."

192. Any version of the claim to provide the authentic interpretation of a position is controversial. It is unclear whether Heidegger in fact "hears" or even "listens to" Nietzsche, into whose thought he may well "read" his own, in order to "find'' what he was seeking. Derrida, for instance, who is deeply sympathetic to Heidegger, is sufficiently suspicious of his reading of Nietzsche to evoke the problem of how to save Nietzsche from the possibility of a Heideggerian type of reading. See Derrida, Éperons , p. 32. Heidegger supports the perception of this danger in his scornful rejection of the idea of capturing Nietzsche's view in itself. See Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe , vol. 43, Nietzsche: Der Wille zur Macht als Kunst , p. 277: "Der 'wirkliche' Nietzsche 'an sich'—nein!"

193. On this point, the unrevised lecture notes give an even clearer indication. See Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe , vol. 43, Nietzsche: Der Wille zur Macht als Kunst , p. 278, where he writes: " Nietzsche ist ein Übergang—das Höchste, was von einem Denker gesagt werden kann."

194. It will be useful to follow the German original for this purpose. The English translation, which includes a variety of other Heidegger materials on Nietzsche but omits portions of the two-volume format of the version prepared by him for publication, differs significantly. Such differences include material not available in the original as well as material that it omits but which is available elsewhere.

195. For a more detailed, but still not exhaustive, list of references to Nietzsche in Heidegger's writings, see Hildegard Feick, Index zu Heideggers "Sein und Zeit " (Tübingen: Niemeyer Verlag, 1968), p. 120.

196. On the relation of art and truth, see his 1935 essay, "The Origin of the Work of Art," in Heidegger, Basic Writings , trans. Krell, pp. 143-188, esp. pp. 178-188.

197. Heidegger, The Will to Power as Art , p. 218; translation modified.

198. See Heidegger, The Eternal Recurrence of the Same , p. 205.

199. See ibid.

200. See ibid., p. 206.

197. Heidegger, The Will to Power as Art , p. 218; translation modified.

198. See Heidegger, The Eternal Recurrence of the Same , p. 205.

197. Heidegger, The Will to Power as Art , p. 218; translation modified.

199. See ibid.

200. See ibid., p. 206.

197. Heidegger, The Will to Power as Art , p. 218; translation modified.

198. See Heidegger, The Eternal Recurrence of the Same , p. 205.

199. See ibid.

200. See ibid., p. 206.

201. See Heidegger, Nietzsche (German ed.), 1:639.

202. See ibid., vol. 1, part 3, Der Wille zur Macht als Erkenntnis , "Nietzsches angeblicher Biologismus," pp. 517-526.

201. See Heidegger, Nietzsche (German ed.), 1:639.

202. See ibid., vol. 1, part 3, Der Wille zur Macht als Erkenntnis , "Nietzsches angeblicher Biologismus," pp. 517-526.

203. See Heidegger, Nietzsche (German ed.), 1:642.

204. See ibid., p. 656.

205. See ibid., vol. 2, Der europäische Nihilismus , pp. 31-256. The volume contains 481 pages, including the Inhalt and Übersicht . This discussion of European nihilism is available in translation under the title Nihilism . See Heidegger, Nietzsche (see n. 143), vol. 4, Nihilism , trans. Frank A. Capuzzi.

206. See, e.g., Hermann Rauschning, The Revolution of Nihilism: Warning to the West , trans. E. W. Dickes (New York: Alliance Book Corporation, Long-mans, Green and Co., 1939). Rauschning argues that National Socialism, which has no doctrine, leads to nihilism. See ibid., chap. 1: "The Road to Nihilism," pp. 3-58. See further Carl Schmitt, Political Romanticism , trans. Guy Oakes (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1986). Schmitt argues, in a book published in 1919, in a striking anticipation of Heidegger's reading of Nietzsche, that a nihilism has been created by the death of the traditional concept of God. See ibid., pp. 58-59, 82, 91.

203. See Heidegger, Nietzsche (German ed.), 1:642.

204. See ibid., p. 656.

205. See ibid., vol. 2, Der europäische Nihilismus , pp. 31-256. The volume contains 481 pages, including the Inhalt and Übersicht . This discussion of European nihilism is available in translation under the title Nihilism . See Heidegger, Nietzsche (see n. 143), vol. 4, Nihilism , trans. Frank A. Capuzzi.

206. See, e.g., Hermann Rauschning, The Revolution of Nihilism: Warning to the West , trans. E. W. Dickes (New York: Alliance Book Corporation, Long-mans, Green and Co., 1939). Rauschning argues that National Socialism, which has no doctrine, leads to nihilism. See ibid., chap. 1: "The Road to Nihilism," pp. 3-58. See further Carl Schmitt, Political Romanticism , trans. Guy Oakes (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1986). Schmitt argues, in a book published in 1919, in a striking anticipation of Heidegger's reading of Nietzsche, that a nihilism has been created by the death of the traditional concept of God. See ibid., pp. 58-59, 82, 91.

203. See Heidegger, Nietzsche (German ed.), 1:642.

204. See ibid., p. 656.

205. See ibid., vol. 2, Der europäische Nihilismus , pp. 31-256. The volume contains 481 pages, including the Inhalt and Übersicht . This discussion of European nihilism is available in translation under the title Nihilism . See Heidegger, Nietzsche (see n. 143), vol. 4, Nihilism , trans. Frank A. Capuzzi.

206. See, e.g., Hermann Rauschning, The Revolution of Nihilism: Warning to the West , trans. E. W. Dickes (New York: Alliance Book Corporation, Long-mans, Green and Co., 1939). Rauschning argues that National Socialism, which has no doctrine, leads to nihilism. See ibid., chap. 1: "The Road to Nihilism," pp. 3-58. See further Carl Schmitt, Political Romanticism , trans. Guy Oakes (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1986). Schmitt argues, in a book published in 1919, in a striking anticipation of Heidegger's reading of Nietzsche, that a nihilism has been created by the death of the traditional concept of God. See ibid., pp. 58-59, 82, 91.

203. See Heidegger, Nietzsche (German ed.), 1:642.

204. See ibid., p. 656.

205. See ibid., vol. 2, Der europäische Nihilismus , pp. 31-256. The volume contains 481 pages, including the Inhalt and Übersicht . This discussion of European nihilism is available in translation under the title Nihilism . See Heidegger, Nietzsche (see n. 143), vol. 4, Nihilism , trans. Frank A. Capuzzi.

206. See, e.g., Hermann Rauschning, The Revolution of Nihilism: Warning to the West , trans. E. W. Dickes (New York: Alliance Book Corporation, Long-mans, Green and Co., 1939). Rauschning argues that National Socialism, which has no doctrine, leads to nihilism. See ibid., chap. 1: "The Road to Nihilism," pp. 3-58. See further Carl Schmitt, Political Romanticism , trans. Guy Oakes (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1986). Schmitt argues, in a book published in 1919, in a striking anticipation of Heidegger's reading of Nietzsche, that a nihilism has been created by the death of the traditional concept of God. See ibid., pp. 58-59, 82, 91.

207. See Heidegger, Being and Time , p. 69.

208. See ibid., p. 223.

207. See Heidegger, Being and Time , p. 69.

208. See ibid., p. 223.

209. "What Is Metaphysics?" in Heidegger, Basic Writings , p. 105.

210. See Heidegger, Basic Writings , pp. 105-106. Heidegger's opposition between being and nothingness is transformed by Sartre as the basis of his existential position. See Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness , trans. Hazel Barnes (New York: Washington Square Press, 1973).

211. See Heidegger, Basic Writings , p. 110.

212. See "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts" (see chap. 2, n. 115), p. 474.

213. Heidegger refers to Being and Time , § 38, pp. 223-224.

214. Heidegger, An Introduction to Metaphysics , p. 37; translation modified.

215. See ibid., pp. 38-39.

216. Ibid., p. 39; translation modified.

214. Heidegger, An Introduction to Metaphysics , p. 37; translation modified.

215. See ibid., pp. 38-39.

216. Ibid., p. 39; translation modified.

214. Heidegger, An Introduction to Metaphysics , p. 37; translation modified.

215. See ibid., pp. 38-39.

216. Ibid., p. 39; translation modified.

217. Heidegger, Nihilism , p, 4.

218. See ibid., pp. 59-60.

219. Ibid., p. 4.

220. Ibid., p. 5.

221. See ibid., p. 132.

222. See ibid., p. 123.

223. See ibid., p. 103.

224. See ibid., p. 136.

225. See ibid., p. 195.

226. Ibid., p. 196; translation modified.

217. Heidegger, Nihilism , p, 4.

218. See ibid., pp. 59-60.

219. Ibid., p. 4.

220. Ibid., p. 5.

221. See ibid., p. 132.

222. See ibid., p. 123.

223. See ibid., p. 103.

224. See ibid., p. 136.

225. See ibid., p. 195.

226. Ibid., p. 196; translation modified.

217. Heidegger, Nihilism , p, 4.

218. See ibid., pp. 59-60.

219. Ibid., p. 4.

220. Ibid., p. 5.

221. See ibid., p. 132.

222. See ibid., p. 123.

223. See ibid., p. 103.

224. See ibid., p. 136.

225. See ibid., p. 195.

226. Ibid., p. 196; translation modified.

217. Heidegger, Nihilism , p, 4.

218. See ibid., pp. 59-60.

219. Ibid., p. 4.

220. Ibid., p. 5.

221. See ibid., p. 132.

222. See ibid., p. 123.

223. See ibid., p. 103.

224. See ibid., p. 136.

225. See ibid., p. 195.

226. Ibid., p. 196; translation modified.

217. Heidegger, Nihilism , p, 4.

218. See ibid., pp. 59-60.

219. Ibid., p. 4.

220. Ibid., p. 5.

221. See ibid., p. 132.

222. See ibid., p. 123.

223. See ibid., p. 103.

224. See ibid., p. 136.

225. See ibid., p. 195.

226. Ibid., p. 196; translation modified.

217. Heidegger, Nihilism , p, 4.

218. See ibid., pp. 59-60.

219. Ibid., p. 4.

220. Ibid., p. 5.

221. See ibid., p. 132.

222. See ibid., p. 123.

223. See ibid., p. 103.

224. See ibid., p. 136.

225. See ibid., p. 195.

226. Ibid., p. 196; translation modified.

217. Heidegger, Nihilism , p, 4.

218. See ibid., pp. 59-60.

219. Ibid., p. 4.

220. Ibid., p. 5.

221. See ibid., p. 132.

222. See ibid., p. 123.

223. See ibid., p. 103.

224. See ibid., p. 136.

225. See ibid., p. 195.

226. Ibid., p. 196; translation modified.

217. Heidegger, Nihilism , p, 4.

218. See ibid., pp. 59-60.

219. Ibid., p. 4.

220. Ibid., p. 5.

221. See ibid., p. 132.

222. See ibid., p. 123.

223. See ibid., p. 103.

224. See ibid., p. 136.

225. See ibid., p. 195.

226. Ibid., p. 196; translation modified.

217. Heidegger, Nihilism , p, 4.

218. See ibid., pp. 59-60.

219. Ibid., p. 4.

220. Ibid., p. 5.

221. See ibid., p. 132.

222. See ibid., p. 123.

223. See ibid., p. 103.

224. See ibid., p. 136.

225. See ibid., p. 195.

226. Ibid., p. 196; translation modified.

217. Heidegger, Nihilism , p, 4.

218. See ibid., pp. 59-60.

219. Ibid., p. 4.

220. Ibid., p. 5.

221. See ibid., p. 132.

222. See ibid., p. 123.

223. See ibid., p. 103.

224. See ibid., p. 136.

225. See ibid., p. 195.

226. Ibid., p. 196; translation modified.

227. Krell argues for the replacement of " Geschehnis " by " Ereignis " beginning with chapter 20 of The Will to Power as Art but fails to perceive how that replacement is related either to the Beiträge , whose unpublished text he may not have known, or to the problem of the turning in Heidegger's thought. "Note that the 'event' of nihilism, cited four times in this and the following paragraphs, occasions perhaps the earliest 'terminological' use of the word Ereignis in Heidegger's published writings." Heidegger, The Will to Power as Art , p. 156n. This observation is only correct if Heidegger's lecture courses are omitted. In fact, words such as " Ereignis '' and '' ereignen " occur much earlier in Heidegger's writings, beginning with his initial lecture series during the Kriegsnotsemester in 1919. See Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe , vol. 56/57, Zur Bestimmung der Philosophie , ed. Bernd Heimbüchel (Frankfurt a.M.: Vittorio Klostermann, 1987), passim.

228. See Heidegger, An Introduction to Metaphysics , p. 37; Heidegger, Einführung in die Metaphysik (see n. 8), p. 28; Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe , vol. 40, Einführung in die Metaphysik , par. 10, p. 40.

229. See the parallel passages in Heidegger, The Will to Power as Art , par. 20, and Nihilism , par. 29; Heidegger, Nietzsche (German ed.), vol. 1, Wahrheit im Platonismus und im Positivismus: Nietzsches Versuch einer Umdrehung des Platonismus aus der Grunderfahrung des Nihilismus , and vol. 2, Der europäische Nihilismus , chap. 5, "Das Sein als die Leere und der Reichturn"; Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe , vol. 48, Nietzsche: Der europäische Nihilismus (Frankfurt a.M.: Vittorio Klostermann, 1986), "Schluss: Der vergessene Unterschied des Seins und des Seienden und das Ende der abendländischen Philosophie als Metaphysik," pars. 32-35.

230. See Heidegger, Basic Writings , p. 208. For Heidegger's interpretation of the turning in his thought, see his preface to William Richardson, Heidegger: Through Phenomenology to Thought (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1974), pp. viii-xxii. For a recent summary of discussion concerning the turning, see Thomä, Die Zeit des Selbst und die Zeit danach (see Introd., n. 6). pp. 459-465. Thomä denies the existence of a Kehre in Heidegger's thought. For a version of this view, see Lacoue-Labarthe, L'imitation des modernes (see chap. 2, n. 123). p. 236. For a detailed study of the turning in Heidegger's thought, see Jean Grondin, Le tournant dans la pensée de Martin Heidegger (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1987). See also Alberto Rosales, "Zum Problem der Kehre im Denken Heideggers," Zeitschrift für philosophische Forschung , 1984: 241-262. According to Thomä, the term occurs for the first time in Heidegger's 1928 summer lecture series: "Diese temporale Analytik ist ( ...) zugleich die Kehre. " Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe , vol. 26, Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Logik im Ausgang von Leibniz , ed. Klaus Held (Frankfurt a.M.: Vittorio Klostermann, 1978), p. 201 (Heidegger's emphasis), cited in Thomä, Die Zeit des Selbst und die Zeit danach , p. 458.

231. See Karl Marx, Capital , ed. Friedrich Engels, trans. Samuel Moore and

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Edward Aveling (New York: International Publishers, 1967), 1:20. For a discussion of various forms of philosophical reversal, see Jean-François Mattéi, "Le chiasme heideggérien," in Dominique Janicaud and Jean-François Mattéi, La métaphysique à la limite (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1983), pp. 49-162.

232. See Heidegger, Basic Writings , p. 208.

233. See ibid.

234. See chap. 5, "The Structure of the 'Major Work': Nietzsche's Manner of Thinking as Reversal [Umkehrung]," in Heidegger, The Will to Power as Art , pp. 25-33, and chap. 20, "Truth in Platonism and Positivism: Nietzsche's Overturning [Umdrehung] of Platonism," ibid., pp. 151-161.

232. See Heidegger, Basic Writings , p. 208.

233. See ibid.

234. See chap. 5, "The Structure of the 'Major Work': Nietzsche's Manner of Thinking as Reversal [Umkehrung]," in Heidegger, The Will to Power as Art , pp. 25-33, and chap. 20, "Truth in Platonism and Positivism: Nietzsche's Overturning [Umdrehung] of Platonism," ibid., pp. 151-161.

232. See Heidegger, Basic Writings , p. 208.

233. See ibid.

234. See chap. 5, "The Structure of the 'Major Work': Nietzsche's Manner of Thinking as Reversal [Umkehrung]," in Heidegger, The Will to Power as Art , pp. 25-33, and chap. 20, "Truth in Platonism and Positivism: Nietzsche's Overturning [Umdrehung] of Platonism," ibid., pp. 151-161.

235. See Heidegger, The Will to Power as Art , pp. 29, 30.

236. See ibid., p. 210.

235. See Heidegger, The Will to Power as Art , pp. 29, 30.

236. See ibid., p. 210.

237. See Heidegger, Nietzsche (German ed.), 1:654.

238. For an effort to correlate the turning in Heidegger's thought to his Nietzsche lectures, see Hannah Arendt, The Life of the Mind: Willing (New York and London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1978), "Heidegger's Will-not-to-will," pp. 172-194. Her interpretation of the turning as primarily a turn against the will to will is hardly plausible. It is plausible only if his turning is mainly directed against Nietzsche, whereas there is abundant evidence that (1) in Being and Time the connection of Heidegger's view with Nietzsche is not central; (2) in the course of these lectures, Heidegger took Nietzsche increasingly seriously; (3) in the attempt to think with Nietzsche against Nietzsche, Heidegger does not turn against Nietzsche, or even against the idea of the will to power, which he seeks to realize even against Nietzsche.

239. I disagree with Grondin's thesis that the turning is a turning of Being, since there is an obvious turning in Heidegger's thought as a result of his reading of the turning of Being through Nietzsche's insight. See Grondin, Le tournant dans la penske de Martin Heidegger , p. 101.

240. Heidegger, Introduction to Metaphysics , p. 39.

241. Ibid., pp. 38-39; translation modified. According to Heidegger, Nietzsche's failure to attain the true center is due to his stubborn adherence to a theory of values. See ibid., p. 199.

240. Heidegger, Introduction to Metaphysics , p. 39.

241. Ibid., pp. 38-39; translation modified. According to Heidegger, Nietzsche's failure to attain the true center is due to his stubborn adherence to a theory of values. See ibid., p. 199.

242. "Only a God Can Save Us" (see chap. 1, n. 30), p. 275.

243. See Arendt, The Life of the Mind: Willing , p. 173. Pöggeler specifically disputes her claim that Nietzsche helped Heidegger to turn against Nazism. He argues it was precisely the study of Nietzsche and the pre-Socratics which led to the turn to National Socialism. See Otto Pöggeler, "Heidegger, Nietzsche, and Politics," in Heidegger and Politics , ed. Tom Rockmore and Joseph Margolis (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, forthcoming).

244. See Aubenque, "Encore Heidegger et le nazisme" (chap. 2, n. 59) p. 121.

245. See Heidegger, Basic Writings , pp. 27-28.

246. See Vietta, Heideggers Kritik am Nationalsozialismus und an der Technik , chap. 4, "Heideggers Nietzsche-Lektüre: Kritik der Weltanschauungen und Nihilismusbegriff," pp. 48-68, esp. pp. 66-68.

247. Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe , vol. 42, Schelling: Vom Wesen der menschlichen Freiheit (Frankfurt a.M.: Vittorio Klostermann, 1988), pp. 40-41. Carl Ulmer called attention to this passage in Der Spiegel , 2 May 1977, p. 152.

248. Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe , vol. 43, Nietzsche: Der Wille zur Macht als Kunst , p. 193. Heidegger was apparently concerned with the relation between Nietzsche's aphorism about the death of God and atheism. He evokes this theme in the first series of Hölderlin lectures as well. See Heidegger, Hölderlins Hymnen "Germanien" und "Der Rhein " (see chap. 3, n. 144), p. 95.

249. Krell accepts, with reservations, the claim that there is a shift in tone but denies that there is a polemic with Nietzsche. See Heidegger, Nihilism , pp. 272-273.

250. The controversy with Nietzsche is not confined to Nietzsche lectures. It is a main theme in the first part of the 1951/52 lecture series. See Heidegger, What Is Called Thinking? trans. Gray (see n. 106), passim, esp. p. 70. The controversy continues in later writings. It is present as an underlying theme in the subsequent analysis of technology which in part supposes a Nietzschean orientation.

251. Heidegger, Nihilism , p. 196.

1. More than a quarter of a century ago, Pöggeler provided a helpful but overly brief introduction to this text. See Pöggeler, Der Denkweg Martin Heideggers (see chap. 2, n. 69), pp. 143-145.

2. Unless otherwise indicated, all translations from the Beiträge are my own.

3. In a work that has just appeared, Vietta devotes a large part of a chapter to this text. See Vietta, Heideggers Kritik am Nationalsozialismus und an der Technik (see chap. 1, n. 31), chap. 5, "Kritik am Nationalsozialismus und an der Technik in den 'Beiträgen zur Philosophie' in der Spätphilosophie," pp. 69-94. See also Reiner Schfirmann, "Riveted to a Monstrous Site: On Heidegger's Beiträge zur Philosophie, " in Heidegger and Politics , ed. Rockmore and Margolis (see chap. 4, n. 243).

4. According to Vietta, it is possible that Heidegger's work on the book lasted until the beginning of 1939. See Vietta, Heideggers Kritik am Nation-alsozialismus und an der Technik , p. 70.

5. See Heidegger, Beiträge (see chap. 1, n. 26), p. 514. This description is controversial. Vietta, who had possession of the handwritten original that was used for the edition printed in the Gesamtausgabe , reports that the manuscript consists of loose sheets of format DIN A4 and some of format DIN A5, bundled together in the form of Konvoluten with other sheets of format DIN A4 attached in the middle. See Vietta, Heideggers Kritik am Nationalsozialismus und an der Technik , p. 71.

6. The editor notes that the publication of this work in Heidegger's Gesamtausgabe was retarded to a point fourteen years after the beginning of the

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publication of his complete writings by Heidegger's conviction that it needed to be preceded by publication of his lecture courses. Heidegger held that study of his lecture courses constituted an indispensable condition for the understanding of his writings from the 1930s and first half of the 1940s. See Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 513.

7. According to Thomä, it is merely the outline of a work which was never written. See Thomä, Die Zeit des Selbst und die Zeit danach (see Introd., n. 6), p. 763.

8. For a section in which the main discussion is interrupted in the middle for another discussion, see Heidegger, Beiträge , § 110, pp. 208-222, discussed below. For a section that lacks verbs, see Heidegger, Beiträge , § 247, p. 392, which ends with the following passage: "Maschinenerziehung; die Machenschaft und das Geschäft. Welche Umwandlung des Menschen setzt hier ein? (Welt—Erde?) Machenschaft und das Geschäft. Die grosse Zahl, das Riesige, reine Ausdehnung und wachsende Verflachung und Entleerung. Das notwendige Verfallen dem Kitsch und dem Unechten."

9. An example, picked at random, is the verb " vergötzen, " obviously related to the noun " Götze, " meaning an "essence or image worshiped as a deity; a false god," or further " Götzenbild, '' namely "the representation of such a false god.'' See Heidegger, Beiträge , § 251, p. 398.

10. Heidegger writes: "'Das Seyn' als Abschnitt II ist nicht richtig eingereiht; als Versuch, das Ganze noch einmal zu fassen, gehört er nicht an diese Stelle." Cited in Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 514. For von Herrmann's defense of his editorial decision concerning the proper place of this part of the manuscript, see ibid., pp. 514-515.

9. An example, picked at random, is the verb " vergötzen, " obviously related to the noun " Götze, " meaning an "essence or image worshiped as a deity; a false god," or further " Götzenbild, '' namely "the representation of such a false god.'' See Heidegger, Beiträge , § 251, p. 398.

10. Heidegger writes: "'Das Seyn' als Abschnitt II ist nicht richtig eingereiht; als Versuch, das Ganze noch einmal zu fassen, gehört er nicht an diese Stelle." Cited in Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 514. For von Herrmann's defense of his editorial decision concerning the proper place of this part of the manuscript, see ibid., pp. 514-515.

11. See Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 514.

12. In the "Afterword to the Second Edition" of his well-known study of Heidegger, Pöggeler wrote: "The Beiträge were for me Heidegger's major work." Otto Pöggeler, Martin Heidegger's Path of Thinking , trans. David Magurshak and Sigmund Barber (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1987), pp. 286-287. In a more recent passage, written after this text appeared, in a description of the loneliness which Heidegger endured after his withdrawal from the rectorate, Pöggeler writes: "In dieser Einsamkeit schrieb Heidegger 1936-38 sein eigentliches Hauptwerk, die 'Beiträge zur Philosophie'." Otto Pöggeler, "'Praktische Philosophie' als Antwort an Heidegger," in Martin Heiclegger und das "Dritte Reich, " ed. Martin (see chap. 2, n. 176), p. 85.

13. See Alexander Schwan, "Verliebt in Untergang und Abgrund," Rheinischer Merkur, Christ und Welt , no. 17 (28 April 1989), p. 15.

14. See Schwan, "Verliebt in Untergang und Abgrund," p. 15: "Die 'Beiträge' sind ein einziges grosses Dementi für Victor Farias' Behauptung, Heidegger sei anhaltend, auch im ideologischen Sinne, ein überzeugter Nationalsozialist gewesen!"

15. See Schwan, "Verliebt in Untergang und Abgrund," p. 15: "Die 'Beiträge' sind jedoch eine eindeutige Absage an die Verstrickungen yon 1933, die sich als Folge verhängnisvoller Verquickungen von Seinsdenken und politischem Aktionismus erweisen."

16. See Schwan, "Verliebt in Untergang und Abgrund," p. 15: "So werden die 'Beiträge' zum grossen Widerruf alles dessen, was für Heidegger mit 1933 verbunden war. Sie führen jedoch nicht zur aktiven Wende gegen die zur blanken Tyrranei ausgearteten 'Machenschaften' des Nationalsozialismus, sondern lediglich zur 'Einkehr' in den Verzicht auf jegliches Tun, allerdings unter fortwührenden Unmutsbekundungen, also doch nicht aus gäinzlich freien Stricken." Already in his book on Heidegger's political philosophy, Schwan claimed that the relation between Heidegger's thought and Nazism could not be maintained after 1933 to the same degree as in 1933 unless Heidegger simply abandoned philosophy. See Schwan, Politische Philosophie im Denken Heideggers (see chap. 3, n. 115), p. 101. Schwan seems not fully to have realized the extent of the compatibility between Heidegger's thought and Nazism and the durable nature of his commitment.

17. "Mehr als fünzig Jahre nach ihrer Entstehung erscheinen im Jubiläumsjahr des 100. Geburtstages des Denkers als ein weiteres Hauptwerk erstmals Martin Heideggers 'Beiträge zur Philosophie (Vom Ereignis)'." Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 511.

18. See Vietta, Heideggers Kritik am Nationalsozialismus und an der Technik , p. 69: "Die anlässlich des 100. Geburtstages Martin Heideggers veröffentlichten 'Beiträigen zur Philosophie' sind das wohl wichtigste Hauptwerk Heideggers nach 'Sein und Zeit'."

19. Vietta builds his case for Heidegger as someone who later became a staunch opponent of Nazism on his analysis of this text. See Vietta, Heideggers Kritik am Nationalsozialismus und an der Technik .

20. See Otto Pöggeler, "Heidegger, Nietzsche, and Politics," in Heidegger and Politics , ed. Rockmore and Margolis (see chap. 4, n. 243).

21. See Thomä, Die Zeit des Selbst und die Zeit danach , p. 767.

22. See Nicolas Tertulian, "Histoire de l'être et révolution politique: Ré-flexions sur un ouvrage posthume de Heidegger," in Heidegger and Politics , ed. Rockmore and Margolis.

23. Vietta, who was in possession of the original manuscript, states that when Heidegger numbered the pages so that his brother Fritz Heidegger could retype the handwritten manuscript, he left out a number of Zetteln that were also not published in the Gesamtausgabe . See Vietta, Heideggers Kritik am Nationalsozialismus und an der Technik , p. 71. He has further published an important fragment which, if it indeed comes from the manuscript, amply demonstrates his point. See ibid., pp. 93-94.

22. See Nicolas Tertulian, "Histoire de l'être et révolution politique: Ré-flexions sur un ouvrage posthume de Heidegger," in Heidegger and Politics , ed. Rockmore and Margolis.

23. Vietta, who was in possession of the original manuscript, states that when Heidegger numbered the pages so that his brother Fritz Heidegger could retype the handwritten manuscript, he left out a number of Zetteln that were also not published in the Gesamtausgabe . See Vietta, Heideggers Kritik am Nationalsozialismus und an der Technik , p. 71. He has further published an important fragment which, if it indeed comes from the manuscript, amply demonstrates his point. See ibid., pp. 93-94.

24. See Heidegger, "Letter on Humanism" (see chap. 1, n. 29), pp. 207-208. Grondin's discussion of the Kehre appeared prior to the first publication of the Beiträge . See Grondin, Le tournant dans la penske de Martin Heidegger (see chap. 4, n. 230).

25. Heidegger, Basic Writings (see chap. 1, n. 10), p. 242.

26. For Heidegger's own self-interpretation, see his "Letter to Richardson," in William J. Richardson, Heidegger: Through Phenomenology to Thought (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1963), pp. ix-xxiii.

27. See Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 4: "Die 'Beiträge' fragen in einer Bahn, die

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durch den Übergang zum anderen Anfang, in den jetzt das abendländische Denken einrückt, erst gebahnt wird."

28. See Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe , vol. 45, Grundfragen der Philosophie: Ausgewählte "Probleme" der "Logik," Freiburger Vorlesung Wintersemester 1937/38 , ed. Wilhelm-Friedrich von Herrmann (Frankfurt a.M.: Vittorio Klostermann, 1984).

29. Heidegger, Being and Time , p. 261

30. Ibid., p. 265.

31. Ibid., p. 269.

32. Ibid.

29. Heidegger, Being and Time , p. 261

30. Ibid., p. 265.

31. Ibid., p. 269.

32. Ibid.

29. Heidegger, Being and Time , p. 261

30. Ibid., p. 265.

31. Ibid., p. 269.

32. Ibid.

29. Heidegger, Being and Time , p. 261

30. Ibid., p. 265.

31. Ibid., p. 269.

32. Ibid.

33. "On the Essence of Truth," in Heidegger, Basic Writings , p. 138.

34. See Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 3: "Der öffentliche Titel: Beiträge zur Philosophie und die wesentliche Überschrift: Vom Ereignis." For further discussion of the title, see ibid., § 39, "Das Ereignis," pp. 80-82.

33. "On the Essence of Truth," in Heidegger, Basic Writings , p. 138.

34. See Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 3: "Der öffentliche Titel: Beiträge zur Philosophie und die wesentliche Überschrift: Vom Ereignis." For further discussion of the title, see ibid., § 39, "Das Ereignis," pp. 80-82.

35. Apparently emphasizing the preliminary form of the manuscript that is the basis of the published version of the work, Heidegger states that its correct title would be "Das Ereignis." See Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 77.

36. In this work, Heidegger consistently writes "Sein" as "Seyn" in order to emphasize that he is attempting to make a new beginning.

37. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 3. See also ibid., p. 31.

38. Ibid., p. 3.

36. In this work, Heidegger consistently writes "Sein" as "Seyn" in order to emphasize that he is attempting to make a new beginning.

37. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 3. See also ibid., p. 31.

38. Ibid., p. 3.

36. In this work, Heidegger consistently writes "Sein" as "Seyn" in order to emphasize that he is attempting to make a new beginning.

37. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 3. See also ibid., p. 31.

38. Ibid., p. 3.

39. Heidegger does not strictly observe this convention prior to this text. So in the first series of Hölderlin lectures, where he is already beginning to make this distinction, he does not consistently maintain this linguistic distinction. See "Nachwort des Herausgebers" in Heidegger, Hölderlins Hymnen "Germanien" und "Der Rhein " (see chap. 3, n. 144), p. 295.

40. See Heidegger, Beiträge , §§ 3, 4, 7, 8, 10.

41. See ibid., §§ 35 and 39.

42. See ibid., §§ 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31.

43. See ibid., §§ 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49.

40. See Heidegger, Beiträge , §§ 3, 4, 7, 8, 10.

41. See ibid., §§ 35 and 39.

42. See ibid., §§ 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31.

43. See ibid., §§ 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49.

40. See Heidegger, Beiträge , §§ 3, 4, 7, 8, 10.

41. See ibid., §§ 35 and 39.

42. See ibid., §§ 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31.

43. See ibid., §§ 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49.

40. See Heidegger, Beiträge , §§ 3, 4, 7, 8, 10.

41. See ibid., §§ 35 and 39.

42. See ibid., §§ 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31.

43. See ibid., §§ 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49.

44. Michael Zimmerman emphasizes its fugue-like character in his review of it in the Times Literary Supplement , 16-22 March 1990, p. 295.

45. See Beiträge , p. 132. The concept of enframing is prominent in the later discussion on technology. See in particular "The Question concerning Technology," in Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology and Other Essays (see chap. 3, n. 56).

46. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 407. It is difficult to translate this passage since Heidegger here avails himself of two terms, namely " Zirkel " and " Kreis, " where English has only the single word "circle."

47. See Heidegger, Beiträge , pp. 408-409.

48. This section is 103 pages long, in a book 510 pages in length.

49. See Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 5.

50. See ibid., p. 6.

51. See ibid., p. 7.

52. Ibid., p. 8.

53. Ibid., p. 10.

54. See ibid., p. 11.

55. Ibid., p. 31.

56. See ibid., p. 32.

49. See Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 5.

50. See ibid., p. 6.

51. See ibid., p. 7.

52. Ibid., p. 8.

53. Ibid., p. 10.

54. See ibid., p. 11.

55. Ibid., p. 31.

56. See ibid., p. 32.

49. See Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 5.

50. See ibid., p. 6.

51. See ibid., p. 7.

52. Ibid., p. 8.

53. Ibid., p. 10.

54. See ibid., p. 11.

55. Ibid., p. 31.

56. See ibid., p. 32.

49. See Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 5.

50. See ibid., p. 6.

51. See ibid., p. 7.

52. Ibid., p. 8.

53. Ibid., p. 10.

54. See ibid., p. 11.

55. Ibid., p. 31.

56. See ibid., p. 32.

49. See Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 5.

50. See ibid., p. 6.

51. See ibid., p. 7.

52. Ibid., p. 8.

53. Ibid., p. 10.

54. See ibid., p. 11.

55. Ibid., p. 31.

56. See ibid., p. 32.

49. See Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 5.

50. See ibid., p. 6.

51. See ibid., p. 7.

52. Ibid., p. 8.

53. Ibid., p. 10.

54. See ibid., p. 11.

55. Ibid., p. 31.

56. See ibid., p. 32.

49. See Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 5.

50. See ibid., p. 6.

51. See ibid., p. 7.

52. Ibid., p. 8.

53. Ibid., p. 10.

54. See ibid., p. 11.

55. Ibid., p. 31.

56. See ibid., p. 32.

49. See Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 5.

50. See ibid., p. 6.

51. See ibid., p. 7.

52. Ibid., p. 8.

53. Ibid., p. 10.

54. See ibid., p. 11.

55. Ibid., p. 31.

56. See ibid., p. 32.

57. Heidegger, Being and Time , § 45, p. 274.

58. See Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 35. One of Heidegger's problems in the transition to a new beginning is to find a way to reconceptualize his basic distinctions from Being and Time . Slightly earlier, in the initial Hölderlin lecture series, he describes care as the metaphysical basic essence of Dasein. See Heidegger, Hölderlins Hymnen "Germanien" und "Der Rhein, " p. 281.

59. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 52.

60. See Frederick Engels, Ludwig Feuerbach and the Outcome of Classical German Philosophy , ed. C. P. Dutt (New York: International Publishers, 1941).

61. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 59.

62. Ibid., p. 65.

63. Ibid., p. 76.

64. See ibid., p. 75.

65. Ibid., p. 85.

66. Ibid., p. 93.

67. Ibid., p. 94.

68. Ibid., p. 95.

61. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 59.

62. Ibid., p. 65.

63. Ibid., p. 76.

64. See ibid., p. 75.

65. Ibid., p. 85.

66. Ibid., p. 93.

67. Ibid., p. 94.

68. Ibid., p. 95.

61. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 59.

62. Ibid., p. 65.

63. Ibid., p. 76.

64. See ibid., p. 75.

65. Ibid., p. 85.

66. Ibid., p. 93.

67. Ibid., p. 94.

68. Ibid., p. 95.

61. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 59.

62. Ibid., p. 65.

63. Ibid., p. 76.

64. See ibid., p. 75.

65. Ibid., p. 85.

66. Ibid., p. 93.

67. Ibid., p. 94.

68. Ibid., p. 95.

61. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 59.

62. Ibid., p. 65.

63. Ibid., p. 76.

64. See ibid., p. 75.

65. Ibid., p. 85.

66. Ibid., p. 93.

67. Ibid., p. 94.

68. Ibid., p. 95.

61. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 59.

62. Ibid., p. 65.

63. Ibid., p. 76.

64. See ibid., p. 75.

65. Ibid., p. 85.

66. Ibid., p. 93.

67. Ibid., p. 94.

68. Ibid., p. 95.

61. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 59.

62. Ibid., p. 65.

63. Ibid., p. 76.

64. See ibid., p. 75.

65. Ibid., p. 85.

66. Ibid., p. 93.

67. Ibid., p. 94.

68. Ibid., p. 95.

61. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 59.

62. Ibid., p. 65.

63. Ibid., p. 76.

64. See ibid., p. 75.

65. Ibid., p. 85.

66. Ibid., p. 93.

67. Ibid., p. 94.

68. Ibid., p. 95.

69. Vietta's overly selective effort to discuss this theme merely in terms of the second part of the Beiträge means that in effect he takes the part for the whole. The inevitable result is a distortion of Heidegger's understanding of National Socialism in this work. See Vietta, Heideggers Kritik am Nationalsozialismus und an der Technik , chap. 5, pp. 69-94, esp. p. 72.

70. See "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts" (chap. 2, n. 115). p. 490.

71. See Heidegger, Beiträge , § 273, "Geschichte," p. 493: "Blur und Rasse werden zu Trägern der Geschichte." For Heidegger's distinction between history and historicality, see Heidegger, Being and Time , part 2, chap. 5, "Temporality and Historicality."

72. According to Vietta, who has had access to the manuscript material conserved in the Heidegger Archives at Marbach, when the material becomes accessible it will be seen that Heidegger was deeply ashamed of what he had done. See Vietta, Heideggers Kritik am Nationalsozialismus und an der Technik , p. 101. This point is confirmed indirectly by a letter from Heidegger to Jaspers in which the following passage occurs: "Ich bin seit 1935 nicht deshalb nicht mehr in Ihr Haus gekommen, weil dort eine jüdische Frau wohnte, sondern weil ich mich einfach schämte. " See Letter 141, Heidegger to Jaspers, Freiburg i.B., 7 March 1950, in Briefwechsel 1920-1963 (see chap. 2, n. 27), p. 196; Heidegger's emphases.

73. In the appendix to this lecture, in the published version, after a reference to Descartes's supposedly anthropological approach, Heidegger writes: "Through this, the intellectual situation finds some clarification, while the laborious fabrications of such absurd off-shoots as the national-socialist philosophies produce nothing but confusion." Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology and Other Essays , p. 140. Vietta refers to a passage present in the handwrit-

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ten manuscript in which Heidegger objects to the approach taken in the Rekoratsrede . See Vietta, Heideggers Kritik am Nationalsozialismus und an der Technik , p. 32. But it is important to see that Heidegger does not criticize his earlier adherence to Nazism; rather, from the vantage point of the other beginning he is now critical of his earlier philosophical commitment to a "philosophically" unacceptable form of theory.

74. See Martin Heidegger, "Anmerkungen zu Karl Jaspers 'Psychologie der Weltanschauungen' (1919/21)," in Gesamtausgabe , vol. 9, Wegmarken , ed. F. W. yon Herrmann (Frankfurt a.M.: Vittorio Klostermann, 1976), pp. 1-44. For Jaspers's response to Heidegger's criticism, see "Vorwort zur dritten Auflage (1925)," cited ibid., pp. 481-482.

73. In the appendix to this lecture, in the published version, after a reference to Descartes's supposedly anthropological approach, Heidegger writes: "Through this, the intellectual situation finds some clarification, while the laborious fabrications of such absurd off-shoots as the national-socialist philosophies produce nothing but confusion." Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology and Other Essays , p. 140. Vietta refers to a passage present in the handwrit-

ten manuscript in which Heidegger objects to the approach taken in the Rekoratsrede . See Vietta, Heideggers Kritik am Nationalsozialismus und an der Technik , p. 32. But it is important to see that Heidegger does not criticize his earlier adherence to Nazism; rather, from the vantage point of the other beginning he is now critical of his earlier philosophical commitment to a "philosophically" unacceptable form of theory.

74. See Martin Heidegger, "Anmerkungen zu Karl Jaspers 'Psychologie der Weltanschauungen' (1919/21)," in Gesamtausgabe , vol. 9, Wegmarken , ed. F. W. yon Herrmann (Frankfurt a.M.: Vittorio Klostermann, 1976), pp. 1-44. For Jaspers's response to Heidegger's criticism, see "Vorwort zur dritten Auflage (1925)," cited ibid., pp. 481-482.

75. See Heidegger, The Basic Problems of Phenomenology , trans. Hofstadter (see chap. 4, n. 56), § 2, p. 7.

76. Heidegger is, of course, not the only philosophical critic of the Nazi worldview. For another criticism, from the perspective of orthodox Marxism, see Lukács, The Destruction of Reason (see chap. 4, n. 134), esp. chap. 7, part 5: "The 'National-Socialist Philosophy' ["national-sozialistische Weltanschauung"] as the demagogic synthesis of German imperialist philosophy," pp. 714-764. There is a striking difference in the ways that the Marxist Lukács and the Nazi Heidegger analyze the same phenomenon. The former sees the philosophy of the worldview as the result of the rise of irrationalism due ultimately to the capitalist form of political economy, whereas the latter attributes it to the age of metaphysics and hence ultimately to Being.

77. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 25.

78. Ibid.

79. Ibid., p. 26.

77. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 25.

78. Ibid.

79. Ibid., p. 26.

77. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 25.

78. Ibid.

79. Ibid., p. 26.

80. See Heidegger, Hölderlins Hymnen "Germanien" und "Der Rhein, " p. 1.

81. See Heidegger, Beiträge , § 45, "Die Entscheidung," pp. 96-99.

82. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 96.

83. There is a clear analogy between Heidegger's view of the historical conditions under which individuals become a people and the later Sartre's view of the revolutionary situation, or groupe-en-fusion . See Sartre, Critique de la raison dialectique (see chap. 2, n. 160).

84. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 97.

85. See ibid., § 56: "The lasting nature [das Währen] of the abandonment of Being [Seinsverlassenheit] in the hidden way of the forgetfulness of Being [Seinsvergessenheit]," pp. 116-119.

86. Ibid., pp. 116-117. The observation that Seiende is subordinate to Seyn shows that in the remark on the prevailing understanding of Being ( das herrschende Seinsverständnis ) Heidegger does not have in mind something as concrete as National Socialism. Rather, he is referring to the continued rule of the first beginning, itself a consequence of the age of metaphysics, whereas his aim is to progress beyond this initial stage to the other beginning beyond metaphysics.

87. See Ibid., pp. 117-119.

88. Ibid., p. 117.

84. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 97.

85. See ibid., § 56: "The lasting nature [das Währen] of the abandonment of Being [Seinsverlassenheit] in the hidden way of the forgetfulness of Being [Seinsvergessenheit]," pp. 116-119.

86. Ibid., pp. 116-117. The observation that Seiende is subordinate to Seyn shows that in the remark on the prevailing understanding of Being ( das herrschende Seinsverständnis ) Heidegger does not have in mind something as concrete as National Socialism. Rather, he is referring to the continued rule of the first beginning, itself a consequence of the age of metaphysics, whereas his aim is to progress beyond this initial stage to the other beginning beyond metaphysics.

87. See Ibid., pp. 117-119.

88. Ibid., p. 117.

84. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 97.

85. See ibid., § 56: "The lasting nature [das Währen] of the abandonment of Being [Seinsverlassenheit] in the hidden way of the forgetfulness of Being [Seinsvergessenheit]," pp. 116-119.

86. Ibid., pp. 116-117. The observation that Seiende is subordinate to Seyn shows that in the remark on the prevailing understanding of Being ( das herrschende Seinsverständnis ) Heidegger does not have in mind something as concrete as National Socialism. Rather, he is referring to the continued rule of the first beginning, itself a consequence of the age of metaphysics, whereas his aim is to progress beyond this initial stage to the other beginning beyond metaphysics.

87. See Ibid., pp. 117-119.

88. Ibid., p. 117.

84. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 97.

85. See ibid., § 56: "The lasting nature [das Währen] of the abandonment of Being [Seinsverlassenheit] in the hidden way of the forgetfulness of Being [Seinsvergessenheit]," pp. 116-119.

86. Ibid., pp. 116-117. The observation that Seiende is subordinate to Seyn shows that in the remark on the prevailing understanding of Being ( das herrschende Seinsverständnis ) Heidegger does not have in mind something as concrete as National Socialism. Rather, he is referring to the continued rule of the first beginning, itself a consequence of the age of metaphysics, whereas his aim is to progress beyond this initial stage to the other beginning beyond metaphysics.

87. See Ibid., pp. 117-119.

88. Ibid., p. 117.

84. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 97.

85. See ibid., § 56: "The lasting nature [das Währen] of the abandonment of Being [Seinsverlassenheit] in the hidden way of the forgetfulness of Being [Seinsvergessenheit]," pp. 116-119.

86. Ibid., pp. 116-117. The observation that Seiende is subordinate to Seyn shows that in the remark on the prevailing understanding of Being ( das herrschende Seinsverständnis ) Heidegger does not have in mind something as concrete as National Socialism. Rather, he is referring to the continued rule of the first beginning, itself a consequence of the age of metaphysics, whereas his aim is to progress beyond this initial stage to the other beginning beyond metaphysics.

87. See Ibid., pp. 117-119.

88. Ibid., p. 117.

89. It is possible that Heidegger's objection to a supposed insensitivity to the ambiguous character of experience is a distant echo of his initial phenomenological fascination with Franz Brentano's dissertation on the manifold forms of being in Aristotle, "Von der mannigfachen Bedeutung des Seienden nach Aristoteles." For Heidegger's later description of the importance of his reading of Brentano's dissertation for Being and Time , see Martin Heidegger, in Sitzungsberichte der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften , 1957/58:20f., quoted in Ott, Martin Heidegger (see Introd., n. 4), p. 54.

90. According to Pechman, Rosenberg was highly dismayed to learn at the Nuremberg trials that the "Nazi-Bonzen" had not in fact read his work. See Laugstien, Philosophieverhältnisse (see chap. 2, n. 25), p. 51.

91. See Heidegger, Beiträge , § 69, "Das Erlebnis und die Anthropologie," pp. 134-135.

92. Ibid., p. 134.

91. See Heidegger, Beiträge , § 69, "Das Erlebnis und die Anthropologie," pp. 134-135.

92. Ibid., p. 134.

93. It is also possible that Heidegger's objection is directed against contemporary thinkers who attempted to combine the National Socialist worldview with an anthropological perspective, such as Rothacker and especially Gehlen. See Haug, Deutsche Philosophen 1933 (see chap. 2, n. 25), pp. 137 and 188-218.

94. See Heidegger, Beiträge , § 72, "Der Nihilismus," pp. 138-141.

95. Ibid., p. 139.

96. See ibid., pp. 141-143.

97. Ibid., p. 142.

98. See ibid., p. 208.

99. See ibid., § 110, pp. 208-222.

100. See ibid., pp. 218-219. The significance of the rejection of biologism here is unclear. It might refer to the Nazi insistence on race, or it might refer to Nietzsche's biological interpretation of knowledge.

94. See Heidegger, Beiträge , § 72, "Der Nihilismus," pp. 138-141.

95. Ibid., p. 139.

96. See ibid., pp. 141-143.

97. Ibid., p. 142.

98. See ibid., p. 208.

99. See ibid., § 110, pp. 208-222.

100. See ibid., pp. 218-219. The significance of the rejection of biologism here is unclear. It might refer to the Nazi insistence on race, or it might refer to Nietzsche's biological interpretation of knowledge.

94. See Heidegger, Beiträge , § 72, "Der Nihilismus," pp. 138-141.

95. Ibid., p. 139.

96. See ibid., pp. 141-143.

97. Ibid., p. 142.

98. See ibid., p. 208.

99. See ibid., § 110, pp. 208-222.

100. See ibid., pp. 218-219. The significance of the rejection of biologism here is unclear. It might refer to the Nazi insistence on race, or it might refer to Nietzsche's biological interpretation of knowledge.

94. See Heidegger, Beiträge , § 72, "Der Nihilismus," pp. 138-141.

95. Ibid., p. 139.

96. See ibid., pp. 141-143.

97. Ibid., p. 142.

98. See ibid., p. 208.

99. See ibid., § 110, pp. 208-222.

100. See ibid., pp. 218-219. The significance of the rejection of biologism here is unclear. It might refer to the Nazi insistence on race, or it might refer to Nietzsche's biological interpretation of knowledge.

94. See Heidegger, Beiträge , § 72, "Der Nihilismus," pp. 138-141.

95. Ibid., p. 139.

96. See ibid., pp. 141-143.

97. Ibid., p. 142.

98. See ibid., p. 208.

99. See ibid., § 110, pp. 208-222.

100. See ibid., pp. 218-219. The significance of the rejection of biologism here is unclear. It might refer to the Nazi insistence on race, or it might refer to Nietzsche's biological interpretation of knowledge.

94. See Heidegger, Beiträge , § 72, "Der Nihilismus," pp. 138-141.

95. Ibid., p. 139.

96. See ibid., pp. 141-143.

97. Ibid., p. 142.

98. See ibid., p. 208.

99. See ibid., § 110, pp. 208-222.

100. See ibid., pp. 218-219. The significance of the rejection of biologism here is unclear. It might refer to the Nazi insistence on race, or it might refer to Nietzsche's biological interpretation of knowledge.

94. See Heidegger, Beiträge , § 72, "Der Nihilismus," pp. 138-141.

95. Ibid., p. 139.

96. See ibid., pp. 141-143.

97. Ibid., p. 142.

98. See ibid., p. 208.

99. See ibid., § 110, pp. 208-222.

100. See ibid., pp. 218-219. The significance of the rejection of biologism here is unclear. It might refer to the Nazi insistence on race, or it might refer to Nietzsche's biological interpretation of knowledge.

101. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 219. There is an obvious similarity between this passage and Heidegger's claim in the article on the rectorate that through Nietzsche's metaphysics, as interpreted by Jünger, one is able to see and foresee the history and present day of the Western world. See "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," p. 484.

102. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 219.

103. See ibid., part 5, a) "Da-sein und Seinsentwurf," §§ 168-186, and b) "Das Da-sein," §§ 187-203, pp. 293-326.

104. See ibid., § 194, "Der Mensch und das Da-sein," pp. 317-318.

105. See ibid., § 195, "Da-sein und Mensch," p. 318.

106. Ibid., § 196, "Da-sein und Volk," p. 319.

102. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 219.

103. See ibid., part 5, a) "Da-sein und Seinsentwurf," §§ 168-186, and b) "Das Da-sein," §§ 187-203, pp. 293-326.

104. See ibid., § 194, "Der Mensch und das Da-sein," pp. 317-318.

105. See ibid., § 195, "Da-sein und Mensch," p. 318.

106. Ibid., § 196, "Da-sein und Volk," p. 319.

102. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 219.

103. See ibid., part 5, a) "Da-sein und Seinsentwurf," §§ 168-186, and b) "Das Da-sein," §§ 187-203, pp. 293-326.

104. See ibid., § 194, "Der Mensch und das Da-sein," pp. 317-318.

105. See ibid., § 195, "Da-sein und Mensch," p. 318.

106. Ibid., § 196, "Da-sein und Volk," p. 319.

102. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 219.

103. See ibid., part 5, a) "Da-sein und Seinsentwurf," §§ 168-186, and b) "Das Da-sein," §§ 187-203, pp. 293-326.

104. See ibid., § 194, "Der Mensch und das Da-sein," pp. 317-318.

105. See ibid., § 195, "Da-sein und Mensch," p. 318.

106. Ibid., § 196, "Da-sein und Volk," p. 319.

102. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 219.

103. See ibid., part 5, a) "Da-sein und Seinsentwurf," §§ 168-186, and b) "Das Da-sein," §§ 187-203, pp. 293-326.

104. See ibid., § 194, "Der Mensch und das Da-sein," pp. 317-318.

105. See ibid., § 195, "Da-sein und Mensch," p. 318.

106. Ibid., § 196, "Da-sein und Volk," p. 319.

107. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 29: "Being-there as State-of-mind [Stimmung]." pp. 172-179, etc.

108. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 319. It does not seem possible to reproduce gracefully in English Heidegger's play in German on the distinctions between bilden and verbilden in this passage.

109. See ibid., part 7, "Der letzte Gott," §§ 253-256, pp. 405-416.

110. See ibid., part 6: "Die Zu-künftigen," §§ 248-252, pp. 396-401: § 251, "Das Wesen des Volkes und Da-sein," and § 252, "Das Da-sein und die Zukünftigen des letzten Gottes."

111. See ibid., § 256. p. 411. The reference to the "last god" in Heidegger's antifoundationalist approach is consistent with the earlier adumbration of nihilism in the Rektoratsrede and elsewhere on the basis of Nietzsche's assertion that God is dead.

112. See ibid., § 248, p. 395.

113. See ibid., § 250, p. 396.

114. See ibid., § 251, "Das Wesen des Volkes und Da-sein," pp. 398-399. This view appears earlier in ibid., § 196, p. 319.

108. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 319. It does not seem possible to reproduce gracefully in English Heidegger's play in German on the distinctions between bilden and verbilden in this passage.

109. See ibid., part 7, "Der letzte Gott," §§ 253-256, pp. 405-416.

110. See ibid., part 6: "Die Zu-künftigen," §§ 248-252, pp. 396-401: § 251, "Das Wesen des Volkes und Da-sein," and § 252, "Das Da-sein und die Zukünftigen des letzten Gottes."

111. See ibid., § 256. p. 411. The reference to the "last god" in Heidegger's antifoundationalist approach is consistent with the earlier adumbration of nihilism in the Rektoratsrede and elsewhere on the basis of Nietzsche's assertion that God is dead.

112. See ibid., § 248, p. 395.

113. See ibid., § 250, p. 396.

114. See ibid., § 251, "Das Wesen des Volkes und Da-sein," pp. 398-399. This view appears earlier in ibid., § 196, p. 319.

108. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 319. It does not seem possible to reproduce gracefully in English Heidegger's play in German on the distinctions between bilden and verbilden in this passage.

109. See ibid., part 7, "Der letzte Gott," §§ 253-256, pp. 405-416.

110. See ibid., part 6: "Die Zu-künftigen," §§ 248-252, pp. 396-401: § 251, "Das Wesen des Volkes und Da-sein," and § 252, "Das Da-sein und die Zukünftigen des letzten Gottes."

111. See ibid., § 256. p. 411. The reference to the "last god" in Heidegger's antifoundationalist approach is consistent with the earlier adumbration of nihilism in the Rektoratsrede and elsewhere on the basis of Nietzsche's assertion that God is dead.

112. See ibid., § 248, p. 395.

113. See ibid., § 250, p. 396.

114. See ibid., § 251, "Das Wesen des Volkes und Da-sein," pp. 398-399. This view appears earlier in ibid., § 196, p. 319.

108. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 319. It does not seem possible to reproduce gracefully in English Heidegger's play in German on the distinctions between bilden and verbilden in this passage.

109. See ibid., part 7, "Der letzte Gott," §§ 253-256, pp. 405-416.

110. See ibid., part 6: "Die Zu-künftigen," §§ 248-252, pp. 396-401: § 251, "Das Wesen des Volkes und Da-sein," and § 252, "Das Da-sein und die Zukünftigen des letzten Gottes."

111. See ibid., § 256. p. 411. The reference to the "last god" in Heidegger's antifoundationalist approach is consistent with the earlier adumbration of nihilism in the Rektoratsrede and elsewhere on the basis of Nietzsche's assertion that God is dead.

112. See ibid., § 248, p. 395.

113. See ibid., § 250, p. 396.

114. See ibid., § 251, "Das Wesen des Volkes und Da-sein," pp. 398-399. This view appears earlier in ibid., § 196, p. 319.

108. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 319. It does not seem possible to reproduce gracefully in English Heidegger's play in German on the distinctions between bilden and verbilden in this passage.

109. See ibid., part 7, "Der letzte Gott," §§ 253-256, pp. 405-416.

110. See ibid., part 6: "Die Zu-künftigen," §§ 248-252, pp. 396-401: § 251, "Das Wesen des Volkes und Da-sein," and § 252, "Das Da-sein und die Zukünftigen des letzten Gottes."

111. See ibid., § 256. p. 411. The reference to the "last god" in Heidegger's antifoundationalist approach is consistent with the earlier adumbration of nihilism in the Rektoratsrede and elsewhere on the basis of Nietzsche's assertion that God is dead.

112. See ibid., § 248, p. 395.

113. See ibid., § 250, p. 396.

114. See ibid., § 251, "Das Wesen des Volkes und Da-sein," pp. 398-399. This view appears earlier in ibid., § 196, p. 319.

108. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 319. It does not seem possible to reproduce gracefully in English Heidegger's play in German on the distinctions between bilden and verbilden in this passage.

109. See ibid., part 7, "Der letzte Gott," §§ 253-256, pp. 405-416.

110. See ibid., part 6: "Die Zu-künftigen," §§ 248-252, pp. 396-401: § 251, "Das Wesen des Volkes und Da-sein," and § 252, "Das Da-sein und die Zukünftigen des letzten Gottes."

111. See ibid., § 256. p. 411. The reference to the "last god" in Heidegger's antifoundationalist approach is consistent with the earlier adumbration of nihilism in the Rektoratsrede and elsewhere on the basis of Nietzsche's assertion that God is dead.

112. See ibid., § 248, p. 395.

113. See ibid., § 250, p. 396.

114. See ibid., § 251, "Das Wesen des Volkes und Da-sein," pp. 398-399. This view appears earlier in ibid., § 196, p. 319.

108. Heidegger, Beiträge , p. 319. It does not seem possible to reproduce gracefully in English Heidegger's play in German on the distinctions between bilden and verbilden in this passage.

109. See ibid., part 7, "Der letzte Gott," §§ 253-256, pp. 405-416.

110. See ibid., part 6: "Die Zu-künftigen," §§ 248-252, pp. 396-401: § 251, "Das Wesen des Volkes und Da-sein," and § 252, "Das Da-sein und die Zukünftigen des letzten Gottes."

111. See ibid., § 256. p. 411. The reference to the "last god" in Heidegger's antifoundationalist approach is consistent with the earlier adumbration of nihilism in the Rektoratsrede and elsewhere on the basis of Nietzsche's assertion that God is dead.

112. See ibid., § 248, p. 395.

113. See ibid., § 250, p. 396.

114. See ibid., § 251, "Das Wesen des Volkes und Da-sein," pp. 398-399. This view appears earlier in ibid., § 196, p. 319.

115. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 26, p. 159.

116. Heidegger, Beiträge , pp. 398-399.

117. Ibid., p. 399.

116. Heidegger, Beiträge , pp. 398-399.

117. Ibid., p. 399.

118. See Kant, Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason , trans. Smith (see chap. 1, n. 12), B 867, p. 658.

119. See Heidegger, Beiträge , § 252, pp. 399-401.

120. Ibid., p. 399.

119. See Heidegger, Beiträge , § 252, pp. 399-401.

120. Ibid., p. 399.

121. Marx's view of the difference between human prehistory and human history, which will begin when the transition from capitalism to communism has been undertaken, is developed in a number of places, for instance in the third of the "Paris Manuscripts of 1844." See Marx, Early Writings (see chap. 2, n. 130), pp. 135-144. For Heidegger's clear statement of a similar view, see Heidegger, Beiträge , § 273, p. 492: "Bisher war der Mensch noch niemals geschichtlich."

122. See Heidegger, Beiträge , part 8, "Das Seyn," § 275, "Das Seiende," pp. 495-497.

123. See ibid., § 274, "Das Seiende und die Berechnung," pp. 494-495.

124. Ibid., p. 496. " Verklärung " normally means "Erhöhung ins Über-erdische" as Christ is said to have been raised up.

122. See Heidegger, Beiträge , part 8, "Das Seyn," § 275, "Das Seiende," pp. 495-497.

123. See ibid., § 274, "Das Seiende und die Berechnung," pp. 494-495.

124. Ibid., p. 496. " Verklärung " normally means "Erhöhung ins Über-erdische" as Christ is said to have been raised up.

122. See Heidegger, Beiträge , part 8, "Das Seyn," § 275, "Das Seiende," pp. 495-497.

123. See ibid., § 274, "Das Seiende und die Berechnung," pp. 494-495.

124. Ibid., p. 496. " Verklärung " normally means "Erhöhung ins Über-erdische" as Christ is said to have been raised up.

125. Vietta, who has to date provided the most extensive philosophical defense of Heidegger's supposed turn away from Nazism, writes in a summary passage of his view: "Als Gesamtergebnis kann festgehalten werden: der von Habermas und anderen vorgebrachte Vorwurf einer gleichbleibenden Nähe Heideggers zum Faschismus ist nicht haltbar. Der Vorwurf ist durch die Texte widerlegt." Vietta, Heideggers Kritik am Nationalsozialismus und an der Technik , p. 46. Since Vietta states his case in terms of an unchanged relation to Nazism, he would be correct if in this and later texts Heidegger's link to National Socialism were in fact strengthened.

126. For a different analysis, which attributes a deep personal shame to Heidegger because of his silence but fails otherwise to explain the existence of that silence, see Vietta, Heideggers Kritik am Nationalsozialismus und an der Technik , pp. 101-103. For still another reading, which connects silence to "the antique tradition of secret and mystery," for instance in Plato's Seventh Letter, see Gerald L. Bruns, Heidegger's Language, Truth, and Poetry: Estrangements in the Later Writings (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1989), pp. 52-53.

127. On the problem of silence as in itself problematic, see Nadezhda Mandeistam, Hope against Hope: A Memoir (New York, 1976). p. 43, cited in Fritz Stern, Dreams and Delusions: National Socialism in the Drama of the German Past (New York: Vintage, 1989), p. 146: "Silence is the real crime against humanity." An analogous point is developed by Levinas. See Emmanuel Levinas, "As If Consenting to Horror," Critical Inquiry 15, no. 2 (Winter 1989): 485-489.

128. See Heidegger, Being and Time , § 34: "Being-there and Discourse. Language," p. 204.

129. Heidegger, Being and Time , § 34, p. 208. "He who never says anything cannot keep silent at any given moment. Keeping silent authentically is possible only in genuine discourse."

130. Ibid., § 60, "The Existential Structure of the Authentic Potentiality-for-Being Which Is Attested in the Conscience," p. 342. "In the appeal Dasein gives itself to understand its ownmost potentiality-for-Being. This calling is a therefore a keeping-silent."

129. Heidegger, Being and Time , § 34, p. 208. "He who never says anything cannot keep silent at any given moment. Keeping silent authentically is possible only in genuine discourse."

130. Ibid., § 60, "The Existential Structure of the Authentic Potentiality-for-Being Which Is Attested in the Conscience," p. 342. "In the appeal Dasein gives itself to understand its ownmost potentiality-for-Being. This calling is a therefore a keeping-silent."

131. See Heidegger, Hölderlins Hymnen "Germanien" und "Der Rhein," p . 70.

132. See ibid., p. 218.

131. See Heidegger, Hölderlins Hymnen "Germanien" und "Der Rhein," p . 70.

132. See ibid., p. 218.

133. See Heidegger, The Eternal Recurrence of the Same (see chap. 4, n. 38), p. 208: "Supremely thoughtful utterance does not consist simply in growing taciturn when it is a matter of saying what is properly to be said; it consists in saying the matter in such a way that it is named in nonsaying. The utterance of thinking is a telling silence."

134. A similar view was apparently held by others as well at the time. For instance, the Russian philosopher Keyserling, of Baltic extraction, who, like Heidegger, rejected Nazi biologism, and took a more cosmopolitan point of view, shared Heidegger's fascination with Hitler. In an article published in 1933, in which he stressed the importance of Gleichschaltung , which Heidegger carried out in the university, Keyserling emphasized the importance of silence: "Auch das Schweigen ist ein positives; in Zeiten allgemeiner Lautheit verkörpert es sogar sehr grosse Macht. Und wem das Schweigen schwer fällt,—nun, der wächst desto mehr innerlich, je schwerer er es hat. In jedem Fall aber zwingt das Dasein echter anderer Überzeugung diejenigen, die als Nationalsozialisten überzeugt sind, allen lebendigen Kräften Deutschlands Rechnung zu tragen. Denn Deutschlands endgültiger neuer Zustand wird ... dem Gleichgewicht aller Kräfte entsprechen und nicht irgendeine vorausgesetzte Theorie verwirk-lichen." Graf Hermann Keyserling, "Gleichschaltung und Zusammenhang," Der Weg zur Vollendung: Mitteilungen der Schule der Weisheir 22:7, cited in Laugstien, Philosophieverhältnisse , p. 154.

135. See Heidegger, Beiträge , part 1, "Vorblick," § 37, "Das Seyn und seine Erschweigung (die Sigetik)," pp. 78-79, and § 38, "Die Erschweigung," pp. 79-80.

136. See Liddell and Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon (see chap. 2, n. 142), p. 1596.

137. See Heidegger, Beiträge , part 8, "Das Seyn," § 281, "Die Sprache (ihr Ursprung)," p. 510.

138. Ibid.

137. See Heidegger, Beiträge , part 8, "Das Seyn," § 281, "Die Sprache (ihr Ursprung)," p. 510.

138. Ibid.

139. See Ludwig Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus , trans. D. F. Pears and B. F. McGuinness, introd. Bertrand Russell (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul; New York: Humanities Press, 1961), proposition 7, p. 151.

1. For an account, see Pöggeler, Der Denkweg Martin Heideggers (see chap. 2, n. 69), chap. 9, "Die Befreiung zum Eigenen," pp. 236-267. For a more recent series of papers, see Walter Biemel and Friedrich-Wilhelm von Herr-mann, Kunst und Technik.' Gediichtnisschrift zum 100. Geburtstag yon Martin Heidegger (Frankfurt a.M.' Vittorio Klostermann, 1989). For studies of technology influenced by Heidegger's view, see Albert Borgmann, Technology and the Character of Contemporary Life.' A Philosophical Inquiry (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1984), and Wolfgang Schirmacher, Technik und Gelassenheit, Zeitkritik nach Heidegger (Freiburg and Munich, 1983). For an analysis of Heidegger's view of technology in the context of a discussion of twentieth-century views of progress, see G. M. Tavrizian, Tekhnika, kul'tura, chelovek: Kriticheskij analiz kontseptsij tekhnicheskovo progressa v burzhyanznoj filosofij xx veka (Moscow: Nauka, 1986), esp. "Ontologicheskoe obosnovanie syshchnosti tekhniki M. Xajdeggerom," pp. 115-131. For an account of the relation of Heidegger's view of technology to modernity, see Zimmerman, Heidegger's Confrontation with Modernity , (see chap. 1, n. 23). For a study of Heidegger's view of technology and nihilism, see Phillip R. Fandozzi, Nihilism and Technology.' A Heideggerian Investigation (Washington, D.C.' University Press of America, 1982). For a recent survey of literature on Heidegger's view of technology, see Albert Borgmann and Carl Mitcham, "The Question of Heidegger and Technology: A Review of the Literature," Philosophy Today 31, no. 2 (Summer 1987).

2. See Otto Pöggeler, "Heideggers politisches Selbstverständnis," in Heidegger und die praktische Philosophie (see chap. 2, n. 104), and Silvio Vietta, Heideggers Kritik am Nationalsozialismus und an der Technik (see chap. 1, n. 31). The claim for an intrinsic link between Heidegger's critique of Nazism and technology is the main thesis of Vietta's book.

3. See "Only a God Can Save Us" (see chap. 1, n. 30), p. 276.

4. See ibid.

5. See ibid. For an analysis of the relation between Heidegger's views of technology and democracy, see my paper, "Heidegger on Technology and Democracy," forthcoming.

3. See "Only a God Can Save Us" (see chap. 1, n. 30), p. 276.

4. See ibid.

5. See ibid. For an analysis of the relation between Heidegger's views of technology and democracy, see my paper, "Heidegger on Technology and Democracy," forthcoming.

3. See "Only a God Can Save Us" (see chap. 1, n. 30), p. 276.

4. See ibid.

5. See ibid. For an analysis of the relation between Heidegger's views of technology and democracy, see my paper, "Heidegger on Technology and Democracy," forthcoming.

6. See "Only a God Can Save Us," p. 276.

7. See ibid., p. 277.

6. See "Only a God Can Save Us," p. 276.

7. See ibid., p. 277.

8. For a statement of this side of his thought, see "Building Dwelling Thinking," in Martin Heidegger, Poetry, Language, Thought , trans. Albert Hofstadter (New York: Harper and Row, 1975).

9. See "Only a God Can Save Us," p. 279.

10. See ibid., p. 278.

11. See ibid.

12. See ibid., p. 280.

13. See ibid., p. 281. Heidegger's view that Nazism can be understood as a failed attempt to confront technology is easily challenged on the basis of the texts. Consider the following passage by Joseph Goebbels, written in 1939: "While bourgeois reaction was alien to and filled with incomprehension, if not outright hostility to technology, and while modern skeptics believed the deepest roots of the collapse of European culture lay in it, National Socialism undertood how to take the soulless framework of technology and fill it with the rhythm and hot impulses of our time." Joseph Goebbels, Deutsche Technik , March 1939, pp. 105-106 (speech at the opening of the Berlin Auto Show, 17 February 1939), cited in Herr, Reactionary Modernism (see chap. 2, n. 12), p. 196.

9. See "Only a God Can Save Us," p. 279.

10. See ibid., p. 278.

11. See ibid.

12. See ibid., p. 280.

13. See ibid., p. 281. Heidegger's view that Nazism can be understood as a failed attempt to confront technology is easily challenged on the basis of the texts. Consider the following passage by Joseph Goebbels, written in 1939: "While bourgeois reaction was alien to and filled with incomprehension, if not outright hostility to technology, and while modern skeptics believed the deepest roots of the collapse of European culture lay in it, National Socialism undertood how to take the soulless framework of technology and fill it with the rhythm and hot impulses of our time." Joseph Goebbels, Deutsche Technik , March 1939, pp. 105-106 (speech at the opening of the Berlin Auto Show, 17 February 1939), cited in Herr, Reactionary Modernism (see chap. 2, n. 12), p. 196.

9. See "Only a God Can Save Us," p. 279.

10. See ibid., p. 278.

11. See ibid.

12. See ibid., p. 280.

13. See ibid., p. 281. Heidegger's view that Nazism can be understood as a failed attempt to confront technology is easily challenged on the basis of the texts. Consider the following passage by Joseph Goebbels, written in 1939: "While bourgeois reaction was alien to and filled with incomprehension, if not outright hostility to technology, and while modern skeptics believed the deepest roots of the collapse of European culture lay in it, National Socialism undertood how to take the soulless framework of technology and fill it with the rhythm and hot impulses of our time." Joseph Goebbels, Deutsche Technik , March 1939, pp. 105-106 (speech at the opening of the Berlin Auto Show, 17 February 1939), cited in Herr, Reactionary Modernism (see chap. 2, n. 12), p. 196.

9. See "Only a God Can Save Us," p. 279.

10. See ibid., p. 278.

11. See ibid.

12. See ibid., p. 280.

13. See ibid., p. 281. Heidegger's view that Nazism can be understood as a failed attempt to confront technology is easily challenged on the basis of the texts. Consider the following passage by Joseph Goebbels, written in 1939: "While bourgeois reaction was alien to and filled with incomprehension, if not outright hostility to technology, and while modern skeptics believed the deepest roots of the collapse of European culture lay in it, National Socialism undertood how to take the soulless framework of technology and fill it with the rhythm and hot impulses of our time." Joseph Goebbels, Deutsche Technik , March 1939, pp. 105-106 (speech at the opening of the Berlin Auto Show, 17 February 1939), cited in Herr, Reactionary Modernism (see chap. 2, n. 12), p. 196.

9. See "Only a God Can Save Us," p. 279.

10. See ibid., p. 278.

11. See ibid.

12. See ibid., p. 280.

13. See ibid., p. 281. Heidegger's view that Nazism can be understood as a failed attempt to confront technology is easily challenged on the basis of the texts. Consider the following passage by Joseph Goebbels, written in 1939: "While bourgeois reaction was alien to and filled with incomprehension, if not outright hostility to technology, and while modern skeptics believed the deepest roots of the collapse of European culture lay in it, National Socialism undertood how to take the soulless framework of technology and fill it with the rhythm and hot impulses of our time." Joseph Goebbels, Deutsche Technik , March 1939, pp. 105-106 (speech at the opening of the Berlin Auto Show, 17 February 1939), cited in Herr, Reactionary Modernism (see chap. 2, n. 12), p. 196.

14. Some commentators have seen Heidegger's Nazism as following out of his concern to respond, in Moehling's words, to "the spiritual crisis engendered by modern, post-industrial man's encounter with the meaning of his own tehnological devices." See Moehling, "Heidegger and the Nazis" (see chap. 4, n. 166), p. 40.

15. For an example, see Steven T. Katz, "Technology and Genocide: Techology as a 'Form of Life,' in Echoes from the Holocaust (see Introd., n. 7), pp. 262-291. Katz suggests that many writers fail to given sufficient weight to the role of techology in Nazism since they overemphasize the reactionary, romantic aspects of National Socialism. For a list of such writers, see ibid., p. 285 n. 6. For an extensive analysis of the way that Nazism combined technology and bureaucracy in the service of genocide, see Hilberg, The Destruction of the European Jews (see chap. 3, n. 116).

14. Some commentators have seen Heidegger's Nazism as following out of his concern to respond, in Moehling's words, to "the spiritual crisis engendered by modern, post-industrial man's encounter with the meaning of his own tehnological devices." See Moehling, "Heidegger and the Nazis" (see chap. 4, n. 166), p. 40.

15. For an example, see Steven T. Katz, "Technology and Genocide: Techology as a 'Form of Life,' in Echoes from the Holocaust (see Introd., n. 7), pp. 262-291. Katz suggests that many writers fail to given sufficient weight to the role of techology in Nazism since they overemphasize the reactionary, romantic aspects of National Socialism. For a list of such writers, see ibid., p. 285 n. 6. For an extensive analysis of the way that Nazism combined technology and bureaucracy in the service of genocide, see Hilberg, The Destruction of the European Jews (see chap. 3, n. 116).

16. If Katz is correct that technology functioned as a main cog in Nazi genocide, then Heidegger's reading of Nazism as directly opposed to technology is related to his inability to comprehend the event of the Holocaust. For Katz's claim, see Echoes from the Holocaust , p. 262.

17. "Only a God Can Save Us," p. 280.

18. Ibid., p. 281.

17. "Only a God Can Save Us," p. 280.

18. Ibid., p. 281.

19. Heidegger, Being and Time , p. 409.

20. Ibid., § 15, p. 100.

21. Ibid., p. 101.

19. Heidegger, Being and Time , p. 409.

20. Ibid., § 15, p. 100.

21. Ibid., p. 101.

19. Heidegger, Being and Time , p. 409.

20. Ibid., § 15, p. 100.

21. Ibid., p. 101.

22. Heidegger, An Introduction to Metaphysics , trans. Mannheim (see chap. 1, n. 32), p. 16.

23. Ibid., p. 158. Machenshaft is a persistent theme in the Beiträge zur Philosophie , where Heidegger insists on the relation between Weltanschauung and Machenschaft . See Beiträge zur Philosophie (Vom Ereignis ) (see chap. 1, n. 26), p. 38 and passim.

22. Heidegger, An Introduction to Metaphysics , trans. Mannheim (see chap. 1, n. 32), p. 16.

23. Ibid., p. 158. Machenshaft is a persistent theme in the Beiträge zur Philosophie , where Heidegger insists on the relation between Weltanschauung and Machenschaft . See Beiträge zur Philosophie (Vom Ereignis ) (see chap. 1, n. 26), p. 38 and passim.

24. Heidegger, Introduction to Metaphysics , p. 159; translation modified.

25. Heidegger further calls attention to the relation of understanding of art and technology in his essay on art. See "The Origin of the Work of Art," in Heidegger, Poetry, Language, Thought , pp. 15-87, esp. "Addendum," pp. 82-87.

26. See Heidegger, Beiträge , pp. 120, 274. Heidegger's view closely resem-

Page 356

bles Husserl's explanation of the rise of modern science through Galileo's mathematization of nature. See Husserl, The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology (see chap. 2, n. 30), part 2, §§ 8 and 9, pp. 21-60. Heidegger stresses the turn away from being whereas Husserl emphasizes the failure to appreciate the life-world as the precondition of modern science.

27. See Beiträge , p. 392.

28. See ibid., p. 336. Heidegger makes this point elsewhere as well, for instance in his analysis of the concept of representation.

27. See Beiträge , p. 392.

28. See ibid., p. 336. Heidegger makes this point elsewhere as well, for instance in his analysis of the concept of representation.

29. Heidegger, ''The Age of the World Picture'' (see chap. 3, n. 138), p. 116.

30. See Heidegger, Basic Writings , p. 219.

31. See ibid., p. 220.

30. See Heidegger, Basic Writings , p. 219.

31. See ibid., p. 220.

32. The official aim of Sartre's later, Marxist phase is to dialogue with Marxism understood as a theory of history. See Sartre, Critique de la raison dialectique (see chap. 2, n. 160).

33. For this argument, see George L. Kline, "The Myth of Marx's Materialism," in Philosophical Sovietology: The Pursuit of a Science , ed. Helmut Dahm, Thomas J. Blakeley, and George L. Kline (Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing Co., 1988), pp. 158-203.

34. Heidegger, Basic Writings , pp. 220-221.

35. Aubenque, for instance, situates the turning in Heidegger's thought in 1935-1936 in order to make it coincide with the Introduction to Metaphysics and the beginning of the Nietzsche lectures. See Aubenque, "Encore Heidegger et le nazisme" (see chap. 2, n. 59), p. 123.

36. For an account of the discussion of technology during this period, see Friedrich Dessauer, Streit um die Technik (Frankfurt a.M.:J. Knecht, 1956).

37. See Rudolph Haym, Hegel und seine Zeit: Vorlesungen über Entstehung und Entwickelung, Wesen und Werth der Hegel'schen Philosophie (Berlin, 1857; reprint, Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1962), p. 5.

38. Karl Jaspers, "Spannung yon technischer Massenordnung und menschlicher Daseinswelt," in Die geistige Situation der Zeit (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1965). pp. 32ff., cited in Barnouw, Weimar Intellectuals and the Threat of Modernity (see chap. 2, n. 20), p. 13.

39. See "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts" (see chap. 2, n. 115), p. 474.

40. See ibid., p. 473.

39. See "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts" (see chap. 2, n. 115), p. 474.

40. See ibid., p. 473.

41. Heidegger, Nietzsche , vol. 4, Nihilism , trans. Capuzzi (see chap. 4, n. 205), p. 196; translation modified.

42. The topic of the Jünger-Heidegger link has received extensive attention, particularly among politically conservative Heideggerians. Among the writings concerning the Heidegger-Jünger relation, see Christian Graf von Krockow, Die Entscheidung: Eine Unterscheidung über Ernst Jünger, Carl Schmitt, Martin Heidegger (Stuttgart: Felke, 1958); Jean-Michel Palmier, Les écrits politiques de Heidegger (Paris: L'Herne, 1968); Frederic de Towarnicki, "Le travailleur planétaire: Entretien avec Ernst Jünger," in Martin Heidegger , ed. Michel Haar, L'Herne , no. 45 (Paris: L'Herne, 1983), pp. 145-150. See also Krell's remarks in Heidegger, Nietzsche (see chap. 4, n. 143), vol. 3, The Will to Power as Knowl-

edge and Metaphysics , pp. 263-268, and Nietzsche , vol. 4, Nihilism , pp. 286-291. For an extensive recent reading of Jünger's relation to Heidegger, see Zimmerman, Heidegger's Confrontation with Modernity ' (see chap. 1, n. 23). Following Herr, Zimmerman sees the convergence between Heidegger and Jünger in the effort, characteristic of other reactionary conservatives, to understand technology in particular and modernity in general in categories that transcended the so-called causal-material realm. See Zimmerman, Heidegger's Confrontation with Modernity , p. 46. Zimmerham holds, however, that Heidegger finally rejects Jünger's vision of technological nihilism. See ibid., p. 67.

41. Heidegger, Nietzsche , vol. 4, Nihilism , trans. Capuzzi (see chap. 4, n. 205), p. 196; translation modified.

42. The topic of the Jünger-Heidegger link has received extensive attention, particularly among politically conservative Heideggerians. Among the writings concerning the Heidegger-Jünger relation, see Christian Graf von Krockow, Die Entscheidung: Eine Unterscheidung über Ernst Jünger, Carl Schmitt, Martin Heidegger (Stuttgart: Felke, 1958); Jean-Michel Palmier, Les écrits politiques de Heidegger (Paris: L'Herne, 1968); Frederic de Towarnicki, "Le travailleur planétaire: Entretien avec Ernst Jünger," in Martin Heidegger , ed. Michel Haar, L'Herne , no. 45 (Paris: L'Herne, 1983), pp. 145-150. See also Krell's remarks in Heidegger, Nietzsche (see chap. 4, n. 143), vol. 3, The Will to Power as Knowl-

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edge and Metaphysics , pp. 263-268, and Nietzsche , vol. 4, Nihilism , pp. 286-291. For an extensive recent reading of Jünger's relation to Heidegger, see Zimmerman, Heidegger's Confrontation with Modernity ' (see chap. 1, n. 23). Following Herr, Zimmerman sees the convergence between Heidegger and Jünger in the effort, characteristic of other reactionary conservatives, to understand technology in particular and modernity in general in categories that transcended the so-called causal-material realm. See Zimmerman, Heidegger's Confrontation with Modernity , p. 46. Zimmerham holds, however, that Heidegger finally rejects Jünger's vision of technological nihilism. See ibid., p. 67.

43. See "Rectoral Address—Facts and Thoughts," pp. 484-485.

44. See Martin Heidegger, "Zur Seinsfrage," in Heidegger, Wegmarken (see chap. 3, n. 33), pp. 217-219.

45. See ibid., p. 219.

44. See Martin Heidegger, "Zur Seinsfrage," in Heidegger, Wegmarken (see chap. 3, n. 33), pp. 217-219.

45. See ibid., p. 219.

46. See Ernst Jünger, Der Arbeiter. Herrschaft und Gestalt (Stuttgart: Ernst Klett, 1981). The attraction of the thought of this rather weak thinker for Heidegger is unclear. Thomä, relying on Schneeberger, cites a list of passages on Arbeit in Heidegger's writings on Arbeit and Arbeiter from 1933. See Thomä, Die Zeit des Selbst und die Zeit danach , pp. 595-596. He also cites a passsage from a radio talk by Hitler given on 10 May 1933, ending with the words: "In diesem Sinne ist das Deutsche Reich das Reich des deutschen Sozialismus, ein Staat der Arbeit und der Arbeiter." Cited in Thomä, Die Zeit des Selbst und die Zeit danach , p. 595. In view of the fact that Heidegger's interest in Jünger began as early as 1932, when he formed the first group to study Jünger's thought, it is difficult to accept Thomä's suggestion that Heidegger's concern with Jünger's Arbeiter represents a turn away from Nazism. See Thomä, Die Zeit des Selbst und die Zeit danach , p. 600.

47. See Jünger, Der Arbeiter, p. 9 .

48. See ibid., p. 7.

49. See ibid.

47. See Jünger, Der Arbeiter, p. 9 .

48. See ibid., p. 7.

49. See ibid.

47. See Jünger, Der Arbeiter, p. 9 .

48. See ibid., p. 7.

49. See ibid.

50. In several letters written many years later, he denied any anti-Marxist motivation, claiming to go further than Marx down the same road. See Jünger, Der Arbeiter , pp. 316, 317.

51. See ibid., p. 15.

52. See ibid., p. 16.

53. See ibid., p. 27.

54. See ibid., p. 31.

55. See ibid., p. 45.

56. See ibid., p. 68.

50. In several letters written many years later, he denied any anti-Marxist motivation, claiming to go further than Marx down the same road. See Jünger, Der Arbeiter , pp. 316, 317.

51. See ibid., p. 15.

52. See ibid., p. 16.

53. See ibid., p. 27.

54. See ibid., p. 31.

55. See ibid., p. 45.

56. See ibid., p. 68.

50. In several letters written many years later, he denied any anti-Marxist motivation, claiming to go further than Marx down the same road. See Jünger, Der Arbeiter , pp. 316, 317.

51. See ibid., p. 15.

52. See ibid., p. 16.

53. See ibid., p. 27.

54. See ibid., p. 31.

55. See ibid., p. 45.

56. See ibid., p. 68.

50. In several letters written many years later, he denied any anti-Marxist motivation, claiming to go further than Marx down the same road. See Jünger, Der Arbeiter , pp. 316, 317.

51. See ibid., p. 15.

52. See ibid., p. 16.

53. See ibid., p. 27.

54. See ibid., p. 31.

55. See ibid., p. 45.

56. See ibid., p. 68.

50. In several letters written many years later, he denied any anti-Marxist motivation, claiming to go further than Marx down the same road. See Jünger, Der Arbeiter , pp. 316, 317.

51. See ibid., p. 15.

52. See ibid., p. 16.

53. See ibid., p. 27.

54. See ibid., p. 31.

55. See ibid., p. 45.

56. See ibid., p. 68.

50. In several letters written many years later, he denied any anti-Marxist motivation, claiming to go further than Marx down the same road. See Jünger, Der Arbeiter , pp. 316, 317.

51. See ibid., p. 15.

52. See ibid., p. 16.

53. See ibid., p. 27.

54. See ibid., p. 31.

55. See ibid., p. 45.

56. See ibid., p. 68.

50. In several letters written many years later, he denied any anti-Marxist motivation, claiming to go further than Marx down the same road. See Jünger, Der Arbeiter , pp. 316, 317.

51. See ibid., p. 15.

52. See ibid., p. 16.

53. See ibid., p. 27.

54. See ibid., p. 31.

55. See ibid., p. 45.

56. See ibid., p. 68.

57. Heidegger, Wegmarken , p. 215.

58. See ibid., p. 224.

59. See ibid., p. 228.

60. See ibid., p. 242. For further discussion of Verwindung , see his essay "Überwindung der Metaphysik," in Heidegger, Vorträge und Aufsätze (see chap. 4, n. 80), pp. 67-95.

57. Heidegger, Wegmarken , p. 215.

58. See ibid., p. 224.

59. See ibid., p. 228.

60. See ibid., p. 242. For further discussion of Verwindung , see his essay "Überwindung der Metaphysik," in Heidegger, Vorträge und Aufsätze (see chap. 4, n. 80), pp. 67-95.

57. Heidegger, Wegmarken , p. 215.

58. See ibid., p. 224.

59. See ibid., p. 228.

60. See ibid., p. 242. For further discussion of Verwindung , see his essay "Überwindung der Metaphysik," in Heidegger, Vorträge und Aufsätze (see chap. 4, n. 80), pp. 67-95.

57. Heidegger, Wegmarken , p. 215.

58. See ibid., p. 224.

59. See ibid., p. 228.

60. See ibid., p. 242. For further discussion of Verwindung , see his essay "Überwindung der Metaphysik," in Heidegger, Vorträge und Aufsätze (see chap. 4, n. 80), pp. 67-95.

61. See Heidegger, Wegmarken , p. 244.

62. For a recent account of Spengler's influence on Heidegger's view of

technology, see Zimmerman, "Heidegger's Critical Appropriation of Spengler in the Fight against Modern Technology," in Heidegger's Confrontation with Modernity , pp. 26-33. Zimmerman points to Heidegger's lectures in order to maintain that Heidegger's account of the history of being is an attempt to provide the authentic philosophy of history allegedly missing in Spengler. See ibid., p. 27.

61. See Heidegger, Wegmarken , p. 244.

62. For a recent account of Spengler's influence on Heidegger's view of

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technology, see Zimmerman, "Heidegger's Critical Appropriation of Spengler in the Fight against Modern Technology," in Heidegger's Confrontation with Modernity , pp. 26-33. Zimmerman points to Heidegger's lectures in order to maintain that Heidegger's account of the history of being is an attempt to provide the authentic philosophy of history allegedly missing in Spengler. See ibid., p. 27.

63. For Heidegger's reference to his Spengler lectures, see his letter to Karl Jaspers, 21 April 1920, in Briefwechsel 1920-1963 (see chap. 2, n. 27), p. 15.

64. See Otto Pöggeler, "Heideggers politisches Selbstverständnis," in Heidegger und die praktische Philosophie (see chap. 2, n. 104), p. 26.

65. See Oswald Spengler, Der Mensch und die Technik: Beitrag zu einer Philosophie des Lebens (Münich: C. H. Beck'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1931). This book was rapidly made available in translation. See Oswald Spengler, Man and Technics: A Contribution to a Philosophy of Life , trans. Charles Francis Atkinson (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1932).

66. For such themes, see Spengler, Jahre der Entscheidung (see chap. 2, n. 135).

67. See Spengler, Man and Technics , preface.

68. For details, see Martin Heidegger, Die Technik und die Kehre (Neske: Pfullingen, 1962), Vorbernerkung , p. 3. According to Zimmerman, nearly all the basic aspects of Heidegger's view of technology are found in his lecture notes and writings between 1934 and 1944. See Zimmerman, Heidegger's Confrontation with Modernity , p. 35. But this lecture series in which Heidegger expounded the main features of his view occurs later, and the essay entitled "Die Frage nach der Technik," which is Heidegger's major text on technology, occurs still later.

69. Access to Heidegger's writings continues to pose a major interpretative problem. A recent request for a copy of the manuscript of Heidegger's unpublished lecture entitled "Die Gefahr" was denied in a letter from Prof. Friedrich-Wilhelm yon Herrmann, general editor of the edition of the collected works now under way, who said in part that no access could be permitted until the lecture is published in a future volume. See unpublished letter dated 28 March 1990. This denial is unfortunate since it is important to study the complete record. The refusal to grant access to this particular document is further curious, in fact inconsistent, since it has been already cited in the literature by others. See, e.g., Thomas Sheehan, "Heidegger and the Nazis," The New York Review of Books 35, no. 10 (16 June 1988): 42.

70. See "The Thing," in Heidegger, Poetry, Language, Thought , pp. 163-186.

71. "The Question concerning Technology" and "The Turning" in Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology , pp. 3-35 and 36-49.

72. An example, among many, is the term " Bestand, " an ordinary German word, modeled on the verb " bestehen, " which has the meanings of "existence, stock, inventory, cash on hand, inventory," etc., but which is rendered as ''standing-reserve." See Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology and Other Essays , p. 17. Although Heidegger uses the term, as he states, in his own way, it is not a neologism in German. But to introduce a neologism for it in

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English, when other words are apparently available, is to introduce a supplementary difficulty in the comprehension of the text.

73. See Heidegger, The Essence of Technology, p. 4 .

74. See ibid., p. 31.

73. See Heidegger, The Essence of Technology, p. 4 .

74. See ibid., p. 31.

75. For further discussion of this point, see his chapter entitled "Der Wandel der energeia zur actualitas," in Heidegger, Nietzsche (German ed.; see chap. 4, n. 85), 2:410-421.

76. See Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology, p. 5 .

77. For an example, see Spengler's analysis of technology as a vital tactic in Der Mensch und die Technik , chap. 1.

78. See Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology, p. 6 .

79. See ibid., p. 9.

80. Ibid., p. 12.

78. See Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology, p. 6 .

79. See ibid., p. 9.

80. Ibid., p. 12.

78. See Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology, p. 6 .

79. See ibid., p. 9.

80. Ibid., p. 12.

81. For Aristotle's influential attempt to sort out the differences between such terms as " episteme," "sophia," "poiesis," ''techne, " etc., see his Nicomachean Ethics , book 6.

82. See Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology , p. 13.

83. Ibid., p. 14.

84. Ibid., p. 15; translation modified.

82. See Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology , p. 13.

83. Ibid., p. 14.

84. Ibid., p. 15; translation modified.

82. See Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology , p. 13.

83. Ibid., p. 14.

84. Ibid., p. 15; translation modified.

85. Zimmerman regards Heidegger's thought as important for so-called deep, or nonanthropological, ecology. See Zimmerman, Heidegger's Confrontation with Technology , pp. 241-244.

86. See Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology , p. 17.

87. Ibid., p. 18.

88. Ibid., p. 19.

89. See ibid., p. 20.

90. Ibid.

91. Ibid., p. 23; translation modified.

92. Ibid., p. 24.

86. See Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology , p. 17.

87. Ibid., p. 18.

88. Ibid., p. 19.

89. See ibid., p. 20.

90. Ibid.

91. Ibid., p. 23; translation modified.

92. Ibid., p. 24.

86. See Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology , p. 17.

87. Ibid., p. 18.

88. Ibid., p. 19.

89. See ibid., p. 20.

90. Ibid.

91. Ibid., p. 23; translation modified.

92. Ibid., p. 24.

86. See Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology , p. 17.

87. Ibid., p. 18.

88. Ibid., p. 19.

89. See ibid., p. 20.

90. Ibid.

91. Ibid., p. 23; translation modified.

92. Ibid., p. 24.

86. See Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology , p. 17.

87. Ibid., p. 18.

88. Ibid., p. 19.

89. See ibid., p. 20.

90. Ibid.

91. Ibid., p. 23; translation modified.

92. Ibid., p. 24.

86. See Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology , p. 17.

87. Ibid., p. 18.

88. Ibid., p. 19.

89. See ibid., p. 20.

90. Ibid.

91. Ibid., p. 23; translation modified.

92. Ibid., p. 24.

86. See Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology , p. 17.

87. Ibid., p. 18.

88. Ibid., p. 19.

89. See ibid., p. 20.

90. Ibid.

91. Ibid., p. 23; translation modified.

92. Ibid., p. 24.

93. This claim is already formulated much earlier in his thought, for instance during the Hölderlin lectures: "Denn das Schickliche bestimmt das Geschick und dieses die Geschichte." Heidegger, Hölderlins Hymne "Der Ister " (see chap. 2, n. 146), p. 101.

94. Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology , p. 25.

95. Ibid., p. 26.

96. Ibid.

97. Ibid., p. 28; translation modified.

98. Ibid., translation modified.

99. Ibid., p. 31, Heidegger's emphases; translation modified.

100. Ibid., p. 32.

101. Ibid., p. 34; translation modified.

94. Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology , p. 25.

95. Ibid., p. 26.

96. Ibid.

97. Ibid., p. 28; translation modified.

98. Ibid., translation modified.

99. Ibid., p. 31, Heidegger's emphases; translation modified.

100. Ibid., p. 32.

101. Ibid., p. 34; translation modified.

94. Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology , p. 25.

95. Ibid., p. 26.

96. Ibid.

97. Ibid., p. 28; translation modified.

98. Ibid., translation modified.

99. Ibid., p. 31, Heidegger's emphases; translation modified.

100. Ibid., p. 32.

101. Ibid., p. 34; translation modified.

94. Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology , p. 25.

95. Ibid., p. 26.

96. Ibid.

97. Ibid., p. 28; translation modified.

98. Ibid., translation modified.

99. Ibid., p. 31, Heidegger's emphases; translation modified.

100. Ibid., p. 32.

101. Ibid., p. 34; translation modified.

94. Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology , p. 25.

95. Ibid., p. 26.

96. Ibid.

97. Ibid., p. 28; translation modified.

98. Ibid., translation modified.

99. Ibid., p. 31, Heidegger's emphases; translation modified.

100. Ibid., p. 32.

101. Ibid., p. 34; translation modified.

94. Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology , p. 25.

95. Ibid., p. 26.

96. Ibid.

97. Ibid., p. 28; translation modified.

98. Ibid., translation modified.

99. Ibid., p. 31, Heidegger's emphases; translation modified.

100. Ibid., p. 32.

101. Ibid., p. 34; translation modified.

94. Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology , p. 25.

95. Ibid., p. 26.

96. Ibid.

97. Ibid., p. 28; translation modified.

98. Ibid., translation modified.

99. Ibid., p. 31, Heidegger's emphases; translation modified.

100. Ibid., p. 32.

101. Ibid., p. 34; translation modified.

94. Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology , p. 25.

95. Ibid., p. 26.

96. Ibid.

97. Ibid., p. 28; translation modified.

98. Ibid., translation modified.

99. Ibid., p. 31, Heidegger's emphases; translation modified.

100. Ibid., p. 32.

101. Ibid., p. 34; translation modified.

102. See Immanuel Kant, Critique of Practical Reason , trans. Lewis White Beck (Indianapolis and New York: Library of Liberal Arts, 1956), book 2, chaps. 5 and 6, pp. 126-136.

103. See Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology, p. 35 .

104. For an expression of this view, see John D. Caputo, "Demythologizing

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Heidegger: Aletheia and the History of Being," Review of Metaphysics 41 (March 1988): 542.

105. Theodore Kisiel called this to my attention.

106. We have noted Heidegger's discussion of Marx in "The Letter on Humanism" (see chap. 1, n. 29), pp. 219-220.

107. See the article on "technology," in A Dictionary of Marxist Thought , ed. Tom Bottomore et al. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983), p. 478.

108. Marx's view of agency, which is influenced by Fichte's similar view, contains an unresolved tension. On this point, see my Fichte, Marx and the German Philosophical Tradition (Carbondale, Ill.: Southern Illinois University Press, 1980), pp. 91-94.

109. For a general statement of his awareness of this hermeneutical problem, see Heidegger, An Introduction to Metaphysics , p. 176.

110. For a well-known critique of Plato as an enemy of democracy, see Popper, The Open Society and Its Enemies (see chap. 2, n. 178), vol. 1, The Spell of Plato .

111. Kant argues that the concept of freedom grounds the autonomy of the will and must be presupposed. See Kant's discussion of freedom in Kant, Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals (see chap. 2, n. 153), pp. 63-65

112. See H. Kimmerle, "Motiven in het denken van Heidegger als verklarende elementen voor zijn politieke houding," in Heidegger en het nazisme: Een symposium , ed. H. A. F. Oosterling and A. W. Prins (Rotterddam: Faculteit der Wijsbegeerte van de Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam, n.d.), pp. 37-45. Kimmerle attributes Heidegger's difficulty to a mistakenly Hegelian reading of Hölderlin. See ibid., p. 45.

111. Kant argues that the concept of freedom grounds the autonomy of the will and must be presupposed. See Kant's discussion of freedom in Kant, Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals (see chap. 2, n. 153), pp. 63-65

112. See H. Kimmerle, "Motiven in het denken van Heidegger als verklarende elementen voor zijn politieke houding," in Heidegger en het nazisme: Een symposium , ed. H. A. F. Oosterling and A. W. Prins (Rotterddam: Faculteit der Wijsbegeerte van de Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam, n.d.), pp. 37-45. Kimmerle attributes Heidegger's difficulty to a mistakenly Hegelian reading of Hölderlin. See ibid., p. 45.

113. These views are expressed by Pöggeler. See Poggeler, "Heideggers politisches Selbstverständnis" (see n. 64), pp. 33 and 47.

114. Vietta argues strongly, but inconsistently, that Heidegger's critique of technology follows from his critique of National Socialism and that his critique of technology is also a critique of National Socialism. See Vietta, Heideggers Kritik am Nationalsozialismus und an der Technik .

115. For a summary, see Sheehan, "Heidegger and the Nazis," pp. 42-43.

116. Marten has described this incident. See Rainer Marten, "Ein rassistisches Konzept von Humanität," Badische Zeitung , 19-20 December 1987, p. 14. The relevant passage is cited in Farias, Heidegger and Nazism (see Introd., n. 4), pp. 227-228.

117. See "Mit Heidegger gegen Heideggers Denken: Zur Veröffentlichung von Vorlesungen aus dem Jahre 1935," Frankfürter Allgemeine Zeitung , 25 July 1953, reprinted as "Zur Veröffentlichung von Vorlesungen aus dem Jahre 1935 (1953)," in Jürgen Habermas, Philosophisch-politische Profile (Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1973), pp. 67-75.

118. See Christian E. Lewalter, "Wie liest man 1953 Sätze yon 19357" Die Zeit , 13 August 1953, p. 6.

119. See "Heidegger über Heidegger," Die Zeit , 24 September 1953, p. 18, reprinted in Martin Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe , vol. 40, Einführung in die

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Metaphysik , ed. Petra Jaeger (Frankfurt a.M.: Vittorio Klostermann, 1976), pp. 232-233.

120. Letter of 18 March 1968 to S. Zemach, cited in Heidegger, Einführung in die Metaphysik , p. 233.

121. See "Only a God Can Save Us," p. 276.

122. See the Nachwort by Petra Jaeger, in Heidegger, Einführung in die Metaphysik , p. 234.

123. See Pöggeler, "Heideggers politisches Selbstverständnis," p. 38.

124. Heidegger, An Introduction to Metaphysics , p. 199. This passage is susceptible of different interpretations. According to Zimmerman, it indicates Heidegger's belief that the Nazis would bring forth a new kind of human being endowed with the qualities favored by Jünger but devoid of the interest in production related to technology. See Zimmerman, Heidegger's Confrontation with Modernity , p. 190. The most detailed interpretation of which I am aware is due to Janicaud. See Janicaud, L'ombre de cette pensée (see Introd., n. 7), chap. 7, "La lettre volée," pp. 77-96.

125. Vietta here refers to a personal communication from Heribert Heinichs. See Vietta, Heideggers Kritik am Nationalsozialismus und an der Technik , pp. 46-47.

126. See Heidegger, Vorträge und Aufsätze (see chap. 4, n. 80), p. 18.

127. Heidegger, The Question concerning Technology , p 15.

128. This passage was first published by Schirmacher. See Wolfgang Schirmacher, Technik und Gelassenheit: Zeitkritik nach Heidegger (Freiburg and Munich, 1983), p. 25. The passage cited is given in Farias, Heidegger and Nazism , p. 287; translation modified.

129. For a closely Heideggerian claim that Heidegger's insensitivity is terrible but that the Holocaust reveals the essential nature of the West, see Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe, La fiction du politique (Paris: Christian Bourgois, 1987), pp. 57-63.

130. This passage is from the manuscript of a lecture entitled "Die Gefahr," p. 47, cited in Sheehan, "Heidegger and the Nazis" (see n. 69), p. 42; translation modified.

131. Cited in Farias, Heidegger and Nazism , p. 285. For Marcuse's astonished response, which rejects the implied comparison between forcible displacement and the annihilation of peoples, see ibid., pp. 285-287.

130. This passage is from the manuscript of a lecture entitled "Die Gefahr," p. 47, cited in Sheehan, "Heidegger and the Nazis" (see n. 69), p. 42; translation modified.

131. Cited in Farias, Heidegger and Nazism , p. 285. For Marcuse's astonished response, which rejects the implied comparison between forcible displacement and the annihilation of peoples, see ibid., pp. 285-287.

1. For a brief introduction, see Richard Wolin, "Introduction to 'Martin Heidegger and Politics: A Dossier,' " The New German Critique , no. 45 (Fall 1988): 91-95. Wolin regards the problem as concerning Heidegger and politics, whereas in fact it more narrowly concerns Heidegger and Nazism.

2. For a selection of the newspaper reports, see Schneeberger, Nachlese zu Heidegger (see chap. 1, n. 34), passim, esp. secs. 79 and 82. See also Farias, Heidegger and Nazism (see Introd., n. 4), pp. 109-112.

3. For Croce's letters to Vossler, particularly the letter of 10 August 1933, see Schneeberger, Nachlese zu Heidegger , sec. 93, pp. 110-112.

4. See Jaspers's letter to Heidegger dated 23 August 1933, cited in Ott, Martin Heidegger (see Introd., n. 3), pp. 192-193.

5. With the exception of a version of Löwith's contribution, this debate is still not available in English. See Karl Löwith, "Political Implications of Heidegger's Existentialism," New German Critique , no. 45 (Fall 1988): 117-134.

6. See Guido Schneeberger, Ergänzungen zu einer Heidegger-Bibliographie (Bern, 1960). The reaction of Heideggerians has been predictable. For Harries, Schneeberger's collection of materials is valuable but one-sided. See Karsten Harries's introduction to Martin Heidegger and National Socialism: Questions and Answers (see Introd., n. 9), p. xvii. Yet it is unclear how a collection of materials meant to document the extent of Heidegger's involvement with Nazism, which some of Heidegger's closest students, following Heidegger's lead, have long striven to conceal, could be anything other than "one-sided."

7. See Schneeberger, Nachlese zu Heidegger . Schneeberger's compilation is the indispensable basis for Runes's collection of materials in English. See Dagobert D. Runes, Martin Heidegger: German Existentialism (New York: Philosophical Library, 1965).

8. See Karsten Harries, "Heidegger as a Political Thinker," The Review of Metaphysics 29, no. 4 (June 1976): 642-669, reprinted in Heidegger and Modern Philosophy , ed. Michael Murray (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1978), pp. 306-307 n. 10.

9. See Victor Farias, Heidegger et le nazisme (Paris: Éditions Verdier, 1987).

10. See Ott, Martin Heidegger .

11. See particularly Zimmerman, Heidegger's Confrontation with Modernity (see chap. 1, n. 23), and Wolin, The Politics of Being (see chap. 1, n. 1).

12. For a recent, short discussion of the French reception of Heidegger, see Jürg Altwegg, "Heidegger in Frankreich—und zurück?" in Die Heidegger Kontroverse , ed. Altwegg (see chap. 3, n. 6), pp. 14-25. See also Haar, Martin Heidegger (see chap. 6, n. 42), and Magazine Littéraire , no. 235 (novembre 1986). It is significant that as late as this period, in a special issue containing a "dossier" specifically devoted to "Martin Heidegger: l'Etre et le Temps ," there was only a brief discussion of the problem of politics. See Francois Fédier, "La question politique,'' Magazine Littéraire , no. 235 (November 1986): 51-52.

13. For a discussion of the reception of Heidegger's Nazism in French philosophy, see Jean Quillien, "Philosophie et politique: Heidegger, le nazisme et la pensée française," in Germanica no. 8 (1990): 103-142. For an account from a different perspective, see Richard Wolin, "The French Heidegger Debate," New German Critique , no. 45 (Fall 1988): 135-160.

14. The texts omitted include Georges Friedmann, in Cahiers de Sociologie 16 (1954), and Mélanges Lucien Febvre (1954); Robert Minder, "Hebel and Heidegger: Lumières et obscurantisme," in Utopies et institutions au XVIIIe siècle , ed. P. Francastel (Paris and The Hague: Mouton, 1963), and "Heidegger und Hebel oder die Sprache von Meßkirch," in Robert Minder, Dichter in der

13. For a discussion of the reception of Heidegger's Nazism in French philosophy, see Jean Quillien, "Philosophie et politique: Heidegger, le nazisme et la pensée française," in Germanica no. 8 (1990): 103-142. For an account from a different perspective, see Richard Wolin, "The French Heidegger Debate," New German Critique , no. 45 (Fall 1988): 135-160.

14. The texts omitted include Georges Friedmann, in Cahiers de Sociologie 16 (1954), and Mélanges Lucien Febvre (1954); Robert Minder, "Hebel and Heidegger: Lumières et obscurantisme," in Utopies et institutions au XVIIIe siècle , ed. P. Francastel (Paris and The Hague: Mouton, 1963), and "Heidegger und Hebel oder die Sprache von Meßkirch," in Robert Minder, Dichter in der

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Gesellschaft (Frankfurt a.M.: Insel Verlag, 1966), pp. 210-264; and Alexandre Koyré, "L'évolution philosophique de Heidegger," in Critique , 1946, no. 1:73-82, and ibid., 1946, no. 2:161-183.

15. Despite the "violence" of the recent French reception of Heidegger's Nazism, interest in the discussion seems now to have noticeably waned. Significantly, the recent publication of a French translation of Ott's book has attracted little attention. For a review in the best academic style, written by Thomas Ferenczi, see "Douze ans dans la vie de Heidegger: L'historien allemand Hugo Ott confirme que, de 1933 à 1945, le philosophe est resté fidèle au régime hitlérien," Le Monde , 16 novembre 1990, p. 26.

16. For a classic French study of postmodernism, see François Lyotard, La condition postmoderne (Paris: Éditions de minuit, 1979).

17. It has been suggested that the rapid pace of change in French thought indicates that it is in crisis. See de Man, Blindness and Insight (see chap. 4, n. 11), pp. 3-5.

18. This is perhaps the significance of the enthusiastic reception of Rorty's recent work, which is less an attack on philosophy in general than on analytic philosophy in all its various forms.

19. For an objective review of Farias's book, unthinkable in recent decades in Soviet philosophy, see A. M. Rytkevich, "Gaidegger i Natsizm," Voprosy filosofij , 1988, no. 11:157-165. This is not the first time that Heidegger's politics has attracted attention in eastern Europe. For an earlier discussion touching on Heidegger's Nazism, see the special issue of the Polish journal Znak , no. 240 (June 1974), published in Krakow. See especially Krzysztof Pomian, "Z okazji marcina Heideggera," ibid., pp. 702-713.

18. This is perhaps the significance of the enthusiastic reception of Rorty's recent work, which is less an attack on philosophy in general than on analytic philosophy in all its various forms.

19. For an objective review of Farias's book, unthinkable in recent decades in Soviet philosophy, see A. M. Rytkevich, "Gaidegger i Natsizm," Voprosy filosofij , 1988, no. 11:157-165. This is not the first time that Heidegger's politics has attracted attention in eastern Europe. For an earlier discussion touching on Heidegger's Nazism, see the special issue of the Polish journal Znak , no. 240 (June 1974), published in Krakow. See especially Krzysztof Pomian, "Z okazji marcina Heideggera," ibid., pp. 702-713.

20. The tenth article of the "Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen," promulgated by the Assemblée nationale in August 1789, reads: "Nul ne doit être inquiété pour ses opinions, même religieuses, pourvu que leur manifestation ne trouble pas l'ordre public établi par la loi."

21. For a recent example, see André Glucksmann, Descartes, c'est la France (Paris: Flammarion, 1987).

22. See Kojève, Introduction to the Reading of Hegel (see chap. 4, n. 71).

23. For an analysis of Hegel's residual Cartesianism, see Tom Rockmore, Hegel's Circular Epistemology (Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press, 1986), chap. 6, esp. pp. 142-154.

24. In his otherwise excellent study of Hegel as the central thinker in recent French philosophy, Descombes fails to appreciate the sense in which his role in French thought was in part dependent on his relation to Descartes. See Descombes, Le même et l'autre (see chap. 4, n. 71).

25. For a recent analysis of the role of Heidegger in French philosophy, see Alain Badiou, Manifeste pour la philosophie (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1989), chap. 4, "Heidegger envisagé comme lieu commun," pp. 27-32.

26. For Heidegger's later criticism of philosophical anthropology as deriving from Descartes, see "The Age of the World Picture" (see chap. 3, n. 138), pp. 115-154.

27. Sartre's basic statement of the humanist thrust of his existentialism is

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contained in his popular lecture, "Existentialism Is a Humanism." Heidegger's rejection of humanism as a metaphysical concept is developed in his "Letter on Humanism."

28. See "Only a God Can Save Us" (see chap. 1, n. 30), p. 282.

29. The main exception to this tendency in the French discussion is the work of Bourdieu. See Bourdieu, L'ontologie politique de Martin Heidegger (see chap. 2, n. 53).

30. For a representative sample of how Being and Time is received in the French discussion, see "Dossier: Martin Heidegger," Magazine Littéraire , no. 235 (novembre 1986): 16-58.

31. See Martin Heidegger, Lettre sur l'humanisme , trans. Roger Munier (Paris: Aubier, 1964), p. 7.

32. See Heidegger, "Letter on Humanism" (see chap. 1, n. 29), p. 221.

33. See ibid., p. 231.

34. See ibid., p. 202.

35. See ibid., pp. 221, 224, 227.

36. Ibid., Heidegger's emphases.

32. See Heidegger, "Letter on Humanism" (see chap. 1, n. 29), p. 221.

33. See ibid., p. 231.

34. See ibid., p. 202.

35. See ibid., pp. 221, 224, 227.

36. Ibid., Heidegger's emphases.

32. See Heidegger, "Letter on Humanism" (see chap. 1, n. 29), p. 221.

33. See ibid., p. 231.

34. See ibid., p. 202.

35. See ibid., pp. 221, 224, 227.

36. Ibid., Heidegger's emphases.

32. See Heidegger, "Letter on Humanism" (see chap. 1, n. 29), p. 221.

33. See ibid., p. 231.

34. See ibid., p. 202.

35. See ibid., pp. 221, 224, 227.

36. Ibid., Heidegger's emphases.

32. See Heidegger, "Letter on Humanism" (see chap. 1, n. 29), p. 221.

33. See ibid., p. 231.

34. See ibid., p. 202.

35. See ibid., pp. 221, 224, 227.

36. Ibid., Heidegger's emphases.

37. See "Deux documents sur Heidegger," Les Temps Modernes 1, no. 4 (janvier 1946): 713.

38. See Karl Löwith, Heidegger. Denker in dürftiger Zeit: Zur Stellung der Philosophie im 20. Jahrhundert (Stuttgart: J. B. Metzler, 1984).

39. See Eric Weil, Logique de la philosophie (Paris: Vrin, 1950).

40. See Maurice de Gandillac, "Entretien avec Martin Heidegger," Les Temps Modernes 1, no. 4 (janvier 1946): 713-716.

41. See Alfred de Towarnicki, "Visite à Martin Heidegger," Les Temps Modernes 1, no. 4 (janvier 1946): 717-724.

42. See Löwith, "Les implications politiques de la philosophie de l'existence chez Heidegger" (see Introd., n. 2).

43. See Eric Weil, "Le cas Heidegger," Les Temps Modernes , juillet 1947, pp. 128-138.

44. See Alphonse De Waelhens, "La philosophie de Heidegger et le nazisme," Les Temps Modernes 3 (1947): 115-127.

45. See Karl Löwith, "Réponse à M. de Waelhens," Les Temps Modernes , no. 35 (aoüt 1948): 370-373.

46. See Alphonse De Waelhens, "Réponse ä cette réponse," Les Temps Modernes , no. 35 (août 1948): 374-377.

47. See Jean Beaufret, Introduction aux philosophies de l'existence, Bibliothèque Médiations, 85 (Paris: Denoël/Gonthier, 1971), p. 30, reprinted as De l'existentialisme à Heidegger (Paris: Vrin, 1986), p. 25.

48. See, e.g., his article, "En chemin avec Heidegger," in Martin Heidegger , ed. Haar (see chap. 6, n. 42), pp. 205-233; see also his statement, in J. Beaufret, Entretien avec F. de Towarnicki (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1984), p. 87: "Heidegger n'a jamais rien fait qui air pu motiver les allégations formulés contre lui" and the examination of his philosophy from a political perspective represents "la conspiration des médiocres au nom de la médiocrité." Essentially

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the same defense is offered later by Vattimo in his claim that Heidegger's thought is more important than that of his accusers.

49. See Annales d'histoire révisionniste , no. 3 (automne-hiver 1987): 204-205; for a discussion of the link between Beaufret and Robert Faurisson, see Michel Kajman, Le Monde , 22 janvier 1988, pp. 1, 18. The following passage (cited in Jean-François Lyotard, The Differend: Phrases in Dispute , trans. Georges Van Den Abbeele [Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988], p. 3) provides an idea of Faurisson's view: "I have analyzed thousands of documents. I have tirelessly pursued specialists and historians with my questions. I have tried in vain to find a single former deportee capable of proving to me that he had really seen, with his own eyes, a gas chamber." This form of historical revisionism is fundamentally different from the more benign discussion in German intellectual circles where the controversy does not concern the existence but rather the interpretation of the so-called Final Solution. See " Historikerstreit": Die Dokumentation der Kontroverse um die Einzigartigkeit der national-sozialistischen Judenvernichtung (Zurich and Munich: Piper Verlag, 1987). For a philosophical reaction to Faurisson, see Lyotard, The Differend , pp. 3-4. For a summary of recent revisionist readings of the Holocaust in English, see Dawidowicz, The War against the Jews (see chap. 2, n. 54), pp. xxi-xxxii.

50. For a good recent survey of his thought, see Werner Jung, Georg Lukács (Stuttgart: J. B. Metzler, 1989).

51. See Georg Lukács, Existentialisme ou Marxisme? (Paris: Nagel, 1948).

52. See Georg Lukács, Existentialismus oder Marxismus? (Berlin: Aufbau Verlag, 1951).

53. See Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Les aventures de la dialectique (Paris: Gallimard, 1955), chap. 2: "Le marxisme 'occidental,' " pp. 43-80.

54. See Jean-Michel Palmier, Les écrits politiques de Heidegger (Paris: L'Herne, 1968).

55. Palmier argues that Heidegger made two basic mistakes: he thought that through the Nazi party he could realize an intuition he perceived in Ernst Jünger's book, Der Arbeiter ; and he thought that within Nazism he could develop a philosophical dimension since he deluded himself into perceiving within it a spiritual potentiality. For a statement of his view, see Jean-Michel Palmier, "Heidegger et le national-socialisme," in Martin Heidegger , ed. Haar, pp. 409-446. For a summary of Palmier's criticism, see ibid., pp. 443-444.

54. See Jean-Michel Palmier, Les écrits politiques de Heidegger (Paris: L'Herne, 1968).

55. Palmier argues that Heidegger made two basic mistakes: he thought that through the Nazi party he could realize an intuition he perceived in Ernst Jünger's book, Der Arbeiter ; and he thought that within Nazism he could develop a philosophical dimension since he deluded himself into perceiving within it a spiritual potentiality. For a statement of his view, see Jean-Michel Palmier, "Heidegger et le national-socialisme," in Martin Heidegger , ed. Haar, pp. 409-446. For a summary of Palmier's criticism, see ibid., pp. 443-444.

56. See Jean-Pierre Faye, "Heidegger et la révolution," Médiations , no. 3 (automne 1961): 151-159. Faye has continued to develop his critique of Heidegger. For its most recent form, see Jean-Pierre Faye, La raison narrative (Paris: Balland, 1990).

57. See Jean-Pierre Faye, "Attaques Nazies contre Heidegger," Médiations , no. 5 (été 1962): 137-151.

58. See François Fédier, "Trois attaques contre Heidegger," Critique , no. 234 (novembre 1966): 883-904. The discussion begun by Fédier, including a series of responses and rejoinders, ended with contributions by Bondy and

57. See Jean-Pierre Faye, "Attaques Nazies contre Heidegger," Médiations , no. 5 (été 1962): 137-151.

58. See François Fédier, "Trois attaques contre Heidegger," Critique , no. 234 (novembre 1966): 883-904. The discussion begun by Fédier, including a series of responses and rejoinders, ended with contributions by Bondy and

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Fédier. See François Bondy, "Une lettre de Heidegger à François Bondy," Critique , 1968:433-435, and François Fédier, "Le point," ibid., pp. 435-437.

59. See Aimé Patri, "Serait-ce une querelle d'allemands?" Critique , no. 237 (février 1967): 296-297.

60. See Robert Minder, "Langage et nazisme," Critique , no. 237 (février 1967): 284-287.

61. See Jean-Pierre Faye, "La lecture et l'énoncé," Critique , no. 237 (février 1967): 288-295.

62. See François Fédier, "A propos de Heidegger: Une lecture dénoncée," Critique , no. 242, pp. 672-686.

63. See the Frankfurter Rundschau , 22 October 1987, no. 245, "Bis zuletzt ein Nazi Heidegger im grellen Licht / Eine Pariser Sensation," p. 11

64. See Die Zeit , no. 46 (6 November 1987), "Wie braun war Heidegger? Die postmodernen Grossfurthsen und ihr deutscher Ahnherr."

65. See Gianni Vattimo, "Il pensiero di Heidegger più forte di chi lo accusa," La Stampa , 14 November 1987.

66. Christian Jambet, preface to Farias, Heidegger et le nazisme (see n. 9), p. 14.

67. Hugo Ott, "Wege und Abwege: Zu Victor Farias' kritischer Heidegger-Studie," Neue Zürcher Zeitung , no. 275 (27 November 1987): 67: "In Frankreich ist ein Himmel eingestürzt— le ciel des philosophes ."

68. See Roger-Pol Droit, "Heidegger était-il Nazi? Une minitieuse enquête de Victor Farias révéle les liens entre le philosophe, mort en 1976, et le national-socialisme," Le Monde , 14 octobre 1987, p. 2.

69. See Georges-Arthur Goldschmidt, "Heidegger, militant et penseur nazi," Le Matin , 15 octobre 1987, p. 16.

70. See Emmanuel Martineau, "De la haine de la pensée aux 'faurisonneries,' " Le Matin , 26 octobre 1987.

71. See Alain Finkielkraut, "Heidegger: La question et le procès," Le Monde , 5 janvier 1988, p. 2.

72. See Georges-Arthur Goldschmidt, "Heidegger: L'allemand et le ressentiment," Le Monde , 13 janvier 1988, p. 2.

73. See Jean Baudrillard, "Néqcrospective autour de Martin Heidegger," Libération , 27 janvier 1988, pp. 1-2.

74. See "Un entretien avec Jacques Derrida. Heidegger, l'enfer des philosophes," Le Nouvel Observateur , 6-12 novembre 1988.

75. See Victor Farias, "Victor Farias: Pas d'accord avec Jacques Derrida," Le Nouvel Observateur , no. 47 (27 novembre-3 décembre 1987).

76. See Aubenque, "Encore Heidegger et le nazisme" (see chap. 2, n. 59), pp. 113-123. This issue, which provides a good point of entry into the recent French discussion of Heidegger and Nazism, contains a diverse collection of articles by P. Aubenque, H. Crétella, M. Deguy, F. Fédier, G. Granel, S. Moses, and A. Renaut under the heading of "Heidegger, la philosophie et le nazisme" as well as a collection of twelve texts under the heading of "Martin Heidegger: Textes politiques 1933-1934."

77. See Pascal David, " Heidegger et le nazisme : A propos du livre de V.

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Farias de même intitulé," Les Études Philosophiques , avril-juin 1988, pp. 257-263.

78. See also Heidegger: Questions ouvertes , Collège international de philosophie (Paris: Éditions Osiris, 1988). This volume contains a diverse collection of articles on different themes presented at a seminar organized by the Collège international de philosophie. Under the heading of "Histoire, Politique," there is a series of articles by J. Rolland, Eliane Escoubas, P. Lacoue-Labarthe, J. Derrida, M. Abensour, and E. Levinas on various aspects of the theme of Heidegger and Nazism. For a review covering the works by Fédier, Bourdieu, Lacoue-Labarthe, Renaut and Ferry, and Lyotard, see Jean-Michel Palmier, "Heidegger et le national-socialisme," Magazine Littéraire , no. 255 (juin 1988): 89-93.

79. See Bourdieu, L'ontologie politique de Martin Heidegger (see chap. 2, n. 53). For a more recent French study of Heidegger's language, see Henri Meschonnic, Le langage Heidegger (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1990).

80. Bourdieu, L'ontologie politique de Martin Heidegger , p. 7.

81. On the importance of Heidegger's refusal of an anthropological reading of his thought, see Martin Heidegger, La lettre à Jean Wahl , cited in Bourdieu, L'ontologie politique de Martin Heidegger , p. 114.

82. See Bourdieu, L'ontologie politique de Martin Heidegger , p. 8.

83. On this point, see ibid., p. 59, where Bourdieu refers to Toni Cassirer's well-known comment, and 61n, where he discusses the influence of H. von Treitschke on later German thought, including the German academy. See also a letter of Husserl to Dietrich Mahnke, dated 4 May 1933, in which Husserl writes: "Vorangegangen ist der von ihm [Heidegger] vollzogene Abbruch des Verkehrs mir mir (und schon bald nach seiner Berufung) und in den letzen Jahren sein immer stärker zum Ausdruck kommenden Antisemistismus—auch gegenüber seiner Gruppe begeisterter jüdischer Schüler und in der Fakultät." Cited by Hugo Ott in Heidegger und die praktische Philosophie (see chap. 2, n. 104), p. 69. This contradicts the widespread view, represented by Pöggeler, ibid., p. 17, that the story of Heidegger's anti-Semitism is at best apocryphal.

82. See Bourdieu, L'ontologie politique de Martin Heidegger , p. 8.

83. On this point, see ibid., p. 59, where Bourdieu refers to Toni Cassirer's well-known comment, and 61n, where he discusses the influence of H. von Treitschke on later German thought, including the German academy. See also a letter of Husserl to Dietrich Mahnke, dated 4 May 1933, in which Husserl writes: "Vorangegangen ist der von ihm [Heidegger] vollzogene Abbruch des Verkehrs mir mir (und schon bald nach seiner Berufung) und in den letzen Jahren sein immer stärker zum Ausdruck kommenden Antisemistismus—auch gegenüber seiner Gruppe begeisterter jüdischer Schüler und in der Fakultät." Cited by Hugo Ott in Heidegger und die praktische Philosophie (see chap. 2, n. 104), p. 69. This contradicts the widespread view, represented by Pöggeler, ibid., p. 17, that the story of Heidegger's anti-Semitism is at best apocryphal.

84. See Bourdieu, L'ontologie politique de Martin Heidegger , p. 67.

85. See ibid., pp. 107-108.

86. Ibid., p. 10.

87. See ibid., p. 102.

88. See ibid., p. 115.

89. See ibid., p. 117.

90. See ibid., p. 118.

84. See Bourdieu, L'ontologie politique de Martin Heidegger , p. 67.

85. See ibid., pp. 107-108.

86. Ibid., p. 10.

87. See ibid., p. 102.

88. See ibid., p. 115.

89. See ibid., p. 117.

90. See ibid., p. 118.

84. See Bourdieu, L'ontologie politique de Martin Heidegger , p. 67.

85. See ibid., pp. 107-108.

86. Ibid., p. 10.

87. See ibid., p. 102.

88. See ibid., p. 115.

89. See ibid., p. 117.

90. See ibid., p. 118.

84. See Bourdieu, L'ontologie politique de Martin Heidegger , p. 67.

85. See ibid., pp. 107-108.

86. Ibid., p. 10.

87. See ibid., p. 102.

88. See ibid., p. 115.

89. See ibid., p. 117.

90. See ibid., p. 118.

84. See Bourdieu, L'ontologie politique de Martin Heidegger , p. 67.

85. See ibid., pp. 107-108.

86. Ibid., p. 10.

87. See ibid., p. 102.

88. See ibid., p. 115.

89. See ibid., p. 117.

90. See ibid., p. 118.

84. See Bourdieu, L'ontologie politique de Martin Heidegger , p. 67.

85. See ibid., pp. 107-108.

86. Ibid., p. 10.

87. See ibid., p. 102.

88. See ibid., p. 115.

89. See ibid., p. 117.

90. See ibid., p. 118.

84. See Bourdieu, L'ontologie politique de Martin Heidegger , p. 67.

85. See ibid., pp. 107-108.

86. Ibid., p. 10.

87. See ibid., p. 102.

88. See ibid., p. 115.

89. See ibid., p. 117.

90. See ibid., p. 118.

91. See Jean-Francois Lyotard, Heidegger et "les juifs " (Paris: Éditions Galilée, 1988), pp. 97-101.

92. See Jürgen Habermas, "Die Moderne: Ein unvollendetes Projekt," in Jürgen Habermas, Kleine politische Schriften I-IV (Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1981), pp. 444-464.

93. "L'affaire Heidegger est une affaire 'française,' " in Lyotard, Heidegger et "les juifs ," p. 16.

94. See Lyotard, Heidegger et "les juifs ," p. 52; see also ibid., p. 71, "judéo-christianisme;" p. 73, "société"; p. 103, "politique"; p. 146, "faute''; p. 153, ''Celan"; etc.

93. "L'affaire Heidegger est une affaire 'française,' " in Lyotard, Heidegger et "les juifs ," p. 16.

94. See Lyotard, Heidegger et "les juifs ," p. 52; see also ibid., p. 71, "judéo-christianisme;" p. 73, "société"; p. 103, "politique"; p. 146, "faute''; p. 153, ''Celan"; etc.

95. "Penser l'affaire Heidegger," in Lyotard, Heidegger et "les juifs, " p. 87.

96. See Lyotard, Heidegger et "les juifs ," p. 90; see also ibid., p. 109.

97. See ibid., p. 95.

95. "Penser l'affaire Heidegger," in Lyotard, Heidegger et "les juifs, " p. 87.

96. See Lyotard, Heidegger et "les juifs ," p. 90; see also ibid., p. 109.

97. See ibid., p. 95.

95. "Penser l'affaire Heidegger," in Lyotard, Heidegger et "les juifs, " p. 87.

96. See Lyotard, Heidegger et "les juifs ," p. 90; see also ibid., p. 109.

97. See ibid., p. 95.

98. "La méditation anamnésique de ce qui aura eu lieu dans la 'politique' heideggerienne," in Lyotard, Heidegger et "les juifs ," p. 103.

99. See Lyotard, Heidegger et "les juifs ," p. 110.

100. See ibid., p. 111; for an initial discussion of this hypothesis, see ibid., pp. 115-120.

101. See ibid., p. 148.

99. See Lyotard, Heidegger et "les juifs ," p. 110.

100. See ibid., p. 111; for an initial discussion of this hypothesis, see ibid., pp. 115-120.

101. See ibid., p. 148.

99. See Lyotard, Heidegger et "les juifs ," p. 110.

100. See ibid., p. 111; for an initial discussion of this hypothesis, see ibid., pp. 115-120.

101. See ibid., p. 148.

102. Lyotard here contradicts such French commentators as Aubenque, who directly deny the political nature of Heidegger's work. For Aubenque's denial, see Aubenque, "Encore Heidegger et le nazisme."

103. See Fédier, Heidegger: Anatomie d'un scandale (see chap. 3, n. 69).

104. "Le rectorat n'a cependant rien d'une parenthèse dans la vie de Heidegger et il vaut la peine de lire les 'textes politiques' de la période de 1933-1934." Ibid., p. 22.

105. See ibid., p. 67.

106. Or as he says, "lever l'accusation portée contre Heidegger." Ibid., p. 30.

107. See ibid., p. 31.

108. See ibid., pp. 31-33.

109. See ibid., p. 37.

110. See ibid., p. 162.

103. See Fédier, Heidegger: Anatomie d'un scandale (see chap. 3, n. 69).

104. "Le rectorat n'a cependant rien d'une parenthèse dans la vie de Heidegger et il vaut la peine de lire les 'textes politiques' de la période de 1933-1934." Ibid., p. 22.

105. See ibid., p. 67.

106. Or as he says, "lever l'accusation portée contre Heidegger." Ibid., p. 30.

107. See ibid., p. 31.

108. See ibid., pp. 31-33.

109. See ibid., p. 37.

110. See ibid., p. 162.

103. See Fédier, Heidegger: Anatomie d'un scandale (see chap. 3, n. 69).

104. "Le rectorat n'a cependant rien d'une parenthèse dans la vie de Heidegger et il vaut la peine de lire les 'textes politiques' de la période de 1933-1934." Ibid., p. 22.

105. See ibid., p. 67.

106. Or as he says, "lever l'accusation portée contre Heidegger." Ibid., p. 30.

107. See ibid., p. 31.

108. See ibid., pp. 31-33.

109. See ibid., p. 37.

110. See ibid., p. 162.

103. See Fédier, Heidegger: Anatomie d'un scandale (see chap. 3, n. 69).

104. "Le rectorat n'a cependant rien d'une parenthèse dans la vie de Heidegger et il vaut la peine de lire les 'textes politiques' de la période de 1933-1934." Ibid., p. 22.

105. See ibid., p. 67.

106. Or as he says, "lever l'accusation portée contre Heidegger." Ibid., p. 30.

107. See ibid., p. 31.

108. See ibid., pp. 31-33.

109. See ibid., p. 37.

110. See ibid., p. 162.

103. See Fédier, Heidegger: Anatomie d'un scandale (see chap. 3, n. 69).

104. "Le rectorat n'a cependant rien d'une parenthèse dans la vie de Heidegger et il vaut la peine de lire les 'textes politiques' de la période de 1933-1934." Ibid., p. 22.

105. See ibid., p. 67.

106. Or as he says, "lever l'accusation portée contre Heidegger." Ibid., p. 30.

107. See ibid., p. 31.

108. See ibid., pp. 31-33.

109. See ibid., p. 37.

110. See ibid., p. 162.

103. See Fédier, Heidegger: Anatomie d'un scandale (see chap. 3, n. 69).

104. "Le rectorat n'a cependant rien d'une parenthèse dans la vie de Heidegger et il vaut la peine de lire les 'textes politiques' de la période de 1933-1934." Ibid., p. 22.

105. See ibid., p. 67.

106. Or as he says, "lever l'accusation portée contre Heidegger." Ibid., p. 30.

107. See ibid., p. 31.

108. See ibid., pp. 31-33.

109. See ibid., p. 37.

110. See ibid., p. 162.

103. See Fédier, Heidegger: Anatomie d'un scandale (see chap. 3, n. 69).

104. "Le rectorat n'a cependant rien d'une parenthèse dans la vie de Heidegger et il vaut la peine de lire les 'textes politiques' de la période de 1933-1934." Ibid., p. 22.

105. See ibid., p. 67.

106. Or as he says, "lever l'accusation portée contre Heidegger." Ibid., p. 30.

107. See ibid., p. 31.

108. See ibid., pp. 31-33.

109. See ibid., p. 37.

110. See ibid., p. 162.

103. See Fédier, Heidegger: Anatomie d'un scandale (see chap. 3, n. 69).

104. "Le rectorat n'a cependant rien d'une parenthèse dans la vie de Heidegger et il vaut la peine de lire les 'textes politiques' de la période de 1933-1934." Ibid., p. 22.

105. See ibid., p. 67.

106. Or as he says, "lever l'accusation portée contre Heidegger." Ibid., p. 30.

107. See ibid., p. 31.

108. See ibid., pp. 31-33.

109. See ibid., p. 37.

110. See ibid., p. 162.

111. Article 4 of the NSDAP program is clear: "Only a member of the community [Volksgenosse] can be a citizen. Only a person with German blood, regardless of his religious adherence, can be a member of the community. No Jew may therefore be a member of the community." Cited in Hilberg, The Destruction of the European Jews (see chap. 3, n. 116), p. 18.

112. See Fédier, Heidegger: anatomie d'un scandale , p. 185.

113. See ibid., p. 114.

114. See ibid., p. 115.

115. See ibid., pp. 115, 147.

116. See ibid., p. 116.

117. See ibid., p. 136.

118. See ibid., p. 152.

119. See ibid., pp. 198-199.

120. See ibid., p. 234.

121. See ibid., p. 237.

122. See ibid., p. 240.

112. See Fédier, Heidegger: anatomie d'un scandale , p. 185.

113. See ibid., p. 114.

114. See ibid., p. 115.

115. See ibid., pp. 115, 147.

116. See ibid., p. 116.

117. See ibid., p. 136.

118. See ibid., p. 152.

119. See ibid., pp. 198-199.

120. See ibid., p. 234.

121. See ibid., p. 237.

122. See ibid., p. 240.

112. See Fédier, Heidegger: anatomie d'un scandale , p. 185.

113. See ibid., p. 114.

114. See ibid., p. 115.

115. See ibid., pp. 115, 147.

116. See ibid., p. 116.

117. See ibid., p. 136.

118. See ibid., p. 152.

119. See ibid., pp. 198-199.

120. See ibid., p. 234.

121. See ibid., p. 237.

122. See ibid., p. 240.

112. See Fédier, Heidegger: anatomie d'un scandale , p. 185.

113. See ibid., p. 114.

114. See ibid., p. 115.

115. See ibid., pp. 115, 147.

116. See ibid., p. 116.

117. See ibid., p. 136.

118. See ibid., p. 152.

119. See ibid., pp. 198-199.

120. See ibid., p. 234.

121. See ibid., p. 237.

122. See ibid., p. 240.

112. See Fédier, Heidegger: anatomie d'un scandale , p. 185.

113. See ibid., p. 114.

114. See ibid., p. 115.

115. See ibid., pp. 115, 147.

116. See ibid., p. 116.

117. See ibid., p. 136.

118. See ibid., p. 152.

119. See ibid., pp. 198-199.

120. See ibid., p. 234.

121. See ibid., p. 237.

122. See ibid., p. 240.

112. See Fédier, Heidegger: anatomie d'un scandale , p. 185.

113. See ibid., p. 114.

114. See ibid., p. 115.

115. See ibid., pp. 115, 147.

116. See ibid., p. 116.

117. See ibid., p. 136.

118. See ibid., p. 152.

119. See ibid., pp. 198-199.

120. See ibid., p. 234.

121. See ibid., p. 237.

122. See ibid., p. 240.

112. See Fédier, Heidegger: anatomie d'un scandale , p. 185.

113. See ibid., p. 114.

114. See ibid., p. 115.

115. See ibid., pp. 115, 147.

116. See ibid., p. 116.

117. See ibid., p. 136.

118. See ibid., p. 152.

119. See ibid., pp. 198-199.

120. See ibid., p. 234.

121. See ibid., p. 237.

122. See ibid., p. 240.

112. See Fédier, Heidegger: anatomie d'un scandale , p. 185.

113. See ibid., p. 114.

114. See ibid., p. 115.

115. See ibid., pp. 115, 147.

116. See ibid., p. 116.

117. See ibid., p. 136.

118. See ibid., p. 152.

119. See ibid., pp. 198-199.

120. See ibid., p. 234.

121. See ibid., p. 237.

122. See ibid., p. 240.

112. See Fédier, Heidegger: anatomie d'un scandale , p. 185.

113. See ibid., p. 114.

114. See ibid., p. 115.

115. See ibid., pp. 115, 147.

116. See ibid., p. 116.

117. See ibid., p. 136.

118. See ibid., p. 152.

119. See ibid., pp. 198-199.

120. See ibid., p. 234.

121. See ibid., p. 237.

122. See ibid., p. 240.

112. See Fédier, Heidegger: anatomie d'un scandale , p. 185.

113. See ibid., p. 114.

114. See ibid., p. 115.

115. See ibid., pp. 115, 147.

116. See ibid., p. 116.

117. See ibid., p. 136.

118. See ibid., p. 152.

119. See ibid., pp. 198-199.

120. See ibid., p. 234.

121. See ibid., p. 237.

122. See ibid., p. 240.

112. See Fédier, Heidegger: anatomie d'un scandale , p. 185.

113. See ibid., p. 114.

114. See ibid., p. 115.

115. See ibid., pp. 115, 147.

116. See ibid., p. 116.

117. See ibid., p. 136.

118. See ibid., p. 152.

119. See ibid., pp. 198-199.

120. See ibid., p. 234.

121. See ibid., p. 237.

122. See ibid., p. 240.

123. Among the French Heideggerians, Lacoue-Labarthe has been most persistent in pursuing the problem raised by Heidegger's Nazism in all its many variations. Heidegger's later view of the role of poetry in the disclosure of truth led to his encounter with Paul Celan. For a recent effort to study the role of

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poetry based on that encounter, see Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe, La poésie comme experience (Paris: Christian Bourgois, 1986).

124. A short list of his writings on or about Heidegger includes La vérité en peinture, Ousia, Grammé , "Geschlecht: Différence sexuelle, différence ontologique," "La main de Heidegger (Geschlecht II)," etc. His writings on Heidegger have recently been brought together in a single volume. See Jacques Derrida, Heidegger et la question (Paris: Flammarion, 1990).

125. For denial of the importance of the distinction or distinctions between the Derridian approach and so-called orthodox Heideggerianism in France, see Ferry and Renaut, Heidegger et les modernes (see chap. 3, n. 115), 99ff.

126. The latter aspect has not been lost on orthodox, or Derridian, Heideggerians. It is significant that his study has in fact been praised by Heideggerians for its Heideggerian quality. For instance, David Krell, in a long review in part intended to defend Heidegger against Farias's criticism, makes this point. See David Farrell Krell, "Spiriting Heidegger: A discussion of De l'esprit: Heidegger et la question by Jacques Derrida," in Research in Phenomenology 18 (1988): 205-230.

127. See Derrida, De l'esprit (see chap. 1, n. 28), p. 11.

128. For a discussion of Derrida's reading of Heidegger's supposed deconstruction of spirit, which does not discuss Derrida's application of his reading to Heidegger's Nazism, see Önay Sözer, "Kommt der Geist fragend zurück? Die Dekonstruktion des Begriffs 'Geist' bei Heidegger nach Derrida," in Zur philosophischen Aktualität Heideggers: Symposium der Alexander yon Humboldt-Stiftung vom 24.-28. April 1989 in Bonn-Bad Godesberg , vol. 2, Im Gespräch der Zeit , ed. Dietrich Papenfuss and Otto Pöggeler (Frankfurt a.M.: Vittorio Klostermann, 1990), pp. 273-283.

129. See Martin Heidegger, "Die Sprache im Gedicht: Eine Erörterung von Georg Trakls Gedicht," 1953, in Unterwegs zur Sprache (Pfullingen: Neske, 1959).

130. See Derrida, De l'esprit , p. 12.

131. See ibid., p. 24.

132. See ibid., p. 156.

133. See ibid., p. 155.

134. See ibid., p. 64.

135. See ibid., p. 66.

130. See Derrida, De l'esprit , p. 12.

131. See ibid., p. 24.

132. See ibid., p. 156.

133. See ibid., p. 155.

134. See ibid., p. 64.

135. See ibid., p. 66.

130. See Derrida, De l'esprit , p. 12.

131. See ibid., p. 24.

132. See ibid., p. 156.

133. See ibid., p. 155.

134. See ibid., p. 64.

135. See ibid., p. 66.

130. See Derrida, De l'esprit , p. 12.

131. See ibid., p. 24.

132. See ibid., p. 156.

133. See ibid., p. 155.

134. See ibid., p. 64.

135. See ibid., p. 66.

130. See Derrida, De l'esprit , p. 12.

131. See ibid., p. 24.

132. See ibid., p. 156.

133. See ibid., p. 155.

134. See ibid., p. 64.

135. See ibid., p. 66.

130. See Derrida, De l'esprit , p. 12.

131. See ibid., p. 24.

132. See ibid., p. 156.

133. See ibid., p. 155.

134. See ibid., p. 64.

135. See ibid., p. 66.

136. See Lacoue-Labarthe, L'imitation des modernes (see chap. 2, n. 123).

137. See ibid., p. 184.

136. See Lacoue-Labarthe, L'imitation des modernes (see chap. 2, n. 123).

137. See ibid., p. 184.

138. See Lacoue-Labarthe, La fiction du politique (see chap. 6, n. 129).

139. See ibid. p. 14.

140. See ibid. p. 75.

141. See ibid. p. 28.

142. See ibid. p. 35.

143. See ibid. p. 38.

144. See ibid. p. 39.

145. See ibid. p. 43.

146. See ibid. p. 64.

147. See ibid., p. 86.

148. See ibid., p. 87; see also ibid., p. 91.

149. See ibid., p. 91; see also ibid., p. 115.

150. See ibid., p. 150.

151. See ibid., p. 58.

152. See ibid., p. 59.

138. See Lacoue-Labarthe, La fiction du politique (see chap. 6, n. 129).

139. See ibid. p. 14.

140. See ibid. p. 75.

141. See ibid. p. 28.

142. See ibid. p. 35.

143. See ibid. p. 38.

144. See ibid. p. 39.

145. See ibid. p. 43.

146. See ibid. p. 64.

147. See ibid., p. 86.

148. See ibid., p. 87; see also ibid., p. 91.

149. See ibid., p. 91; see also ibid., p. 115.

150. See ibid., p. 150.

151. See ibid., p. 58.

152. See ibid., p. 59.

138. See Lacoue-Labarthe, La fiction du politique (see chap. 6, n. 129).

139. See ibid. p. 14.

140. See ibid. p. 75.

141. See ibid. p. 28.

142. See ibid. p. 35.

143. See ibid. p. 38.

144. See ibid. p. 39.

145. See ibid. p. 43.

146. See ibid. p. 64.

147. See ibid., p. 86.

148. See ibid., p. 87; see also ibid., p. 91.

149. See ibid., p. 91; see also ibid., p. 115.

150. See ibid., p. 150.

151. See ibid., p. 58.

152. See ibid., p. 59.

138. See Lacoue-Labarthe, La fiction du politique (see chap. 6, n. 129).

139. See ibid. p. 14.

140. See ibid. p. 75.

141. See ibid. p. 28.

142. See ibid. p. 35.

143. See ibid. p. 38.

144. See ibid. p. 39.

145. See ibid. p. 43.

146. See ibid. p. 64.

147. See ibid., p. 86.

148. See ibid., p. 87; see also ibid., p. 91.

149. See ibid., p. 91; see also ibid., p. 115.

150. See ibid., p. 150.

151. See ibid., p. 58.

152. See ibid., p. 59.

138. See Lacoue-Labarthe, La fiction du politique (see chap. 6, n. 129).

139. See ibid. p. 14.

140. See ibid. p. 75.

141. See ibid. p. 28.

142. See ibid. p. 35.

143. See ibid. p. 38.

144. See ibid. p. 39.

145. See ibid. p. 43.

146. See ibid. p. 64.

147. See ibid., p. 86.

148. See ibid., p. 87; see also ibid., p. 91.

149. See ibid., p. 91; see also ibid., p. 115.

150. See ibid., p. 150.

151. See ibid., p. 58.

152. See ibid., p. 59.

138. See Lacoue-Labarthe, La fiction du politique (see chap. 6, n. 129).

139. See ibid. p. 14.

140. See ibid. p. 75.

141. See ibid. p. 28.

142. See ibid. p. 35.

143. See ibid. p. 38.

144. See ibid. p. 39.

145. See ibid. p. 43.

146. See ibid. p. 64.

147. See ibid., p. 86.

148. See ibid., p. 87; see also ibid., p. 91.

149. See ibid., p. 91; see also ibid., p. 115.

150. See ibid., p. 150.

151. See ibid., p. 58.

152. See ibid., p. 59.

138. See Lacoue-Labarthe, La fiction du politique (see chap. 6, n. 129).

139. See ibid. p. 14.

140. See ibid. p. 75.

141. See ibid. p. 28.

142. See ibid. p. 35.

143. See ibid. p. 38.

144. See ibid. p. 39.

145. See ibid. p. 43.

146. See ibid. p. 64.

147. See ibid., p. 86.

148. See ibid., p. 87; see also ibid., p. 91.

149. See ibid., p. 91; see also ibid., p. 115.

150. See ibid., p. 150.

151. See ibid., p. 58.

152. See ibid., p. 59.

138. See Lacoue-Labarthe, La fiction du politique (see chap. 6, n. 129).

139. See ibid. p. 14.

140. See ibid. p. 75.

141. See ibid. p. 28.

142. See ibid. p. 35.

143. See ibid. p. 38.

144. See ibid. p. 39.

145. See ibid. p. 43.

146. See ibid. p. 64.

147. See ibid., p. 86.

148. See ibid., p. 87; see also ibid., p. 91.

149. See ibid., p. 91; see also ibid., p. 115.

150. See ibid., p. 150.

151. See ibid., p. 58.

152. See ibid., p. 59.

138. See Lacoue-Labarthe, La fiction du politique (see chap. 6, n. 129).

139. See ibid. p. 14.

140. See ibid. p. 75.

141. See ibid. p. 28.

142. See ibid. p. 35.

143. See ibid. p. 38.

144. See ibid. p. 39.

145. See ibid. p. 43.

146. See ibid. p. 64.

147. See ibid., p. 86.

148. See ibid., p. 87; see also ibid., p. 91.

149. See ibid., p. 91; see also ibid., p. 115.

150. See ibid., p. 150.

151. See ibid., p. 58.

152. See ibid., p. 59.

138. See Lacoue-Labarthe, La fiction du politique (see chap. 6, n. 129).

139. See ibid. p. 14.

140. See ibid. p. 75.

141. See ibid. p. 28.

142. See ibid. p. 35.

143. See ibid. p. 38.

144. See ibid. p. 39.

145. See ibid. p. 43.

146. See ibid. p. 64.

147. See ibid., p. 86.

148. See ibid., p. 87; see also ibid., p. 91.

149. See ibid., p. 91; see also ibid., p. 115.

150. See ibid., p. 150.

151. See ibid., p. 58.

152. See ibid., p. 59.

138. See Lacoue-Labarthe, La fiction du politique (see chap. 6, n. 129).

139. See ibid. p. 14.

140. See ibid. p. 75.

141. See ibid. p. 28.

142. See ibid. p. 35.

143. See ibid. p. 38.

144. See ibid. p. 39.

145. See ibid. p. 43.

146. See ibid. p. 64.

147. See ibid., p. 86.

148. See ibid., p. 87; see also ibid., p. 91.

149. See ibid., p. 91; see also ibid., p. 115.

150. See ibid., p. 150.

151. See ibid., p. 58.

152. See ibid., p. 59.

138. See Lacoue-Labarthe, La fiction du politique (see chap. 6, n. 129).

139. See ibid. p. 14.

140. See ibid. p. 75.

141. See ibid. p. 28.

142. See ibid. p. 35.

143. See ibid. p. 38.

144. See ibid. p. 39.

145. See ibid. p. 43.

146. See ibid. p. 64.

147. See ibid., p. 86.

148. See ibid., p. 87; see also ibid., p. 91.

149. See ibid., p. 91; see also ibid., p. 115.

150. See ibid., p. 150.

151. See ibid., p. 58.

152. See ibid., p. 59.

138. See Lacoue-Labarthe, La fiction du politique (see chap. 6, n. 129).

139. See ibid. p. 14.

140. See ibid. p. 75.

141. See ibid. p. 28.

142. See ibid. p. 35.

143. See ibid. p. 38.

144. See ibid. p. 39.

145. See ibid. p. 43.

146. See ibid. p. 64.

147. See ibid., p. 86.

148. See ibid., p. 87; see also ibid., p. 91.

149. See ibid., p. 91; see also ibid., p. 115.

150. See ibid., p. 150.

151. See ibid., p. 58.

152. See ibid., p. 59.

138. See Lacoue-Labarthe, La fiction du politique (see chap. 6, n. 129).

139. See ibid. p. 14.

140. See ibid. p. 75.

141. See ibid. p. 28.

142. See ibid. p. 35.

143. See ibid. p. 38.

144. See ibid. p. 39.

145. See ibid. p. 43.

146. See ibid. p. 64.

147. See ibid., p. 86.

148. See ibid., p. 87; see also ibid., p. 91.

149. See ibid., p. 91; see also ibid., p. 115.

150. See ibid., p. 150.

151. See ibid., p. 58.

152. See ibid., p. 59.

138. See Lacoue-Labarthe, La fiction du politique (see chap. 6, n. 129).

139. See ibid. p. 14.

140. See ibid. p. 75.

141. See ibid. p. 28.

142. See ibid. p. 35.

143. See ibid. p. 38.

144. See ibid. p. 39.

145. See ibid. p. 43.

146. See ibid. p. 64.

147. See ibid., p. 86.

148. See ibid., p. 87; see also ibid., p. 91.

149. See ibid., p. 91; see also ibid., p. 115.

150. See ibid., p. 150.

151. See ibid., p. 58.

152. See ibid., p. 59.

153. Ferry and Renaut, Heidegger et les modernes , p. 12.

154. See Luc Ferry and Alain Renaut, La pensée 68: Essai sur l'antihumanisme contemporain (Paris: Gallimard, 1985).

155. Ferry and Renaut, Heidegger et les modernes , p. 40.

156. See ibid., p. 10.

157. See ibid., p. 12.

155. Ferry and Renaut, Heidegger et les modernes , p. 40.

156. See ibid., p. 10.

157. See ibid., p. 12.

155. Ferry and Renaut, Heidegger et les modernes , p. 40.

156. See ibid., p. 10.

157. See ibid., p. 12.

158. Lacoue-Labarthe, La fiction du politique , p. 58.

159. See Ferry and Renaut, Heidegger et les modernes , p. 117.

160. See ibid., p. 149.

161. See ibid., p. 155.

162. See ibid., p. 227.

163. See ibid., p. 170.

164. See ibid., p. 172.

165. See ibid., pp. 224-225.

159. See Ferry and Renaut, Heidegger et les modernes , p. 117.

160. See ibid., p. 149.

161. See ibid., p. 155.

162. See ibid., p. 227.

163. See ibid., p. 170.

164. See ibid., p. 172.

165. See ibid., pp. 224-225.

159. See Ferry and Renaut, Heidegger et les modernes , p. 117.

160. See ibid., p. 149.

161. See ibid., p. 155.

162. See ibid., p. 227.

163. See ibid., p. 170.

164. See ibid., p. 172.

165. See ibid., pp. 224-225.

159. See Ferry and Renaut, Heidegger et les modernes , p. 117.

160. See ibid., p. 149.

161. See ibid., p. 155.

162. See ibid., p. 227.

163. See ibid., p. 170.

164. See ibid., p. 172.

165. See ibid., pp. 224-225.

159. See Ferry and Renaut, Heidegger et les modernes , p. 117.

160. See ibid., p. 149.

161. See ibid., p. 155.

162. See ibid., p. 227.

163. See ibid., p. 170.

164. See ibid., p. 172.

165. See ibid., pp. 224-225.

159. See Ferry and Renaut, Heidegger et les modernes , p. 117.

160. See ibid., p. 149.

161. See ibid., p. 155.

162. See ibid., p. 227.

163. See ibid., p. 170.

164. See ibid., p. 172.

165. See ibid., pp. 224-225.

159. See Ferry and Renaut, Heidegger et les modernes , p. 117.

160. See ibid., p. 149.

161. See ibid., p. 155.

162. See ibid., p. 227.

163. See ibid., p. 170.

164. See ibid., p. 172.

165. See ibid., pp. 224-225.

166. See Heidegger, "Die Kategorien- und Bedeutungslehre des Duns Scotus," in Martin Heidegger, Frühe Schriften (Frankfurt a.M.: Klostermann, 1972), p. 141: "Es felht dem Mittelalter, was gerade einen Wesenszug des modernen Geistes ausmacht; die Befreiung des Subjekts von der Gebundenheit an die Umgebung, die Befestigung im eigenen Leben."

167. See Nicolas Tertulian, "Trois témoignages: Löwith, Jaspers, Marcuse," La Quinzaine Littéraire , no. 496 (1-15 novembre 1987): 10-11; "A propos de Heidegger, la manipulation des textes à tout de même des limites," ibid., no. 515 (1-15 septembre 1988): 18-21; "Quand le discours heideggerien se mue en prise de position politique,'' ibid., no. 523 (1-5 novembre 1988): 26; "Esquives, abandons et nouvelles inexactitudes: Un tournant dans les recherches sur Heidegger,'' ibid., no. 526 (16-28 janvier 1989): 19-21; "Heidegger et le national-socialisme: Aspects et points de vue," in Tramonto dell'occidente? ed. Gian Mario Cazzaniga, Domenico Losurdo, and Livio Sichirollo (Naples: Istituto per gli Studi Filosofici, 1989), pp. 165-206.

166. See Heidegger, "Die Kategorien- und Bedeutungslehre des Duns Scotus," in Martin Heidegger, Frühe Schriften (Frankfurt a.M.: Klostermann, 1972), p. 141: "Es felht dem Mittelalter, was gerade einen Wesenszug des modernen Geistes ausmacht; die Befreiung des Subjekts von der Gebundenheit an die Umgebung, die Befestigung im eigenen Leben."

167. See Nicolas Tertulian, "Trois témoignages: Löwith, Jaspers, Marcuse," La Quinzaine Littéraire , no. 496 (1-15 novembre 1987): 10-11; "A propos de Heidegger, la manipulation des textes à tout de même des limites," ibid., no. 515 (1-15 septembre 1988): 18-21; "Quand le discours heideggerien se mue en prise de position politique,'' ibid., no. 523 (1-5 novembre 1988): 26; "Esquives, abandons et nouvelles inexactitudes: Un tournant dans les recherches sur Heidegger,'' ibid., no. 526 (16-28 janvier 1989): 19-21; "Heidegger et le national-socialisme: Aspects et points de vue," in Tramonto dell'occidente? ed. Gian Mario Cazzaniga, Domenico Losurdo, and Livio Sichirollo (Naples: Istituto per gli Studi Filosofici, 1989), pp. 165-206.

168. See Janicaud, L'ombre de cette pensée (see Introd., n. 7).

169. See Meschonnic, Le langage Heidegger (see n. 79).

1. For a summary of lines of analysis from another angle of vision. see Thomä, Die Zeit des Selbst und die Zeit danach (see Introd., n. 6). pp. 474-487. According to Thomä, there is no strict unity between Heidegger's thought and his Nazi engagement. See ibid., p. 468. He maintains that no one has so far understood Heidegger's Nazi turning on the basis of the texts. See ibid., p. 468.

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But he emphasizes that Heidegger's later writings are deeply rooted in his commitment to National Socialism. See ibid., p. 796.

2. For Adorno's claim that Heidegger's thought was fascist through and through, see Theodor Adorno, Musikalische Schriften (Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp, 1976), 5/6:637-638. The criticism occurs in a letter in which Adorno defended himself against the charge of having collaborated with the Hitler regime. He writes in part (p. 638): "Wer die Kontinuitat meiner Arbeit überblickt, dürfte reich nicht mit Heidegger vergleichen, dessen Philosophie bis in ihre innersten Zellen faschistisch ist." For a discussion of Adorno's criticism, see Lacoue-Labarthe, La fiction du politique (see chap. 6, n. 129), pp. 150-151n. See also Theodor Adorno, Jargon der Eigentlichkeit: Zur deutschen Ideologie (Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp, 1964). See, for a Heideggerian analysis of the Heidegger-Adorno relation, Hermann Mörchen, Macht und Herrschaft im Denken von Heidegger und Adorno (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1980), and Adorno und Heidegger: Untersuchung einer philosophischen Kommunikationsverweigerung (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1981).

3. Beaufret wrote extensively on Heidegger. For his list of publications, many of which concern various aspects of Heidegger's thought, see "Essai de bibliographie de Jean Beaufret," in Jean Beaufret, De l'existentialisme à Heidegger: Introduction aux philosophies de l'existence (Paris: Vrin, 1986), pp. 171-182. For a representative sample of his view of Heidegger's politics, see Jean Beaufret, "En chemin avec Heidegger," in Martin Heidegger , ed. Haar (see chap. 6, n. 42), pp. 205-232.

4. See Fédier, Heidegger: Anatomie d'un scandale (see chap. 3, n. 69).

5. See Aubenque, "Encore Heidegger et le nazisme" (see chap. 2, n. 59). pp. 113-123.

6. See Vietta, Heideggers Kritik am Nationalsozialismus und an der Technik (see chap. 1, n. 31).

7. See "Work and Weltanschauung: The Heidegger Controversy from a German Perspective," in Jürgen Habermas, The New Conservatism: Cultural Criticism and the Historians' Debate , ed. and trans. Shierry Nicholsen, introd. by Richard Wolin (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989), pp. 140-172.

8. See Richard Rorty, Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), p. 111: "On the general question of the relation between Heidegger's thought and his Nazism, I am not persuaded that there is much to be said expect perhaps that one of the century's most original thinkers happened to be a pretty nasty character. He was the sort of man who could betray his Jewish colleagues for the sake of his own ambition, and then manage to forget what he had done. But if one holds the view of the self as centerless which I put forth in Chapter 2, one will be prepared to find the relation between the intellectual and moral virtue, and the relation between a writer's books and the other parts of his life, contingent." See also Richard Rorty, "Taking Philosophy Seriously," The New Republic , 11 April 1988, pp. 31-34, and Richard Rorty, ''Diary,'' London Review of Books , 8 February 1990, p. 21.

9. See Derrida, De l'esprit: Heidegger et la question (see chap. 1, n. 28).

10. See Lacoue-Labarthe, La fiction du politique (see chap. 6, n. 129). See also Lacoue-Labarthe, L'imitation des modernes (see chap. 2, n. 123).

11. See Löwith, "Les implications politiques de la philosophie de l'existence chez Heidegger" (see Introd., n. 2), and Löwith, Mein Leben in Deutschland (see chap. 2, n. 8).

12. See Bourdieu, L'ontologie politique de Martin Heidegger (see chap. 2, n. 53).

13. See Janicaud, L'ombre de cette pensée (see Introd., n. 7).

14. See Zimmerman, Heidegger's Confrontation with Modernity . (see chap. 1, n. 23).

15. See Wolin, The Politics of Being (see chap. 1, n. 1).

16. See Thomä, Die Zeit des Selbst und die Zeit danach (see Introd., n. 6). Thomä, who has provided the most extensive study of Heidegger's texts to date, specifically proposes to demonstrate "die konsequente Ableitung von Heideggers NS-Engagement aus seiner Philosophie." Ibid., p. 30.

15. See Wolin, The Politics of Being (see chap. 1, n. 1).

16. See Thomä, Die Zeit des Selbst und die Zeit danach (see Introd., n. 6). Thomä, who has provided the most extensive study of Heidegger's texts to date, specifically proposes to demonstrate "die konsequente Ableitung von Heideggers NS-Engagement aus seiner Philosophie." Ibid., p. 30.

17. See "Un entretien avec Jacques Derrida" (see chap. 7, n. 74), p. 172.

18. Ernst Krieck, "Der Wandel der Weltanschauung," Süddeutsche Monatshefte 33/34:638-639, cited in Laugstien, Philosophieverhältnisse (see chap. 2, n. 25), p. 48.

19. For an expression of this view, see writings by Rorty, cited in n. 8.

20. According to Feyerabend, "Schizophrenics very often hold beliefs which are as rigid, all-pervasive, and unconnected with reality as are the best dogmatic philosophies. However, such beliefs come to them naturally whereas a 'critical' philosopher may sometimes spend his whole life in attempting to find arguments which create a similar state of mind." Paul Feyerabend, Against Method (London: Verso, 1978), p. 45.

21. For these views see respectively Hans-Georg Gadamer, "On the Political Incompetence of Philosophers," in Heidegger and Politics , ed. Rockmore and Margolis (see chap. 4, n. 243), and Jacques Derrida, "Like the Sound of the Sea Deep within a Shell: Paul de Man's War," Critical Inquiry 14 (Spring 1988): pp. 590-652.

22. Among recent thinkers, this point has been perhaps most strongly made by Margolis and Goodman. See Joseph Margolis, The Persistence of Reality , 3 vols. (Oxford: Blackwell, 1986-1989), and The Truth about Relativism (Oxford: Blackwell, forthcoming). See also Nelson Goodman, Ways of Worldmaking (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1978).

23. On the question of theory and practice in Heidegger's thought, see Otto Pöggeler, Philosophie und Politik bei Heidegger (Freiburg and Munich: Karl Albers, 1972). See also Schwan, Politische Philosophie im Denken Heideggers (see chap. 3, n. 115), and Gerold Prauss, Erkennen und Handeln in Heideggers "Sein und Zeit " (Freiburg i. B. and Munich: Albers, 1977).

24. For a recent discussion of the political dimension of this problem, see Ian Maclean, Alan Montefiore, and Peter Winch, eds., The Political Responsibility of Intellectuals (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).

25. See Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason , trans. Smith (see chap. 1, n. 12), B 862, pp. 654-655.

26. For Jaspers's important distinction between criminal, moral, political, and metaphysical forms of guilt, see Jaspers, Die Schuldfrage (see chap. 2, n. 116), pp. 17ff.

27. For a discussion of the letter and its significance, see Sieg, "Die Verjudung des deutschen Geistes" (see chap. 3, n. 114).

28. See Heidegger, Nietzsche (German ed.; see chap. 4, n. 85), 2:309.

29. Heidegger, Basic Writings , ed. Krell (see chap. 1, n. 10), p. 202.

30. Ibid., p. 222.

29. Heidegger, Basic Writings , ed. Krell (see chap. 1, n. 10), p. 202.

30. Ibid., p. 222.

31. Heidegger clearly rejected the biological reductionism of National Socialism. See, e.g., his criticism of the Nazi control of culture under Goebbels as tantamount to Schwängerungsführung and his objection to the very idea of the production of Führernaturen , "Wer ist Nietzsches Zarathustra?" in Vorträge und Aufsätze (see chap. 4, n. 80), pp. 91-92.

32. Heidegger's letter of 8 April 1950, in Briefwechsel 1920-1963 (see chap. 2, n. 27), p. 202.

33. Heidegger's letter to Jaspers of 8 April 1950, in Briefwechsel 1920-1963 , p. 203.

34. Briefwechsel 1920-1963 , p. 210.

35. Ibid., pp. 210-211.

34. Briefwechsel 1920-1963 , p. 210.

35. Ibid., pp. 210-211.

36. For the assertion that fiction and reality cannot be distinguished, see de Man, Blindness and Insight (see chap. 4, n. 11). pp. 75, 136, and de Man, Allegories of Reading (see Introd., n. 8), p. 293. For a recent, semipopular study of the hidden political background of de Man, see David Lehman, Signs of the Times: Deconstruction and the Fall of Paul de Man (New York: Poseidon Press, 1991).

37. This seems to have happened in France. For a clear indication, in the response to the French translation of Ott's book, that for Heidegger's closest supporters nothing has changed, see "Réponses à Hugo Ott," Le Monde , 14 décembre 1990, p. 24.