1. "He dreamed" quoted from Sinclair Lewis, Dodsworth (New York: Modern Library, [1929] 1947), 21. "Decided that" quoted from p. 255 and "to us, diversity" quoted from p. 256 of Richard Nixon, Six Crises (New York: Simon & Schuster, [1962] 1990), 235-291; see also Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (New York: Basic Books, 1988), 16-20.

2. "All those women" quoted from Ruth Schwartz Cowan, More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave (New York: Basic Books, 1983), 148; see also pp. 145-150. "For the most part" quoted from Harold L. Platt, The Electric City: Energy and the Growth of the Chicago Area, 1880-1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 243. See also David E. Nye, Electrifying America: Social Meanings of a New Technology, 1880-1940 (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1990), xiv, 16-18, 27; Thomas P. Hughes, Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983); Mark H. Rose, Cities of Light and Heat: Domesticating Gas and Electricity in Urban America (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995).

3. See note 2. In the latest addition to this literature, Rose argues that private capital constructed local consumer environments of technology to expand their domestic market; the clear implication is that industry raised a veil between the private home and organized political debate ( Cities of Light and Heat , 91-109).

4. On the paradox of mass consumption, see Daniel Horowitz, The Morality of Spending: Attitudes toward the Consumer Society in America, 1875-1940 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985); Thomas Richards, The Commodity Culture of Victorian England: Advertising and Spectacle 1851-1914 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990); David M. Tucker, The Decline of Thrift in America: Our Cultural Shift from Saving

to Spending (New York: Praeger, 1991); and Rosalind H. Williams, Dream Worlds: Mass Consumption in Late Nineteenth-Century France (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and Oxford: University of California Press, 1982). Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), explains how ethnic values mediated mass consumption, pp. 99-158. Andrew R. Heinze, Adapting to Abundance: Jewish Immigrants, Mass Consumption, and the Search for American Identity (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990), describes a group project providing meaning through recontextualization of consumer goods. On social positioning, see Pierre Bourdieu, Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, [1979] 1984); see also the discussion of Bourdieu in Daniel Miller, Material Culture and Mass Consumption (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1987).

5. "Consumerism" refers to commodity consumption as characterized by the paradox of commodity consumption and is distinguished from material consumption generally; see Richards, The Commodity Culture , 268 n. 26. Commodity consumption was socially constructed at the end of the nineteenth century; see Susan Strasser, Satisfaction Guaranteed: The Making of the American Mass Market (New York: Pantheon Books, 1989), 17-21, 26-28, 89-91, 286-290. See also her discussion of social and political movements by consumers, ibid., 52-85, and the notes, pp. 321-325. On mass marketing, see Richard S. Tedlow, ' New and Improved': The Story of Mass Marketing in America (New York: Basic Books, 1990), which periodizes the history of marketing and then narrates struggles involving major corporations, such as Coca-Cola. Historians of technology view technology as a social construction, but they have not generally treated electoral political parties and consumers as significant direct participants in the process, except at the local level, the consumer's role being channeled through the marketplace. See Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes, and Trevor J. Pinch, eds., The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1987), especially Trevor J. Pinch and Wiebe E. Bijker, "The Social Construction of Facts and Artifacts: Or How the Sociology of Science and the Sociology of Technology Might Benefit Each Other," pp. 18-50; see also C. E. Bose, Philip L. Bereano, and Mary Malloy, "Household Technology and the Social Construction of Housework," Technology and Culture 25 (1984): 53-82. Outstanding examples of the social construction of technology are Hughes, Networks of Power ; Thomas P. Hughes, American Genesis: A Century of Invention and Technological Enthusiasm, 1870-1970 (New York: Penguin Books, 1990); Nye, Electrifying America ; Claude S. Fischer, America Calling: A Social History of the Telephone to 1940 (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and Oxford: University of California Press, 1992); and Rose, Cities of Light and Heat . At the local level, the social construction of electrical systems involved politics when local commercial and civic elites utilized franchising powers to guide utilities toward their own class economic benefit. See Hughes, Networks of Power , chaps. 7-9 passim; Nye, Electrifying America , 138-184; Platt, The Electric City , passim; Rose, Cities of Light and Heat , esp. chaps. 1 and 2 on the city-growth game. These historians see mature utilities as evolving beyond effective local political control.

6. Platt, The Electric City , 235-236; Cowan, More Work for Mother , 192; Loren Baritz, The Good Life: The Meaning of Success for the American Middle Class (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989), 71-85; Rose, Cities of Light and Heat , does not mention the New Deal and describes postwar modernization in terms of prewar electrification, pp. 171-188.

7. Cowan, More Work for Mother , 172-180; Nye, Electrifying America , 247-259, 279-283; Martha L. Olney, Buy Now, Pay Later: Advertising, Credit, and Consumer

Durables in the 1920s (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), 9-40; Joann Vanek, "Keeping Busy: Time Spent in Housework, United States, 1920-1970," Scientific American 231 (November 1974), 116-120.

8. "Few neighborhoods" quoted from Rose, Cities of Light and Heat, 9. General histories of household appliance technology are provided by Earl Lifshey, The Housewares Story: A History of the American Housewares Industry (Chicago: National Housewares Manufacturers Association, 1973); Sigfried Giedion, Mechanization Takes Command (New York: Oxford University Press, 1948); Louise J. Peet and Lenore Sater Thye, Household Equipment, 4th ed. (New York: John Wiley, 1955); Calvin C. Burwell and Blair G. Swezey, "The Home: Evolving Technologies for Satisfying Human Wants," pp. 249-270 in Sam H. Schurr, Calvin C. Burwell, Warren D. Devine, Jr., and Sidney Sonenblum, eds., Electricity in the American Economy: Agents of Technological Progress, published under the auspices of the Electric Power Research Institute (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1990); Lewis Mumford, Technics and Civilization (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, [1934] 1963). Historians' current interpretation of the history of the domestic refrigerator is dominated by Cowan, More Work for Mother, 128-145, and bibliography, pp. 228-229. Basic references include Oscar Edward Anderson, Jr., Refrigeration in America: A History of a New Technology and Its Impact (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1953), esp. pp. 195-199, 207-223; Donald MacKenzie and Judith Wajcman, eds., The Social Shaping of Technology: How the Refrigerator Got Its Hum (Stratford: Open University Press, 1985); Platt, The Electric City, 220-223, 277-278; and Nye, Electrifying America, 275-276, 293, 356. Two older industry articles provide good background; see Dr. D. K. Tressler, "Home Freezers—Past, Present, and Future," Electrical Merchandising 72 (October 1944): 58 f.; and Tom F. Blackburn, "Time for Advancement," ibid., 65 (April 1941): 6 f., which reviews each major refrigerator manufacturer. For a microeconomic theory of refrigerator demand, showing that price per unit of service declined in the 1930s, see M. L. Burstein, ''The Demand for Household Refrigeration in the United States," pp. 99-145 in Arnold C. Harberger, ed., The Demand for Durable Goods (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960). Tanis Day confirms Burstein's thesis for Ontario, Canada, for the range, refrigerator, washer, and vacuum cleaner; see Day, "Capital-Labor Substitution in the Home," Technology and Culture 33 (April 1922): 320-321. On the history of stoves, ranges, and ovens, see Josephine Peirce, Fire on the Hearth: The Evolution and Romance of the Heating Stove (Springfield, Mass.: Pond-Ekberg, 1951); Lawrence Wright, Home Fires Burning: The History of Domestic Heating and Cooking (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1964); and Jane Busch, "Cooking Competition: Technology on the Domestic Market in the 1930s," Technology and Culture 24 (April 1983): 222-245. On the history of the vacuum cleaner, see Frank G. Hoover, Fabulous Dustpan: The Story of the Hoover Company (Cleveland: World, 1955). On the history of the radio, see chapter 1, note 30. On the history of the clothes washing machine, see "Washers are Getting Better and Better," Electrical Merchandising 64 (November 1940): 6-15, 16-17.

9. The thesis that electrical technologies conservatively reinforced social values is argued by Giedion, Mechanization Takes Command; Gwendolyn Wright, Building the Dream: A Social History of Housing in America (New York: Pantheon Books, 1981); Cowan, More Work for Mother; Bose, Bereano, and Malloy, "Household Technology," 53-82; Fischer, America Calling, 260; Charles A. Thrall, "The Conservative Use of Modern Household Technology," Technology and Culture 23 (1982): 175-194; Jo Ann Vanek, "Household Technology and Social Status: Rising Living Standards, Status and Resi-

dence Differences in Housework," Technology and Culture 19 (1978): 361-375; and Vanek, "Keeping Busy." The notion that the electrification of American housing was culturally conservative is also widely held; see Giedion, Mechanization Takes Command; Wright, Building the Dream; and Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985). Industry biased its advertising toward the middle class and ignored the working class; see Elizabeth Sprenger and Pauline Webb, "Persuading the Housewife to Use Electricity? An Interpretation of Material in the Electricity Council Archives," British Journal for the History of Science 26 (March 1993): 63-64.

1. Hughes, Networks of Power, 285-265, 369; "Distribution of Central Station Energy, 1920-1930," Electrical World 97 (January 3, 1931): 28; "Revenue of the Electric Light and Power Industry," ibid., 97 (January 3, 1931): 28. Nye believes utility resistance to the home market largely disappeared in the 1920s; see Nye, Electrifying America, 261; see also Platt, The Electric City, 235-245, 253-261; and Rose, Cities of Light and Heat, passim.

2. The statistic was provided by the president of the National Electric Light Association in an address in 1930 and cited in the editorial, "A Word of Warning," Electrical World 96 (September 13, 1930): 471.

3. See table AII.7.5, "Percentage Distribution of Energy and Electricity to Manufacturing and Nonresidential Use," in Sidney Sonenblum, Appendix II, "Basic Statistical Data: Long-Term Quantitative Trends," p. 426 in Sam H. Schurr et al., Electricity, Milton F. Searl, "The Growth of Electricity Consumption in Historical Perspective," pp. 342-343, in Schurr, Electricity, esp. pp. 343-346, figs. AI.2 and AI.3. For electrification of the factory, see Nye, Electrifying America, 184-237. For an economic examination of electrification of industrial power processes, see Schurr, Electricity; see especially the overviews by Warren D. Devine, Jr., ''Electrified Mechanical Drive: The Historical Power Distribution Revolution," ibid., pp. 21-42, and Sidney Sonenblum, "Electrification and Productivity Growth in Manufacturing," ibid., pp. 277-423, which provides a four-stage history for the application and development of electricity in manufacturing production. Sonenblum's footnotes contain extensive citations to the historical literature. See also Sidney Sonenblum and Sam H. Schurr, "Electricity Use and Energy Conservation," ibid., pp. 325-339, where the rapidity of application of electricity to manufacturing in the 1920s is explained, from the manufacturing user's point of view, in terms of the increase of productivity and savings due to total energy conservation. The cost-revenue analysis of the residential customer is discussed in "The Residence Consumer—What He Costs and What He Is Worth," Electrical World 81 (June 2, 1923): 1269-1272. On connecting isolated stores to central stations in Chicago, see Platt, The Electric City, 101-103, 107-108.

4. "Outstanding Facts," Electrical World 103 (January 6, 1934): 16. In 1922, 80.3 percent of total customers were residential: "Business Facts for Electrical Men," ibid., 81 (January 13, 1923): 137. For other representative opinion of industrial versus residential electrical sales, see E. S. Hamblen, "Economic Value of Load Diversity," ibid., 78 (July 16, 1921): 110; "The Residence Consumer—What He Costs and What He Is Worth"; "Keeping Dollars at Work," ibid., 85 (March 28, 1925): 658-660; "An Industry Balance Sheet," ibid., 87 (May 8, 1926): 971-982. The ten-year projection was pro-

vided by Robert M. Davis, "Looking Ahead Ten Years," ibid., 83 (January 5, 1924): 17-24. Before World War I, the telephone industry similarly targeted the industry and business markets, leaving development of the residential market until the 1920s and 1930s; see Fischer, America Calling, 42-50.

5. "It would appear" quoted from Charles J. Russell (vice president, Philadelphia Electric Company), "Philadelphia Residence Studies," Electrical World 87 (May 8, 1926): 1004. "Actual demand" quoted from C. F. Lacombe (consulting engineer, New York), "The Competitive Market for Domestic Electric Service," ibid., 89 (May 28, 1927): 1140.

6. Electrical World estimated in 1929 that only 20 percent of private utility electric customers were capable of buying "complete electrical service"; see "This Domestic Business," ibid., 93 (May 25, 1929): 1033; "prospects" quoted from ibid., p. 1037. Market survey in Lacombe, "The Competitive Market," 1139-1147. On market segmentation, see ibid., 1140, and ''Relation of Appliance Sales to Family Income," ibid., 86 (September 12, 1925): 523-524. On the basis of aggregate data, Platt believes that Chicago Edison successfully marketed to the suburban middle class, in addition to the "luxury" class, in the 1920s but does not know the share of total households comprised by these groups in order to test the utility's claims; see Platt, The Electric City, 240-252, esp. table 30, p. 251. On utility marketing, see Nye, Electrifying America, 262-287, and table 6.1, p. 268; and Rose, Cities of Light and Heat, 65-109, 112-146 on marketing to and educating upper-class consumers. Sicilia argues that Boston Edison targeted the home luxury market before World War I and afterward included the middle-class consumer but implies that the upscale bias continued in the 1920s; see David B. Sicilia, "Selling Power: Marketing and Monopoly at Boston Edison, 1886-1929" (Ph.D. dissertation, Brandeis University, 1991), 330, 373, 467-469, 486-489. Before the 1920s, phone companies similarly ignored lower-income households; see Fischer, America Calling, 108-109.

7. Fischer, America Calling, 75-80, 260; Lacombe, "The Competitive Market," 1139-1147. I found only one organized effort by the utility industry in the 1920s to understand housekeeping. In 1925, the National Electric Light Association cooperated with the General Federation of Women's Clubs to survey households for the home equipment they contained. See Mrs. John D. Sherman, president of the General Federation of Women's Clubs, "Home Making an Occupation," Electrical World 87 (May 22, 1926): 1124-1125. Sicilia's discussion of Boston Edison's innovative marketing strategies in the 1920s shows how far most companies, who did not follow Edison, had to go; see Sicilia, "Selling Power," 465-560.

8. "Almost a total" quoted from "The Residence Consumer—What He Costs and What He Is Worth," Electrical World 81 (June 2, 1923): 1269; Alex Dow, "Evolution of Rate Making," ibid., 84 (September 20, 1924): 629-631; Platt, The Electric City, 82-89, 98-99, 127-137, on the history of rate making and Samuel Insull's role. Platt's discussion of the role of gas utility rate setting, The Electric City, 127-130, helps explain the political dynamics in electrical rate setting. See also Forrest McDonald, Insull (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962). Chandler emphasizes the role of accounting in enabling producers to enter mass production, but more research is needed to evaluate the importance of inadequate accounting relative to other constraints; see Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge: Belknap Press, 1977), 445-450.

9. "As a matter of fact" quoted from "Domestic Load and the Lesson of the Factory," Electrical World 87 (May 1, 1926): 904; George H. Davis (Idaho Power Company, Boise), "Does Residence Business Pay?" ibid., 80 (December 1922): 1398-1399; John L. Haley,

"Revised Rate Structures," ibid., 92 (October 20, 1928): 791; Fischer, America Calling, 38-42.

10. "Hartford's Combination Residence Rate," Electrical World 91 (April 21, 1928): 917-921; Samuel Ferguson (president, Hartford Electric Light Company), "Inducement Rates, Key to Progress," ibid., 93 (March 2, 1929): 435-437; "Customer Psychology,'' ibid., 93 (April 20, 1929): 787-789; "Promotional Rates Improve Usage Classification," ibid., 94 (July 27, 1929): 1919-1920; "Three-Cent Energy Rate for Hartford Homes," ibid., 96 (November 8, 1930): 850.

11. C. L. Campbell, "Residential Rates That Encourage Use," Electrical World 86 (December 19, 1925): 1249-1250; "Low Rates Attract Domestic Power Load," ibid., 90 (September 24, 1927), 619; John L. Haley, "Revised Rate Structures," ibid., 92 (October 20, 1928): 791-793; C. F. Lacombe and W. S. Leffler, "Defects of Straight-Line Rate," ibid., 93 (February 2, 1929): 243-246; Barclay J. Sickler, "Lower Rates—More Business," ibid., 95 (May 3, 1930): 888-889; "New York City Offered Lower Rates," ibid., 96 (August 9, 1930): 257-258; "Promotional Rates Quicken Commercial Pulse," ibid., 98 (August 1, 1931): 207; "Rates Go Down, Consumption Goes Up," ibid., 98 (November 21, 1931): 908; "Sixteen Months to Recover with Inducement Rates," ibid., 98 (December 19, 1931): 1084-1086; F. A. Newton, "This Business of Rates," ibid., 101 (June 10, 1933): 769-773.

12. See the negotiations of New York Edison with New York State in 1930 in "Sloan for 5-Cent Rate Plus 60 Cents—Boston and Philadelphia Rates Cut," Electrical World 96 (August 9, 1930): 240-241.

13. "Interest has" quoted from "Selling Centers on Homes," Electrical World 105 (January 5, 1935): 60. "While private" quoted from Richard F. Hirsh, Technology and Transformation in the American Electric Utility (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 35; see also pp. 33-35. Table AII.7.5, "Percentage Distribution of Energy and Electricity to Manufacturing and Nonresidential Use," in Sonenblum, "Basic Statistical Data," 426.

14. On General Electric's advertising campaign, see Nye, Electrifying America, 268-271. Electrical manufacturing establishments from Table I, "Thirteen Years' Growth in Electrical Manufacturing," in "Value of Electrical Goods Doubled in Eight Years," Electrical World 94 (October 26, 1929): 837; the data refer to all electrical manufacturers, including makers of appliances. On General Electric, see David Loth, Swope of G.E.: The Story of Gerard Swope and General Electric in American Business (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1958), 113-116, 132-133, 144-148, 164-166, 180.

15. On the relationship between electrical manufacturers and operating utilities, see Sidney Alexander Mitchell, S. Z. Mitchell and the Electrical Industry (New York: Farrar, Straus & Cudahy, 1960), 62-151. Mitchell's biography defends the holding company movement from the industry point of view. Gifford Pinchot portrayed General Electric as one of the five electric trusts; see "Pinchot Tells of Trust with Five Heads," Electrical World 90 (December 3, 1927): 1164. See also Ralph G. M. Sultan, Pricing in the Electrical Oligopoly, vol. 1, Competition or Collusion (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974), 1-36. On electrical manufacturers' ownership of utilities, see also Hughes, Networks of Power, 126-129; on holding companies, ibid., 392-402. Hughes interprets holding companies as the natural outcome of operating utility growth and considers his research a correction of misunderstanding of holding companies in the 1920s due to government investigations and criticisms by public power advocates.

16. Table III, "Value of Electrical Manufactures by Classes," in "Value of Electrical

Goods Doubled in Eight Years," Electrical World 94 (October 26, 1929): 838. On G.E. product diversity, see Loth, Swope, 114, and Jules Backman, The Economics of the Electrical Machinery Industry (New York: New York University Press, 1962), 4. Thomas Hughes argues that military research was a major source of industrial invention by World War I; see Hughes, American Genesis, 96-137. On G.E. investment figures, dollar amounts refer to 1953; the report does not state the dollar amount for earlier administrative guidelines on capital requests; see W. C. Wichman (vice president-general manager, Industrial Power Components Division), "The Product Division General Manager's Responsibilities and Role in Planning and Control," in Controllers Institute of America: A Case Study of Management Planning and Control at General Electric Company (New York: Controllership Foundation, 1955), 23-28. On divisional competition, I rely on General Electric's practices; see Robert W. Lewis, "Measuring, Reporting and Appraising Results of Operations with Reference to Goals, Plans and Budgets,'' in Controllers, Case Study, 29-41. On General Electric research, see George Wise, Willis R. Whitney, General Electric, and the Origins of U.S. Industrial Research (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), 170-171; John Winthrop Hammond, Men and Volts: The Story of General Electric (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1941), 325 f.; and Ronald R. Kline, Steinmetz: Engineer and Socialist (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992).

17. Ralph Sultan demonstrated the "stickiness" of prices in electrical equipment destined for industrial purchasers after the three major corporations—G.E., Westinghouse, and Allis-Chambers—worked out their market shares; see Sultan, Pricing, 1-36, 37-83, 170-193. Sultan concludes, despite oral testimony of informal price fixing among electrical manufacturers and several prosecuted cases of collusion to fix prices, that the market for apparatus was not conspiratorially "administered" and that a combination of market forces and technological evolution of products accounts for what appears as price fixing; see ibid., 301-320. On incandescent lamp patent pooling for the purpose of controlling the market, see ibid., 26-28. For Swope's views, see Loth, Swope, 179-180; Hammond, Men and Volts, 389-393. Riverside appliance prices are from an impressionistic sample of the Riverside Daily Press, 1928-1940 (n = 118), conducted for the purposes of illustration.

18. Percentage changes in price calculated from average national retail prices in "10 Years Sales and Retail Value of Electrical Merchandise [1926-1935]," Electrical Merchandising 55 (January 1936): 2-5; "10 Years Sales and Retail Value of Electrical Merchandise [1930-1939]," ibid., 63 (January 1945): 8-9. Unit price determined as aggregate retail value divided by number of retail units sold.

19. "Some representatives" quoted from "Ideal Refrigerator Motor Specified," Electrical World 85 (May 16, 1925): 1051. On the history of refrigerators, see Cowan, More Work for Mother, 127-150, and Anderson, Refrigeration in America . Anderson's story of the advance of technology can be read backward as the persistence of technological failings; ibid., 195-200. My discussion of problems with mass market mechanical refrigeration draws from the following sources: "Electrical Refrigerating Outfits Moving Well," Electrical World 81 (April 1923): 1006; "Electric Refrigeration in Chicago," ibid., 84 (December 20, 1924): 1316; "Better Motors Wanted for Refrigerators," ibid., 85 (February 28, 1925): 484; "To Find the Ideal Refrigerator Motor," ibid., 85 (March 7, 1925): 496; "Ideal Refrigerator Motor Specified," ibid., 85 (May 16, 1925): 1051; "Domestic Electric Refrigeration Featured," ibid., 85 (June 20, 1925): 1352; "Status of Electric Refrigeration," ibid., 88 (October 30, 1926): 895-903; "Better and Lower-Priced Refrigerators Wait on Sales Volume," ibid., 89 (January 22, 1927): 187; "The Nation's Ice Bill," ibid., 90

(August 6, 1927): 249; "Refrigerators, Yes, But Who Owns Them," ibid., 106 (July 20, 1935): 21; "Time for Replacement," Electrical Merchandising, 65 (April 1941): 6-24.

20. "Cleared for Marketing Action," Electrical World 105 (May 25, 1935): 37-41; "Electrification" quoted from ibid., 37. Also see Loth, Swope, 179-181.

21. "Joke" quotation by John F. Gilchrist, vice president of Commonwealth Edison, Chicago, reported in "Appliance Distribution Methods a 'Joke,'" ibid., 82 (October 13, 1923): 777.

22. Electrical World surveyed one city of each population category. These reports are devoted to each city as follows: "Who Sells Electrical Appliances—A City of 500,000," Electrical World 82 (December 8, 1923): 1170; "II. A City of 200,000," ibid., 82 (December 22, 1923): 1271; "III. A City of 800,000," ibid., 83 (January 12, 1924): 92; "IV. A City of 250,000,'' ibid., 83 (February 2, 1924): 234; "V. A City of 800,000," ibid., 83 (March 1, 1924): 429; "VI. A City of 800,000 [city whose utility does not retail]," ibid., 83 (March 22, 1924): 573.

23. "Central-Station Appliance Sales," Electrical World 87 (January 2, 1926): 57. "If other dealers" quoted from [editorial], ibid., 87 (January 2, 1926): 1. Marshall E. Sampsell, vice president, National Electric Light Association, "Anti-Utility Legislation vs. Industry Co-operation," ibid., 98 (November 14, 1931): 870-871; Earl Whitehorne, "Oklahoma-Kansas Experience," ibid., 105 (February 16, 1935): 36-39.

24. Marshall E. Sampsell (vice president, National Electric Light Association), "Anti-Utility Merchandising Legislation vs. Industry Co-operation," Electrical World 98 (November 14, 1931): 870-871; "Department Store Sales Shown in Committee Report," ibid., 100 (December 23, 1932): 737.

25. Olney, Buy Now, Pay Later, table 2.1A, p. 10; table 2.6A, "Average Shares of Expenditure for Major Durable Goods, Current Price Estimates, 1869-1986," p. 34; table 4.2, "Outstanding Consumer Debt by Product Group, 1919-1939," pp. 93-94.

26. Automobile retail sales statistics from Gregory Chow, Demand for Automobiles in the United States (Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1957).

27. Technological developments enabling clear transmission and receipt of voice (as distinguished from nonvoice codes) made possible the radio boom of the 1920s; see Hugh G. J. Aitken, The Continuous Wave: Technology and American Radio, 1900-1932 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985). On the early history of broadcasting, see Susan J. Douglas, Inventing American Broadcasting, 1899-1922 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987); and Erik Barnouw, A Tower in Babel: A History of Broadcasting in the United States, vol. 1, to 1933 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1966). For Montgomery Ward's first radio, see Barnouw, A Tower of Babel, 1:186; on the creation of the National Broadcasting Company, ibid., 201; for the history of the Radio Act of 1927, ibid., 195-200, 215-217, 300-315. The importance of the plug-in radio for mass marketing is stressed by the trade journals; see "Make Radio Another Standard Household Electric Service," Electrical World 86 (September 12, 1925): 501, and "A New Trend in Radio," ibid., 86 (October 10, 1925): 734. The number of radio sets in use through 1925 is provided by "Estimated Total Radio Sets, 1922-1945," Television Factbook, no. 37 (Washington, D.C.: Television Digest, 1967), 52a. "The more impressive thought" quoted from "In Two Years Radio Runs Neck and Neck," Electrical World 85 (March 21, 1925): 600. Radio stock after 1925 determined by depreciating the annual sales of radios over a twelve-year life span. Residential saturation determined by dividing the stock of radios by the number of households in the United States and the number of electrified households. Source for radio sales is annual ten-year merchandising review in Electrical Merchandising, 1936 and later.

28. "It is impossible" quoted from "Points Way to Greater Domestic Loads," Electrical World 88 (November 27, 1926): 1126. For the peril of appliances, see Ernest B. Slade, ''Remove this Obstacle to Appliance Use [on nonstandardized plugs]," ibid., 82 (September 1923): 458-459; E. S. Lincoln, "An Engineer's Analysis of Why Some Appliances Are Not in Use," ibid., 82 (October 20, 1923): 807-809; L. R. Parker, "Development of Domestic Refrigerator," ibid., 81 (June 6, 1923): 1219-1222; "Interchangeable Appliance Plug Advances Interests of Entire Industry," ibid., 84 (October 18, 1924): 869; "Keeping Appliances at Work," ibid., 84 (November 8, 1924): 1008-1009; H. E. Young, "Servicing Domestic Electric Refrigerators," ibid., 84 (November 29, 1924): 1149-1152; "Electric Refrigerator Service Costs," ibid., 86 (July 4, 1925): 24; L. W. W. Morrow, "Action Urged on Standardization," ibid., 89 (May 21, 1927): 1057-1060; "An Industry Move to Stimulate Better Appliances," ibid., 93 (April 27, 1929): 835-836; "To Keep Appliances Working," ibid., 95 (January 18, 1930): 153. On retailer cooperation to remove unsafe appliances, see "Retailers Aiding Drive for Quality Appliances," ibid., 92 (October 20, 928): 773. On local ordinances against unsafe appliances, see Earl Whitehorne, "This Matter of Quality in Appliances," ibid., 101 (April 15, 1933): 488-489. On plug standardization, see Fred E. H. Schroeder, "More 'Small Things Forgotten': Domestic Electrical Plugs and Receptacles," Technology and Culture 27 (July 1986): 535-543. On difficulty of using appliances, see also C. E. Bose, Philip L. Bereano, and Mary Malloy, "Household Technology and the Social Construction of Housework," ibid., 25 (1984): 66.

29. Martha E. Dresslar, "Relative Cost of Gas and Electricity," Journal of Home Economics 15 (February 1923): 71-80; Ruth A. Potter and Martha E. Dresslar, "Further Data on the Cost of Gas and Electricity for Cooking," Journal of Home Economics 23 (January 1931): 67-70; Busch, "Cooking Competition," 222. On the competition of ice and mechanical refrigeration, see Anderson, Refrigeration, 215-221.

30. Margaret G. Reid, Economics of Household Production (New York: John Wiley, 1934), 97, 104-106; "Curling Irons and Bobbed Hair," Electrical World 93 (March 23, 1929): 575. Riverside Business Licenses, Riverside Police Department, ledgers for 1922 and 1926, Riverside Municipal Archives, University of California, Riverside, Rivera Library Special Collections. Hardening of local attitudes toward strangers at the door is seen in the mid-1930s: "Charities Irked by Hoboes Here," Riverside Daily Press, November 24, 1937, 7; "Bums Coming to City Will Labor," ibid., October 27, 1936, 4; Riverside County considered joining Los Angeles city's blockage in October 1936: "County's Supervisors Invited to Meeting on Barring Unemployed Transients from Southland," ibid., October 30, 1936, 4; "Riverside Housewives Asked Not to Give Any Help to Transients," ibid., March 6, 1934; "Kiwanians Back 'Bums Blockade,'" ibid., November 19, 1936, 4; "Residents Asked Not to Feed Transients," ibid., December 7, 1939, 4.

31. "Profound" quoted from Cowan, More Work for Mother, 174, and see also pp. 107-108. Cowan's argument was preceded by Heidi Irngard Hartmann's "Capitalism and Women's Work in the Home, 1900-1930," Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University, 1974. Hartmann's thesis also influenced Julie Matthaei; see Julie A. Matthaei, An Economic History of Women in America: Women's Work, the Sexual Division of Labor, and the Development of Capitalism (New York: Schocken Books, 1982), 352 n. 1, 356 n. 3, 361 n. 5. See also Nye, Electrifying America, 272.

32. See introduction, table I.1.

33. Isabel Ely Lord, Getting Your Money's Worth: A Book on Expenditure (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1922), 48-49, 51, 80, 82. On the 1928 survey, see Ruth Lindquist, The Family in the Present Social Order: A Study of Needs of American Families (Chapel Hill:

University of North Carolina Press, 1931), 31-32, 150. Phyllis Palmer, Domesticity and Dirt: Housewives and Domestic Servants in the United States, 1920-1945 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989), 9-10.

34. Wet-wash statistics from "The Real Appliance Sales Problem," Electrical World 88 (August 7, 1926): 258; and "Laundry-Tested," Business Week (August 18, 1934): 24. Gross receipts from table 3, "Rise in Annual Laundering Sales Volume," in Fred DeArmond, The Laundry Industry (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1950), 21. On black laundresses, see Geo. H. Watson, "Competition with Muscle,'' Electrical Merchandising 53 (March 1935): 9; and Palmer, Domesticity, 9-10; see also ibid., 9, for Palmer's analyses of the Bureau of Labor household survey. On the 1934 laundry campaign, see "Laundries Hit Back," Business Week (March 24, 1934): 12-13. Other statistics from Household Management and Kitchens, Reports of the Committees on Household Management, Effie I. Raitt, Chairman, and Kitchens and Other Work Centers, Abby L. Marlatt, Chairman, vol. 9, President's Conference on Home-building and Home Ownership, 1931, publications edited by John M. Gries and James Ford, General Editors (Washington, D.C.: President's Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership, printed by National Capital Press, 1932), 64; from data compiled by the Bureau of Home Economics, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Also see, table 16, "Percentage of Families Sending Laundry Out," in Reid, Economics, 97.

35. Ronald Tobey, Charles Wetherell, and Jay Brigham, "Moving Out and Settling In: Residential Mobility, Home Owning, and the Public Enframing of Citizenship, 1921-1950," American Historical Review 95 (December 1990): 1395-1422. Mildred Weigley Wood, Ruth Lindquist, and Lucy A. Studley, Managing the Home (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1932), 161.

36. Housing data from "New Housing Units Started, by Ownership, Type of Structure, Location, and Construction Cost: 1889-1970," in Series N 162, "Urban Areas, New Housing Units Started [1,000s]," Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, 2 vols., Bicentennial edition (Washington, D.C., 1975), 2: 639-640. Pearson correlations between appliance growth rates and households growth rate, 1921-1941: vacuum cleaner r = .32; range r = .43; refrigerator r = .45; heating pad r = .52; washing machine r = .06; flatiron r = .14.

37. Normalized rate is defined as absolute annual sales of the appliance per hundred households living in dwellings capable of servicing the appliance.

38. "Some six or seven" quoted from "Why Appliances Do Not Sell More Rapidly, An Answer in Present Housewiring Incompleteness," Electrical Merchandising 35 (March 1926): 6133. "Electrical articles" quoted from "Why Appliances Do Not Sell More Rapidly [editorial]," ibid. See the confusion in Nye, Electrifying America, 262, 265.

39. "Residential wiring" quoted from E. S. Fitz, "Residential Load Possibilities," Electrical World 102 (September 23, 1933): 400.

40. Not distinguishing between electrification and electrical modernization are Cowan, More Work for Mother, 151-191; Alice Kessler-Harris, Women Have Always Worked: A Historical Overview (Old Westbury, N.Y.: Feminist Press, 1981), 40, 52; Nye, Electrifying America, 238-286; Platt, The Electric City, 235-267; Michael Doucet and John Weaver, Housing the North American City (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1991), 423-445; and Witold Rybczynski, Home: A Short History of an Idea, repr. (New York: Penguin Books, 1987), 150-154. Hints about physical quality of housing are not followed up in Cowan, More Work for Mother, 155, 162, 173, 182-183; Nye, Electrifying America, 17, 266, 275; or Platt, The Electric City, 241.

41. Bakersfield, California, Ordinance no. 154, New Series, An Ordinance Creating a Department to Be Known as the 'Department of Electricity,' Providing for the Greater Safety to Life and Property by Regulating the Installation, Repair, Operation, and Maintenance of all Electrical Conductors [etc.], January 2, 1923, articles 2b, 11; Pasadena, California, Ordinance no. 1969, An Ordinance of the City of Pasadena Fixing the Duties and Powers of the City Electrician; Regulating the Installation, Alteration and Repair of Inside and Outside Electrical Construction, and Providing for the Inspection of Same, March 28, 1922, articles 9, 15. The National Board of Fire Underwriters' model building code stipulated that building codes require electrical installations to meet the National Electrical Code; see [National Board of Fire Underwriters] Building Code Recommended by the National Board of Fire Underwriters, 4th ed. (New York: [National Board of Fire Underwriters], 1922), sec. 261.

42. History of the National Electrical Code from Terrell Croft, Wiring for Light and Power: A Detailed and Fully Illustrated Commentary on the National Electrical Code, 4th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1924), preface to the 1923 National Electrical Code, x; see also Charles S. Morgan, Public Advocate for Fire Safety: The Story of the National Fire Protection Association (New York: Newcomen Society in North America, 1977); branch circuiting comparison of 1920 and 1923 codes refers to circuits of no. 14 conducting wire, Croft, Wiring for Light and Power, 201-202. The code stipulated no. 18 wire for lamps, no. 14 wire for small motor appliances, and no. 12 wire for large-base lamps ("mogul" base lamps) on two-wire circuits; ibid., 200-202. Chicago's 1923 code revisions referenced, ibid., 375-376. On separate appliance circuits, also see H. C. Cushing, Jr., Standard Wiring for Electric Light and Power, as Adopted by the Fire Underwriters of the United States, 31st ed. (New York: H. C. Cushing, Jr., 1925), 239, 246. Popularization of the National Electrical Code was provided by Blanche Halbert, ed., The Better Homes Manual, published in cooperation with Better Homes in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1931), 287-309.

43. For heavy heating appliances, see Halbert, Better Homes Manual, 395-397. See also Cushing, Standard Wiring, 136, 161-168.

44. "It is very difficult" quoted from Terrell Croft, Wiring of Finished Buildings, a practical treatise ... (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1915), 102; see also pp. 61-63, 101-143, and the discussion, "Neatness and How Obtained," 157-159. See also Arthur L. Cook, Electric Wiring for Lighting and Power Installations (New York: John Wiley, [1917] 1933), 177-223.

45. My conclusion that inadequate wiring divided the nation's housing stock into classes of technological capability is supported by the following references: W. J. Canada (Electrical Field Secretary, National Fire Protection Association), "Wiring Code National Standardization," Electrical World 85 (June 27, 1925): 1424-1425, which argued for replacement of local building codes on wiring by a national standard. The "Red Seal" plan originated in 1924 in an effort to induce the home building industry, utilities, and electrical manufacturers to raise wiring standards. How the industry intended the plan to work is discussed in "California Electrical Men Organize Behind the Red Seal Plan" [subtitle: "Adequate Wiring the Basic Need in All Market Development Work"], Electrical Merchandising 34 (October 1925): 5619-5620. M. Luckiesh, "40,000,000 Outlets in Prospect,'' Electrical World 86 (October 24, 1925), 851-852. M. Luckiesh (Director of the Lighting Research Laboratory, Nela Park [National Electric Light Association research facility], "Good Business in Fixtures," ibid., 86 (November 14, 1925): 995-996, which cites a national NELA survey that found 23 percent of all lightbulbs

unshaded and 31 percent of all fixtures "obsolete." "Why Appliances Do Not Sell More Rapidly: An Answer in Present Housewiring Incompleteness," Electrical Merchandising 35 (March 1926): 6133. ''Convenience Outlets and Residential Electrification," Electrical World 89 (April 30, 1927): 898. Earl A. Graham, "Home Lighting—an Unsaturated Market," ibid., 98 (September 12, 1931): 464-466, which estimated that 70 percent of electrified dwellings did not have lights at "the level considered at present to be minimum good practice" (p. 464). "What Is Adequate House Wiring?" ibid., 100 (October 29, 1932): 603-605, stated, matter-of-factly, that "inadequate wiring for residences has long been a stumbling block to complete home electrification." E. S. Ritz, "Residential Load Possibilities," ibid., 102 (September 23,1933): 400. "Facing the Facts on the American Home [editorial]," ibid., 104 (July 28, 1934): 102, interprets the Real Property Inventory of 1934 as showing that the American urban housing stock on average was substandard. Laurence Wray, "How to Make Money in Lighting," Electrical Merchandising 62 (November 1939): 1-5, reports a Women's Home Companion survey of wiring and lighting upgrade needed in 1,000 homes, as part of a national "Better Lighting" campaign. Irving W. Clark (Manager, Home Building Division, Westinghouse Electric Appliance Division), "Electrifying Postwar Housing," Electrical Merchandising 69 (June 1943): 20, 59, argued that utilities should join manufacturers in obtaining new wiring standards for the expected postwar building boom. Michael Doucet and John Weaver do not distinguish between electrification and electrical modernization. I have been unable to relate their impressive data to the categorization of housing grades in this chapter. They utilize the number of rooms per resident and assessed valuation as measures of the quality of housing, supplemented by national censuses on sanitation facilities in homes. See Doucet and Weaver, Housing the North American City, 423-445. Doucet and Weaver mention the deterioration of housing after the onset of the depression in 1930 and attempt to measure it. They find that the passage of better owned houses into rentals increased the availability of better rental units (but see pp. 428, 457-462).

1. Norris quoted by Richard Lowitt, George W. Norris: The Persistence of a Progressive, 1913-1933 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1971), 359. See also Jay Lawrence Brigham, "Public Power and Progressivism in the 1920s" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Riverside, 1992).

2. "After two years" quoted from Robert M. La Follette, La Follette's Autobiography: A Personal Narrative of Political Experience, with a foreword by Allan Nevins (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1960), 153-154. See also California Progressive Campaign Book for 1914: Three Years of Progressive Administration in California under Hiram W. Johnson (San Francisco: [s.n.], 1914), 141, 158-160. Morton Keller perceives an important difference between the railroads and public utilities as subjects of regulation; see Keller, Regulating a New Economy: Public Policy and Economic Change in America, 1900-1933 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990), 59, 63.

3. California Progressive Campaign Book, 50; Charles Evans Hughes, "Speech at the Dinner of the Republican Club of the City of New York, October 18, 1907," in Charles Evans Hughes, Addresses of Charles Evans Hughes 1906-1916, 2d ed. (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1916), 71-72; La Follette, Autobiography, 171.

4. Charles Evans Hughes, "Speech Before the Republican Club of the City of New York, January 31, 1908," in Hughes, Addresses, 91; Robert F. Wesser, Charles Evans

Hughes: Politics and Reform in New York, 1905-1910 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1967), chap. 4.

5. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, Bicentennial Edition, Part I (Washington, D.C., 1975), 2: 827, Series S 108-119, "Growth of Residential Service, and Average Prices for Electric Energy: 1902 to 1970," Series 112, "Residential Service, Average Price (cents per kw.-hr.) monthly use 0-25 kw.-hr."

6. The distinction between normal or average load and peak load enabled the industry to argue in the late 1920s that it did not have excess capacity and was not overcapitalized; see Edwin G. Nourse and associates, America's Capacity to Produce: Study of Consumption in the 1920s (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1934), 313-339.

7. See Twentieth Century Fund, Electric Power and Government Policy: A Survey of the Relations Between the Government and the Electric Power Industry (New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1948), 39-44, for an overview of pricing; pp. 19-23, 223-230, for analysis of the historical decline in rates and costs in the 1920s and 1930s; pp. 28-29, on marginal generating costs. From the industry side, this analysis is presented by Edwin Vennard (a managing director of the Edison Electric Institute), Government in the Power Business (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968), 205. Analysis of the historic decline in rates from the reformers' perspective is made by James C. Bonbright (a Roosevelt adviser and an original member of the New York State Power Authority), Public Utilities and the National Power Policies (New York: Columbia University Press, 1940), 18-19.

8. H. S. Rauschenbush and Harry W. Laidler, Power Control (New York: New Republic, 1928), 104-105.

9. For the debt-capitalization ratio, see table 1-14, "Ratio of Debt to Capitalization of Electric Operating Companies, All Manufacturing and Domestic Corporations, 1917-1938," in Twentieth Century Fund, Electric Power, 38. The accusation that high rates were needed to pay fraudulent debts was reviewed in Bonbright, Public Utilities, 10, 24-26. Twentieth Century Fund, Electric Power, 20-21, discusses the legal problem, and pp. 252-253, 260-262, and 271-274 review the problem of inflated securities and rates. "Premium" quotation by Norris is from Lowitt, Norris: The Persistence, 264. Twentieth Century Fund, Electric Power, 187-194.

10. "Intimately bound" quoted from Franklin D. Roosevelt, The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt, ed. Samuel I. Rosenman (New York: Random House, 1938), 1: 106. An influential discussion of the effect of holding companies on state regulation was provided by Rauschenbush and Laidler, Power Control, 116-157. On the regionalization of American operating utilities, see Hughes, Networks of Power, 363-460.

11. Table 1.1, "Municipal Electric Systems in the United States, 1882-1981," p. 9 in David Schap, Municipal Ownership in the Electric Utility Industry: A Centennial View, Praeger Special Studies, Praeger Scientific (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1986).

12. For Norris's career, see Lowitt, Norris: The Persistence, 264-267. See also Hughes, American Genesis, 362-364.

13. "Every stream" quoted from George W. Norris, Fighting Liberal: The Autobiography of George W. Norris (New York: Macmillan, 1945), 161.

14. All quotations from David E. Lilienthal, TVA: Democracy on the March, rev. ed. (New York: Harper & Brothers, [1944] 1953), 218-225, passim. Lilienthal's characterization of the TVA as a form of democratic, grassroots planning has been repeatedly challenged, beginning with Donald Davidson, The Tennessee, 2 vols. (New York: Rinehart, 1946-1948). For a review of Lilienthal's versus Davidson's vision of the Tennessee River

valley, see William C. Havard, Jr., "Images of TVA: The Clash over Values," in Erwin C. Hargrove and Paul K. Conkin, ed., TVA: Fifty Years of Grass-Roots Bureaucracy (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983), 297-315; see also Victor C. Hobday, Sparks at the Grassroots: Municipal Distribution of TVA Electricity in Tennessee (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1969), 32-73. A more generous interpretation of the TVA is provided by Philip Selznick, TVA and the Grass Roots: A Study in the Sociology of Formal Organization (New York: Harper & Row, [1949] 1966).

15. All quotations from Lilienthal, TVA, 218-225, passim.

16. For Lilienthal's conceptualization of TVA planning, see Lilienthal, TVA, 218-225.

17. Schap, Municipal Ownership, 66.

18. On Ford's vision, see Preston J. Hubbard, Origins of the TVA: The Muscle Shoals Controversy, 1920-1932 (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1961), 39, 55, 86-87, 92, 129, 140-141: and Reynold M. Wik, Henry Ford and Grass-roots America (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1972), 112, 120, 230. See also Walter L. Creese, TVA's Public Planning: The Vision, the Reality (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1990), 28-29; Nye, Electrifying America, 298-299.

19. On Boston Edison's participation in the educational campaign, see Sicilia, "Selling Power," 527-539.

20. On social conservatism and class advertising in magazines, see Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1985), xvii, 63-66, 127-132, 194-200, 248-254. On electrical advertising, see Cowan, More Housework, 137-138, 187-188; Pamela W. Laurito, "The Message Was Electric," IEEE Spectrum 21 (September 1984): 84-95; and Nye, Electrifying America, 267-277. Nye argues that electrical appliances socially meant both "tools of psychological maintenance and symbols of transformation" (ibid., 281). While his text makes clear the evidence for interpreting the advertising message as psychological maintenance, his evidence is less convincing that appliances promised transformation for middle-class households. Rather than ''transformation," the ads promise more efficient and capable achievement of traditional values. On New Deal pictorial symbolism, see Creese, TVA's Public Planning; see also Richard Lowitt and Maurine Beasley, eds., One Third of a Nation: Lorena Hickok Reports on the Great Depression (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981). On the political activities of the electrical associations and the disinformation campaign involved in private advertising of electrical products, see Rauschenbush and Laidler, Power Control, passim. On Norris's struggle over Ford's vision, see Lowitt, Norris: The Persistence, 208, 214-215, 245, 264, 359-360.

21. On Cooke's career, see Kenneth Trombley, The Life and Times of a Happy Liberal, Morris Llewellyn Cooke (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1954). D. Clayton Brown, Electricity for Rural America: The Fight for the REA (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980), 22-57.

22. "The change from muscle" quotation is from Gifford Pinchot, Introduction, in Giant Power: Large-Scale Electrical Development as a Social Factor, ed. Morris Llewellyn Cooke, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 118, (1925): viii; Pinchot's contribution hereafter cited as Pinchot, "Introduction," and the whole volume as Cooke, Giant Power . "Decline in country life" quotation and "decentralization" quoted from Pinchot, "Introduction," xi. Pinchot wrote that public ownership of utilities was not needed; social modernization could be achieved through state planning and regulation of privately owned utilities. Alfred Bettman thought contrarily

that public ownership might be necessary to achieve social goals, though this ownership ought to be accomplished at the state level rather than the federal level (which should limit itself to regulation). See Pinchot, "Introduction," vii-xii, and Alfred Bettman, "Is Giant Power a State or Federal Utility? Should Its Control be Through Public Ownership or Regulation?" ibid., 168-175. Thomas Hughes interprets Giant Power from a point of view in opposition to public power; see Hughes, Networks of Power, 297-313; and Hughes, "The Industrial Revolution That Never Came,'' American Heritage of Invention and Technology (Winter 1988): 58-64. Cooke's and Pinchot's positions in corporate liberalism are analyzed in terms of the Super Power and Giant Power projects of the 1920s in Leonard DeGraaf, "Corporate Liberalism and Electric Power System Planning in the 1920s," Business History Review 64 (Spring 1990): 1-31. On the community vision of the Regional Planning Association and its progenitors, see James W. Carey and John J. Quirk, "The Mythos of the Electronic Revolution," American Scholar 39 (Spring 1970): 219-241 and 40 (Summer 1970): 395-424, and Hughes, "The Industrial Revolution," 63-64.

23. "Life born" quoted from Martha Bensley Breùere, "What Is Giant Power For?" in Cooke, Giant Power, 123; "There must be" quoted from Mary Pattison, "The Abolition of Household Slavery," in Cooke, Giant Power, 126.

24. Helen Campbell, Household Economics: A Course of Lectures in the School of Economics of the University of Wisconsin, rev. (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1896); Isabel Gordon Curtis, The Making of a Housewife (New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1906); Lucy H. Salmon, Progress in the Household (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1906); Bertha J. Richardson, The Woman Who Spends: A Study of Her Economic Function, rev. (Boston: Whitcomb & Barrows, 1910); Georgie Boynton Child, The Efficient Kitchen: Definite Directions for the Planning, Arranging and Equipping of the Modern Laborsaving Kitchen—A Practical Book for the Home-Maker (New York: McBride, Nast, 1914); Mary (Mrs. Frank A.) Pattison, Principles of Domestic Engineering, Or the What, Why and How of a Home; An Attempt to Evolve a Solution to the Domestic "Labor and Capital" Problem—To Standardize and Professionalize Housework—To Re-Organize the Home Upon 'Scientific Management' Principles—And To Point Out the Importance of the Public and Personal Element Therein, As Well As the Practical (New York: [Women's Club of New Jersey], 1915); Christine Frederick, Household Engineering: Scientific Management in the Home; A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principle of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping (Chicago: American School of Home Economics, 1919); see also the 1925 edition of Christine Frederick's work, titled Efficient Housekeeping or Household Engineering: Scientific Management in the Home. A Correspondence Course on the Application of the Principles of Efficiency Engineering and Scientific Management to the Every Day Tasks of Housekeeping (Chicago: American School of Home Economics, 1925); Lillian Gilbreth, The Homemaker and Her Job (New York: D. Appleton-Century [1927] 1935). On concerns about the shift from the farm to the urban home kitchen, see Child, The Efficient Kitchen, 13, and Frederick, Household Engineering, 19. "We can foresee" quoted from Mary Pattison, Principles of Domestic Engineering, 121. Ernest Flagg, Small Houses: Their Economic Design and Construction; Essays on the Fundamental Principles of Design and Descriptive Articles on Construction (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1922), ix-x. Robert T. Jones, Small Homes of Architectural Distinction: A Book of Suggested Plans by the Architects' Small House Service Bureau, Inc. (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1929), 2, 5-6, 8, 22, 62, 118. Child, The Efficient Kitchen, 20.

25. Marion Talbot and Sophonisba Preston Breckinridge, The Modern Household (Boston: Whitcomb & Barrows, 1912), 47-55; Martha Bensley Bruère and Robert W. Bruère, Increasing Home Efficiency (New York: Macmillan, [1911] 1916), 11-12. Gilbreth provides one of the more extensive discussions of time and motion studies in the home; See Gilbreth, The Homemaker, 55-56, 86-142.

26. "This principle" quoted from Frederick, Household Engineering, 22.

27. "The health" quoted from Frederick, Household Engineering, 267; see also pp. 286-296. Ellen Richards feared families would purchase housing so expensive they would skimp on clothes and food, for which careful budgeting was the only answer; see Ellen H. Richards, The Cost of Shelter (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1905), 15-17. "It is clearly" quoted from C. W. Haskins, How to Keep Household Accounts: A Manual of Family Finance (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1903), 9. See also Richardson, The Woman Who Spends, 16-17.

28. "Unbusinesslike" quoted from Frederick, Household Engineering, 269. See also Gilman, The Home, 70.

29. "Whether it is" quoted from Child, The Efficient Kitchen, 201-202. Lord, Getting Your Money's Worth, 1-2, 125-127, 131-320. On asset accumulation, see Lord, Getting Your Money's Worth, 7, 19-24, 77-79.

30. "If marriage" quoted from Lord, Getting Your Money's Worth, 14. "The greatest" quoted from ibid., 12. See Bertha Richardson's introductory remarks in Richardson, The Woman Who Spends, 49-50. See also Pattison, Principles, preface and 49, 181, 191. Gilbreth, The Homemaker, 27-48. "Humiliating" and "demoralizing" from Lord, Getting Your Money's Worth, 12, 117.

31. "The whole family" quoted from Frederick, Household Engineering, 268.

32. "Is one" quoted from Norris, Fighting Liberal, 161. Frank Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt: The Triumph (Boston: Little, Brown, 1956), 43. "The most weighty" and "Hydroelectric power" quotations from Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Age of Roosevelt: The Crisis of the Old Order, 1919-1933 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1957), 124. "One of the most important" quoted from ''Important Notice to Members of the Academy," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 156 (July 1931), inside back cover; I appreciate Gabriele Carey for bringing this item to my attention. See also Brigham, "Public Power."

33. Martin J. Sklar, The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 1890-1916: The Market, the Law, and Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, [1988] 1989), 35-40. See also Ellis W. Hawley, The New Deal and the Problem of Monopoly (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966).

34. For the ideological positions regarding public power, see Philip J. Funigiello, Toward a National Power Policy: The New Deal and the Electric Utility Industry, 1933-1941 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1973), xi-xvi, 3-31; Brigham, "Public Power," 1-60, 112-158; Kline, Steinmetz, 200-264.

35. John G. Clark, Energy and the Federal Government: Fossil Fuel Policies, 1900-1946 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987), 169; Clark's remarks pertain to fossil fuel industrialists but are applicable to the electrical industry.

36. On Roosevelt's economic views, see Daniel G. Fusfield, The Economic Thought of Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Origins of the New Deal (New York: Columbia University Press, 1956). Biles emphasizes Roosevelt's commitment to economy in government as helping to unify the various New Deal programs; Roger Biles, A New Deal for the American People (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1991), 55.

37. "Intensive study" quoted from Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt, 101; see also pp. 264-265. "Brain trust" quoted from Kenneth S. Davis, quoting Roosevelt, in FDR: The New York Years, 1928-1933 (New York: Random House, 1985), 289; on Roosevelt's sense of personal destiny, see pp. 13-16.

38. Roosevelt, Public Papers, 1: 159-166; Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt, 45.

39. Roosevelt discussed his position on rate-setting in the message to the legislature, March 12, 1929, in Roosevelt, Public Papers, 1: 171-178.

40. See Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Schlesinger, The Age of Roosevelt, on Roosevelt's political strategy.

41. Roosevelt, Public Papers, 1: 15.

42. Campaign speech at Syracuse, New York, October 23, 1928, pp. 44-45. Annual Message to the New State Legislature, January 1, 1930, 92.

43. Campaign address, Syracuse, New York, October 22, 1930, p. 20.

44. Ibid., 20-21.

45. "First consideration" quoted from memorandum to the legislature accompanying transmittal of the Report of the St. Lawrence Power Development Commission, January 19, 1931, p. 187; "primary purpose" quoted from memorandum to the legislature concerning the bill to develop St. Lawrence hydroelectric power, March 4, 1931, p. 194.

1. "Ten thousand towns" is from Sinclair Lewis, Main Street, chap. 1. On the "city growth game," see Eric H. Monkkonen, America Becomes Urban: The Development of U.S. Cities and Towns, 1780-1980, (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1990), 138-144.

2. "One of the eras" quoted from Robert S. Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd, Middletown: A Study in American Culture (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, [1929] 1957), 5; "a small" and "homogeneous" quoted from ibid., p. 8; "the mere fact'' quoted from ibid., pp. 23-24. For use of the Middletown portrait, see Nye, Electrifying America, chap. 1, "Middletown Lights Up"; Cowan, More Work for Mother, 82-83, 96-97, 107, 123, 173-174, 182, 189; Platt, The Electric City, 221, 222, 226, 244, 252; Baritz, The Good Life, 125-128. Historians of domestic electricity do not treat race as a factor in differential modernization. Doucet and Weaver do not take up the racial variable, since Hamilton, Ontario, did not have a significant nonwhite population; see their Housing the North American City, 446-466. On the typicality of Riverside, see Tobey, Wetherell, and Brigham, "Moving Out and Settling In," 1421-1422.

3. Riverside shared southern California's growth, increasing to 29,696 persons in 1930 and 46,764 in 1950. Throughout this chapter, general details of local history are from Thomas Patterson, A Colony for California: Riverside's First Hundred Years (Riverside: Press-Enterprise, 1971). Historical population statistics for white and nonwhite peoples in Riverside are estimates based on U.S. Census sources from 1900 to 1960, including use of the 1910 manuscript census; see Tobey, "Statistical Supplement."

4. By "upper class," I mean bourgeoisie. The bourgeoisie is distinguished from other social classes by having a significant portion of its income from real property investment or shares in capital ventures. "Middle class" refers to white-collar, salaried employment and skilled labor employment in which the laborer works by contract. "Labor class" refers to manual labor, wage-earning occupations. Carpenters who take construction contracts would be middle class: carpenters who work for contractors for wages would be classed

as laborers. See table 3.1. For historical accuracy, I follow without approving the local Anglo convention of classifying Mexican and Hispanic persons as "nonwhite." On Riverside's Anglo elite, see Kevin Starr, Inventing the Dream: California Through the Progressive Era (New York: Oxford University Press, [1985] 1986), 89-98, 144-147, and Kevin Starr, Material Dreams: Southern California Through the 1920s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 136-139, 186-187, 205-209. With regard to the capability of a capitalist class to make social relations, see David Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 1836-1986 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987). Citrus employment statistics are from 1938 but are roughly applicable to the 1920s; "Citrus Packing Plants Employ 1200 Workers," Riverside Daily Press, May 5, 1938, p. 7. California's first "captive" agricultural labor force was Chinese; see Cletus E. Daniel, Bitter Harvest: A History of California Farmworkers, 1870-1941 (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, [1981] 1982), 27. On the importance of the open shop to the regional industrialization strategy, see Robert Phelps, "Dangerous Class on the Plains of the Id: Ideology and Home Ownership in Southern California, 1880-1920" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Riverside, 1996).

5. Some of my neighborhood names do not correspond to local place-names. "Expansion," "Government Tract," "Groves," and the geographic differentiation of three East Side neighborhoods designate historically and socially distinguishable districts but are not contemporary place-names. Today, the three East Side neighborhoods are known simply as "Eastside." I defined the geographic boundaries of Riverside's historic neighborhoods in terms of street boundaries for distinctive racial, class, and historical characteristics. The boundaries are static but encompass socially dynamic areas for three decades, 1921-1950. The boundaries should therefore be thought of as containing the central tendencies in social and geographic definition of neighborhoods, rather than mutually exclusive neighborhood characteristics. Over time, social characteristics changed near the boundaries, perhaps sufficiently by 1950 that households along particular street boundaries no longer reflected the central tendency of the neighborhood. I defined the street boundaries for Old East Side in terms of the 1948 housing survey of the area; see "Nearly all residents'' quotation and other information regarding the survey from "Church Women Make Survey of Housing Conditions on East Side," Riverside Daily Press, September 22, 1948, p. 4. In 1921, the African-American and Mexican-American populations in the neighborhood were smaller and more confined than in 1948, so that at the outset of the period there were more Anglo households than minority households along the neighborhood's boundary streets. Table 3.1 demonstrates that the boundaries capture distinguishing characteristics for the entire period.

6. To supplement Riverside Sample Data (see n. 7), I drew on the class analysis of households in Mile Square in 1889 and 1923 by Robert Phelps, "The Riverside and Arlington Railroad Company: Social Control in the Citrus Community" (unpublished graduate research paper, Department of History, University of California, Riverside, 1989), 61-64, 74-76. "Four Hundred and Three New Houses Have Been Erected Here in Last Twelve Months," Riverside Enterprise, December 31, 1924, p. 9.

7. Data on social characteristics, residential characteristics, housing quality, electrical status, and neighborhood zones of Riverside households are drawn from three data sets. The first consists of 1,573 electrified houses drawn from the utility billing records of the City of Riverside, California, between 1921 and 1950; the second, for information pertaining to the 9,080 individuals and business enterprises, was obtained from city directories listing who occupied those houses and consumed electricity; and the third,

of 276,399 monthly observations of electrical consumption. As the source for the data and analysis of Riverside, the data are referenced as "Riverside Sample Data." Research on the Riverside Sample Data was conducted by chapter 6 co-author, Charles Wetherell. Unless otherwise referenced, all quantitative data about Riverside is from this source. See Tobey, "Statistical Supplement." See also chapter 6, note 3.

8. On Riverside's minorities, see Joyce Carter Vickery, Defending Eden: New Mexican Pioneers in Southern California, 1830-1890 (Riverside: Department of History, University of California, Riverside, and the Riverside Museum Press, 1977); Mark Howland Rawitsch, No Other Place: Japanese American Pioneers in a Southern California Neighborhood (Riverside: Department of History, University of California, Riverside, 1983); and Great Basin Foundation, ed., Wong Ho Leun: An American Chinatown (San Diego: The Foundation, 1987). Riverside's Chinatown followed a model similar to San Jose's Chinatown; see Timothy J. Lukes and Gary Y. Okihiro, Japanese Legacy: Farming and Community in California's Santa Clara Valley, Local History Studies 31, California History Center (Cupertino: California History Center, 1985), 19-25. See also Roger Daniels, The Politics of Prejudice: The Anti-Japanese Movement in California and the Struggle for Japanese Exclusion (New York: Atheneum, [1969] 1970). On employment segregation, see Tobey, "Statistical Supplement." On the racial context of Riverside zoning, see "Race Relations Survey Is Plan," Riverside Daily Press, August 15, 1924, p. 2; "Mexican Housing Being Studied," Riverside Enterprise, July 11, 1924, p. 2; "Will Oppose Any Entrance of Orientals: Northsiders Plan to Take Action to Meet Situation," ibid., July 29, 1924, p. 5; ''[Berkeley, California] Adopt[s] Covenant on Race Problem," Riverside Daily Press, August 13, 1924, p. 6; "Mexican Problem Theme of Meeting," Riverside Enterprise, November 16, 1924, p. 1. "Council Overrules Planning Body on Duplex Rezoning," Riverside Daily Press, June 18, 1940, p. 4. "Big Subdivision Project on Rubidoux Slope Approved," ibid., February 7, 1941, 9. "Subdivision Rezoning Given Tentative Approval," ibid., March 5, 1943, 5. "City's Housing Problems Aired," ibid., February 12, 1947, p. 1. "Planners O.K. Housing Zone," ibid., April 8, 1949, p. 9. "44-Home Project Now Underway on Eastside," ibid., April 6, 1950, p. 12. Morton Keller opposes but does not disprove the thesis that zoning resulted from elites attempting to maintain social control of an ever-changing population and does not mention control of race relations; see Keller, Regulating a New Economy, 181-191. My claim that zoning deliberately suppressed minority population growth is partly based on comparison of Riverside's and regional minority population trends; see Tobey, "Statistical Supplement." On Mexican immigration, see Carey McWilliams, North from Mexico: The Spanish-speaking People of the United States, new ed., updated by Matt S. Meier (New York: Praeger, [1948] 1990). On zoning for race separation, see Christopher Silver, Twentieth-Century Richmond: Planning, Politics, and Race (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1984), 11, 31-34, 97-129; and Barbara J. Flint, "Zoning and Residential Segregation: A Social and Physical History, 1910-1940" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1977), 12-16, on California's leadership in racial zoning, and pp. 35-39, 103-107, 226-28, 238-241, 300-358 on planned zoning and racial residential segregation in twentieth-century Atlanta, St. Louis, and Chicago.

9. Hunter Douglas Corporation built a $290,000 plant on Kansas Avenue in 1947-1948; see "Building Permits in Riverside Up in 1947," Riverside Daily Press, January 1, 1948, p. 4.

10. One Hispanic family lived in the North East Side before 1941, that of Miguel Estudillo, city attorney and descendant of Mexican land grant holders. See "Miguel

Estudillo Tells of Political Battle in County," Riverside Daily Press, September 25, 1943, 2:A-7, and "Miguel Estudillo, Son of State Pioneers, Dies," ibid., April 29, 1950, p. 9.

11. "Alternate Lots Free to All Who Build," Riverside Enterprise, April 1, 1923, p. 13. Patterson, A Colony for California, 376.

12. For the profiles of Diaz and Machado, see Arthur Gordon, "Potential Value of Latins to Their Community Told," Riverside Daily Press, May 11, 1940, p. 2.

13. "Names Are Wanted for Subdivision," Riverside Enterprise, April 6, 1922, p. 2. "Four Hundred and Three New Houses Have Been Erected Here in Last Twelve Months," ibid., December 31, 1924, p. 1. "Magnolia Area Continues Home Building Center," Riverside Daily Press, July 9, 1938, p. 16; twenty of eighty-two permits from January 1 to July 1 were in the area. "60-Home Project to Be Built at Once," Riverside Daily Press, July 15, 1947, p. 4; ''60-Home Building Project Invites Public Inspection," ibid., November 15, 1947, p. 7. On tract development in the Government Tract area, see "Mayor Guessed Wrong—City Building Boom Still Booming," ibid., April 13, 1950, p. 10. Kenneth T. Jackson, "Race, Ethnicity, and Real Estate Appraisal," pp. 210-232 in Leonard Dinnerstein and Kenneth T. Jackson, eds., American Vistas, Vol. 2: 1877 to the Present (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); see also Federal Housing Administration, Underwriting Manual: Underwriting and Valuation Procedure under Title II of the National Housing Act, rev. ed. (Washington, D.C.: Federal Housing Administration, February 1938), pars. 909, 936, 1379(6). Greg Hise, "Home Building and Industrial Decentralization in Los Angeles: The Roots of the Postwar Urban Region," Journal of Urban History 19 (February 1993): 95-125, and Marc A. Weiss, The Rise of the Community Builders: The American Real Estate Industry and Urban Land Planning (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987), 145-162.

14. Average Number of Light Bulbs in Residences, 1923-1924, from Table 1, "Summary of Various Major Items in Residential Lighting Survey," in "Possibilities of Residence Lighting," Electrical World 85 (June 20, 1925): 1319. In the early 1920s, home owners used only low-wattage bulbs. In a survey of 7,000 homes in 1922, the National Electric Lighting Association found that 75 percent of all bulbs rated at fifty watts or less; see fig. 3, "Lamp Wattage Distribution in Residences," in M. Luckiesh, "More Wattage in the Home Lights," Electrical World 86 (November 28, 1925): 1106. In table 3.6, below, a small number of residences with more than 100 lightbulbs were eliminated because they provided an insufficient basis for statistical analysis. On the connection between income, assessed value of residential property, and the number of rooms, see Doucet and Weaver, Housing the North American City, 428:table 10.2, 430:table 10.3.

15. Phelps, "The Riverside and Arlington Railroad Company," 44; Patterson, A Colony for California, 185. "Accepted the Agnew Agency" quoted from "Riverside Snap Shots" personals column by "Jay Hawker" [H. H. Williamson], California Eagle, December 30, 1922, p. 6. "Has bought" quoted from ibid., November 11, 1922, p. 13.

16. "Strict Economy of Electric Power Urged," Riverside Enterprise, March 17, 1924, p. 1. "Utilities Board to Force Reduction in Local Use of Electricity Immediately," ibid., June 20, 1924, p. 4. "Power Curtailed 25 Per Cent in Southern California," Electrical World 84 (July 19, 1924): 135. H. G. Butler, "California Power Shortage of 1924," ibid., 85 (January 24, 1925): 193-197.

17. Cf. Platt, The Electric City, 235-267.

18. "Gas Company Believed to Have No Franchise," Riverside Daily Press, January 26,1939, p. 5; Riverside Morning Mission, September 3, 1909, p. 2; "Gas Company to Build Own Office Here," Riverside Daily Press, January 7, 1930, p. 5. Statistics on

Riverside meters are provided in "Riverside Public Utilities," Riverside Press and Enterprise Progress Edition supplement, February 11, 1949, p. 7. On continuing use of oil lamps, see "Change in Rates Here for House Lighting Is Unlikely," Riverside Enterprise, April 14, 1925, p. 2.

19. For the appearance of technologies, see: [advertisements for] "Samuel Hill [oil]," Riverside Press, July 6, 1878, p. 3; "Ruffen and Biays [oil stoves]," ibid., August 24, 1878, p. 4; "Standard Oil Co.," ibid., November 30, 1979, p. 3; ''Hutchings & Co., Oil," ibid., December 21, 1878, p. 3; "Weister & Co. [oil stoves]," ibid., December 28, 1878, p. 3; "Trowbridge and Wakeman [gasoline stoves]," ibid., November 12, 1889, p. 1; "The Riverside Transfer [coal]," ibid., I; "Wood & Cunningham [stoves]," ibid., November 18, 1889, p. 4; "C. C. Birdsall [gasoline and coal oil]," Riverside Morning Enterprise, August 3, 1900, p. 3; "Findlay & Knight [wood and coal heaters, coal oil heaters]," ibid., December 18, 1900, p. 8; "Riverside Milling & Fuel Company [coal]," ibid., September 1, 1910, p. 5; "Southern California Gas Company [ad for service]," ibid., September 4, 1912, p. 3; "Southern California Gas Company [ovens]," ibid., July 23, 1915, p. 6; "Florence Oil Range," ibid., May 6, 1925, p. 3; "Gas Ranges and Heaters," ibid., January 15, 1928, p. 5; "Sears, Roebuck, and Co. ['Dispatch' Gas Ranges]," ibid., February 24, 1929, p. 6. As the housing boom of the 1920s finally got under way, businesses affiliated with gas service took out full-page ads in the Riverside Enterprise to promote heaters and ranges: "Why Have New Houses No Chimneys?" ibid., November 16, 1922, p. 3, and "Gas Equipment Exhibit," ibid., April 7, 1924, p. 4. Typical stories about improving gas service are "Gas Improvements Are Planned Here," ibid., March 3, 1921, p. 8; "Gas Service Is Improved Here," ibid., November 10, 1921, p. 3; "Gas Assured for Elsinore," ibid., February 22, 1923, p. 7; "Corona Good Field for Gas Company," ibid., February 29, 1923, p. 2; "Big Sum Will Be Expended," ibid., February 5, 1924, p. 9; "Huge Gas Line Is Being Constructed," ibid., December 25, 1926, p. 4. "Electricity can be safely" quoted in "All Riverside Property Owners Are Stockholders in Their Municipal Electric Light Plant [advertisement]," Riverside Daily Press, March 20, 1935, p. 8. On the state of gas cooking technology and the competition between gas and electric cooking, see Jane Busch, "Cooking Competition," 222-245. On the advancement of residential technologies and quality of home life, see Cowan, More Work for Mother, passim.

20. See Norris Hundley, Jr., Dividing the Waters: A Century of Controversy Between the United States and Mexico (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1966); Norris Hundley, Jr., Water and the West: The Colorado River Compact and the Politics of Water in the American West (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1975); Norris Hundley, Jr., The Great Thirst: Californians and Water, 1770s-1990s (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and Oxford: University of California Press, 1992), 203-220; and Donald J. Pisani, From the Family Farm to Agribusiness: The Irrigation Crusade in California and the West, 1850-1931 (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1984); and Donald Worster, Rivers of Empire: Water, Aridity, and the Growth of the American West (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985). On Los Angeles's struggle for the Colorado River, see Brigham, "Public Power," 273-304. On Southern California Edison, see William A. Myers, Iron Men and Copper Wires: A Centennial History of the Southern California Edison Company (Glendale, Calif.: Trans-Anglo Books, 1983), and William Allan Myers, "Electricity in Orange County, California, 1890-1914: A Case Study in the Socio-Economic Impact of Technology" (M.A. thesis, California State University, Fullerton, 1991).

21. Carey McWilliams, Southern California: An Island Upon the Land (Salt Lake

City: Peregrine Smith Books, [1946] 1973), 273-283; Starr, Material Dreams, 90-95; Robert M. Fogelson, The Fragmented Metropolis: Los Angeles, 1850-1930 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967), 108-134; Roger W. Lotchin, Fortress California, 1910-1961 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 5-17, 64-130. On the Southern industrialization strategy, see James C. Cobb, Industrialization and Southern Society, 1877-1984 (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1984), 27-50, 88; and James C. Cobb, The Selling of the South: The Southern Crusade for Industrial Development, 1936-1980 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1982), 92-98.

22. See Daniel, Bitter Harvest, passim. See also Mike Davis, City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles (New York: Vintage Books, [1990] 1992), 101-106.

23. In the city's mayoralty election in November 1927, six candidates debated issues of agriculture and industry in the city. Industrialization was strongly supported, even by the candidate who ran on an agricultural platform. See "Half Dozen Candidates to Run for Office of Mayor," Riverside Enterprise, October 27, 1927, p. 7; "Candidate for Mayor Sees Benefit of Farm Activity," ibid., November 4, 1927, p. 7; "Community Prosperity Is Dependent on the Payroll,'' ibid., November 5, 1927, p. 7. "The middle class" quoted from Baritz, The Good Life, 71, and see also pp. 71-85, 125-129, 171.

24. "Mayor Porter at Sacramento Power Meeting," Riverside Enterprise, January 29, 1921, p. 1. Dr. Porter elaborated his political philosophy in favor of municipal ownership of utilities in a debate with A. B. West, vice president of the Southern Sierras Power Company, who attacked municipal ownership as socialism by another name, at a meeting of the Present Day Club in Riverside, March 28, 1921. Porter's view was supported by E. A. Scattergood, chief engineer of the Los Angeles Bureau of Power and Light. "Will Riverside Build Power Plant?" ibid., March 29, 1921, p. 3. See also Van Valen, "Power Politics," 210-212, 232-233.

25. "Half Dozen Candidates to Run for Office of Mayor," Riverside Enterprise, October 27, 1927, p. 7; Patterson, Colony for California, 283. See also C. Howard Hopkins, The Rise of the Social Gospel in American Protestantism, 1865-1915 (New Haven: Yale University Press, [1940] 1976), and Ira V. Brown, Lyman Abbott, Christian Evolutionist: A Study in Religious Liberalism (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, [1953] 1970).

26. "Representatives Southern California Cities Urge Early Investigation Marshall Plan," Riverside Enterprise, February 23, 1921, p. 3; Hundley, Water and the West, 116-117.

27. "Principal private developer" quoted from William L. Kahrl, Water and Power: The Conflict over Los Angeles' Water Supply in the Owens Valley (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1982), 236. Riverside newspapers followed the L. A.-Southern Sierras fight daily. See "Los Angeles Begins Southern Sierras Suit," Riverside Enterprise, June 3, 1921, p. 1; "L.A. Seeks to Grab Power Is Asserted," ibid., June 4, 1921, p. 2; "Los Angeles Attempting to Secure Power Monopoly, A. B. West Asserts to C. of C.," ibid., June 24, 1921, p. 3; "Mayor Snyder's Statement of City Power," ibid., July 4, 1921, p. 3; "Where Filings Are," ibid., July 5, 1921, p. 4. Also see "Mass Meeting Denounces L.A. Grab Attempt," ibid., March 23, 1923, p. 1; "Power Bill Is Under Protest in Resolution," ibid., February 20, 1923, p. 1; See also Van Valen, "Power Politics," 206; Hundley, Water and the West, 117.

28. "Mayor Snyder's Statement of City Power," Riverside Enterprise, July 4, 1921, p.3; "Where Filings Are," ibid., July 5, 192 1, p 4.

29. Brigham, "Public Power," 293 f. "Los Angeles Is Empowered to Buy Big Edison Plan," Riverside Enterprise, April 2, 1921, p.i. R. H. Ballard (president, Southern California Edison Company), "Every Sixth Home—A Stockholder," Electrical World 92

(August 18, 1928): 319. "Hydro Power Plan Proposed," Riverside Enterprise, June 3, 1921, p. 1.

30. "The smaller cities" quoted from "Municipalities are Busy on Plan to Form Power Merger," Riverside Enterprise, June 29, 1921, p. 2. ''Representatives Southern California Cities Urge Early Investigation Marshall Plan," ibid., February 23, 1921, p. 3. "Will Riverside Build Power Plant?" ibid., March 29, 1921, p. 3. A. B. West was also president of the Pacific Coast Electrical Association in 1922; see his address in "Power Industry Stands on What It Has Done," ibid., June 1, 1922, p. 6. "Dr. Porter Made Secretary of Committee," ibid., July 26, 1921, p. 4; "Bitter Attack on Riverside Made by Committee Starting Campaign for State Control," ibid., August 29, 1921, p. 3. On Haynes and Spreckels, see Tom Sitton, John Randolph Haynes, California Progressive (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992), 164-165.

31. "The mechanical revolution" quoted from "Porter Wants Cheap Power," Riverside Enterprise, September 30, 1921, p. 1. "Our prosperity" quoted from "Forensic Tilt Brings Issues Out Squarely," ibid., June 24, 1922, p. 1. "The water" quoted from "Dr. Porter Made Secretary of Committee," ibid., July 26, 1921, p. 4.

32. "Constitutional Amendment Will Be Fought Hard," ibid., August 5, 1921 , p. 1.

33. "California State Ownership Campaign to Begin Anew," Electrical World 80 (December 9, 1922): 1287. "The Pacific Coast Rejects Public Ownership," ibid., 84 (November 15, 1924): 1035. "Public Ownership Up Again," ibid., 88 (October 16, 1926): 818; "California and Oregon Stand Firm," ibid., 88 (November 6, 1926): 977.

34. "Bitter Attack on Riverside Made by Committee Starting Campaign for State Control," Riverside Enterprise, August 29, 1921, p. 3; "Congressman Phil D. Swing in League Address Pleads for Solid Support of Fall Plan," ibid., December 11, 1921, p. 3; "Development of Colorado Approved," ibid., May 17, 1922, p. 2; "Power Act Is Condemned by Mass Meeting," ibid., May 16,1922, p. 1; "Forensic Tilt Brings Issues Out Squarely," ibid., June 24, 1922, p. 1; "Water, Power Act Opposed By Realtors," ibid., October 26, 1924, p. 1; "Water and Power Act to Be Fought by Mutual Concerns," ibid., July 27, 1926, p. 3.

35. "Industries Being Sought," Riverside Enterprise, February 1, 1922, p. 3; "How to Bring Industries to City Discussed," ibid., April 25, 1923, p. 1; "The lifeblood" quoted from "Industries for Riverside Are C. of C. Theme," ibid., June 28, 1923, p. 1; "To Develop All of California Industries," ibid., July 29, 1923, p. 8. Arnold's address reprinted in "Los Angeles Chamber Brings Industrial Opportunities to All of Southern California," ibid., June 28, 1923, p. 7. See also Brigham, "Public Power," 279, 289 f.

36. All quotations from Arnold's address in "Los Angeles Chamber Brings Industrial Opportunities to All of Southern California," Riverside Enterprise, June 28, 1923, p. 7.

37. All quotations and "Is it not then" from Arnold's address in ibid. "White spot" refers to the realty practice of marking with a white spot on a map where real estate sales were booming. On the BAWI (Balance Agriculture with Industry) campaign and TVA liberals' development strategy, see Cobb, Industrialization, 38-40, and Cobb, Selling of the South, 5-34.

38. "Los Angeles Chamber Brings Industrial Opportunities to All of Southern California," Riverside Enterprise, June 28, 1923, p. 7; "Mayor Snyder's Statement of City Power," ibid., July 4, 1921, p. 3. "How to Bring Industries to City Discussed, Chamber of Commerce Has Interesting Discussion at Court House," ibid., April 25, 1923, p. 1; "Many Matters of Interest at Chamber Commerce," ibid., July 12, 1923, p. 3. "Industrial Survey of County Being Prepared; Interesting Data Is Already Available," ibid., July 26, 1923, p. 1 ;Preliminary C. of C. Survey Is Completed," ibid., July 28, 1923, p. 7.

39. "Industrial Center for Riverside Is Favored," Riverside Enterprise, September 2, 1923, p. 1; "How to Bring Industries to City Discussed, Chamber of Commerce Has Interesting Discussion at Court House," ibid., April 25, 1923, p. 1; "Endorsement for Project," ibid., October 21, 1924, p. 2; "With streets" quoted from "Endorsement Is Voted on New Project,'' ibid., October 30, 1924, p. 6; "Change in Rates Here for House Lighting Is Unlikely, but Charges for Electric Power for Industrial Purposes Will be Investigated by Utilities Board," ibid., April 14, 1925, p. 2; "Power Rates Lowered by City Board, New Industrial Schedule Goes into Effect Here," ibid., May 12, 1925, p. 3.

40. "Industrial Report on Riverside Presented," Riverside Enterprise, March 19, 1927, p. 2; "L.A. Chamber Head Is Here," ibid., September 8, 1927, p. 7. "Development Is Objective," ibid., October 7, 1927, P. 2. "Chambers of Commerce Agree to Los Angeles Metropolitan Area," ibid., December 6, 1927, p. 1. "Big brother" quoted from "Relations with Los Angeles [editorial]," ibid., January 15, 1928, p. 12; "Insane Fear of Los Angeles [editorial]," ibid., February 26, 1928, p. 14; "Los Angeles Chamber of Commerce [editorial]," ibid., May 24, 1929, p. 10.

41. "Steps Taken to Draw Bill for Creation of District," Riverside Enterprise, October 16, 1924, p. 1; "Will Submit Bill for Approval," ibid., January 9, 1925, p. 1; "Water Supply of South Is Report Topic," ibid., July 23, 1926, p. 1.

42. "Colorado River Development of Tremendous Importance to Southwest Asserts Speaker," Riverside Enterprise, June 17, 1923, p. 2; "Mayor Evans Back from Journey to Washington to Aid Boulder Canyon Project," ibid., February 25, 1924, p. 2; "Will Submit River Bill for Approval," ibid., January 9, 1925, p. 1; "L.A. Aqueduct Is Discussed," ibid., February 18, 1925, p. 2; "Chamber Commerce Against Proposed Legislative Bills, Metropolitan Water District Meets with Particular Disfavor from Board of Directors," ibid., March 19, 1925, p. 4.

43. "If Riverside" quoted from "L.A. Aqueduct Is Discussed," Riverside Enterprise, February 18, 1925, p. 2. "Development" quoted from "Development of Community Termed Issue," ibid., March 10, 1931, p. 11. "L.A. Aqueduct Work to Start this Week," ibid., March 29, 1926, p. 1.

44. "The tremendous" quoted from "Metropolitan Water Scheme Is Commended," Riverside Enterprise, January 16, 1929, p. 1. "Riverside is" quoted from "Needs of City Are Outlined by Executive," ibid., January 1, 1931, p. 5. "Economic ruin" quoted from "Development of Community Termed Issue," ibid., March 10, 1931, p. 11. For an obituary of William B. Mathews, see Electrical World 98 (December 26, 1931): 1148.

45. "If the city" quoted from "Necessity of Water from New Source Outlined in Statement," Riverside Enterprise, March 22, 1931, p. 5.

46. "Necessity of Water from New Source Outlined in Statement," Riverside Enterprise, March 22, 1931, p. 5. "The best" quoted from "Opponents of District Plan Hold Meeting," ibid., March 11, 1931, p. 11. "The Santa Ana" quoted from "Eminent Engineer Makes Clear Urgent Need of Water if this City Shall Continue to Grow," ibid., March 17, 1931, p. 11. "Mayor Long Replies to Water Questions," ibid., March 11, 1931, p. 11.

47. "Directors of Project Take Quick Action," Riverside Enterprise, March 14, 1931, p. 11. The local debate over joining the MWD occupied the city for over six years, and after 1929, on a daily basis. For major turning points, see "Chamber Commerce Against Proposed Legislative Bills, Metropolitan Water District Meets with Particular Disfavor from Board of Directors," ibid., March 19, 1925, p. 4; "To Seek Water from Colorado, Cities Will Join in Organizing of Metropolitan District," ibid., August 7, 1927, p. 1; "Metropolitan Water Scheme Turned Down, Membership in District Decided Against by City

Council," ibid., August 15, 1928, p. 7; "C. of C. Votes Against Metropolitan Water District, Entry Found Inadvisable at this Time," ibid., October 16, 1930, p. 1; "Group Studies Issue of City Joining Move," ibid., December 13, 1930, p. 13; "Directors of District Vote after Report, Engineers Explain Reasons Why Parker Line Chosen, Formal Approval Is Then Given," ibid., December 23, 1930, p. 1; "Initial Step Taken Toward Joining Body," ibid., January 14, 1931, p. 1; ''Construction of Project in County Voted," ibid., January 17, 1931, p. 11; "April 20 Last Date for Vote on Admission," ibid., January 31, 1931, p. 11; "Metropolitan District Vote Set March 21," ibid., February 11, 1931, p. 9; "Information on Issue Will be Broadcast, Group of 20 Prominent Citizens to Back Proposal City Enter Metropolitan Area," ibid., February 22, 1931, p. 9; "Water Issue's Opponents Act, 'Protective Association' to Oppose City's Joining District Calls Parley," ibid., March 4, 1931, p. 11; "Alterations to Water Act Opposed Here," ibid., March 5, 1931, p. 3; "Development of Community Termed Issue," ibid., March 10, 1931, p. 11, reporting a heavily attended public meeting; "Directors of Project Take Quick Action, Move to Prevent Any Possible Cause for Criticism of Metropolitan Plan," ibid., March 14, 1931, p. 11; "Present Day Members Hear All Phases," ibid., March 24, 1931, p. 4, reporting on another heavily attended public debate.

Supporting entry into the district were the current mayor, Joseph S. Long, Oscar Ford, former mayor, Horace Porter, former mayor and advocate of publicly owned water and power, Joseph Jarvis, former president of the Riverside Water Company, Frank Tetley, land developer and member of the State Highway Commission, Frank A. Miller, and Howard H. Hays, a land developer who would later purchase the Riverside Daily Press, one of the city's two major daily newspapers. S. C. Evans, long a proponent of entry, withheld a public position on the issue in 1931 but finally sided with the opponents of entry without taking an active role in the debate. The other Evans family businessmen—W. C. Evans and P. T. Evans—openly opposed entry to the district. Other prominent citizens lining up against entry included A. M. Lewis, J. R. Gabbert ( Riverside Enterprise owner), L. D. Batcheldor, director of the University of California's Citrus Experiment Station at Riverside, A. B. West of Southern Sierras Power, and Henry Coil, attorney for Southern Sierras Power, and E. B. Criddle, Southern Sierras vice president, the Chase family, long associated with Riverside citrus, Miguel Estudillo, city attorney, and Henry Coil, head of the planning commission and advocate of master planned zoning.

48. "Big Majority Is Tabulated Against Plan," Riverside Enterprise, April 1, 1931, p. 1; "District Plan Meets Defeat in Close Vote," ibid., August 12, 1931, p. 3; "$220,000,000 for Aqueduct Gets Big Poll," ibid., September 30, 1931, p. 1; Camille Guerin-Gonzales, Mexican Workers and American Dreams: Immigration, Repatriation, and California Farm Labor, 1900-1939 (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1994).

1. In discussing the New Deal, I do not reference individual titles in the enormous literature on the 1930s, unless the title is specifically significant to the text; instead, I cite A New Deal, Roger Biles's recent summary of scholarship. For a bibliography, see David E. Kyvig and Mary-Ann Blasio, compilers, New Day/New Deal: A Bibliography of the Great American Depression, 1929-1941, Bibliographies and Indexes in American History, no. 9 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1988). Useful anthologies of reinterpretations

of the New Deal are provided by Wilbur J. Cohen, ed., The Roosevelt New Deal: A Program Assessment Fifty Years After ([Austin]: Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs, the University of Texas, 1986); Robert Eden, ed., The New Deal and Its Legacy: Critique and Reappraisal, Contributions in American History, no. 132 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1989); and Steve Fraser and Gary Gerstle, eds., The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 1930-1980 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989). For older reinterpretations of the New Deal, see Melvyn Dubofsky, ed., The New Deal: Conflicting Interpretations and Shifting Perspectives (New York: Garland, 1992).

2. Biles, A New Deal, 41; Paul K. Conkin, "Intellectual and Political Roots of TVA," in Hargrove and Conkin, TVA, 24-26; Creese, TVA's Public Planning, 32-52. Graham sees the New Deal as lacking a power policy because it could not arrive at a formal statement, a rather different perspective on the fundamental unity of New Deal goals from what I present; see Otis L. Graham, Jr., Toward a Planned Society: From Roosevelt to Nixon (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976), 60.

3. "The supply" quoted from "Northwestern Power," Business Week (August 11, 1934): 11. Nye dismisses Roosevelt's vision: ''As was so often the case, Franklin D. Roosevelt caught the popular mood in a speech." See Nye, Electrifying America, 304.

4. "What I saw" quoted from "Extemporaneous Remarks at Tupelo, Mississippi," November 18, 1934, in Roosevelt, Public Papers, 3: 460-462.

5. "Power is" quoted from "The One Hundred Sixtieth Press Conference (Excerpts)," Warm Springs, Georgia, November 23, 1934, in Roosevelt, Public Papers, 3: 466.

6. "Social revolution," "sound and courageous public policy," and "it seems to me" quotations from "Are You and I Paying Enough Attention to Human Engineering?'" Address to the Third World Power Conference, Washington, D.C., September 11, 1936, in Roosevelt, Public Papers, 5: 352-353.

7. For bibliographies on the history of the nation's housing, see Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier, and Wright, Building the Dream . The following citations pertain to points and personalities in the text: Michael J. Doucet and John C. Weaver, "Material Culture and the North American House: The Age of the Common Man, 1870-1920," Journal of American History 72 (1985): 560-587; Doucet and Weaver, Housing the North American City; Gertrude Sipperly Fish, ed., The Story of Housing (New York: Macmillan, 1979); Nathaniel S. Keith, Politics and the Housing Crisis since 1930 (New York: Universe Books, 1973); Constance Perin, Everything in Its Place: Social Order and Land Use in America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977); Irving Welfeld, Where We Live: A Social History of American Housing (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1988); and Wright, Building the Dream . Major contemporary contributions that argued for a greater federal presence in the nation's housing problems and provided a large amount of useful information on contemporary housing conditions were Louis Pink, The New Day in Housing (New York: John Day, 1928); Edith Elmer Wood, Recent Trends in Housing (New York: Macmillan, 1931); and Catherine Bauer, Modern Housing (New York: Arno, [1934] 1974). On the history of housing reform before the New Deal, see Eugenie Ladner Birch, "Edith Elmer Wood and the Genesis of Liberal Housing Thought" (Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1976); Pearl Janet Davies, Real Estate in American History (Washington, D.C.: Public Affairs Press, 1958), 128-149; Lawrence Friedman, Government and Slum Housing: A Century of Frustration (New York: Arno Press, [1968] 1978), 25-72, 73-131; Roy Lubove, The Progressives and the Slums: Tenement House Reform in New York City, 1890-1917 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1973); John F. Sutherland, "A City of Homes: Philadelphia Slums and Reform-

ers, 1880-1920," (Ph.D. dissertation, Temple University, 1973). On New Deal housing programs, see Miles L. Colean, A Backward Glance—An Oral History: The Growth of Government Housing Policy in the United States, 1934-1975 (Washington, D.C.: The Fund, 1975); Gertrude S. Fish, "Housing Policy During the Great Depression," in Fish, The Story of Housing , 177-241; Jesse H. Jones, with Edward Angly, Fifty Billion Dollars: My Thirteen Years with the RFC (New York: Macmillan, 1951); C. Lowell Harriss, History and Policies of the Home Owners' Loan Corporation (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1951); and Marriner S. Eccles, Beckoning Frontiers: Public and Personal Recollections, ed. Stanley Hyman (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1951). For assessments of the nation's housing by federal housing officials, see Glenn H. Beyer, Housing: A Factual Analysis (New York: Macmillan, 1958); Miles Colean, American Housing (New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1944); and Nathan Straus, Two Thirds of a Nation: A Housing Program (New York: Knopf, 1952). On the history of public housing, see Henry J. Aaron, Federal Housing Subsidies: History, Problems, and Alternatives (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1973); Harry C. Bredemeier, " The Federal Public Housing Movement " (Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, reprint New York: Arno Press, [1955] 1980); J. Joseph Huthmacher, Senator Robert F. Wagner and the Rise of Urban Liberalism (New York: Atheneum, [1968] 1971), 205-216, 224-230; Timothy McDonnell, The Wagner Housing Act (Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1957); Robert Moore Fisher, Twenty Years of Public Housing (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1959); Eugenie Ladner Birch, "Woman-made America: The Case of Early Public Housing Policy," Journal of the American Institute of Planners 44 (April 1978): 130-144. On New Deal new towns programs, see Paul Conkin, Tomorrow a New World: New Deal Community Programs (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1959); Joseph L. Arnold, The New Deal in the Suburbs: A History of the Greenbelt Town Program, 1935-1954 (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1971); George A. Warner, Greenbelt: The Cooperative Community: An Experience in Democratic Living (New York: Exposition Press, 1954). On housing in cities, see Mark I. Gelfand, A Nation of Cities: The Federal Government and Urban America, 1933-1965 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975); and Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier .

8. Steven E. Andrachek, "Housing in the United States: 1890-1929," in Fish, The Story of Housing , 123-176; Wright, Building the Dream , chap. 10, "Welfare Capitalism and the Company Town"; Beyer, Housing , 39; Weiss, The Rise of the Community Builders .

9. John Gries and James Ford, eds., The President's Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership , vol. 2, Home Finance and Taxation (Washington, D.C.: President's Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership, 1932), 16, 19-20.

10. Ibid., 103, 104, 153, 158, 160; see also the report, "Appendix III, Increasing Tax Delinquency," pp. 184-187.

11. "'In 1933'" quoted from Cecelia M. Gerloff, ed., The Federal Home Loan Bank System (1971), by Fish, "Housing Policy During the Great Depression," 186. Carey Winston, untitled section in ibid., 189. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States , Bicentennial Edition, 2 vols. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976), Series N 243, 2: 646; hereafter cited as Census, Historical Statistics (1976). Studies for the President's Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership, 1931, established that most families with less than $1,250 annual income were unable to afford home ownership. The report of the Committee on the Relationship of Income and the Home cautiously generalized this income threshold to the nation's urban areas; see

Gries and Ford, The President's Conference , 4: 52. Since 65 percent of American families and not married individuals in 1929 had less than $2,000, I have generalized that in 1930, some two-thirds of the nation's urban households could not afford home ownership; see Census, Historical Statistics , Series G 270-271, vol. 1. Participants in the President's Conference testified: "The results of careful research cited in the reports of other committees have established the fact that practically no new dwellings, and certainly no desirable types of houses, have been constructed in recent years at costs within the means of two-thirds of our population"; see Gries and Ford, The President's Conference, 3: 67. Also see Wood, Recent Trends in American Housing .

12. "Objectives" quoted from Franklin D. Roosevelt, "Message to the Congress Reviewing the Broad Objectives and Accomplishments of the Administration," June 8, 1934, in Roosevelt, Public Papers , 3: 288. Roger Biles places FDR's belief in the importance of home ownership at the center of his social vision of the home; Biles, A New Deal , 214. See also Tobey, Wetherell, and Brigham, "Moving Out and Settling In," 1395-1422.

13. Speech reprinted with explanatory foreword by Richard Hofstadter in Richard Hofstadter, ed., Great Issues in American History: A Documentary Record (New York: Vintage, 1958), 2: 343-351. Charles Kesler defends the notion that the Commonwealth Speech represented Roosevelt's own views and also analyzes the speech in Charles R. Kesler, "The Public Philosophy of the New Freedom and the New Deal," in Eden, The New Deal and Its Legacy, 154-166.

14. Foreword by Herbert Hoover, in John M. Gries and James S. Taylor, "How to Own Your Home: A Handbook for Prospective Home Owners," Department of Commerce (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1923), v. The Department of Commerce, Building and Housing reprinted the pamphlet in 1931 as Publication no. BH17.

15. Eva Whiting White, "Housing and Citizenship, Recreation and Education," Report of the Group on Housing and Citizenship, Housing and Community—Home Repair and Remodeling, in Gries and Ford, The President's Conference, 86.

16. "Message to the Congress Reviewing the Broad Objectives and Accomplishments of the Administration," June 8, 1934, in Roosevelt, Public Papers, 3: 292.

17. "When land" and "the ultimate objective," from Roosevelt, Public Papers, 3: 288-289. "Many Tenants" quoted from "A Message to the Congress on Farm Tenancy," February 16, 1937, ibid., 6: 81. FDR repeated the ideological theme of security and stability in the home at important occasions, e.g., the ''Annual Message to Congress," January 4, 1935, ibid., 4: 17; "The Resettlement Administration Is Established, Executive Order No. 7027," May 1, 1935, ibid., 5: 143; the footnote, beginning on page 144, written in 1937 or 1938 better conveys the vision behind the Resettlement Act.

18. "I need not remind" quoted from "Campaign Address at Kansas City, Missouri, 'America Will Have to Be Led in the Days to Come by the Youth of Today,'" October 13, 1936, in Roosevelt, Public Papers, 5: 470. "Should live" and "a settled place" quoted from "Address at the White House Conference on Children in a Democracy," April 23, 1939, ibid., 9: 244.

19. "Fireside Chat on Present Economic Conditions and Measures Being Taken to Improve Them," April 14, 1938, in Roosevelt, Public Papers, 7: 240, 242-243.

20. "Radio Address on Behalf of the Mobilization for Human Needs, White House, Washington, D.C.," in Roosevelt, Public Papers, 9: 535.

21. For a contemporary assessment of New Deal housing programs, see Albert Mayer, "The Nation Weighs a Vast Housing Program," New York Times Magazine, March 14,

1937; reprinted in Carl N. Degler, ed., The New Deal (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1970), 128-135. See also Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier , 190-218; Biles, A New Deal , 55-56, 206-224, 212-216; and Weiss, The Rise of the Community Builder , 141-158.

22. Gertrude S. Fish discusses these eight programs in "Housing Policy During the Great Depression," 177-241. Lizabeth Cohen argues that the HOLC had an important impact on laboring-class neighborhoods, even though most residents did not own their homes and did not participate directly in the HOLC; see Cohen, Making a New Deal , 274-277.

23. Joseph D. Coppock, Government Agencies of Consumer Installment Credit , Financial Research Program, Studies in Consumer Installment Financing, no. 5 (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1940), 1.

24. Biles, A New Deal , 186.

25. "Decision" and "Some one" quotations from Eccles, Beckoning Frontiers , 145.

26. Ibid., 147.

27. Coppock, Government Agencies, 21-33.

28. Ibid., 28; see also pp. 27-29.

29. Ibid., Table A-1. "Number, Amount and Average Amount of Notes Insured with FHA, 1934-37, by Month Insured," 157. The number of occupied residences is from Series N238 and N242, "Occupied Housing Units and Tenure of Homes: 1890-1970," Census, Historical Statistics of the United States (1975), 2: 646. The statistic of 84.8 percent is calculated from Table A-2, "Percentage Distribution of Number and Amount of Notes Insured with FHA...," Coppock, Government Agencies, 158.

30. "The big thing" quotation by McDonald, in Coppock, Government Agencies, 22. Bank loan statistics calculated from Table D-4, "Components of Short-Term Consumer Debt," in Raymond W. Goldsmith, A Study of Savings in the United States, Vol. 1: Introduction; Tables of Annual Estimates of Saving, 1897-1949 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1955), 703.

31. Coppock, Government Agencies, Table 6, "Percentage Distribution of Number and Amount of Notes Insured with FHA, 1934-37, with Average Note, by Type of Property and Type of Improvement," 41. Ibid., Table 28, "Percentage Distribution of Number of Appliances Financed by EHFA, Fiscal Years 1935-38, by Type of Appliance," 116. REA statistic from footnote 27, ibid. Title I statistics from Tom F. Blackburn, "Finance Houses Battle Banks for Installment Paper," Electrical Merchandising 57 (June 1937): 15.

32. "Has consistently" quoted from Federal Housing Administration, Principles of Planning Small Houses, Technical Bulletin no. 4, May 1, 1936 (Washington, D.C.: Federal Housing Administration), 2. Perin, Everything in Its Place, 13-14, Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier, 190-218.

33. "Electric wiring" quoted from Federal Housing Administration, Principles of Planning Small Houses, 4. "The use of" quoted from ibid., 20; see also p. 21. "The feeders," "Power circuits,'' and "There are" quoted from Federal Housing Administration, Underwriting Manual: Underwriting and Valuation Procedure under Title II of the National Housing Act, rev. 1938 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Federal Housing Administration, 1938), par. 849, and see also par. 418, 421, 532, 619, 1334, 1624, 1719, 1726, 1873. The National Electrical Code is specifically referenced in ibid., par. 1873. In the mid-1930s, some states adopted state building and electrical codes, thereby compelling municipalities to come up to the new standards. Oregon adopted the National Electrical Code as part of its state code in 1935 and required that dwellings have wall base receptacles for

appliances; see Bureau of Labor, State of Oregon, Rules Covering Installation of Wires and Electrical Equipment (1940). The California State Chamber of Commerce proposed a building code for California in 1937 to establish seismic standards and proposed establishing the National Electrical Code; see California State Chamber of Commerce, Building Code for California (San Francisco: California State Chamber of Commerce, 1939), sec. 3301.

34. "Today, FHN" quoted from George Nelson and Henry Wright, Tomorrow's House How to Plan Your Post-War Home Now (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1945), 199. "New standards" and "Will protect" quoted from "Better Building Required by FHA,'' Riverside Daily Press, December 18, 1937, p. 5. Riverside's attention to increasing FHA standards is seen in the following articles: "Better Building Required by FHA," ibid.; "Lumber Rules of FHA Announced," ibid., December 21, 1937, p. 3; "FHA Inspections Protect Owners," ibid., May 7, 1938, sec. 2, p. 1; "'Jerry Building' Being Eliminated," ibid., December 3, 1938, p. 5; "New Bill Expected to Boost Building," ibid., June 10, 1939, p. 4.

35. "I asked" and "'I think'" quotations from Perin, Everything in Its Place, 14, 61. In Houston, land use is restricted by deed covenants, which can run a half-dozen pages. These agreements were drawn up by attorneys, hence the interviewee's reference.

36. Beyer, Housing, 203.

37. Weiss, The Rise of the Community Builders, passim.

38. "The broader the base" quoted from an address to the Third World power conference, 1936, in Roosevelt, Public Papers, 5: 354. "Household use" quoted from "Selling Centers on Homes," Electrical World 105 (January 5, 1935): 60.

39. National Emergency Council, Report on Economic Conditions of the South (New York: Da Capo Press, [1938] 1972), 13-14, 23-24, 39, 63-64; John V. Krutilla, "Economic Development: An Appraisal," in Roscoe C. Martin, ed., TVA: The First Twenty Years, A Staff Report ([n.p.]: University of Alabama Press and the University of Tennessee Press, 1956), 219-233. Bruce J. Schulman, From Cotton Belt to Sunbelt (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 1-52.

40. Nye, Electrifying America, 287-338, and notes, pp. 427-433, on rural electrification; O. S. Wessel, "The Power Program," in Martin, TVA, 113, 119-120; Brown, Electricity for Rural America; Morris Llewellyn Cooke, "The Early Days of the Rural Electrification Idea: 1914-1936," American Political Science Review 42 (June 1948): 431-447. On Cooke, see Jean Christie, Morris Llewellyn Cooke, Progressive Engineer (New York: Garland, 1983); Trombley, Life and Times of a Happy Liberal .

41. Tom F. Blackburn, "Finance Houses Battle Banks for Installment Paper," Electrical Merchandising 57 (June 1937): 15. Anderson does not mention the federal contribution to adoption of the refrigerator; see Anderson, Jr., Refrigeration in America, 213-215.

42. "By 1938" quoted from "Electric Home and Farm Authority," in James S. Olson, Historical Dictionary of the New Deal: From Inauguration to Preparation for War (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1985), 143; reference to James S. Olson, "The Reconstruction Finance Corporation, 1932-1940" (Ph.D. dissertation, State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1972). Hobday, Sparks at the Grassroots, 102.

43. James Olson, "Farm Security Administration," in Olson, Historical Dictionary, 165-167, references Sidney Baldwin, Politics and Poverty: The Rise and Decline of the Farm Security Administration (1968).

44. "The holding company" quoted from Ralph F. De Bedts, The New Deal's SEC:

The Formative Years (New York: Columbia University Press, 1964), 114; see also pp. 112-143. Hawley, The New Deal and the Problem of Monopoly, 325-343, sees the Public Utility Holding Company Act and TVA as closely coupled strategies in Roosevelt's attack on the power trust.

45. "What the Utility Decisions Mean," Business Week (February 29, 1936): 18.

46. William Leuchtenburg, "Roosevelt, Norris, and the 'Seven Little TVAs,'" Journal of Politics 14 (August 1952): 418-441. To establish chronology for the "Seven Little TVAs," I used the following articles: "President Asks TVA Duplication in Seven Areas,'' Riverside Daily Press, June 3, 1937, p. 1; "Pile Up Seven TVA's—and You'll Have the Widespread AVA," ibid., March 7, 1941, p. 6; "Plan to Harness Missouri River Embraces One-sixth of United States," ibid., July 20, 1946, p. 2; "President Wants Lessons of TVA Applied to Western River Basins," ibid., January 6, 1949, p. 1; "Administration Plans 'TVA' for Northwest," ibid., January 21, 1949, p. 3. See also Crawford D. Goodwin, "The Valley Authority Idea—The Fading of a National Vision," pp. 263-296 in Hargrove and Conkin, TVA; Marguerite Owen, The Tennessee Valley Authority (New York: Praeger, 1973), 234-255; Richard Rudolph and Scott Ridley, Power Struggle: The Hundred-Year War over Electricity (New York: Harper & Row, 1986), 57-86.

47. Coppock, Government Agencies, 1.

48. Laurence Wray, "After FHA ... What?" Electrical Merchandising 55 (June 1936): 1; Tom F. Blackburn, "Finance Houses Battle Banks for Installment Paper," ibid., 57 (June 1937): 15.

49. Rolf Nugent, Consumer Credit (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1939), 109; Duncan McC. Holthausen, Michael L. Merriam, and Rolf Nugent, The Volume of Consumer Instalment Credit, 1929-38, Studies in Consumer Instalment Financing, no. 7 (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1940), 14.

50. "Their importance" quoted from Coppock, Government Agencies, ix. "Most notable" quoted from Nugent, Consumer Credit, 108. "Most striking" quoted from Thomas Juster, Household Capital Formation and Financing, 1897-1962, National Bureau of Economic Research, General Series, no. 83 (New York: Distributed by Columbia University Press, 1966), 54, 55. Data on amount and distribution of agencies making consumer loans in Tables B-4 and B-5, in Holthausen, Merriam, and Nugent, Volume of Consumer Instalment Credit, 77.

51. Blanche Bernstein, The Pattern of Consumer Debt, 1935-36: A Statistical Analysis, Studies in Consumer Instalment Financing, no. 6 (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1940), 19. The WPA 1935-1936 survey was of nonfarm families not on relief. "'One-Third of a Nation ...'," Business Week (September 10, 1938): 18-22, provided a detailed analysis. For comparative statistics on income, expenditures, and savings, see Table H-10, "Expenditures and Savings of Urban Families Averaging 3.5 Persons and Having Incomes Near the Average Income, Specified Dates: 1888-1947," in Raymond W. Goldsmith, Dorothy S. Brady, and Horst Mendershausen, A Study of Saving in the United States, vol. 3 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1956), 154. On the refrigerator, see Introduction, ibid., table 1.

52. Earl Whitehorne, "Selling Complete Home Electrification," Electrical World 95 (June 21, 1930): 1297. "The fact" quoted from "The plan for complete new-residence equipment sales [editorial]," ibid., 99 (April 16, 1932): 685. Historical sketch of the complete appliance home plan drawn from the following publications: "One Sale Electrifies the Home," ibid., 95 (March 15, 1930): 544; L. W. W. Morrow, "Selling the Homes," ibid., 95 (June 7, 1930): 1155-1157; Earl Whitehorne, "Selling Complete Home Elec-

trification"; E. R. Acker, "Full-Use Electric Home," ibid., 95 (June 7, 1930):1158-1161; "The plan for complete new-residence equipment sales [editorial]"; ''Sell the Home, Not the Appliance," ibid., 99 (April 16, 1932): 685, 688-691; George Potter, "A Plan for Complete Home Electrification," ibid., 100 (August 6, 1932): 182-185.

53. This brief history is drawn from "Long Terms for the Buyer ... Cash for the Seller," Electrical Merchandising 72 (September 1944): 18-19; "Home Equipment as It Looks to the F.H.A.," ibid., 73 (February 1945): 25 f.; "A Fresh Start," ibid., 73 (March 1945): 1; "The Packaged Mortgage," ibid., 74 (July 1944): 38-39. A table listing appliances by state as eligible for FHA mortgage coverage is provided in the article, M. E. Skinner, "Electrical Living in the Homes of Tomorrow," ibid., 71 (May 1944): 54.

54. "Complete Home Plan," ibid., 73 (June 1945): 25 f. "The Packaged Mortgage," ibid., 74 (July 1945): 39.

55. [Table] "Type of Home Appliances included in value at time of purchase, 1-family homes, Sec. 203," [FHA] Series Data Handbook, A Supplement to F.H.A. Trends, Covering Section 203b Home Mortgage Characteristics (Department of Housing and Urban Development, Housing—F.H.A., Management Information Systems Division, Single Family Insured Branch), 18.

56. "TVA believes" quoted from "TVA Sales Plan," Business Week (December 23, 1933): 12. Utilizing the Lilienthal Papers, Gregory Field demonstrates that the philosophy of using the state's power to expand the mass market was present during the "first New Deal" and relates the history of the Electric Farm and Home Authority; see Gregory B. Field, "'Electricity for All': The Electric Home and Farm Authority and the Politics of Mass Consumption, 1932-1935," Business History Review 64 (Spring 1990): 32-60. TVA's policy of low rates and encouragement of electrical consumption is also reviewed in chap. 3, "Power Rates: An Overheated Issue," in Hobday, Sparks, 74-109, and Thomas K. McCraw, TVA and the Power Fight, 1933-1939 (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1971), 61-62. Hobday reviews the issue of whether low rates in fact succeeded in encouraging increased use of electricity; Sparks, 77-81, 102-104. Hughes does not believe that TVA lowered rates on ideological grounds, but for reasons of load-factor; see Hughes, American Genesis, 372-374. The bibliography on TVA in Kyvig and Blasio, New Day/New Deal, should be supplemented with the primary sources cited in North Callahan, TVA: Bridge Over Troubled Waters (South Brunswick: A. S. Barnes, 1980), 371-412. In interpreting TVA as part of a New Deal policy of social modernization, I do not imply that TVA (or the New Deal) also sponsored a policy of racial modernization. TVA maintained a hiring quota system to guarantee that its workforce reflected the proportion of African-Americans in the local population, and it did not oppose segregation. Lilienthal's and Harcourt Brown's philosophy that TVA should reflect "grass-roots democracy" placed the agency under regressive local racial policies. See Nancy L. Grant, TVA and Black Americans: Planning for the Status Quo (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990), 19-44, 73-99.

57. "Existing systems" quoted from "Power Squeeze on All Sides," Business Week (June 7, 1933): 14-15. "Muscle Shoals Message," ibid. (April 9, 1933): 14-15. "Electrification is not" is a paraphrase of the Chamber of Commerce report in "The Rate Question," ibid. (August 11, 1934): 11.

58. "Are they" quoted from "TVA Sales Plan," Business Week (December 23, 1933): 12; the quotation referred to the fact that in the first several years, TVA generated more electricity than they had signed contracts for, leading to the necessity to increase loads on lines if they were to sell it all and disprove private industry's thesis that there was sufficient electric power for the region without TVA's adding more.

59. Quotations from David E. Lilienthal, "T.V.A. Seen Only as Spur to Electrification of America," Business Week 102 (November 25, 1933):687-690; reprint of a speech by Lilienthal before the Lawyers' Club, Atlanta, Georgia. The TVA thesis on low rates and modernization is presented more systematically by the TVA board chairman, Gordon Clapp, who succeeded Lilienthal; see Gordon R. Clapp, The TVA: An Approach to the Development of a Region (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1955), 93-113.

60. Laurence Wray, "One Year Later," Electrical Merchandising 53 (February 1935): 6-9.

61. "This little town" quoted from "Tupelo—TVA's Guinea Pig," Electrical Merchandising 58 (November 1937): 33f. "Here we'd like" quoted from ibid. Business Week had already pronounced the "anxiously awaited test'' at Tupelo a success; "Tupelo Results," Business Week (June 9, 1934): 21. On the significance of Tupelo, see McCraw, TVA, 64, 70.

62. "The goal" and "old prejudice" quotations from "Selling Centers on Homes," Electrical World 105 (January 5, 1935): 60. "TVA-Buy Now," Business Week (February 10, 1934): 10.

63. "This industry" quoted from "TVA Appliances," Business Week (March 17, 1934): 10. "What GE" quoted from "Model T Appliances," ibid. (June 16, 1934): 11.

64. "The prices of energy" and "The plan is not brand new" quotations from T. K. Quinn, "What Can the Consumer Afford?" Electrical World 103 (June 9, 1934): 846. See also "Range Taps New Market," ibid. (September 8, 1934): 12. Nye argues that the appliance manufacturers, General Electric and Westinghouse, cooperated with the federal government from the start in planning electrical modernization through TVA and REA, because their interests fundamentally diverged from those of the utilities, who opposed public power; see Nye, Electrifying America, 318, 329-333. See also Field, "'Electricity for All,'" 44-45, 48-52. For a retrospective assessment not supporting the idea that cheap electricity was necessary for economic development, see Bruce C. Netschert, "Electric Power and Economic Development," pp. 1-23, and Gilbert Banner, "Toward More Realistic Assumptions in Regional Economic Development," pp. 121-143, in John R. Moore, ed., The Economic Impact of TVA (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1967).

65. "Company could not lose" quoted from McCraw, TVA, 76. On the "Objective Rate Plan," see ibid., 74-77. The Objective Rate Plan represented a split schedule or block schedule plan and resembled, although McCraw does not point this out, private utility rate experiments conducted in the late 1920s and early 1930s; see my discussion in chapter 1. "Earnings Make It 'Recovery,'" Business Week (May 4, 1935): 8-9. The generalizations regarding the timing of the industry's appreciation of REA markets are based on the following titles from the trade magazine, Electrical Merchandising . Tom Blackburn, "Selling Between the Highlines," 61 (March 1939): 24-26; Donald S. Stophlet and Tom Blackburn, "Selling Appliances on New Rural Lines—2 Reports," 61 (May 1939): 8 f.; "What to Expect from the Farm Appliance Market," 63 (April 1940): 35 f.; Thelma Beall, "The Royal Road to Farm Appliance Sales," 64 (September 1940): 12 f.; "The Farm Market," 65 (May 1941): 17 f., including Tom F. Blackburn, "Selling 'Work' Appliances to the Farmer," p. 18 f., "Work Appliances Do a Job," p. 20 f., "Jobs Electricity Makes Easier on the Farm," p. 27 f.; Tom Blackburn, "Rural Electrification Has Jelled," 68 (December 1942): 10-11; "The Farm Market as a Woman Sees It," 71 (March 1944): 22 f.; "Can the Cooperative Succeed in Selling Electrical Appliances," 74 (September 1945): 65 f.; Clotilde Grunsky, "Urban and Rural Buying Intentions Compared," 74 (December 1945): 50 f.

66. "The greatest" quoted from "The $25 a Week Family ... A Market for Small Appliances," Electrical Merchandising 62 (December 1939): 10-12. A similar "discovery'' of a previously neglected market that had been brought forward and economically enfranchised by the federal government occurred in the late 1940s and 1950s, when the electrical industry discovered the Northern urban African-American market; see Frank A. Muth, "Are You Overlooking the Growing Negro Market," ibid., 83 (May 1951): 60-61, 104, 162. "Load building," quoted from Wendell Willkie, "Spending for Load Building," Electrical World 104 (December 8, 1934): 21. J. Ronnie Davis, The New Economics and the Old Economists (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1971), 24, 151-153.

67. Wendell Willkie, "Spending for Load Building," Electrical World 104 (December 8, 1934): 21.

68. "Automobiles, radios" quoted from Gerald E. Stedman, "Time Payment Paper," Electrical Merchandising 53 (April 1935): 24. For an oblique discussion of this thesis, see Field, "'Electricity for All,'" 58-60.

1. Morris Janowitz summarizes sociological and political science literatures on the transformation of local power structures in The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), 242-244. Janowitz observes that federal sponsorship of home ownership severely undermined the ability of local capitalism to create and maintain social inequalities through control of housing; ibid., p. 145. Politicization of local ethnic and lower-income groups by Roosevelt's Democratic party and social organization of neighborhoods through community hearing requirements in public housing administration gave local groups significant power over neighborhood destiny separated from the requirement of property ownership; ibid., pp. 270-272, 300-305, 317, 456-457. On the federal challenge to local elites in the Midwest, see Catherine McNicol Stock, Main Street in Crisis: The Great Depression and the Old Middle Class on the Northern Plains (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 86-127. For the rise of a Southern liberal New Deal administrative elite to challenge Southern traditional county elites, see Schulman, From Cotton Belt to Sunbelt, viii, 40-47. Schulman describes the first New Deal's effort to compromise with local property elites, ibid., pp. 15-20, the inadvertent politicization of Southern African-Americans, ibid., 44-47, FDR's effort to organize his new Southern liberals, ibid., pp. 48-53. See also Peter J. Coleman, "The World of Interventionism, 1880-1940," in Eden, The New Deal and Its Legacy, 50-75; John A. Wettergreen, "The Regulatory Policy of the New Deal," in Eden, The New Deal and Its Legacy, 199-213, esp. p. 200; Charles R. Kesler, "The Public Philosophy of the New Freedom and the New Deal," ibid., p. 163; and Morton J. Frisch, "An Appraisal of Roosevelt's Legacy: How the Moderate Welfare State Transcended the Tension Between Progressivism and Socialism," ibid., pp. 194-195. On New Deal policy of re-creating the middle class in terms of enlarging and invigorating home buying, see John A. Wettergreen, "The Regulatory Policy of the New Deal," ibid., pp. 208-209, and Robert Eden, "Introduction: A Legacy of Questions," ibid., pp. 2-3. For a brief review of the historiography of the issue of whether the New Deal saved capitalism, see James E. Anderson, "The New Deal, Capitalism, and the Regulatory State," in Cohen, The Roosevelt New Deal, 105-119.

2. "Rolph Places Signature on Leniency Bill," Riverside Enterprise, April 18, 1933, p. 1. "Unpaid Taxes at New High Record," ibid., July 4, 1933, p. 4; "Tax Rates for Cities

and Special Districts Announced by Auditor," ibid., August 30, 1933, p. 9; "Delinquent Tax Plan Explained," Riverside Daily Press , March 28, 1934, p. 6; "Tax Delinquency Shows Drop Here,'' ibid., May 21, 1935, p. 3. See also David T. Beito, Taxpayers in Revolt: Tax Resistance during the Great Depression (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989), 1-80, Keller, Regulating a New Economy , places the rise in tax delinquencies in the context of the shift from local to national regulation of property.

3. "Moratoria on Mortgages in State Signed," Riverside Enterprise , May 10, 1933, p. 1; "Mortgage Moratorium Act Signed," Riverside Daily Press , February 1, 1935, p. 1.

4. Riverside voted almost 2 to 1 for Hoover against Roosevelt in 1932; see "Complete Unofficial Election Returns," Riverside Enterprise , November 9, 1932, p. 10. "Nation Ready to Follow New Leader," editorial, ibid., March 1, 1933, p. 14.

5. "Roosevelt Asks" quoted from Riverside Enterprise , April 14, 1933, p. 1. The act authorizing the president to set up the HOLC was signed by the president on June 13, 1933. "His purpose" and "Ultimately" quoted from "News & Views, by R.C.H.," ibid., April 14, 1933, p. 1.

6. "Plans to Put U.S. in Realty Loan Writing," ibid., April 14, 1933, p. 1.

7. "Home Loan Man Goes to Capital," ibid., July 13, 1933, p. 4. "Questions and Answers Explain How Home Loan Plan Operates," ibid., July 23, 1933, p. 3. "Home Loan Procedure Outlined Over Radio by State Manager," ibid., August 5, 1933, p. 5. "Home Loan Plan Operative Today," ibid., August 7, 1933, p. 3; "Rush of Applicants When Home Loan Relief Starts," ibid., August 8, 1933, p. 2; "Home Loan Agent to Be Selected in Near Future," ibid., August 9, 1933, p. 7; "Home Loan Office to Continue Here," ibid., August 27, 1933, p. 3.

8. "More Appraisers for Home Loans," Riverside Daily Press , January 1, 1934, p. 10; "Over 290 Federal Home Loans in Escrow Here; $580,000 Involved," ibid., February 9, 1934, p. 6; "County Home Loans Total $1,580,252," ibid., January 5, 1935, 1:3. "Uncle Sam in Role of Nation's No. 1 Realtor," ibid., August 13, 1938, p. 7.

9. "Some of the bright" quoted from "Real Estate Next on List to Move," editorial, Riverside Enterprise , July 13, 1933, p. 16. "Useless" quoted from "Nation-Wide Housing Program to Be Launched," Riverside Daily Press , March 23, 1934, p. 1. "Creation of Corporation Being Rushed," Riverside Enterprise, October 16, 1933, p. 2; "Home Loan Bill Given Approval," Riverside Daily Press , February 15, 1934, 1:4; "Federal Loans for New Houses," editorial, ibid., April 10, 1934, last section: 16. "Text of Roosevelt's Message," Riverside Enterprise , May 15, 1934, p. 1; "Roosevelt Plans New Home Finance," editorial, ibid., May 18, 1934, p. 18.

10. "We think" quoted from "Roosevelt Plans New Home Finance," editorial, Riverside Enterprise , May 18, 1934, p. 18. "With the injection" quoted from Robert Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd, Middletown in Transition: A Study in Cultural Conflicts (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1937), 125. On the role of savings and loans in control of local social order by the local property class, see ibid., pp. 477-479. For other classic descriptions of local property's maintenance of local social order through home ownership and housing allocation, see W. Lloyd Warner et al., Democracy in Jonesville: A Study of Quality and Inequality (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1949), 35-54; W. Lloyd Warner and Paul S. Lunt, The Social Life of a Modern Community (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1941), 108-109, 239-250; James West [Carl Withers], Plainville, U.S.A. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1945), 40-53, 117, 135. For a collective portrait of towns and small cities drawn from the classic stratification literature, see Richard Lingeman, Small Town America: A Narrative History, 1620-The Present (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons,

1980), 392-440. For synopses and evaluation of the literature on social stratification from Middletown to the present, see Lawrence J. R. Henson and John M. Bolland, The Urban Web: Politics, Policy, and Theory (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1990), 181-212. Robert G. Barrows demonstrates a close association between the rate of home ownership in cities and "the percentage of families borrowing from local building and loan associations"; see Robert G. Barrows, "Beyond the Tenement: Patterns of American Urban Housing, 1870-1930," Journal of Urban History 9 (1983): 395-420. Richard Harris proved that this web included laboring classes, as well as middle classes; see Richard Harris, "Working Class Home Ownership in the American Metropolis," Journal of Urban History 17 (1990): table 5, p. 60. Doucet and Weaver provide the most extensive historical discussion of mortgage lending in their Housing the North American City , 243-304. Doucet and Weaver study Canada and note the New Deal only in passing. They observe that Canadian federal intervention in home financing after 1945 diminished the percentage of mortgages held by individuals (viz., individual lending for home owners) in place of institutional lending, but they decline to discuss at length the use of Canadian federal policies for social purposes; see ibid, pp. 283, 293, 298-304. Doucet and Weaver argue that local landlords exerted considerable social control over local renters. Since most households rented before 1950, local landlords were an important link in the chain binding local capital and the local social order. See ibid., p. 364 f.

11. "Rosy Reports Mark Meeting," Riverside Enterprise , September 2, 1933, p. 3; "Almost 5,000 Riversiders in N.R.A. Pledges," ibid., September 9, 1933, p. 3, "'Buy Now' Campaign Lauded as of Benefit to All Community," ibid., October 21, 1933, p. 5; ''Are You Doing Your Share?" ad, ibid. October 25, 1933, p. 2. For a summary of scholarly literature on the NRA, see R. Biles, A New Deal , chap. 4, esp. pp. 83-84.

12. "We Deem It," ad, Riverside Enterprise , August 1, 1933, p. 5. "Supporting Our President," ad, ibid., August 4, 1933, p. 11. "Gen. Johnson Says," ad, ibid., September 10, 1933, p. 3.

13. "NRA to Start Great Effort for Business," ibid., October 9, 1933, p. 1.

14. "Adopted the NRA code" quoted from "Frigidaire Prices Are Still Down," ad, ibid., September 21, 1933, p. 7. "Leonard Electric Refrigerator," ad, ibid., October 26, 1933, p. 7; "The Latest Sensation in Electric Washers," ad, ibid., November 23, 1933, p. 4. "City Cooperates in Big Campaign," ibid., May 21, 1934, p. 5; "It's Great Fun to Cook with Electricity," ad for the cooking show, ibid., June 14, 1934, p. 6; "Plans Announced for Great All-Electric Riverside Cooking Institute," ibid. June 23, 1934, p. 5; "Riverside Women Throng," ibid., June 28, 1934, p. 15; "All Electric Cooking School," ad, ibid., October 21, 1934, p. 10; "Electrical Range Demonstration," ad, ibid., December 6, 1934, p. 14; "Riverside's Electrical Age Is Here," ad, ibid., June 8, 1937, p. 9. Curiously, Marchand's survey of national magazine advertising did not pick up magazine ads reflecting the New Deal effort to increase consumption; see Marchand, Advertising the American Dream .

15. "The time has come" quoted from "Spirit of NRA to Become Permanent," Riverside Enterprise , October 4, 1933, p. 16. "Important Part in NRA for Consumer," editorial, ibid., August 22,1933, p. 16; "Household Workers Seek Place in NRA," ibid., September 2, 1933, p. 14; "Spirit of NRA to Become Permanent?" editorial, ibid., October 4, 1933, p. 16; "Consumers Hold Key to Recovery," ibid., October 21, 1933, p. 14.

16. "It is" quoted from "'Oh, Please don't sit on that Chair!'" editorial, ibid., October 29, 1933, p. 9. The Lynds observe the similar effect of the national government's campaign to spend and consume in Middletown in Transition , 479-482.

17. "Construction Activities Here Advance with Rapid Strides," Riverside Enterprise , January 29, 1922, p. 4. "Houses Built in City for 2,000 People," ibid., December 24, 1924, p. 7. "Riverside's Prosperity Is Proved in Building Total,'' ibid., January 1, 1927, p. 4. In 1928, 326 residential permits' estimated cost averaged $4,050, and in the first six months of 1929, when the building boom had collapsed, residential permits averaged $3,611. "Construction in Riverside for Last Twelve Months Is Reported Over Two Millions," ibid. January 1, 1929, p. 9; "Building Now Above Million," ibid., August 1, 1929, p. 3.

18. The source of the statistic was not mentioned; the tone of the article conveys the sense that a realtor judged 25 percent of housing needed painting on the basis of driving through neighborhoods. "25 Per Cent of Riverside's Homes Need Modernization," Riverside Enterprise , August 11, 1929, p. 6; "Modernize," ibid.; "Wake Up! Own Your Home!" ibid.; "Let Us Help You Modernize," ibid.

19. For modernization ads, see "Bring the Old Home up to Date," ad, ibid., June 29, 1930, p. 9; "Toward Prosperity," ibid., January 25, 1931, p. 4; "Don't Put Off Remodeling or Repair," ibid., April 5, 1931, p. 12. "Buy your building" quoted from "Give Employment to Home People," ibid., April 6, 1931, p. 5.

20. "Modern Home, Building Exhibit For Riverside, C. of C. Project," ibid., August 1, 1931, p. 13; "Booths All Reserved," ibid., September 30, 1931, p. 5; "Riverside Chamber of Commerce Invites You," ad for the show, ibid., October 4, 1931, p. 8. "Construction of Attractive Houses Urged," ibid., February 16, 1932, p. 4; "Riverside Small House Contest," announcement of contest, ibid., April 5, 1932, p. 3. "1933 Depends on Me," ad, ibid., March 5, 1933, p. 8-9.

21. Reports from Hoover's housing conference collected in John M. Gries and James Ford, eds., Publications of the President's Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership , 11 vols. (Washington, D.C.: President's Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership, 1932).

22. "Riverside Home Owners" quoted from "Recondition Unit in Los Angeles," Riverside Daily Press , September 10, 1934, p. 5. "Every effort" quoted from "Home Repairing Service Starts," ibid., September 12, 1934, p. 9. The HOLC had been criticized a year earlier for delays in processing mortgage refinancing. The agency stated that it took months to clear up the issues of title, since it was refinancing mortgages in default, and to appraise dwellings; see, "More Appraisers for Home Loans," ibid., January 1, 1934, p. 10, and "Complaint Probe Said Commenced," ibid., March 17, 1934, 1: 2.

23. "Moffett's job" quoted from "Federal Home Remodeling, Repairing Program Director Starts Job Today," Riverside Enterprise , July 9, 1934, p. 1; the story was by United Press. "Considerable promise" quoted from "Federal Housing Program Underway," editorial, ibid., August 17, 1934, p. 18; "Some hail" quoted from "Promising Plan of Ending Depression," ibid., September 9, 1934, p. 16.

24. On the FHA housing survey: "Better Housing Will Be Studied," Riverside Enterprise , July 4, 1934, p. 3; "Housing Census to be Parley Subject," ibid., July 24, 1934, p. 4; "Better Housing Drive Launched," p. ibid., September 19, 1934, p. 4; "Council Members Get Solidly Behind Better-Housing Campaign," ibid., p. 6; "Better Housing Campaign Started by C. of C. Building Trades Committee," ibid., October 6, 1934, p. 3; "Better Housing Group Will Meet," ibid., October 11, 1934, p. 5; "Housing Plan's Approval Asked," ibid., October 9, 1934, p. 5; "Better Housing Drive Launched." ibid., October 12, 1934, p. 4; "Housing Survey May Be Launched Soon," ibid., October 14, 1990, p. 5; "Housing Survey Planned in City," ibid., October 31, 1934, p. 9; "Riverside Needs

Homes Badly; Modernization Also Necessary," ibid., October 31, 1934, Chamber of Commerce Edition, p. 1; "Boom in Building of Homes Likely," ibid., November 6, 1934, p. 3; "Better Housing Program Scheduled to Be Launched on November 9,'' ibid., November 6, 1934, p. 9; "Better Homes Building Exhibit Will Open Here on Friday, November 16," ibid., November 11, 1934, p. 5; "Instruction Given Home Survey Crews," ibid., November 16, 1934, p. 15; "Riverside Better Housing Campaign Starts; Mayor Criddle Issues Official Proclamation," ibid., November 17, 1934, p. 5; "Proclamation," ibid., November 17, 1934, p. 5; "Community Challenge Voiced by Mayor," editorial, ibid., November 17, 1934, p. 14; "Reports on Federal Housing Plan Made," ibid., November 22, 1934, p. 3; "Better Housing Exhibit Viewed," ibid., November 22, 1934, p. 3; "Set-up of Housing Campaign Explained," ibid., November 22, 1934, p. 4; "Warning Issued by Better Housing Body," ibid., November 28, 1934, p. 4; "Housing Campaign Survey Progresses," ibid., November 26,1934, p. 6; "Social, Economic Survey Finished," ibid., December 27,1934, p. 9; "S.E.R.A. Survey of Riverside Soon Will Be Completed, Chairman States," Riverside Daily Press , January 3, 1935, 2:6. I could not locate the results of the survey in local, state, or national archives. I selected the following newspaper advertisements out of the deluge of such ads to illustrate the opening of the FHA modernization campaign: "Loans to Repair and Modernize Your Property," Bank of America ad, Riverside Enterprise , August 15, 1934, p. 5; "The United States Government . . . ," lumber and building supply stores ad with questions and answers on the Federal Housing Act, ibid., August 26, 1934, p. 10; "Free Information on the Federal Home Modernization Plan," ad announcing a special newspaper editor, the "Home Renovation Editor," ibid., September 2, 1934, p. 7; "You Can Get the Money," lumber and building supply store ad, ibid., September 2, 1934, p. 8; "Home Loan Special," lumber store ad, ibid., September 9, 1934, p. 4; "Home Owners!! The Money Is Ready for You," contractors ad, ibid., September 9, 1934, p. 5; "Loans up to $2,000," lumber and building supply store ad, ibid., September 9, 1934, p. 6; "Now You Can Borrow the Money," Sears, Roebuck and Co., ad, ibid., September 14,1934, p. 5; "Loans for Repainting," paint store ad, ibid., September 15, 1934, p. 5; "Modernize Your Home Now," building suppliers ad, ibid., September 16, 1934, p. 5; "How's Your Bathroom?" plumbing dealer ad, ibid., September 16, 1934, p. 5; "The City Beautiful," building supplies ad, ibid., September 19, 1934, 2:6.

25. The theme persisted throughout the 1930s, well after the initial FHA campaign of 1934. For instance, see "Ten-Year-Old House Out-Moded Today," Riverside Daily Press , April 18,1939, p. 3; "Modern Homes Have Many Improvements," ibid., June 10, 1939, p. 5, "Your Home," ad, ibid., August 4, 1936, p. 11. For a later similar discussion, see "How to Build a Home: Wiring the House," ibid., June 17, 1939, p. 5.

26. "First to meet" and "'Even'" quotations from "Faulty Electrical Wiring Exhibit at Utility Office Gets Attention," Riverside Daily Press , November 25, 1936, p. 7. "Defective Electrical Wiring in City Said Found in Survey," Riverside Enterprise , December 13, 1935, p. 3.

27. "How Both Renters and Home Owners Can Buy a General Electric Refrigerator," ad, Riverside Daily Press , July 16, 1935, p. 3; "New Financing Plan for Those Who Do Not Own Homes," ad, ibid., July 19, 1935, p. 5.

28. "1938 Big FHA Year in Riverside County," Riverside Daily Press , May 13, 1939, p. 4; "Few FHA Loans Made in Riverside," ibid., July 30, 1938, p. 5; "New Homes for Riverside," editorial, ibid., August 17, 1939, p. 14; "1941 One of City's Banner Home Years," ibid., January 3, 1942, p. 5; "FHA Home Financing Figures Announced," ibid.,

February 7, 1942, p. 5. The newspaper report on FHA loans in 1941 presented a confusing statistic on Riverside's participation in FHA programs. The February 7 article stated that the 246 FHA new dwellings constituted only 19.1% of permits, a regionally low statistic. However, the 19.1% figure is the percent of all permits—new dwellings and old—rather than just new dwellings. As a percentage of permits for all new dwellings, FHA-insured loans were 95%.

29. See Ronald C. Tobey and Charles Wetherell, "Labor in the Citrus Industry, 1887-1944," Report to the State of California, Department of Parks, Interpretive Division (Department of History, University of California, Riverside, 1993).

30. "Centralized," "These buildings," and "This seems" quotations from "Gigantic Housing Program Sought," Riverside Enterprise , October 17, 1934, p. 4; "Relief Bureau Housing Plan Is Given Blow,'' ibid., November 21, 1934, p. 2; "Home Funds Asked for Use in Valley," Riverside Daily Press , March 6, 1935, 1:4; "SERA Director Makes Report on Coachella Valley Housing," ibid., April 8, 1935, p. 6; "hovel" characterization by the newspaper, "Housing Project Brought Nearer," ibid., August 20, 1935, p. 3. "Work on Labor Camp Proceeds," ibid., October 1, 1937, p. 4.

31. "They had come" quoted from "Byproduct" (Editorial), Riverside Daily Press , May 7, 1940, p. 16. "140 Families at Migratory Camp," ibid., May 20, 1938, p. 4; "First Families Approved for Indio Housing Project," ibid., October 8, 1938, p. 5.

32. "100 Millions Added for Defense Housing," Riverside Daily Press , August 29, 1940, p. 1. "Cooperation of Citrus Belt in Army Housing Urged," ibid., November 2, 1940, p. 5. "Housing Shortage Foreseen by Air District Commander," ibid., December 9, 1940, p. 3; "Riverside Must House Army Depot Clerks," ibid., August 4, 1942, p. 1. The quartermaster depot was located to the northwest of the city, but the city had to meet its personnel housing needs. "Riverside Designated Defense Housing Area," ibid., January 30, 1942, p. 1. "Defense Housing Regulations in Southland Announced," ibid., April 11, 1942, p. 5.

33. "Increased interest" quoted from "Defense Housing to Receive FHA Aid," Riverside Daily Press , December 12, 1942, p. 5. "Each unit" quoted from "$160,000 Project Will Begin in Arlington," ibid., June 5, 1943, p. 3. "Defense Housing Regulations in Southland Announced," ibid., April 11, 1942, p. 5; "Riverside Must House Army Depot Clerks," ibid., August 4, 1942, p. 1; "800 More Rooms for Army Clerks Sought," ibid., August 26, 1942, p. 4. "125 War Units for City," ibid., February 4, 1943, p. 1. "Plans for Public Conversion Units in Riverside Discussed," ibid., February 6, 1943, p. 8. "Rezoning Approval Aids Housing Plan," ibid., April 27, 1943, p. 5.

34. "Crowding out" and "Race mixture" quotations from "Question of Race Survival," editorial, Riverside Daily Press , November 17, 1937, p. 16. "Without segregation" quoted from "Education as the Solution of the Negro Race Problem," editorial, ibid., June 3, 1944, p. 12. Henry Coil address reprinted in "City Planning Is Discussed at Public Affairs Dinner," Riverside Enterprise , March 27, 1930, p. 4.

35. R. B. Hampson (president, Riverside Chamber of Commerce), "Hampson Appeals for Help in Housing," Riverside Daily Press , January 1, 1946, p. 5; facts are rehearsed as background in the article, "Truman Cuts Major Housing Restrictions," ibid., December 16, 1946, p. 1; see also, "Creedon Junks Former Housing Priority System," ibid., December 24, 1946, p. 2. "Single Family House Shortage Shown after the United States Survey," ibid., July 19, 1937, p. 2; "3,000,000 New Homes Estimated Needed in Five-Year Period," ibid., July 27, 1937, p. 2. "Senate Gives Approval for Housing Bill," ibid., August 6, 1937, p. 1; "Slum Clearance Measure Signed," ibid., September 2, 1937,

p. 2. Editorial, "Housing Crisis Will Be Worse Before It Improves," ibid., February 21, 1946, p. 16; "Housing Shortage in State Remains Acute," ibid., April 11, 1947, p. 3; "State's Critical Need of Housing Shown to C of C," ibid., June 17, 1947, p. 7, which reported an estimate by the state legislature's housing committee of a need for 375,000 houses. Editorial, ''End of National Housing Emergency Not Yet Foreseen," ibid., December 26, 1946, p. 20.

36. Housing figures of other nations were collected by the Riverside Daily Press from a variety of United Press wire stories. See "Lack of Postwar Housing Afflicting Entire World," Riverside Daily Press , December 28, 1946, p. 11. On U.S. statistics, see Series N156, "New Housing Units Started, by Ownership, Type of Structure, Location, and Construction Cost: 1889-1970," Census, Historical Statistics of the United States (1976), 2:639.

37. "City Beating Housing Problem," Riverside Daily Press , September 30, 1948, p. 4. See also, "Housing Shortage Seen Easing Up (in Minneapolis)," ibid., January 27, 1949, p. 6; "Housing Shortage in L.A. Claimed 'Thing of the Past,'" ibid., March 18, 1949, p. 2; "L.A. Realtor Says Housing Surplus Looms in City," ibid., October 4, 1950, p. 2. "Housing Normalcy Still Seen Distant as 1956," ibid., October 25, 1948, p. 18.

38. "OPA Freezes Rental Prices for Housing," Riverside Daily Press , April 29, 1942, p. 4. "Operation of Rent Control Explained," ibid., May 9, 1942, p. 3. "Roomers' Rents Now Under Control," ibid., July 11, 1942, p. 3. "Rent Control Office to Be Set Up Here," ibid., October 22, 1942, p. 9. "Control of Rents Extended," ibid., October 12, 1942, p. 2. "Rent Control Ended Here, Woods Says," ibid., November 16, 1949, p. 13. The organization of realtors and landlords against rent control should not be confused with tenants' movements to retain rent control or expand tenant rights. See Allan D. Heskin, Tenants and the American Dream: Ideology and the Tenant Movement (New York: Praeger, 1983), 3-37.

39. Miles Colean, technical director for the Federal Housing Administration, 1934-1937, and assistant administrator of the FHA, 1937-1940, confirmed the connection between top-down federal support of real estate capitalism and the potential for federal manipulation of monetary and credit policies for social purposes; see Miles L. Colean, The Impact of Government on Real Estate Finance in the United States , Financial Research Program, Studies in Urban Mortgage Financing (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1950), 99-101. On Roosevelt's view of the need for national support of local real estate and home ownership, see Tobey, Wetherell, and Brigham, "Moving Out and Settling In," 1412-1420. Monkkonen's America Becomes Urban places my suggestion of a revolution in local property capitalism in the 1930s in the context of the history of the modern American city. Although historians see the New Deal as neglecting cities, as compared to agriculture, they do see it as having altered the growth game of local capitalism through intrusion of federal bureaucracy and regulations and through postwar sponsorship of suburbanization. See Monkkonen, America Becomes Urban , 5, 222-223; and Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier , 190-230.

40. The (now-classic) account of the corporate revolution in property that influenced the generation of New Deal economic thinking was provided by Adolf A. Berle and Gardiner C. Means, The Modern Corporation and Private Property , rev. ed. (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1968).

41. "The multitude" quoted from Lynd and Lynd, Middletown , 22. "The mere fact" quoted from ibid., pp. 23-24.

42. "Those members" quoted from ibid., p. 489; "the thick blubber" quoted from ibid., p. 490.

1. The difference between average national use and Riverside's average use in the early 1920s is due to the difference in the average quality of electrified dwellings. A lower percentage of the nation's urban dwellings were electrified (38 percent in 1921) than Riverside's. Since higher-quality neighborhoods were electrified first, average national use would have been higher, because larger homes have more lights. With a higher percentage of electrified dwellings, Riverside's average would have been lower until the extent of urban electrification in the nation matched Riverside's later in the decade.

2. Riverside's and the nation's historical increase in electrical consumption are not statistically significantly different. Riverside's stepped growth best fits an exponential curve, as does the national consumption series. The differences between the national and the Riverside yearly monthly mean consumption for 1921 to 1950, using a one-way anova test, a Kolmogorov-Smimow two-sample test, and a t-test for independent samples are not significantly different (probability = .24).

3. On the Riverside Sample Data, see chapter 3, note 7. Our basic sampling strategy in the utility billing records is technically termed a systematic random sample. For every year from 1921 to 1950, we looked at every fifth unit in randomly selected 80 percent of 512 meter-reader routes present in the city in 1950. We adjusted sampling for chronological bias (early years of the meter routes had fewer dwellings) and geographic dispersal. For further information, see Tobey, "Statistical Supplement."

4. We devised an analytical model of consumption to determine when Riverside households began using specific electric appliances. We distinguish between entry-level use and normal, modernized use of an appliance. To establish how much electricity an appliance or device, such as the radio, demands, we used published electrical industry tests from the 1920s and 1930s. The electrical utilities needed to determine future demand for electricity to plan generating capacity. Industry also conducted surveys of electrical consumption by devices in normal use by households. On the basis of these experiments, we established how much electricity a household would have to be using for us to be confident that it was using a particular appliance. To detect the presence of an appliance, we needed, not its average modernized use, but a minimal floor of use. Since households could build additional appliance consumption upon this floor, we considered it to be an "entry" floor establishing use. We employed the entry floor of use for the most popular appliances that surveys established as being in homes before 1950. These devices were lights, flatiron, radio, and refrigerator. Refrigerator use is less flexible than light, flatiron, and radio use. Rapid technological improvements in the 1930s reduced the amount of electricity demanded by refrigerator motors. We therefore adjusted the refrigerator demand year by year to reflect increased efficiency in the motors. We tested our model against four objective benchmarks of appliance ownership in Riverside. (1) The 1934 Real Property Inventory, conducted for the federal government's Department of Commerce, reported refrigerator ownership for Sacramento, to which we compared Riverside. (2) In 1940, the U.S. Census queried for possession of mechanical refrigerators and radios in dwellings. The census reported that 94.3 percent of Riverside homes owned radios. Our model predicts that 93.5 percent of Riverside homes used electric radios. (3) The 1940 Housing Census reports that 62.8 percent of Riverside dwellings had mechanical refrigeration. Our model predicts that 65.0 percent of Riverside's homes had electric refrigeration. (4) The 1950 Housing Census reported that 86.4 percent of River-

side homes had mechanical refrigeration; our model predicts 88.2 percent ownership. For a full description, see Tobey, "Statistical Supplement."

5. Cohen, Making a New Deal . The radio is not mentioned in Cowan, More Work for Mother , 172-191.

6. Studying only upper-income homes in Denver and Kansas in the 1920s, Mark Rose argues, on the basis of advertisements, that home owning and renting households shared electrical device ownership equally. In the 1930s, in the two cities, however, refrigerator ownership became differentiated between owners and renters as well as along the income scale. See Mark H. Rose, "Urban Environments and Technological Innovation: Energy Choices in Denver and Kansas City, 1900-1940," Technology and Culture 25 (July 1985): 503-539.

7. "State Benefits by FHA Loans," Riverside Daily Press , November 26, 1938, p. 5. In 1940, there were 11,073 dwelling units (houses, apartments, rental rooms) in the city of Riverside, of which 5,266 units were owner occupied; see Bureau of the Census, Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940; Housing, Vol. 2. General Characteristics , California, Table 23, "Number of Rooms, Lighting Equipment, Size of Household, Etc., for Urban Places and Rural Areas, By Counties, 1940—con.," p. 279.

8. Political agitation for lower domestic electricity rates began in the 1920s, but was resisted by the city council, which did not want to lose its "profit" on electricity sales that could be transferred to the city's General Fund; see "Reduction of One Cent in Light Urged," Riverside Enterprise , November 8, 1927, p. 1, and "Council Declines to Act on Light Reduction Rates,'' ibid., November 9, 1927, p. 3. Reductions came during the depression, when Riverside followed the national trend. Political pressure on state regulatory boards, such as California's, pushed down the rates of private power utilities. In the nation as a whole, average residential electricity rates dropped from 7.04 cents for the first 25 kwh/mo. and 5.21 cents for the first 100 kwh/mo. in 1929 to 6.40 cents for the first 25 kwh/mo. and 4.67 cents for the first 100 kwh/mo. in 1935; see Series S 112-113, "Growth of Residential Service, and Average Prices for Electrical Energy: 1902 to 1970," in Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States (1976), 1: 827. Riverside followed the reductions provided to its privately supplied urban neighbors. See "Consumer Gets Break July 1," Riverside Enterprise , June 11, 1931, p. 5; "Reduction in Lighting Rate Now in Effect, Commercial Users Get Slash to Total of $17,000 Per Year Here," ibid., July 1, 1931, p. 13; "Slash in Power Charge Favored," Riverside Daily Press , March 15, 1935, p. 6; "Industrial Rate for Power Lower," ibid., May 17, 1935, p. 8. For heavy appliance sales figures, see "Electric Light Business Gains," ibid., July 12, 1935, p. 6; "Board of Utilities Authorizes Commercial Lighting Charge Cut," ibid., October 12, 1935, p. 10; "Board of Public Utilities Reduces Rates on Electricity for Domestic, Commercial Use Here," ibid., June 12, 1936, p. 10. California rates were compared in "Electricity Consumers in Riverside Pay Lower Rate than in Most Cities, Federal Study Shows," ibid., July 26, 1935, p. 11; "Electric Rates in City Among Lowest," ibid., December 28, 1938, p. 6; "City's Electric Rates Lowest in State for Small Consumer," ibid., June 20, 1939, p. 3. By the mid-1930s, Riverside tied its basic rate to the first 45 kwh/mo. of consumption, which corresponds to the consumption floor for an average house with lights, iron, radio, and refrigerator.

9. Fischer, America Calling , 110-121, 143-151.

10. On war rationing, see "OPM Orders Cut in Use of Electricity," Riverside Daily Press , October 30, 1941, p. 1; "Electricity for Homes May be Rationed, FPC Head Says," ibid., January 22, 1942, p. 1; "Electricity Curb Hits Riverside," ibid., January 29, 1945,

p. 1. Riverside lowered rates during the war in response to special interests; see "Commercial Lighting Rates to Be Lower," ibid., December 11, 1942, p. 4; "City Launches Move for Lower Power Rates," ibid., January 14, 1944, p. 3. On the rezoning, see "Hearing Looms on Extensive Apartment House Rezoning," ibid., December 2, 1939, p. 5; "Planning Body Approves New Apartment House Areas," ibid., December 8, 1939, p. 7; "Rezoning Notices Attain New High,'' ibid., December 18, 1939, p. 8; "Apartment House, Duplex Areas Approved for Rezoning," ibid., December 26, 1939, p. 4. On extending the apartment and duplex zone into the East Side, see "City Planning Commission Favors Rezoning Eighth," ibid., May 10, 1940, p. 6; "Council Overrules Planning Body on Duplex Rezoning," ibid., June 18, 1940, p. 4.

11. Baritz contends that World War II advanced the material prosperity of the civilian home front, on the grounds that half of the industrial productive output went to civilian consumption and that few Americans testified they had really sacrificed during the war; see Baritz, The Good Life , 178. See also, Sherna Berger Gluck, Rosie the Riveter Revisited: Women, the War, and Social Change (Boston: Twayne, 1987); George Lipsitz, Rainbow at Midnight: Labor and Culture in the 1940s , rev. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994), 19-44.

12. Tobey, Wetherell, and Brigham, "Moving Out and Settling In," 1395-1422.

13. In a multiple classification analysis of the tenure of households in months, the three factors accounted for only 19 percent of variation of length of residence (multiple R squared = .192). See Tobey, "Statistical Supplement."

14. For tables of residential tenure by tenure status, occupation, and neighborhood, see table 6.9 at the end of this chapter. See also Tobey, "Moving Out and Setting In," tables 2-5 and footnote 35 table. In this and the following paragraphs, we speak of owner and renter households, not about the dwellings.

15. For Los Angeles, see table 19, "Persons with Work Histories and Mean Number of Jobs Held, 1940-1949, by Occupation Group," p. 56, and table 26, "Mobility Measures for All Workers, 1940-1949, by Occupational Group, Six Cities Combined," p. 72, in Gladys L. Palmer, Labor Mobility in Six Cities: A Report on the Survey of Patterns and Factors in Local Mobility, 1940-1950 (New York: Social Science Research Council, 1954).

16. Lynd and Lynd, Middletown , 60-62. Herbert S. Parnes, Research on Labor Mobility: An Appraisal of Research Findings in the United States , Social Science Research Council Bulletin 65 (New York: Social Science Research Council, 1954), 100-143; see especially pp. 107-109 on seniority. Migration research by social scientists in the 1940s and 1950s was primarily concerned with policy questions created by governmental social programs. In the 1960s, researchers shifted to investigate migration within the framework of theoretical (structural) social systems. For an introduction to this later literature see Martin Cadwallader, "Theoretical Frameworks," in Cadwallader, Migration and Residential Mobility: Macro and Micro Approaches (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992), 3-38.

17. Parnes, Research on Labor Mobility , 123-124, on home ownership.

18. Palmer, Labor Mobility in Six Cities , 125.

19. Mrs. Ralph Borsodi, "The Cost of Feeding a Family," Electrical Merchandising 53 (May 1935): 8. See also Cecile Tipton La Follette, A Study of the Problems of 652 Gainfully Employed Married Women Homemakers , Teachers College, Columbia University, Contributions to Education, no. 619 (New York: AMS, [1934] 1972), 83, 92, 174.

20. Cohen, Making a New Deal , passim.

1. On the African-American migration, see Nicholas Lemann, The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How It Changed America , reprint (New York: Vintage Books, 1991). Local wartime references to rising black consciousness included "Negro Legion Post to Be Formed Here," Riverside Daily Press , June 10, 1940, 2: 1; "Colored Soldiers Reception Guests," ibid., March 26, 1941, p. 10; "Veto Defeats Council's Move to Aid Settlement," ibid., August 19, 1941, p. 4; "Race Bans in Defense Denied,'' ibid., October 21, 1941, p. 2; "Riverside Men and Women on the Honor Roll of Air Raid Wardens in the Fourth Ward," ibid., May 18, 1942, p. 9; "Eighty Negro Soldiers Guests at Lincoln Park," ibid., January 14, 1943, p. 4; "Race Relations to Be Discussed by NAACP," ibid., July 19, 1943, p. 5; "Equal Opportunity for Whites and Negroes [editorial]," ibid., February 24, 1944, p. 16; "Race Problems Have Discussion," ibid., March 4, 1944, p. 8; "The Negro Vote as a Factor in the November Elections [editorial]," ibid., August 30, 1944, p. 14; "Negro Residents Active in Sales of War Bonds," ibid., June 24, 1944, p. 3.

2. John Hope Franklin, From Slavery to Freedom: A History of Negro Americans , 3d ed. (New York: Vintage Books, 1969), 572-607, and Richard Polenberg, War and Society: The United States, 1941-1945 (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1972), 99-130.

3. Robert C. Weaver, The Negro Ghetto , reprint with a new preface (New York: Russell & Russell, [1948] 1967), 77-98, 99-138. "The Negro lost" quoted from ibid., p. 104. Statistics on Detroit housing and population from ibid., p. 86; on Detroit's housing during wartime, see also ibid., pp. 114-116. For the statistics on African-American percentages of priority wartime housing, see ibid., pp. 144-145. See also Dominic J. Capeci, Jr., Race Relations in Detroit: The Sojourner Truth Housing Controversy, 1937-1942 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1984); Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940 to 1960 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); and Allan H. Spears, Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto, 1890-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967).

4. Bredemeier, The Federal Public Housing Movement ; Fish, The Story of Housing ; Keith, Politics and the Housing Crisis ; and May, Homeward Bound , 168-69. May locates the social forces that precipitated the federal policies favoring suburban family homes in the cold war, rather than in the depression of the 1930s; see ibid., pp. 169-172.

5. Findlay does not mention federal interference with local social control as a reason for the postwar panic of "cities out of control"; see John M. Findlay, Magic Lands: Western Cityscapes and American Culture after 1940 (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1993), 33-51.

6. "If a neighborhood" quoted from Federal Housing Administration, Underwriting Manual , par. 937; see also, pars. 973, 1032. For racial covenant requirements, see par. 980.3.

7. Weaver, The Negro Ghetto , 166-170.

8. Ibid., pp. 148-154, 157-164; Eunice Grier and George Grier, Privately Developed Interracial Housing: An Analysis of Experience , Special Research Report to the Commission on Race and Housing (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960), 143-155.

9. "One of the most" quoted from U.S. Committee on Civil Rights, Charles E. Wilson, Chairman, To Secure These Rights (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1946), 68; see also pp. 84-85, 89; "The right to housing" discussed, pp. 18-19, 40-47, 68, 83-87, 169. On

Truman's motivation, see William E. Leuchtenburg, "The Conversion of Harry Truman," pp. 274-288 in Leonard Dinnerstein and Kenneth T. Jackson, eds., American Vistas, vol. 2: 1877 to the Present , 7th ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); see also Kluger, Simple Justice , 249-253; Robert H. Ferrell, Harry S. Truman and the Modern American Presidency (Boston: Little, Brown, 1983), 96-99; Chafe, Unfinished Journey , 88-91; Hamby, Liberalism and Its Challengers , 66-69; William C. Berman, The Politics of Civil Rights in the Truman Administration (1970), as excerpted in Alonzo L. Hamby, ed., Harry S. Truman and the Fair Deal (Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath, 1974), 184-187; and David McCullough, Truman (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), 588-593.

10. Clement E. Vose, Caucasians Only: The Supreme Court, the NAACP, and the Restrictive Covenant Cases (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1959). Federal participation discussed, pp. 168-174. See also Kluger, Simple Justice , 250-255. "Both Presidents" quoted from the federal amicus brief, published as Prejudice and Property: An Historic Brief Against Racial Covenants, Submitted to the Supreme Court By Tom C. Clark and Philip B. Perlman (Washington, D.C.: Public Affairs Press, 1948), 70. "[Racially restrictive covenants] are responsible" quoted from ibid., p. 23. On the social disintegrative effects of covenants on African-Americans, see ibid., p. 14. On the role of covenants in barring minorities from modern postwar housing, see ibid., pp. 18-19.

11. Robert Weaver prepared the sociological data on the social and economic effects of racial covenants presented by NAACP lawyers to the Supreme Court. The sociological brief was drawn from materials published in 1948 as Robert C. Weaver, The Negro Ghetto ; see Vose, Caucasians Only , 163-163.

12. Weaver, The Negro Ghetto , 66-138. See also Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy , with the assistance of Richard Sterner and Arnold Rose (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1944), 618-627.

13. On the Court's decision, see Vose, Caucasians Only , 205-210. On the FHA's eligibility rule of 1950, see ibid., pp. 225-227.

14. See Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier , 224-228, for an overview of the history of public housing that focuses on the siting issue. See also Huthmacher, Senator Robert Wagner and the Rise of Urban Liberalism , 205-216, 299-302, 322-325, 335-336. Riverside's local press followed the national events. A few of the articles from the Riverside Daily Press , which establish continuity in local attention to the issue are D. Harold Oliver, "Slum Clearance Measure [the Wagner Act] Signed," September 2, 1937, p. 2; "Coalition Kills Housing Bill Too," August 3, 1939, p. 1; "Truman Housing Bill [Wagner-Ellender-Taft bill] Shelved by Congress," July 30, 1946, p. 2; "Low-Income Family Housing Problem Recognized in New Senate Bill [editorial]," March 21, 1947, p. 18; "Truman Outlines Vast Low-Rent Housing Plan,'' February 23, 1948, p. 1; "Failure of Housing Legislation Sure to Be Warm Campaign Issue [editorial]," June 28, 1948, p. 20; "Are Political Considerations, or Facts, to Govern the Housing Problem? [editorial]," July 20, 1948, p. 30; "Truman Signs Housing Bill," August 10, 1948, p. I [the bill referenced had been sponsored by Republican party opponents of publicly assisted low-rent housing and slum clearance and did not contain funding for these programs]; "Dewey Says New Deal Caused Housing Woes," October 8, 1948, p. 1; "Truman Awaits Recommendations on New Home, Foreign Policies," November 26, 1948, p. 1 [reviews legislation that would be part of Truman's Fair Deal]; "Housing Measure Goes to Senate Floor Tomorrow," February 24, 1949, p. 1 [unsuccessful effort of liberals to amend a housing bill to prohibit racial segregation in public housing projects]; "Truman Thinks Most of Program Will Pass; Pleas for Housing," March 21, 1949, p. 1; "Contractors Join

Demand to Kill Federal Housing," April 4, 1949, p. 20 [concerning support of Riverside chapter of Building Contractors' Association for efforts of congressional Republicans to defeat public housing bill]; "Housing Bill Passed by Senate," April 22, 1949, p. 1 [further efforts to amend bill to prohibit racial discrimination in public housing failed]; "Trumanites Exult as Housing Passes," June 30, 1949, p. 1; "Housing Bill Most Striking Action of This Session [editorial],'' July 13, 1949, p. 24; "Slum Clearance Work May Start Here Soon," July 22, 1949, p. 9.

15. On the East Side housing survey of 1948 by the Riverside Council of Church Women, see "Forum to Feature Housing, Slum Clearance Films," Riverside Daily Press , October 19, 1948, p. 5. The report of results of the survey is in the Riverside Public Library Local History Collection. "Slum Clearance Work May Start Here Soon," ibid., July 22, 1949, p. 1; "Council Moves Toward Securing Housing Aid," ibid., August 16, 1949, p. 1.

16. "'The members walked'" quoted from "Colored People Ask for Private Plunge," Riverside Enterprise , May 24, 1922, p. 1. On the local hearings requirement of the 1937 and 1949 housing acts, see Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier , 224-225.

17. For the history of the Riverside County Housing Authority, see "County Housing Authority Urged," Riverside Daily Press , November 19, 1942, p. 1; "Housing Authority Organized for County," ibid., November 23, 1942, p. 8; "County Housing Authority Will Operate in City," ibid., April 27, 1943, p. 5. On privately constructed defense housing, see "Two City Projects Announced," ibid., September 23, 1942, p. 7. For the expectation that defense housing was temporary, see "Public, War Housing on Temporary Basis," ibid., April 24, 1943, p. 5. On local results in the 1948 California housing initiative, see "City Landlords Enter Public Housing Battle," ibid., December 3, 1949, p. 9. The story of Riverside's realty industry's effort to obtain a city housing authority can be followed in "Realtors Request Separate City Housing Authority," ibid., May 19, 1949, p. 1; "Realtors Urging Separate Local Housing Authority," ibid., August 25, 1949, p. 6; "City Landlords Enter Public Housing Battle," ibid., December 3, 1949, p. 9; "Landlords Prepare Attack on Public Housing Council," December 5, 1949, p. 13; "City Council Firm on Public Housing Plans," ibid., December 6, 1949, p. 13; "Housing Aid Foes Move to Kill Program Here," ibid., December 15, 1949, p. 6. On the estimate of federal funds that might come to the city, see "Housing Requests Go to Capital Soon," ibid., August 17, 1949, p. 9.

18. The Riverside Daily Press editorially summarized the opposition to public housing during the controversy over the November 1948 California public housing initiative, which would have authorized state loans to local housing authorities and was partly justified to provide housing for veterans; "No. 11 Promises Great Expense, But No Additional Housing," editorial, Riverside Daily Press , October 21, 1948, p. 32; see also "Are Political Considerations, or Facts, to Govern the Housing Problem," editorial, ibid., July 22, 1948, p. 30, which claimed that 75 percent of American families could afford housing in the private marketplace. The housing initiative is explained in "Initiative to Alleviate Housing Lack Explained," ibid., June 30, 1948, p. 5. Voters defeated the housing initiative—Proposition 11 on the California November 2 ballot—by better than 2 to 1; see table in "State Vote on Propositions," ibid., November 4, 1948, p. 4. On the continued contest over the New Deal, see "Is There Any Demurrer in the Resolution of the Election for the Nation's Press?" ibid., November 16, 1948, p. 24. The characterization of public housing as "socialistic" originated with its supporters, such as the city mayor, William C. Evans, but was soon repeated with acerbity by opponents; see the city council exchange between a Democratic councilman and Evans, "Council Votes to Seek Low-

Rent Housing Aid," ibid., November 29, 1949, p. 13, and "Tilden Says Beware of Housing Program Here," ibid., December 2, 1949, p. 9. For the eruption of anticommunism issues within the controversy over federal public housing in southern California, see Donald Craig Parson, "Urban Politics During the Cold War: Public Housing, Urban Renewal, and Suburbanization in Los Angeles'' (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1985).

19. "Housing Bill Goes to Senate," Riverside Daily Press , August 25, 1949, p. 1. Public housing supporting coalition cited in "City Council Firm on Public Housing Plans," ibid., December 6, 1949, p. 13; "City's Ministers Okay Housing Plan," ibid., December 21, 1949, p. 13; "Labor Council of AFL Endorses Housing Program," ibid., January 11, 1950, p. 16. See also Patterson, Colony for California , 299-300.

20. Quotations from "Pro and Con on Housing Was Sharp," Riverside Daily Press , December 7, 1949, p. 13, and "Scott Defends Public Housing for Riverside," ibid., December 8, 1949, p. 5.

21. "Slum Clearance Work May Start Here Soon," Riverside Daily Press , July 22, 1949, p. 9. "Tilden Says Beware of Housing Program Here," ibid., December 2, 1949, p. 9; "Tilden Proposes Substitute for Federal Housing," ibid., December 15, 1949, p. 6; "Baltimore Plan Urged for Riverside's Slums," ibid., December 29, 1949, p. 9. "'You may have'" quoted from "Property Owner Group Blasts Housing Project," ibid., December 20, 1949, p. 18. "Public housing" quoted from "Proposition No. 10," ibid., October 30, 1950, p. 28. The editorial recommended a favorable vote on a November 1950 California statewide initiative to require approval of a majority of voters before a federal public housing project could be located in a community. Political alignments over slum clearance somewhat similar to Riverside were established in the 1930s in New York City; see Deborah S. Gardner, "Site Selection and the New York City Housing Authority, 1934-1939," Journal of Urban History 12 (1986): 334-352.

22. On receipt of grants by other cities, see "Beaumont Gets $4800 for Loan for Public Housing," Riverside Daily Press , August 24, 1950, p. 13, and "SB County Gets Big Housing Loan," ibid., October 30, 1950, p. 19. On statewide realty leadership, see "Contractors Ask Stop on U.S. Housing Plea," ibid., April 29, 1950, p. 7 (Marshal Tilden was president of the Building Contractors' Association); "Builders Hit Public Housing, Tighe Woods," ibid., November 18, 1950, p. 9. On the shift to defense housing, see "U.S. Housing Program Shifting Toward War," ibid., December 26, 1950, p. 6. See also Peter Kivisto, "A Historical Review of Changes in Public Housing and Their Impacts on Minorities," in Jamshid A. Momenti, ed., Race, Ethnicity, and Minority Housing in the United States (New York: Greenwood Press, 1986), 1-18.

23. "Home Building Boom Strong in Third Year," Riverside Daily Press , October 20, 1948, p. 7B; "Biggest Building Year in History," ibid., January 1, 1949, p. 3. "The area" and "should plan" quotations from "City Planners to Hear Multiple Dwelling Petition," ibid., April 6, 1949, p. 11; "Planners O.K. Housing Zone," ibid., April 8, 1949, p. 9; "Big Multiple Housing Area Created in City," ibid., April 20, 1949, p. 13, mentions that a new industrial zone had been created to the north of the rezoned area and workers in industries there would also probably rent in the newly rezoned area.

24. The minority enrollment statistics for Longfellow school were provided by the Eastside Settlement House to a newspaper reporter; see Beth Teters, "Fundamentals of Negro Life Probed in Series," Riverside Daily Press , February 15, 1950, p. 4. The publication of this series of articles on Riverside's African-American community in itself revealed the turmoil generated by local redistribution of minority population. The point

made about lack of wholesale white flight from North East Side is made only on the basis of racial identification. It does not address the question of shifting class composition of the area. Considering the long-term declining proportion of owner-resident, single-family houses, it is likely that the income level of Anglo residents declined. Huang brings forward evidence from the 1960 census—though block statistics are not available—that North East Side represented nearly the poorest census districts of the city, save only the poverty of the old East Side. See Hongwei Huang, "Historic Preservation at Eastside" (M.A. field report for the Program in Historic Resources Management, Department of History, University of California, Riverside, 1992). For a later assessment of subsequent progress in residential racial integration in Riverside, see "Integration in Riverside: What the Numbers Say," Riverside Press-Enterprise , August 27, 1989, B: 1. See also, Michael N. Danielson, The Politics of Exclusion (New York: Columbia University Press, 1976), 27-129.

25. William H. Chafe, The Unfinished Journey: America since World War II , 2d ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 80; Kluger, Simple Justice , 253. "Consumer spending" quoted from Carolyn Shaw Bell, Consumer Choice in the American Economy (New York: Random House, 1967), 34. On President Truman's support for the Rooseveltian public power position, see John Richard Waltrip, Public Power during the Truman Administration (New York: Arno Press, 1979), 30-35, 79-81, 85-86. On Elaine May's thesis in Homeward Bound, see note 4, this chapter.

26. "It is especially" quoted from U.S. Housing and Home Finance Agency, Housing of the Nonwhite Population, 1940-1950 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1951), 14; see also pp. 13-14. Owner occupancy rates from table 7, "Condition and Plumbing Facilities by Occupancy and Color of Occupants, for the United States, Urban and Rural: 1950," pp. 1-4, Bureau of the Census, Census of Housing: 1950, Volume 1, General Characteristics, Part 1, United States Summary (Washington, D.C., 1953); 1960 calculated from absolute data in table 9, "Tenure, Vacancy Status, and Condition and Plumbing Facilities for the United States, Inside and Outside SMSA's, Urban and Rural: 1960," p. 1-40, Bureau of the Census, 1960: Census of Housing, Volume 1, States and Small Areas, Part 1, United States Summary (Washington, D.C., 1961). Home ownership rate of nonwhite households, 1940-1960, calculated from table 16, U.S. Housing and Home Finance Agency, Housing of the Nonwhite Population , p. 38; table 24, "Selected Population and Housing Characteristics By Color For The United States: 1950 and 1960," table 32, "Selected Characteristics of Urban Housing By Color of Occupants, United States: 1950 and 1960,'' table 33, "Selected Characteristics of Housing United By Color Of Occupants, For The United States, Urban and Rural: 1960," U.S. Housing and Home Finance Agency, Our Nonwhite Population and Its Housing: The Changes Between 1950 and 1960 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, May 1963). Urban housing quality for nonwhite households, 1950 and 1960, from table 24, "Selected Population and Housing Characteristics By Color For The United States: 1950 and 1960," U.S. Housing and Home Finance Agency, Our Nonwhite Population and Its Housing .

27. FHA and VA housing starts, 1935-1960, from cols. 2, 3: Series N 180-185, "Private Owned Housing United in Major Federal Programs: 1935 to 1970," Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States (1976), 2:641. Col. 4: Series N 157, "New Housing Units Started, by Ownership, Type of Structure, Location, and Construction Cost: 1889-1970," ibid., p. 639.

28. See table 1.1, chapter 1.

29. My inspiration for this view is Thomas S. Kuhn, "The Invisibility of Revolu-

tions," in Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions , 2d ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), 136-143.

30. Best and Cuttle quoted from "Riversiders Vitally Interested in Proposal to Enlarge Supreme Court," Riverside Daily Press , February 10, 1937, p. 1 f.; "Riverside Votes 20 to 1 Against," ibid., February 24, 1937, p. 9; "Vote Still Stands Two to One Against Roosevelt's Supreme Court Program," ibid., February 25, 1937, p. 2; "East Votes Heavily Against Roosevelt Court Change,'' ibid., February 26, 1937, p. 8; "Final Vote Shows 2 to 1 Opposed to Court Change," ibid., March 1, 1937, p. 8. The survey is not a scientific poll of Riverside's or the nation's electorate. The disaffection of Orange County, California, with Roosevelt similarly began with reaction against the court plan; see Robert L. Pritchard, "Orange County During the Depressed Thirties: A Study in Twentieth-Century California Local History," in Bernard Sternsher, ed., Hitting Home: The Great Depression in Town and Country (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1970), 261. Also see William E. Leuchtenburg, "Franklin D. Roosevelt's Supreme Court 'Packing' Plan," [1969 paper] reprinted in Dubofsky, The New Deal , 271-304, esp. pp. 280, 291-294. The court-packing controversy generated a large, partisan literature, but no titles I located examined local political opinion over the controversy. I found useful Edward S. Corwin, Constitutional Revolution. Ltd. (Claremont, Calif.: Pomona College, Scripps College, Claremont Colleges, 1941), esp. pp. 39-79, 80-177; and Robert H. Jackson [appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court by Roosevelt in 1941], The Struggle for Judicial Supremacy: A Study of a Crisis in American Power Politics (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, [1941] 1949). C. Herman Pritchett, The Roosevelt Court: A Study in Judicial Politics and Values, 1937-1947 (New York: Macmillan, 1948), examines the Court after the court-packing controversy. For a historical reassessment of the "old Court," that sat before Roosevelt's Court appointments after 1937, defending the flexibility of the old Court on economic doctrine, see Arthur Shenfield, "The New Deal and the Supreme Court," in Eden, The New Deal and Its Legacy , 166-176. See Alan Brinkley, The End of Reform: New Deal Liberalism in Recession and War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1995), on how the court-packing controversy and recession of 1937 changed the New Deal, esp. the overview, pp. 3-30.

31. On a related point, see Graham, Toward a Planned Society , 98-100.

32. For discussion of the collapse of labor-capital antagonism, see Steve Fraser, "The 'Labor Question,'" in Fraser and Gerstle, Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order , 55-84, and Nelson Lichtenstein, "From Corporatism to Collective Bargaining: Organized Labor and the Eclipse of Social Democracy in the Postwar Era," in ibid., pp. 122-152, both of which cite the relevant monographic literature. Cf. Gary Gerstle, Working-Class Americanism: The Politics of Labor in a Textile City, 1914-1960 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 263-264, 278-279, 310-330.

33. May, Homeward Bound , 162-182; Godfrey Hodgkin, America in Our Time (New York: Random House, 1978), 86-90; Lipsitz, Rainbow at Midnight , 252-278; Robert Eden, "Introduction: A Legacy of Questions," in Eden, The New Deal Legacy , 2-3; Charles R. Kesler, "The Public Philosophy of the New Freedom and the New Deal," in ibid., pp. 155-166; Morton J. Frisch, "An Appraisal of Roosevelt's Legacy: How the Moderate Welfare State Transcended the Tension Between Progressivism and Socialism," in ibid., pp. 190-198.

34. Brinkley, The End of Reform , 227-264, on the shift from state coordinated planning of investment and production of the 1930s for purpose of economic stabilization to state planning of national economic growth through regulating aggregate consumer demand in 1940s. See also Graham, Toward a Planned Society , 80-90.

35. Hodgkin, America in Our Time , 87. Hamby believes that since Roosevelt the institutional capability of the presidency for leadership has been tied to the broadcast media; see Alonzo L. Hamby, Liberalism and Its Challengers: FDR to Reagan (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), vii. Elizabeth A. Foner-Wolf, Selling Free Enterprise: The Business Assault on Labor and Liberalism, 1945-1960 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994).

36. Chafe, The Unfinished Journey , 112-113. Chafe does not make the point that home building represented a shift from a nation of renters to a nation of home owners as a policy goal of the New Deal and a Rooseveltian value. See also May, Homeward Bound , 167, 174-182. On the connection between automobiles, home ownership, and suburbia, see Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier , 246-271.

37. Fischer, America Calling , 175-192.

38. Cf. Albert Borgmann, Technology and the Character of Contemporary Life: A Philosophical Inquiry (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, [1984] 1987).

39. See Fischer's parallel, though not political, view; Fischer, America Calling , 265-268.