Refried Elvis "endnotes"

Notes

Introduction

1. The concept of the "Revolutionary Family" became popularized in the social science literature on Mexico by Frank Brandenburg's The Making of Modern Mexico (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1964 [1967]), esp. chap. 1, "The Revolutionary Family and the Mexican Proposition." He writes: "For the sake of convenience, and to suggest the nature of leadership of this [elite] revolutionary group, it will be assigned the label of 'Revolutionary Family,' or simply 'Family.' The Revolutionary Family is composed of the men who have run Mexico for over half a century, who have laid the policy-lines of the Revolution, and who today hold effective decision-making power" (p. 3). Although the extent to which the term was actually employed by Mexicans themselves is less clear, certainly the imagery of a patriarchally defined revolutionary state was prominent.

2. Popular support, as well as opposition to the students, came from various quarters, a point I address later in the book. The manner in which I am using the plural middle classes roughly corresponds with John J. Johnson's preference for the term middle sectors (John J. Johnson, Political Change in Latin America: The Emergence of the Middle Sectors [Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press 1958]).

3. Ulf Hannerz, "Notes on the Global Ecumene," Public Culture 1, no. 2 (1989): 66-75. While my subject matter is a mass-produced cultural commodity, I am indebted to the methodological argument presented in Arjun Appadurai, ed., The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). See also Ian Ang, "Culture and Communication: Towards an Ethnographic Critique of Media Consumption in the Transnational Media System," European Journal of Communication 5 (1990): 239-60.

4. For the revolutionary period see Friedrich Katz, The Secret War in Mexico (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981); and Alan Knight, The Mexican

Revolution (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986), vols. 1-2. For post-revolutionary reconstruction and the institutionalization of presidential rule see Alan Knight, "Mexico, c. 1930-1946," in Leslie Bethell, ed., Cambridge History of Latin America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), vol. 7, 3-82.

5. That Mexico did not experience a military coup d'état in 1968 is an important distinction which has much to do as well with the fact that the military was gradually retired from direct participation in politics after the revolution, in contrast to the trend in the Southern Cone, where the military steadily entered politics under the guise of providing a stabilizing element.

6. Gilbert M. Joseph and Daniel Nugent, eds., Everyday Forms of State Formation: Revolution and the Negotiation of Rule in Modern Mexico (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1994); Claudio Lomnitz-Adler, Exits from the Labyrinth: Culture and Ideology in the Mexican National Space (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992).

7. Ilene V. O'Malley, The Myth of the Revolution: Hero Cults and the Institutionalization of the Mexican State, 1920-1940 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1986), 126.

8. Ibid., 47, 85.

7. Ilene V. O'Malley, The Myth of the Revolution: Hero Cults and the Institutionalization of the Mexican State, 1920-1940 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1986), 126.

8. Ibid., 47, 85.

9. Octavio Paz, "Return to the Labyrinth of Solitude," trans. Yara Milos, in Octavio Paz, The Labyrinth of Solitude and Other Writings , trans. Lysander Kemp, Yara Milos, and Rachel Phillips Balash (New York: Grove Press, 1985), 336.

10. O'Malley, Myth of the Revolution , 53. See also Evelyn P. Stevens, " Marianismo: The Other Face of Machismo in Latin America," in Ann Pescatello, ed., Female and Male in Latin America: Essays (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1973), 89-101; Parker and others, Nationalisms and Sexualities (New York: Routledge, 1992); Jean Franco, Plotting Women: Gender and Representation in Mexico (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989).

11. Mathew C. Gutmann, The Meanings of Macho: Being a Man in Mexico City (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), 224. See also Franco, Plotting Women , esp. chap. 7, "Oedipus Modernized."

12. This breakdown of idealized family stability and the power of the state to exercise benign paternalism is hauntingly revealed in Luis Buñuel's classic film, Los olvidados (1950), translated as "The Young and the Damned."

13. Jonathan Kandell, La Capital: A Biography of Mexico City (New York: Random House, 1988), 486.

14. José Emiliano Pacheco, Battles in the Desert and Other Stories , trans. Katherine Silver (Mexico City: Ediciones Era, 1982; New York: New Directions, 1987), 82-83.

15. For a discussion of elite and popular cultures during the Porfiriato, see William H. Beezley, Judas at the Jockey Club and Other Episodes of Porfirian Mexico (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1987). For the postwar consumer frenzy see José Agustín, Tragicomedia mexicana I: La vida en México de 1940 a 1970 (Mexico City: Planeta, 1990), 125 (advertisement for Goodyear Tires).

16. Roger D. Hansen, The Politics of Mexican Development (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1971 [1974]), 41-42.

17. Stephen R. Niblo, War, Diplomacy, and Development: The United States and Mexico, 1938-1954 (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1995). Niblo writes that " [n]ot until 1971 did the purchasing power of real wages regain the 1938 level" (p. 147).

18. Carlos Monsiváis, "Muerte y resurrección del nacionalismo mexicano," Nexos 109 (January 1987), 13. Unless otherwise noted, all translations from the Spanish throughout this book are mine.

19. Octavio Paz, "The Philanthropic Ogre," trans. Rachel Phillips Balash, in Octavio Paz, The Labyrinth of Solitude and Other Writings , trans. Lysander Kemp, Yara Milos, and Rachel Phillips Balash (New York: Grove Press, 1985), 379-98.

20. Stanley R. Ross, ed., Is the Mexican Revolution Dead? (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1966). See José Luis Cuevas, "The Cactus Curtain," Evergreen Review 2 (1959): 111-20. For a discussion of the apogee of Mexico's revolutionary nationalism as a cosmopolitan force in the world see Helen Delpar, The Enormous Vogue of Things Mexican: Cultural Relations between the United States and Mexico, 1920-1935 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1992).

21. One might argue that this cynicism had always been there but that the right material conditions for expressing it were not yet available. Hegemony in this view is not something that comes undone (in failing to remake itself) but rather something that is sustained through an implicit acceptance of official lies which are backed by force. Thus, hegemony is always fragile and dependent on the willingness of social actors to play their parts (consciously and unconsciously). The problem with this interpretation, however, is that it does not account for why, when, and how social actors choose to expose the lies sustaining hegemonic relations. The answer to this, in part, lies with the importance of popular culture as a vehicle for both inculcating and contesting hegemonic values. See Derek Sayer, "Everyday Forms of State Formation: Some Dissident Remarks on 'Hegemony,' " in Gilbert Joseph and Daniel Nugent, eds., Everyday Forms of State Formation: Revolution and the Negotiation of Rule in Modern Mexico (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1994), 367-77; William Rowe and Vivian Schelling, Memory and Modernity: Popular Culture in Latin America (London: Verso, 1991).

22. See, for example, Linda Martin and Kerry Segrave, Anti-Rock: The Opposition to Rock 'n' Roll (New York: Da Capo, 1993); and Dick Hebdige, "Towards a Cartography of Taste, 1935-1962," in Hiding in the Light (London: Routledge, 1988), 45-76, about the reception of youth culture in Britain.

23. Alan Knight, "Revolutionary Project, Recalcitrant People: Mexico, 1910-1940," in Jaime E. Rodríguez O., ed., The Revolutionary Process in Mexico: Essays on Political and Social Change, 1880-1940 (Los Angeles: UCLA, 1990), 263.

24. Ibid., 264.

25. This is not to suggest that the student protests were "caused" by rock music or even necessarily characterized by rock music's presence, though many were. Moreover, in the case of the Cultural Revolution in China as well as other radical movements in parts of the Third World, rock music was regarded as "bourgeois" and "decadent," rather than an "authentic'' music of social protest. At the same time, however, the assault on institutional hierarchies, the stress on "communication," and the demand for a democratization of social relations were all values inscribed within the rhythms and later, lyrics, of rock music culture. This is not to argue that contradictions between ideology and practice were not visible; they were often rampant, especially when it came to gender relations. But such contradictions were found among more radical movements as well.

26. See, for example, "Global Report on Rock 'n' Roll," New York Times Magazine , 20 April 1958, 24-25; Roger Wallis and Krister Malm, Big Sounds from Small Peoples: The Music Industry in Small Countries (New York: Pendragon, 1984); Martin and Segrave, Anti-Rock ; Timothy W. Ryback, Rock around the Bloc: A History of Rock Music in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990); Charles Hamm, "Rock 'n' roll in a Very Strange Society," Popular Music 5 (1985): 159-74; Umberto Fiori, "Rock Music and Politics in Italy," Popular Music 4 (1984): 261-78; Lawrence Zion, "Disposable Icons: Pop Music in Australia, 1955-1963," Popular Music 8 (1989): 165-75.

27. Ryback, Rock around the Bloc , 53; "Crackdown on 'Liberal' Pix, Play and Music in Iron Curtain Countries: Only the Twist Okayed by Russos," Variety , 1 May 1963, 25.

28. Rock has been sorely neglected in studies on Latin American culture, which have emphasized the place of "Nueva Canción" and folkloric musical expression over popular music. I wish to thank Susie Trutie of MTV for lending me the tape, "MTV News Latino: Mejor hablar de ciertas cosas, Pequeñas historias del rock argentina," which contains a somewhat frenzied but nevertheless useful musical narrative of rock 'n' roll's early years in that country (Prod. Lily Neumeyer, 12 December 1996, LSPE008). See also Nicolás Casullo, "Argentina: El rock en la sociedad política," Comunicación y Cultura 12 (1984): 41-50; Pablo Vila, " Rock nacional and Dictatorship in Argentina," Popular Music 6 (1987): 129-48; Charles A. Perrone, "Changing of the Guard: Questions and Contrasts of Brazilian Rock Phenomena," Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 9 (1990): 65-83; Pilar Riaño-Alcalá, "Urban Space and Music in the Formation of Youth Cultures: The Case of Bogotá, 1920-1980," Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 10 (1991): 87-106; Peter Manuel, "Rock Music and Cultural Ideology in Revolutionary Cuba," in Simon Frith, ed., World Music, Politics and Social Change (Manchester, U.K.: Manchester University Press, 1991), 161-66.

29. Arjun Appadurai, "Disjuncture and Difference in the Global Cultural Economy," Public Culture 2 (Spring 1990): 5. A problem with Appadurai's approach is that it tends to dehistoricize sociocultural change in its emphasis on

the study of contemporary global "flow." See also "Special Issue on Global Culture," Theory, Culture & Society 7, nos. 2-3 (June 1990).

30. The term is used in Appadurai, "Disjuncture and Difference." See also Robert J. Foster, "Making National Cultures in the Global Ecumene," Annual Review of Anthropology 20 (1991): 235-60. For an interesting study of how by the 1980s First World media shaped and competed with Third World media see Armand Mattelart, Xavier Delcourt, and Michele Mattelart, International Image Markets: In Search of an Alternative Perspective , trans. David Buxton (London: Comedia, 1984). For an important introduction to the issues see John Tomlinson, Cultural Imperialism: A Critical Introduction (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991).

31. Ryback, Rock around the Bloc , 26. Ryback points out that a 1958 article in the NATO journal Revue militaire générale indeed proposed the argument that jazz, rock, and other modern dance music might be a useful tactic in the global effort to undermine Communism. Soviet response to Presley's military transfer to West Germany reflected these fears. In fact, Voice of America radio and other U.S. information outlets began promoting the youth culture in earnest by the mid-1960s.

32. Thus Herbert Braun writes: "The students may have listened to the Beatles, followed new hair styles from abroad and thought about how their actions related to those of students elsewhere, but their obsession was with Mexico and with their president.... They did not see Mexico as part of a World [cultural] economy" (Herbert Braun, "Protests of Engagement: Dignity, False Love, and Self-Love in Mexico, 1968" [paper presented at the Washington Seminar for Historians of Latin America, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C., October 1997], p. 34).

33. Information on marketing strategies comes from interviews with company officials, the business archives at Baker Library (Harvard University), and trade magazines, especially Variety . A partial index of Variety , covering all references to Mexico for 1957-1971, may be found in my dissertation as a useful source for future research. Eric Zolov, "Containing the Rock Gesture: Mass Culture and Hegemony in Mexico, 1955-1975" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1995), vol. 2, 429-442.

34. George Katsiaficas, The Imagination of the New Left: A Global Analysis of 1968 (Boston: South End Press, 1987); Ronald Fraser, ed., 1968: A Student Generation in Revolt. An International Oral History (New York: Pantheon, 1988); Robert V. Daniels, Year of the Heroic Guerrilla: World Revolution and Counterrevolution in 1968 (New York: Basic Books, 1989).

35. An important exception to this lack of historical memory in Mexico is the continued publication of important works of fiction that were written in the context of the counterculture. For example, José Agustín's Inventando que sueño , originally published in 1968, is now in its fifteenth edition, and works by other authors of the period can also be found. The music, imagery, and other commodified items, however, are much more difficult to access. At the same time, there are indications that a "revival" of countercultural lore may be un-

der way, for example with the recent publication of José Agustín, La contracultura en México: La historia y el significado de los rebeldes sin causa, los jipitecas, los punks y las bandas (Mexico City: Grijalbo, 1996) and the new rock series on Polygram Records, "Las raíces del rock," a collection that features music from La Onda Chicana (Víctor Ronquillo, "El rock tiene su historia," Reforma , 22 June 1997, E4). World Wide Web sites, such as [ http://www.rockeros.com] , also suggest the recovery of a certain historical memory.

1Rebeldismo in the Revolutionary Family Rock 'n' Roll's Early Impact on Mexican State and Society

1. José Agustín, Tragicomedia mexicana I: La vida en México de 1940 a 1970 (Mexico City: Planeta, 1990), 147.

2. Alan Bloom, quoted in Trent Hill, "The Enemy within: Censorship in Rock Music in the 1950s," South Atlantic Quarterly 90 (Fall 1991): 683.

3. Ibid., 684.

4. Ibid.

2. Alan Bloom, quoted in Trent Hill, "The Enemy within: Censorship in Rock Music in the 1950s," South Atlantic Quarterly 90 (Fall 1991): 683.

3. Ibid., 684.

4. Ibid.

2. Alan Bloom, quoted in Trent Hill, "The Enemy within: Censorship in Rock Music in the 1950s," South Atlantic Quarterly 90 (Fall 1991): 683.

3. Ibid., 684.

4. Ibid.

5. Mambo was criticized in some quarters for being "music of savages," but this certainly did not seem to affect its broader impact. See Yolanda Moreno Rivas, Historia de la música popular mexicana (Mexico City: Promociones Editoriales Mexicanas, 1979; Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes / Editorial Patria, 1989), 242.

6. Música tropical is used to denominate a variety of musical dance styles "in which black or Caribbean influence predominates" (ibid., 236). See also David K. Stigberg, "Foreign Currents during the 60s and 70s in Mexican Popular Music: Rock and Roll, the Romantic Ballad and the Cumbia," Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 4 (1985): 170-84.

8. Moreno Rivas, Historia de la música , 243. See also Federico Arana, Guaraches de ante azul: Historia del rock mexicano (Mexico City: Posada, 1985), vol. 1, chaps. 1-3.

9. Moreno Rivas, Historia de la música , 242.

10. Stigberg, "Foreign Currents."

11. In 1960 the rural sector dropped below 50 percent of the population for the first time (Michael C. Meyer and William L. Sherman, The Course of Mexican History , 5th ed. [New York: Oxford University Press, 1995], 655).

12. "El can-rock!" Impacto , 2 January 1957, 26.

13. Discos Peerless may have had ties with the U.S. record producer Ralph Peer, who controlled Peer International, a company that marketed "race" and "hillbilly" music in the United States. In 1930 Peer went to Mexico and gained control of a major catalogue of native popular and classical music for exploitation locally and around the world,'' possibly a reference to Discos Peerless (Russell Saniek, American Popular Music and Its Business: The First Four Hundred Years [New York: Oxford University Press, 1988], vol. 3, 180). I

thank Deborah Pacini-Hernández for raising this connection and providing the citation.

14. "La primera fábrica de discos en México," Excélsior , 2 December 1958. See also "History of the Recording Industry in Mexico," Discoméxico 25, (March, 1993). Unfortunately, several dates are cited for the opening of Discos Peerless. Excélsior gives 1926. Discoméxico , a poorly edited trade journal, states that it was in 1933. An article in Billboard (Eliot Tiegel, "Entertainment Fields Sparkle with Diversity!" Billboard Music Week , 16 December 1967, M5) gives the date as 1936, which is what I have chosen to keep.

15. This narrative is pieced together from the following sources: Carlos Beltrand Luján, interview with the author, Mexico City, 18 May 1994; Claudia Fernández and Andrew Paxman, "El Tigre" (unpublished manuscript); Marjorie Miller and Juanita Darling, "The Eye of the Tiger: Emilio Azcárraga and the Televisa Empire," in William A. Orme Jr., ed., A Culture of Collusion: An Inside Look at the Mexican Press (Miami: North-South Center Press / University of Miami, 1997), 59-70. I am also indebted to Andrew Paxman, Latin American correspondent for Variety , for various conversations about the subject.

16. In the late 1960s Audio Devices, Inc. merged with Capitol Records to form Capitol Industries, Inc.

17. Annual Report , Audio Devices, Inc., 1957, found in "Capitol Industries-EMI" (Folder 1: Annual Reports, 1950-66), Historical Corporate Records Collection, Baker Library, Harvard University. (Hereafter cited as HCRC-Harvard Collection.)

18. Annual Report , RCA Corporation, 1963, 4, Cole-Harvard Collection, Baker Library, Harvard University. (Hereafter cited as Cole-Harvard Collection.)

19. Annual Report , RCA Corporation, 1957, 38, Cole-Harvard Collection.

20. Annual Report , CBS, Inc., "CBS, Inc., 1944-73," Reel 104, 1958, 62-63, Cole-Harvard Collection.

21. Annual Report , CBS, Inc., 1961, 10, Cole-Harvard Collection.

22. Annual Report , RCA Corporation, 1959, 24, Cole-Harvard Collection.

23. Kenneth L. Shore, "The Crossroads of Business and Music: A Study of the Music Industry in the United States and Internationally" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1983), 101.

24. Annual Report , CBS, Inc., 1958, 43, Cole-Harvard Collection.

25. In Mexico, the corporations' historical record was so poorly organized that neither RCA (later purchased by Sony Music) nor CBS was able to offer much beyond the scantest of official documents.

26. Annual Report , RCA Corporation, 1957, 24, 38, Cole-Harvard Collection.

27. Annual Report , CBS, Inc., 1956, 46, Cole-Harvard Collection.

28. Ibid.

27. Annual Report , CBS, Inc., 1956, 46, Cole-Harvard Collection.

28. Ibid.

29. Annual Report , CBS, Inc., 1959, 63, Cole-Harvard Collection; "Col Records 1st LA Convention," Variety , 16 April 1958, 45.

30. "Col Expanding South-of-the-Border," Variety , 9 November 1960, 49.

31. "Only US, Red China, Brazil Top Mexico in Number of Radio Stations," Variety , 21 January 1959, 51. Cheap radio sets were also sold directly by radio stations to low-income families throughout the country.

32. "TV, Radio in Mexico Far Outstrips All Latin American Competish: Conde," Variety , 17 August 1960, 89.

33. "Mex TV & Radio See Big Advances, Prosperity in '60," Variety , 20 January 1960, 47.

34. In 1962 there were approximately 300,000 homes with record players in the country. "Mexico," Billboard Music Week: 1962-1963 International Music Industry Buyers' Guide and Market Data Report , 4 August 1962, 145.

35. Shore, "Crossroads of Business and Music."

36. "Se instalará una fábrica de discos en Argentina para impulsar nuestra mÚsica," Excélsior , 16 February 1957, B6.

37. "RCA Priming Pump of Mex Subsid to Press Disks for U.S. Lingo Mkt.," Variety , 4 February 1959, 59.

38. "Col to Push Hispano Disks in US Market," Variety , 17 August 1960, 40.

39. "Mexican-Made Global Disk Gleam," Variety , 29 July 1959, 101.

40. "Mex Disk Gross Topping '58 Peak of $30,000,000," Variety , 6 January 1960, 209.

41. "Mexican Disk Industry's '60 Exports Hit $1,600,000 Bank's Report Discloses," Variety , 2 August 1961, 83; "Se exportaron, en 1960, discos por 20 Millones," Novedades , 12 July 1961. The principal markets for Mexican music were Venezuela, the United States, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Panama.

42. "Mex Diskeries' Mucho Etcho," Variety , 20 January 1960, 65.

43. "Discos Mexicana Preps Major Expansion Via New Studios, Labels," Variety , 2 September 1959, 60. The new facilities included "recording studios, presses, printing plant, etc. with latest equipment acquired in U.S." ("Hispavox, Orfeon Accent Mexico's Disk Expansion," Variety , 3 December 1958, 73).

44. "Orfeon Mex Disks to Tee Off in Japan," Variety , 28 October 1959, 43; "Hispavox, Orfeon Accent Mexico's Disk Expansion."

45. "Mex Diskeries' Mucho Etcho"; Salvador Minjares, "Tres continentes serán invadidos por grabaciones hechas en México," Excélsior , 13 January 1957, A18.

46. "Rank in Global Deal for RCA Mexicana Disks," Variety , 17 May 1961, 61.

47. "Col Aims at Wider Mkt. for Mex Singers," Variety , 6 September 1961., 47.

48. "Victor in Latino Kick in U.S., Bids for $1-Mil. Sales in Genre," Variety , 31 October 1962, 44.

49. "Mexico Mulling Ban on Imported Disks," Variety , 18 May 1960, 59.

50. "Foreign Diskeries Invading Mexico," Variety , 18 February 1959, 41.

51. Eréndira Rincón, interview with the author, Mexico City, 20 August 1996.

52. See chapter 5, chapter 6, and the conclusions.

53. This meaning is not in any Spanish - language dictionary. The closest reference is to desmadrado , "an animal abandoned by its mother" ( Diccionario enciclopédico de la lengua castellana , 3d ed. [Paris: Sarnier Hermanos, 1900], 830). While in contemporary Spanish usage the term is widely known (especially in, though not limited to, Mexico), my perception is that until the mid-to-late 1960s the term itself was used only among the lower classes, and as an extremely vulgar one at that. A synonym for desmadre that was available for the middle and upper classes was relajo , which has similar connotations but without the offensive, class-oriented overtones. See Jorge Portilla, Fenomenología del relajo y otros ensayos (Mexico City: Ediciones Era, 1966); Claudio Lomnitz-Adler, Exits from the Labyrinth: Culture and Ideology in the Mexican National Space (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 10.

54. Rincón, interview.

55. cf. Evelyn P. Stevens, " Marianismo: The Other Face of Machismo in Latin America," in Ann Pescatello, ed., Female and Male in Latin America: Essays (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1973), 89-101.

56. Rincón, interview.

57. For a wonderful representation of the challenges posed by modernization to patriarchal authority in a middle-class family see the film Una familia de tantas (Dir. Alejandro Galindo, 1948). On the question of divorce, see below.

58. Ilene V. O'Malley, The Myth of the Revolution: Hero Cults and the Institutionalization of the Mexican State, 1920-1940 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1986).

59. See the advertisements in Excélsior , 1 January 1957.

60. Excélsior , 12 February 1957, A18. Unlike in the United States, where earlier dance steps associated with rock 'n' roll have been largely forgotten, in Mexico rock 'n' roll continues to be recognized as a familiar dance pattern, practiced by young and old alike, and by all classes.

61. Emilio García Riera, Historia documental del cine mexicano (Jalisco, Mexico: Universidad de Guadalajara, 1993), Vol. 8, 245.

62. Carl J. Mora, Mexican Cinema: Reflections of a Society, 1896-1988 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982 [rev. ed., 1989]), 99.

63. Ibid.

62. Carl J. Mora, Mexican Cinema: Reflections of a Society, 1896-1988 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982 [rev. ed., 1989]), 99.

63. Ibid.

64. See, for example, Anne Rubenstein, "Mediated Styles of Masculinity in the Post-Revolutionary Imagination, or, El Santo's Strange Career" (paper presented at the conference, Representing Mexico: Transnationalism and the Politics of Culture since the Revolution, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Washington, D.C., 7-8 November 1997).

65. García Riera, Historia documental , Vol. 8, 130.

66. Mora, Mexican Cinema , 84-85.

67. Interestingly, RCA's Mexican marketing strategy highlighted Presley's darkened, mestizo features ("In Living Cardboard," New York Times Book Review , 17 November 1996, 24).

68. A similar plot is developed in the film Al compás del rock'n roll , in which the women form their own rock 'n' roll band to compete with their boyfriends and an imitator of Presley, "Elvio Prentis," "sings and dances rock ... provoking fainting fits among the women" (García Riera, Historia documental , Vol. 8, 301).

69. See, for example, the advertisements for different schools in jueves de Excélsior during this period. In the short story "Battles in the Desert," by José Emilio Pacheco, this theme of English language within the middle-class family is also explored (José Emilio Pacheco, Battles in the Desert and Other Stories , trans. Katherine Silver [Mexico City: Ediciones Era, 1981; New York: New Directions, 1987]).

70. Rafael Solana, " 'Celos y revueltos,' " Excélsior , 14 February 1957, B4.

71. Linda Martin and Kerry Segrave, Anti-Rock: The Opposition to Rock 'n' Roll (New York: Da Capo, 1993), 7. The film was shown in Mexico City theaters in October 1955.

72. New York Times , 6 March 1955, B4.

73. Excélsior , 26 October 1955, A19.

74. Juventud desenfrenada (Dir. José Díaz Morales, 1956). See "Gloria Ríos habla de Juventud desenfrenada,' " Excélsior , 19 January 1957, B4. I am indebted to Rogelio Agrasanchez Jr. for lending me a copy of this film, for it does not appear in any Mexican film archive.

75. The only female character not prostituted literally, is figuratively "distorted" because she is presented quite obviously as a lesbian. Dressed in trousers and a man's dress shirt, at the end she is shot in the back by a policeman who later exclaims: "It's a woman! If she had worn a skirt, I wouldn't have fired!"

76. Excélsior , 20 January 1957, A29.

77. The numbers of registered divorces for the country are as follows: 1940, 42,559; 1950, 67,810; 1960, 119,045. For Mexico City the numbers are: 1940, 6,456; 1950, 16,556; 1960, 30,379. Whether by accident or design, numbers for 1970 show only a slight increase over 1960. Anuario Estadístico de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadísticas, 1951-1970).

78. García Riera, Historia documental , Vol. 8, 234.

79. " 'Juventud desenfrenad' en su 4a semana de exhibición," Excélsior , 16 January 1957, B4.

80. I wish to thank Federico Arana for making the original poster available to me.

81. Excélsior , 20 January 1957, A29.

82. "Gloria Ríos le enseñará a usted a bailar rock'n roll," Excélsior , 6 February 1957, B4.

83. "Un médico y una estudiante ganan el certamen de 'Juventud desenfrenada,' " Excélsior , 17 February 1957, B4. See also " 'Juventud desenfrenada,' una lección para todos," Excélsior , 20 January 1957, B4.

84. Arana, Guaraches , Vol. 1, 84.

85. Hill, "Enemy within," 688.

86. O'Malley, Myth of the Revolution , 111. The Wild One was shown in Mexico City in 1954.

87. Not until 1965 did Villa become an "official national hero" (O'Malley, Myth of the Revolution , 112).

88. Parménides García Saldaña, En la ruta de La Onda (Mexico City: Diógenes, 1972), 65.

89. Ibid. García Saldaña also writes that subtitled translations introduced new terms in an effort to avoid more vulgar Mexicanisms. In Rebel without a Cause , for example, "Don't be a chicken" was translated literally as "No seas gallina," rather than the more appropriate "No seas maricón" (p. 63).

88. Parménides García Saldaña, En la ruta de La Onda (Mexico City: Diógenes, 1972), 65.

90. Johnny Laboriel, interview with the author, Mexico City, 11 August 1996.

91. Rebel without a Cause was shown for eight weeks in Mexico City in 1956. Though its permit technically lasted four years, the film faced problems with its renewal, and it is unclear whether it was actually reissued; interviews and a search of the press suggest that the film was banned during much of the late 1950s. However, in mid-1959 one theater in Mexico City was showing it, though with little promotional fanfare. See "James Dean Echoes Still," Variety , 28 September 1960, 1.

92. García Saldaña, En la ruta de La Onda , 55.

93. "Dos 'niños bien' querían cambiar cheques falsos," Excélsior , 12 June 1959, A29.

94. José de Pascual Janet, "Jóvenes de ayer y de hoy," Jueves de Excélsior , 24 January 1957, 19.

95. J. Ortiz, "Pavoroso aumento de la delincuencia juvenil," Jueves de Excélsior , 14 November 1957, 20-21.

96. Ibid.

95. J. Ortiz, "Pavoroso aumento de la delincuencia juvenil," Jueves de Excélsior , 14 November 1957, 20-21.

96. Ibid.

97. Quoted in Arana, Guaraches , Vol. 2, 77. Siqueiros was jailed from 1960 to 1964 but was later commissioned by the government to create a series of murals for the art and exhibition center named after him, Siqueiros Polyforum. By the late 1950s, his art was considered reactionary by a younger generation of artists who sought to break free of the muralist genre, by then closely associated with the official nationalism.

98. "En febrero harán el primer festival 'rock and roll,' " Excélsior , 4 January 1957, B6.

99. Arana, Guaraches , Vol. 1, 72-75.

100. "En febrero harán."

101. "Certero impacto radiofónico de la emisora 'Radio Exitos,' " Excélsior , 27 January 1957, A23.

102. Herbe Pompeyo, interview with the author, Mexico City, 8 June 1993.

103. Arana, Guaraches , Vol. 1, 113.

104. Ibid., 95.

103. Arana, Guaraches , Vol. 1, 113.

104. Ibid., 95.

105. "A pesar de todo, hoy se estrena 'Los chiflados por [ sic ] el rock'n roll,' " Excélsior , 27 February 1957, B4; Bill Llano, "Los espectáculos," Impacto , 3 April 1957, 44-47.

106. Martin and Segrave, Anti-Rock , 81. Banned under Batista for its associations with immorality, rock was again prohibited under Fidel Castro for its alleged ties to imperialism.

107. Carlos Haro, "Elvis Presley dice en su defensa que: 'Jamás he faltado el respecto a la mujer mexicana,' " Excélsior , 2 March 1957, B8.

108. I thank Emmy Avilés Bretón for raising this point.

109. "Los discos de Presley han sido retirados de 'Radio Exitos,' " El Universal , 22 February 1957, A30.

110. Ibid.

109. "Los discos de Presley han sido retirados de 'Radio Exitos,' " El Universal , 22 February 1957, A30.

110. Ibid.

111. "A pesar de todo."

112. " 'Los chiflados' pagarán los ritmos rotos por Elvis Presley," El Universal , 26 February 1957, A31. Despite initial protests, the film was shown.

113. "Adelita" was the name of a famous revolutionary corrido which told longingly of female companionship during that struggle. The song also popularized the use of the name more generally to identify women who accompanied the male troops in battle, especially among the armies under Pancho Villa. While women participated at various social, intellectual, and military levels during the revolution, the image of the faithful female who followed her man into battle in order to tend to his needs has overshadowed all other historical representations of female participation. See Anna Mathias, Against All Odds: The Feminist Movement in Mexico to 1940 (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1982), chap. 2, "Women and the Mexican Revolution, 1910-1920."

114. "Hoy será la 'quema' de discos de Elvis Presley," El Universal , 7 March 1957, A28. The FEU was formed in 1915 and played a crucial role mediating the relationship between the university and the government. Though still an influential actor in student politics, by the early 1960s the growing size of the university population undermined the monopoly on power the FEU once held. See Donald J. Mabry, The Mexican University and the State: Student Conflicts, 1910-1971 (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1982).

115. Excélsior , 9 March 1957, A29.

116. El Universal , 27 February 1957, A21.

117. "Hoy será la 'quema.' "

118. Federico de León, "Un hombre de la calle," Jueves de Excélsior , 28 February 1957, 33.

119. Pascual Janet, "Jóvenes de Ayer y de Hoy."

120. " 'Quema' de Discos de Elvis Presley," Excélsior , 2 March 1957, B4.

121. Pascual Janet, "Jóvenes de Ayer y de Hoy."

122. Excélsior , 6 May 1959, A29.

123. "Vejaciones y attropellos de 600 'rebeldes sin causa' en un cine," Excélsior , 7 May 1959, B1.

124. Ibid.

123. "Vejaciones y attropellos de 600 'rebeldes sin causa' en un cine," Excélsior , 7 May 1959, B1.

124. Ibid.

125. Parménides García Saldaña, El rey criollo (Mexico City: Diógenes, 1970; Mexico: Lecturas Mexicanas, 1987), 164. "Me voy al pueblo" is based on a Cuban son guajiro (folk song) popularized by the Mexican trio Los Panchos. The original lyrics are, "Me voy para el pueblo / Hoy es mi día / Voy a alegrar

toda el alma mía. (I'm going to the country / Today's my day / I'm going to rejoice with my entire soul). To this day, the song continues to be appropriated by political demonstrators and youth, who similarly twist the lyrics.

126. Ibid., 163-64. The reference to a swastika is glaring, though it most likely was not being displayed with an anti-Semitic intent. If the use of the swastika today is any indication of its earlier display, the symbol was used out of ignorance as a show of rebellion, but without an understanding of its (to us, obvious) racist implications.

127. Ibid., 165-66.

128. Arana, Guaraches , vol. 1, 145.

129. Abel Quezada, "Maestro de la juventud," Excélsior , 15 May 1959, A7.

130. Abel Quezada, "Al son que le toquen," Excélsior , 18 December 1959, A7. For a discussion of Quezada as a social cartoonist see Víctor Alba, "The Mexican Revolution and the Cartoon," reprinted in W. Dirt Raat and William H. Beezley, eds., Twentieth-Century Mexico (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986), 223-35.

131. "La causa de los 'rebeldes,' " Excélsior , 14 May 1959, A7.

132. "Crisis en el hogar," Excélsior , 4 June 1959, A6.

133. Arana, Guaraches , vol. 1, 15-16.

134. "Nada de 'rebeldes,' dice el procurador: Los mayores de 18 años son pandilleros," Excélsior , 9 December 1959, A17.

135. Philip B. Taylor, Jr., "The Mexican Elections of 1958: Affirmation of Authoritarianism?" Western Political Quarterly 23, no. 3 (1960): 736.

136. Ibid., 738. See also Evelyn P. Stevens, Protest and Response in Mexico (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1974).

135. Philip B. Taylor, Jr., "The Mexican Elections of 1958: Affirmation of Authoritarianism?" Western Political Quarterly 23, no. 3 (1960): 736.

136. Ibid., 738. See also Evelyn P. Stevens, Protest and Response in Mexico (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1974).

137. "La causa de los 'rebeldes.' "

138. "La autoridad en crisis," Jueves de Excélsior , 3 July 1958, 5.

139. Juventud 5, no. 1 (1959), Publicaciones: Galería 3, Administración Pública; López Mateos, 704/159, Archivo General de la Nación. (Hereafter cited as AGN.)

140. "Crisis en el hogar."

141. Jueves de Excélsior , 4 June 1959.

142. Anne Rubenstein, Bad Language, Naked Ladies, and Other Threats to the Nation: A Political History of Comic Books in Mexico (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1998).

143. Roger D. Hansen, The Politics of Mexican Development (Baltimore, Md.: John Hopkins University Press, 1971 [1974]), 169. Land redistribution under López Mateos accelerated to its highest rate since the time of Lázaro Cárdenas. Meanwhile, friendly ties were maintained with Cuba despite pressures from the United States to rupture them. See Arthur K. Smith Jr., "Mexico and the Cuban Revolution: Foreign Policy-Making in Mexico under President Adolfo López Mateos, 1958-1964" (Ph.D. diss., Cornell University, 1970).

144. Eric Zolov, "Post-War Repackaging of Mexico: The Cosmopolitan- Folklórico Axis" (paper presented at the conference, Representing Mexico: Transnationalism and the Politics of Culture since the Revolution, Woodrow

Wilson International Center for Scholars, Washington, D.C., 7-8 November 1997).

145. "Mex $400 Hex on Radio Stations Not Airing 25% in Native Music," Variety , 8 April 1959, 55.

146. "Mex Radio-TV Beef: Too Many Foreign Ditties," Variety , 15 July 1959, 58. See also, "Mex Ranchero Music in Crisis as Sales Dip Due to Foreign Inroads," Variety , 13 May 1959, 56.

147. "Mex's Song Fair for Sept; Oldies," Variety , 27 May 1959, 55.

148. "Mexican Folk Music Set for a 'Wax' Museum," Variety , 2 September 1959, 61.

149. "Juventudes Musicales de México," 6 December 1958, Publicaciones: Galería 3, Administración Pública; López Mateos, 710.12/1, AGN.

150. "Artistas consagradas ayudarán a nuevos valores que surjan hasta en pueblitos," Excélsior , 7 February 1957, B6.

151. "Guerra sin cuartel al vicio," Jueves de Excélsior , 22 October 1959, 22-23. The curfew remained in place despite pressures from the musicians' union and club owners over the next several years. See Variety , 28 October 1959, 1; 24 January 1962, 47; 28 February 1962, 55.

152. Raúl Vieyra, "La radio mexicana (en todo el mundo) entre las más morales," Excélsior , 12 February 1957, B8.

153. Manuel del Castillo, "Prohibidas las películas de nudistas," Excélsior , 11 January 1957, B4.

154. " 'No más nudismo en el cine,' dice Wallerstein," Excélsior , 12 January 1957, B4.

155. Mario J. Sanromán, "El cine y la cultura," El Universal , 12 March 1957, A2.

156. "Mex Nat'l Board Bans Yank Pic, 'Daughters,' " Variety , 1 January 1958, 2.

157. "Mex Authorities Nix 'Blue Hawaii,'" Variety , 7 November 1962, 2; "Beatles' Pic Okayed by Mexico's Censor," Variety , 30 June 1965, 54.

158. "Mex Pride Can't Be Denied," Variety , 22 June 1966, 13.

159. "Mexicans Find Sinatra Film Insulting, Ban It and Boycott His Disks," Variety , 16 March 1966, 1.

160. Anne Rubenstein, "How the Lombardini Brothers Stayed Out of Jail: Conservative Protest, Pornography, and the Boundaries of Expression in Mexico, 1952-1976" (paper presented at the IX Conference of Mexican, United States and Canadian Historians, Mexico City, 27-29 October 1994), 2.

161. November 30, 1959, "Minutario, enero-diciembre, 1959," Secretaría de Gobernación, Comisión Calificadora de Publicaciones y Revistas Ilustradas. (Hereafter cited as CCPRI.)

162. April 3, 1957, "Minutario, enero-diciembre, 1957," CCPRI.

163. July 19, 1957, "Minutario, enero-diciembre, 1957," CCPRI.

164. "Clean-Up Week on Mex TV-Radio," Variety , 5 August 1959, 47.

165. The chamber was directly represented by two members on the advisory group created by the new legislation (Article 90). In a speech directed to-

ward Congress, the president of the chamber, Guillermo Morales Blumenkron, noted that private and governmental interests were "[u]nited for the same ideal: the constant improvement of broadcasting" ("Inauguró sus labores la VI Asamblea," El Nacional , 5 October 1959). The willingness of the chamber to work closely with the government, especially, for example, in the promotion of public-education campaigns, later led to the resolution of potential conflicts without recourse to judicial sanctions based on a strict interpretation of the law.

166. "Asociación Interamericana de Radiodifusión," 7 August 1959, Comunicaciones: Galería 3, Administración Pública; López Mateos, 512.3/2, AGN.

167. "Ser mexicano es ser libre y la ley de radio y televisión será una plena garantía," El Nacional , 5 October 1959, 1.

168. "Cinco discursos con Loas a la ley de radio y TV," Excélsior , 8 December 1959, A5.

169. "Ley federal de radio y televisión," El Diario Oficial , 19 January 1960, Article 59.

170. Elizabeth Fox, "Media Policies in Latin America: An Overview," in Elizabeth Fox, ed., Media and Politics in Latin America: The Struggle for Democracy (London: Sage, 1988), 15.