1. Bell and Newby, Community Studies , 15-16.

2. Bender, Community and Social Change , 7-8. In Imagined Communities , Benedict Anderson uses the term to refer to nations as a form of community.

3. Miyamoto, Social Solidarity , 3. Miyamoto then discusses the Japanese cultural heritage, emphasizing the ethical system, family organization, and other facets of Japanese behavior that were manifest especially among the Issei and somewhat among the Nisei. This work was originally done in the mid-1930s as Miyamoto's master's thesis and was reissued in 1981 and again in 1984. As his revised introduction to the 1984 edition bears heavily on the concept of community in the prewar period, all references will be to that edition.

4. Modell, "Japanese of Los Angeles," 44.

5. Lukes and Okihiro, Japanese Legacy , 2-3.

6. Miyamoto, Social Solidarity , 64. More specific definitions of American communities have been the subject of much debate; Bell and Newby have catalogued no fewer than ninety-four different meanings of the term; Community Studies , p. 15 and chap. 2.

7. Chan, Asian Americans , 63.

8. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991.

9. The primary works on Japanese in Los Angeles and Seattle are still Modell, "Japanese of Los Angeles," and Miyamoto, Social Solidarity . Until the present work, little has been done on Japanese San Francisco.

10. The entire camp experience has been ably surveyed in such studies as Daniels, Concentration Camps, U.S.A. ; Grodzins, Americans Betrayed ; Girdner and Loftis, Great Betrayal ; and Petersen, Japanese Americans . There have been histories of individual camps: Wakatsuki and Houston,

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Farewell to Manzanar ; Ishigo, Lone Heart Mountain ;, and Nelson, Heart Mountain . There have been numerous memoirs by participants, notably Okubo, Citizen 13660 , and Uchida, Desert Exile . (These two works are on Topaz.) There has also been a biography of the man responsible for running the camps, Dillon Myer: Drinnon, Keeper of Concentration Camps .

11. The WRA's "first 'Final Report'" was written by General John DeWitt in 1942. Ten copies were printed and bound and six were formally transmitted to the War Department on April 13, 1943. Assistant Secretary of War John L. McCloy told DeWitt to destroy them since they were full of errors, especially the assertion that evacuation was a military necessity. These copies were burned. The final version of this Final Report was submitted to the War Department by DeWitt on June 5, 1943, but it was not released until January 1944 (no day mentioned). These false reports were presented to the Supreme Court in the cases of Fred Korematsu, Gordon Hirabayashi, and Min Yasui. The Writ of Error (Coram Nobis) petition was filed in San Francisco in January 1983. As a result of the discovery of government misconduct, the convictions of the three men were set aside, not overturned. The federal government chose not to appeal. Clifford Uyeda, "The Big Lie," Nikkei Heritage 1 (Fall 1992): 4-9. Portions of the voluminous documentation, such as Evacuated People , were published separately after the war.

1. Ichihashi, Japanese in the United States , 240; Ichibashi cited Theodore Roosevelt's address to Congress December 3, 1907, in which he attempted to find a solution to U.S.-Japan tensions. Roosevelt noted that Japan had contributed $100,000 to sufferers of the 1906 earthquake (Richard, Messages , 743-46). Bronson, Earth Shook , 20, stated that the Japanese contribution was $244,960, of the total of $471,211 from foreign countries. The total cost was around $9 million.

2. Interview with Tad Fujita, Berkeley, October 28, 1987, AWC.

3. Tamotsu Shibutani, "The Social Organization of the Japanese Communities in the San Francisco Bay Region," JERS, 42.

4. Interview with Tomoye Nozawe Takahashi, San Francisco, November 2, 1987, AWC.

5. Daniels, Politics of Prejudice , 16.

6. Okihiro, Cane Fires , 20.

7. Shibutani, "Social Organization," JERS, 42.

8. Modell dated the approximate beginnings of the Los Angeles community somewhere in the early 1890s, "taking off" in 1893; "Japanese of Los Angeles," 44. Miyamoto stated that the Seattle community

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was "incipient" from around 1900, although settlers in the Northwest arrived about the same time as the first arrivals in San Francisco; Social Solidarity , 10.

9. Takaki, Strangers , 45-46.

10. Daniels, Politics of Prejudice , 2-3; Daniels, Asian America , 100.

11. Okihiro, Cane Fires . See chapter z for a discussion of Japanese settlement in Hawaii. Okihiro cited census figures showing that migration from Hawaii to the mainland was 12,221 in 1906 but virtually ceased after President Theodore Roosevelt signed an executive order in March 1907 prohibiting aliens whose passports had been issued for travel to American territories or America's neighbors, Mexico and Canada, from entering the United States (p. 37).

12. Takaki, Strangers , 11.

13. Tom Kawaguchi recalled during our second interview, on March 7, 1990, in San Francisco, that agricultural laborers were still coming back into the city for the winter during the 1930s; notes in the possession of the author.

14. Oscar F. Hoffman, Community Analyst, to Dillon S. Myer, "An Interview on the Japanese Settlement in San Francisco," January 1945, CA Reports. These reports, which are extensive, advised Director Dillon Myer on whether the Japanese Americans interned in Topaz could rebuild their Bay Area community if they were allowed to return to the West Coast. They furnish invaluable, if biased, data on the condition of Nikkei life in San Francisco and its environs before the war. They were based on anonymous interviews with interned Japanese Americans from the particular trades of concern to the analyst and the WRA.

15. Miyamoto, Social Solidarity , 45.

16. See Taylor, Advocate of Understanding , 20-24.

17. Suzuki, Ministry , 13-14, citing Imaizumi Genkichi, Miyama Kanichi and His Times (Tokyo: Mikuni, 1940), 122 (in Japanese).

18. Ibid., 15.

19. Interview with Seizo Oka, San Francisco, March 9, 1990; notes in the possession of the author. Oka formerly ran the Japanese American History Room in Japantown. Suzuki, Ministry , 19.

20. Suzuki, Ministry , 15-19.

21. Interview with Tom Kawaguchi, San Francisco, March 7, 1990.

22. Suzuki, Ministry , 17, 42-43; conversations with Masamu Hayashi, Salt Lake City, January-March 1990, and information provided by the Institute of Buddhist Studies, Berkeley, Calif.

23. Interview with Tom Kawaguchi, March 7, 1990.

24. Ibid.

25. Daniels, Asian America , 103-4; see also the discussion of shosei in Hata, " Undesirables, " 49.

26. Interview with Seizo Oka, San Francisco, March 9, 1990.

27. The 1880 census is cited by Daniels in Politics of Prejudice, 3 . James T. Conte, "Overseas Study in the Meiji Period: Japanese Students in America, 1867-1902," Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1977, as cited in Daniels, Asian America , 104.

28. Daniels, Politics of Prejudice , 1. At the time of their highest incidence the Japanese constituted .021 of the population of California and .001 of the population of the continental United States.

29. Miyamoto, Social Solidarity , Preface to the 1981 edition, vi.

30. Takaki, Strangers , 46.

31. Daniels, Asian America , 106.

32. Miyamoto, Social Solidarity , 30-31.

33. See Nakano, Japanese American Women , especially part 1, "The Issei."

34. Miyamoto, Social Solidarity , xii; the author is indebted to Fumi and Tad Hayashi for their hospitality and for sharing their Berkeley home with her, and to Michi Kobi and Jean Kariya for their hospitality in New York.

35. Nakano, Japanese American Women , 21. Information on Mrs. Manabe came from a brief interview and from a series of discussions with Fumi Manabe Hayashi in Berkeley in 1988 and 1990.

36. Nakano, Japanese American Women , 23-24; Takaki, Strangers , 46-47.

37. Interview with Robert Utsumi, San Francisco, May 11, 1988, AWC.

38. Issel and Cherny, San Francisco , 66. Japanese Americans today use the term Nihonmachi (Japantown) to refer to the area where they lived in the past as well as to the area of San Francisco beginning on Geary and running to Sutter between Fillmore and Buchanan, constructed primarily by money from Japan in the 1950s. Technically, Nihonmachi refers to the portion of any American or Canadian city that was all Japanese during the period of time when racial covenants prohibited people of Japanese origin from settling anywhere they desired or could afford. Seizo Oka prefered to use the term Nihonjinmachi to distinguish between the section of San Francisco now known as Japantown, primarily a cultural and business section of the city, and the prewar Japanese district. I am also indebted to Fumi Hayashi for her help in clarifying the distinctions between the two terms. However, in this work I use only the term Nihonmachi, to avoid confusing readers.

39. Shibutani, "Social Organization," JERS, 46.

40. Modell, "Japanese of Los Angeles," 65.

41. Interview with Tomoye Nozawe Takahashi, San Francisco, November 2, 1987; rough draft in possession of the author.

42. Hosokawa, Nisei , 90-91. Hosokawa pointed out that according to some sources, as many as 460 Issei had been naturalized, primarily in the eastern United States. The Supreme Court ruled after the Ozawa case that these earlier cases were in error, that even Issei who had served in the armed forces and been naturalized were ineligible for citizenship, since they were neither white nor of African descent.

43. Miyamoto, Social Solidarity , Preface to 1984 edition, x.

44. Daniels, Politics of Prejudice , 26, dated the origins to 1900 and attributed it to the plague scare of that year. See also Miyamoto, Social Solidarity , 60.

45. Chan, Asian Americans , 68.

46. Modell, ''Japanese of Los Angeles," 142.

47. Daniels, Politics of Prejudice , 26.

48. Daniels, Asian America , 128-32.

49. The Japanese Association of San Francisco primarily served the city dwellers. Fumi Manabe Hayashi recalled that her family had little or no connection with it or any other Japanese Association, but they lived in Berkeley and her parents did not return to Japan after they immigrated to America.

50. See Levine and Rhodes, The Japanese American Community , chaps. 1, 2, 4-6; Kiefer, Changing Cultures .

51. Kiefer, Changing Cultures , 4-5. Kiefer used the term ghetto to refer to the ethnic communities within larger cities.

52. Daniels, Asian America , 109. Seattle was also a very important port of entry.

53. Issel and Cherney, San Francisco , 66.

54. Daniels, Politics of Prejudice , 12-13.

55. Yoneda, Ganbatte , 13.

56. Interview with Ernest Iiyama and Chizu Kitano Iiyama, San Francisco, May 13, 1988, AWC; telephone conversation with Chizu Kitano Iiyama, San Francisco, October 7, 1991. In 1991 Chizu's mother was 102 years old.

57. Oscar F. Hoffman, "Hotel and Apartment House Business in San Francisco," March 9, 1945, CA Report. The sources were interviews with four former owners and one Issei business leader of the district, plus several interviews with recent visitors, the New World Sun Japanese Directory of 1941 , and the 1944 World Almanac . Hoffman composed a series of locality studies between January and March 1945 for the WRA.

58. Yoneda, Ganbatte , 37. Yoneda passed through San Francisco in 1927 on his way to Los Angeles.

59. Daniels, Politics of Prejudice , 8.

60. Ibid., 11; Daniels's statistics came from Reports of the Immigration Commission 23:183-84.

61. Interview with K. Morgan Yamanaka, San Francisco, May 11, 1988, AWC.

62. Ibid; Shibutani, "Social Organization," JERS, 57.

63. Adachi, "History of Adachi Nursery," 15.

64. Ibid. Oscar F. Hoffman noted in "Domestic Workers in San Francisco," January 31, 1945, that the Nisei were not willing to take jobs as domestics after the war even in order to tide themselves over the immediate postwar readjustment period. Wages were too unattractive, and they "like most other Americans ... prefer to be something more than house servants." CA Reports.

65. Oscar F. Hoffman, "Domestic Workers in San Francisco," January 31, 1945, CA Reports. This report was based on an interview with a former manager of "one of the leading and oldest Japanese employment agencies in San Francisco."

66. Daniels, Asian America , 111-12.

67. Shibutani, "Social Organization," JERS, 42.

68. Ichihashi, Japanese in the United States , 119-21, 129.

69. Daniels, Politics of Prejudice , 12.

70. Takaki, Strangers , 180.

71. Oscar F. Hoffman, "San Francisco and East Bay Cities Laundry Business," January 17, 1945, CA Reports.

72. Ibid.

73. Oscar F. Hoffman, "San Francisco Retail Dry Cleaning and Dyeing Business," January 17, 1945, CA Reports.

74. Ibid.

75. Interview with Kenji Fujii, Hayward, Calif., November 5, 1987; rough draft in possession of the author. Daniels noted in Politics of Prejudice , 63, that the law, which limited leases of agricultural land by Issei to maximum terms of three years, was easily evaded by the simple expedient of registering land in the name of American-born children.

76. Oscar F. Hoffman, "San Francisco Wholesale and Retail Art Goods Business," January 26, 1945, CA Reports. This report was based on interviews with five former merchants on Grant Avenue and one former leader in the Japanese colony in San Francisco.

77. Ibid. This was Hoffman's opinion.

78. Ibid.

79. Ibid.

80. Figures assembled in the West Coast Locality Study, presumably for the years before the evacuation, state that a small 24 × 50 store took in $5,000-$6,000 each month, while an average-sized store grossed more than $15,000 a month. The largest store, Nippon Dry Goods Company, did about $500,000 worth of business annually. Sources for these figures

Page 295

are Hoffman's "San Francisco Wholesale and Retail Art Goods Businesses," January 26, 1945, CA Reports.

81. Oscar F. Hoffman, "San Francisco Fishing Industry," CA Reports.

82. Ibid.

83. Takaki, Strangers , 185.

84. Interview with Michi Onuma of the Nichi Bei Times , San Francisco, March 7, 1990; Thomas, The Salvage , 60-61; Hosokawa, Nisei , 181-82.

85. Hoffman, "Japanese Settlement in San Francisco," January 1945, CA Reports.

86. Ibid.

87. Conversation with Tad Hayashi, Berkeley, March 6, 1990; conversation with Tom Kawaguchi, San Francisco, March 7, 1990. The Scout troops before the war were all-Nisei, but after the war they included a few Caucasians. The basis of segregation appeared to be based more on residential area than on race.

88. Hoffman, "Japanese Settlement in San Francisco," January 1945, CA Report.

89. Interview with Chizu Kitano Iiyama, San Francisco, May 13, 1988, AWC.

90. Shibutani, "Social Organization," JERS, 43-45.

91. Yoneda, Ganbatte , 37.

92. Daniels, Politics of Prejudice , 16-17; Issel and Cherney, San Francisco , 125-26.

93. Takaki, Strangers , 201-2.

94. Daniels, Politics of Prejudice , 21, citing Phelan's remarks as quoted in the San Francisco Examiner and San Francisco Chronicle , May 8, 1900.

95. Miyamoto, Social Solidarity , xxiii.

96. Daniels, Politics of Prejudice , 16-24. Ichihashi also noted the connection with a bubonic plague outburst that began in Chinatown, and agitation to reenact the Chinese Exclusion Law; Japanese , 230-31. Takaki, Strangers , 200-202.

97. Daniels, Politics of Prejudice , 23.

98. Ichihashi, Japanese , 229-30.

99. Daniels, Politics of Prejudice , 34-43; Ichihashi, Japanese , 236-42; Takaki, Strangers , 201-3. There were ninety-three Japanese students in the San Francisco public schools at the time.

100. Daniels, Politics of Prejudice , 44.

101. Ibid., 44-45.

102. Ichihashi, Japanese , 277-78.

103. Lukes and Okihiro, Japanese Legacy , 58.

104. Taylor, Advocate of Understanding , 149-52; Daniels, Politics of Prejudice , 95-96.

105. Daniels, Politics of Prejudice , 94-98; Takaki, Strangers , 208.

106. Taylor, Advocate of Understanding , 160-61; Ichihashi, Japanese , chap. 19; Takaki, Strangers , 209.

107. Daniels, Politics of Prejudice , 102-3.

108. Hoffman, "Japanese Settlement in San Francisco," January 1945, CA Reports.

109. Takaki, Strangers , 213-14.

110. Daniels, Politics of Prejudice , 32-33.

111. Lukes and Okihiro, Japanese Legacy , 60-61.

112. Takaki, Strangers , 218.

113. Daniels, "Japanese America."

114. Modell, "Japanese of Los Angeles," 340-41.

115. "A Walk Through Japantown—1935."

116. Interview with Michi Onuma, San Francisco, March 7, 1989. Onuma, who has worked in the Japanese American newspaper business in San Francisco since the prewar years, said that this was not uncommon; it accounted for many businesses being able to reestablish themselves in the postwar community.

117. Ibid.

118. Ibid. Conversation with Tom Kawaguchi on March 7, 1989.

119. Interview with John Hada, San Francisco, November 2, 1987, AWC.

120. Hoffman, "Laundry Business," January 17, 1945, CA Reports.

121. Hoffman, "Retail Dry Cleaning and Dyeing Business," January 17, 1945, CA Report.

122. Hoffman, "Wholesale and Retail Art Goods Business," January 26, 1945, CA Reports.

123. Takaki, Strangers , 216. Japanesy is a term favored by the Nisei, who use it to refer to Japanese Americans who behave in ways more appropriate to natives of Japan than the United States.

124. Oscar F. Hoffman, "Southern Alameda County Farmers," June 6, 1945, CA Reports; Shibutani, "Social Organization," JERS, 57.

125. Miyamoto, Social Solidarity , 117.

126. Ibid.

127. Hoffman, "Southern Alameda County Farmers," June 6, 1945, CA Reports.

128. Ibid.

129. Interview with Kiyo Ito Kariya and Masako Tsuzuki Nakagawa, Leonia, N.J., June 14, 1988, AWC.

130. Ibid.

131. Oscar F. Hoffman, "Menlo Park—Atherton—Woodside," January 3, 1945, CA Reports.

132. Modell, "Japanese of Los Angeles," 269-72.

133. Interview with Lee Suyemoto, Newton, Mass., June 21, 1988, AWC.

134. Interview with Hiromoto Katayama, Berkeley, October 27, 1987, AWC.

135. Interview with Tomoye Nozawe Takahashi, San Francisco, November 2, 1987; notes in possession of the author.

1. Daniels, Asian America , 176.

2. Daniels, Asian America , 163-64.

3. Takaki, Strangers , 218.

4. Modell, "Japanese of Los Angeles," 340-41; the statistics are from Tupper and McReynolds, Japan in American Public Opinion , 283-84, and Cantril, ed., Public Opinion , 1081.

5. Takaki, Strangers , 221-23. Quote from p. 223.

6. The one biracial family I interviewed, who chose not to be identified by name, had succeeded because the white mother chose to identify with the Japanese and brought up her daughters as Japanese Americans.

7. Shibutani, "Rumors," 59.

8. Hosokawa, Nisei , 254. The weapons that were turned in were hunting rifles; farmers used dynamite to remove stumps.

9. Interview with Donald Nakahata, Mill Valley, Calif., May 12, 1988, AWC.

10. Shibutani, "Rumors," 58.

11. Shibutani, "Rumors," 66-67; Nichibei Shinbun , December 30, 1941.

12. Modell, "Japanese of Los Angeles"; see especially chap. 10.

13. Shibutani, "Rumors," 62.

14. Ibid., 61.

15. Masaoka, They Call Me Moses Masaoka , 65. Masaoka's autobiography, written with Bill Hosokawa, was published in 1987. Masaoka died in 1992.

16. Okihiro, Cane Fires , 124.

17. Daniels, Concentration Camps, U.S.A ., 67, 70-71; Takaki, Strangers , 386-91.

18. Shibutani, "Rumors," 65.

19. Daniels, Concentration Camps, U.S.A ., 74; Hosokawa, Nisei , 284.

20. The quote is from Hosokawa, Nisei, 291 ; see also Daniels, Concentration Camps, U.S.A ., 75-82.

21. Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, Personal Justice Denied , 98.

22. Hosokawa, Nisei , 286-87.

23. Ibid., 198-99.

24. Daniels, Asian America , 182.

25. Hosokawa, Nisei , 203-5; Masaoka, They Call Me Moses Masaoka , 87.

26. Hosokawa, Nisei , 101, 290-91.

27. Masaoka, They Call Me Moses Masaoka , 87-93, 98.

28. Daniels, Asian America , 221-23; Masaoka, They Call Me Moses Masaoka , 91.

29. Shibutani, Improvised News , 150-51. Shibutani, a Nisei and JERS recorder, did a study of rumors in the California Japanese community, ''Rumors in a Crisis Situation," as his M.A. thesis at the University of Chicago in 1944.

30. See Taylor, "The Federal Reserve Bank"; quotations from p. 30.

31. Interview with Kenji Fujii, Hayward, Calif., August 31, 1989; and with Tomoye Nozawe Takahashi, San Francisco, August 29, 1989.

32. Conversation with Grace Fujimoto Oshita, Salt Lake City, September 18, 1990.

33. Interview with Donald Nakahata, Mill Valley, Calif., May 12, 1988, AWC.

34. Conversation with Grace Fujimoto Oshita, Salt Lake City, September 18, 1990. Interview with Masako Tsuzuki Nakagawa, Leonia, N.J., June 14, 1988, AWC.

35. Uchida, Desert Exile , 60.

36. Shibutani, "Rumors," 92.

37. Oscar F. Hoffman, "San Francisco Fishing Industry," January 1945, CA Reports.

38. Oscar F. Hoffman, "San Francisco and East Bay Cities Laundry Business," January 17, 1945, CA Reports.

39. Oscar F. Hoffman, "San Francisco Retail Dry Cleaning and Dyeing Business," January 17, 1945, CA Reports.

40. Oscar F. Hoffman, "San Francisco Wholesale and Retail Art Goods Business," January 26, 1945, CA Reports.

41. Oscar F. Hoffman, "Hotel and Apartment House Business in San Francisco," March 9, 1945, CA Reports.

42. Oscar F. Hoffman, "San Mateo, Burlingame, Belmont," February 19, 1945, CA Reports.

43. Personal Justice Denied , 125.

44. Ibid., citing the testimony of Kinnosuke Hashimoto, New York, November 23, 1981, p. 123.

45. Interview with Hiromoto Katayama, Berkeley, October 27, 1987, AWC.

46. Oscar F. Hoffman, "Southern Alameda County Farmers," December 30, 1945, CA Reports.

47. Oscar F. Hoffman, "Alameda and East Bay," February 28, 1945, CA Reports.

48. Oscar F. Hoffman, "Japanese East Bay Floral Industry," February 16, 1945, CA Reports.

49. Oscar F. Hoffman, "Menlo Park—Atherton—Woodside," January 3, 1945, CA Reports.

50. United States Department of the Interior, The Wartime Handling of Evacuee Property (Washington, D.C., 1946), 3-4, as cited in Taylor, "Evacuation and Economic Loss," 163-67.

51. Personal Justice Denied , 133.

52. Daniels, Concentration Camps, U.S.A ., 83.

53. Uchida, Desert Exile , 58.

54. Arrington, The Price of Prejudice , 7-8, and "Utah's Ambiguous Reception," 92-99. See also Taylor, "Japanese Americans and Keetley Farms."

55. Interview with Nobu Miyoshi, New York, June 16, 1988, AWC.

56. Ibid.

57. Daniels, Concentration Camps, U.S.A ., 83-86.

58. Shibutani, Improvised News , 151, citing the San Francisco Examiner , April 12, 1942.

1. Daniels, Concentration Camps, North America , 87; Hosokawa, Nisei , 318-19.

2. Okubo, Citizen 13660, 54-55.

3. Uchida, Desert Exile , 64-67.

4. Conversation with Faith Terasawa, San Francisco, November 6, 1987; notes in possession of the author.

5. Tanforan Totalizer , May 23, 1942, as reported in "The First Month at the Tanforan Assembly Center for Japanese Evacuees," a preliminary report by Tamotsu Shibutani, Haruo Najima, and Tomiko Shibutani, JERS.

6. Kikuchi, Kikuchi Diary , 34. The history of JERS, the University of California project, is chronicled in Ichioka, Views from Within .

7. See the documents on this point assembled in Daniels, ed., Archival Documents ; vol. 8 covers the Tanforan Assembly Center.

8. Miyamoto, Social Solidarity , xi; Modell, "Japanese of Los Angeles," 240.

9. Uchida, Desert Exile , 40-41.

10. Shibutani, Najima, and Shibutani, "First Month," JERS.

11. Uchida, Desert Exile , 70.

12. Shibutani, Najima, and Shibutani, "First Month," JERS.

13. Statement by Miné Okubo, drafted on June 4, 1988, from notes of an interview with the author held on October 4, 1987, in possession of the author. Okubo is still bitter about the effects of evacuation on her life; another brother was the first draftee from the city of Riverside, was widely honored, but then was interned at an army camp in Oklahoma. After Nisei were drafted, he was sent to Europe and air-lifted into Germany, where he was shot in the spine and liver. He never recovered from his injuries and was still in a veteran's hospital when Okubo wrote her statement.

14. Okubo, Citizen 13660, 35.

15. Shibutani, Najima, and Shibutani, "First Month," JERS.

16. Okubo, Citizen 13660, 50.

17. Shibutani, Najima, and Shibutani, "First Month," JERS.

18. Okubo, Citizen 13660 , 63.

19. Interview with Midori Shimanouchi Lederer, New York, June 17, 1988, AWS.

20. Uchida, Desert Exile , 70.

21. Anonymous [name withheld from publication], "Diary," Tanforan, May-July 1942, JERS.

22. Okubo, Citizen 13660, 89; Shibutani, Najima, and Shibutani, "First Month," JERS.

23. John Yoshino to George A. Greene, May 18, 1942, RG 338.

24. "Mess Halls," 1942, Tanforan, JERS.

25. Uchida, Desert Exile , 76.

26. Shibutani, Najima, and Shibutani, "First Month," JERS.

27. "Tanforan: Visiting," May 7, 1942, JERS; Okubo, Citizen 13660, 79.

28. Shibutani, Najima, and Shibutani, "First Month," JERS.

29. Earle Yusa, "Internal Security Department," December 5, 1942, JERS.

30. Shibutani, Najima, and Shibutani, "First Month," JERS.

31. Uchida, Desert Exile , 76.

32. Earle Yusa, "Internal Security Department," December 5, 1942, JERS.

33. Uchida, Desert Exile , 76.

34. "Regulations Regarding Religious Practices and Assemblies," WRA, RG 338.

35. "Tanforan: Regulations," May 7, 1942, JERS.

36. Okubo, Citizen 13660, 87, 92-93; telephone conversation with Grace Fujimoto Oshita, Salt Lake City, September 18, 1990.

37. "House Managers," May 6-7, 1942, JERS.

38. Shibutani, Najima, and Shibutani, "First Month," JERS.

39. "House Managers," May 6-7, 1942, JERS.

40. Interview with Tad Fujita, Berkeley, October 28, 1987, AWS.

41. John Yoshino papers, June 9, 1942, RG 338.

42. Shibutani, Najima, and Shibutani, "First Month," JERS.

43. "Tanforan JACL Clique," June 1942, JERS.

44. Yoneda, Ganbatte , 111-19.

45. Interview with Kenji Fujii, Hayward, Calif., August 31, 1989; notes in possession of the author.

46. Yoneda, Ganbatte , 123.

47. "Tanforan JACL Clique," June 1942, JERS.

48. Interview with Ernest Iiyama and Chizu Kitano Iiyama, San Francisco, May 13, 1988, AWC.

49. Michio Kimutani, "Tanforan Politics," JERS; interview with Ernest Iiyama and Chizu Kitano Iiyama, May 13, 1988, AWC.

50. Kimutani, "Tanforan Politics," JERS.

51. Ibid.

52. "Tanforan Minutes of Committees," June 1 and 29, 1942, JERS.

53. Shibutani, Najima, and Shibutani, "First Month," JERS.

54. R. L. Nicholson to assembly center directors, May 31, 1942; RG 338.

55. "Instructions to Residents," July 30, 1942, JERS.

56. Telephone conversation with Grace Fujimoto Oshita, Salt Lake City, September 18, 1990.

57. Okubo, Citizen 13660, 54.

58. Shibutani, Najima, and Shibutani, "First Month," JERS.

59. Ibid.; Anonymous, "Family History," JERS.

60. "Report on Hospital and Health," September 15, 1942, RG 338.

61. James, Exile Within , 27.

62. Ibid.

63. Uchida, Desert Exile , 87-90.

64. Kikuchi, Diary , 134, 84, 243; see also Henry Tani, "The Tanforan High School," September 1942, JERS.

65. James, Exile Within , 30; Uchida, Desert Exile , 87-88; Kay Uchida and Grace Fujii, "The Preschool Program at Tanforan," late July 1942, JERS.

66. "Student Relocation," JERS; Uchida, Desert Exile , 85; Daniels, Concentration Camps, North America , 98-100.

67. Okubo, Citizen 13660, 92-93; Fred Hoshiyama, "Report on Recreation Program," September 1, 1942, RG 338.

68. Tomoye Takahashi, "Adult Education," June 30, 1942, RG 338.

69. Fred Hoshiyama, "Recreation," May 26, 1942, JERS; Hoshiyama, "Report on Recreation Program," September 1, 1942, RG 338.

70. July 2, 1942, RG 338.

71. Uchida, Desert Exile , 97.

72. Fred Hoshiyama, "Family Organization," October 1, 1942, JERS.

73. Spickard, Mixed Blood , 48-49. Spickard noted (p. 51) that most such marriages existed between Issei women and non-Japanese men, but that they were probably contracted when the men met the women in Japan or elsewhere. He concluded that most Issei who married out were those born before 1890, during the "restless, unsettled pioneer years." Very few of the Nisei who married out did so before World War II—3.1 percent of the men and 2.3 percent of the women; probably more would have if they had not been interned. Licenses for Caucasian-Japanese marriages were not issued legally in California at this time.

74. "Mixed Marriage Policy," July 16, 1942, JERS; Shibutani, Najima, and Shibutani, "First Month," JERS.

75. Okubo, Citizen 13660 , 110.

76. Interview with Dave Tatsuno, San Jose, November 4, 1987, AWC.

77. Conversation with Faith Terasawa, San Francisco, November 6, 1987; notes in possession of the author. Toyo Suyemoto Kawakami, "Camp Memories," 28-29.

78. "Terminal Procedures for Closing," September 21, 1942, RG 338; "Moving to Topaz," October 9, 1942, JERS.

79. Adachi, "My Experiences in a Foreign Land," 153-55.

1. Uchida, Desert Exile , 103-4; Anonymous [name withheld from publication], "Diary," October-November 1942, Topaz, JERS.

2. Suzuki, Ministry , 170.

3. Interview with Kenji Fujii, Hayward, Calif., August 31, 1989; notes in possession of the author.

4. Okubo, Citizen 13660 , 117-20.

5. "Train Monitor and Car Capt. Suggestions," mimeographed sheet, Topaz; provided by Kenji Fujii to the author.

6. Interview with Tad Fujita, Berkeley, October 28, 1987, AWC.

7. War Relocation Authority, Evacuated People , table 5, page 17; Topaz Times , October 10, 1942; Topaz , 35; Millard County Chronicle , September 24, 1942. Figures on Santa Anita are from "The Number of Japanese Sent to Relocation Projects," December 5, 1942, JERS.

8. Interview with K. Morgan Yamanaka, San Francisco, May 11, 1988, AWC.

9. Anonymous, "Diary," October-November 1942, JERS; Topaz files, September 17, 1942, WRA, RG 210.

10. Kawakami, "Camp Memories," 27.

11. Okubo, Citizen 13660 , 123.

12. Ken Verdoia, transcript of Topaz , a KUED-TV production (Salt Lake City, 1987), 23.

13. Conversation with Faith Terasawa, San Francisco, November 6, 1987.

14. Topaz files, September 17, 1942, WRA, RG 210.

15. Arrington, Price of Prejudice , 12; Roscoe E. Bell, "Relocation Center Life, Topaz, Utah, 1942-1945," ML.

16. Arrington, Price of Prejudice , 13.

17. Millard County Chronicle , October 15, 1942.

18. Interview by Wendy Walker with Roger Walker, January 1983, for Jane Beckwith's high school class, Delta, Utah; copy in possession of the author.

19. Trek , December 1942.

20. Claud H. Pratt, Ogden, Utah, "Topaz Relocation Center," April 1983, prepared for Jane Beckwith's high school class project, Delta, Utah; copy in possession of the author.

21. Uchida, Desert Exile , 110-11; Arrington, Price of Prejudice , 13.

22. Bell, "Relocation Center Life," ML.

23. As reported by Jane Beckwith, who interviewed Roper for a high school class project.

24. Verdoia, Topaz transcript, 25-26; Anonymous, "Diary," October-November 1942, JERS.

25. Telephone conversation with Evelyn Hodges Lewis, Wellsville, Utah, August 30, 1990.

26. Interview with Tom Kawaguchi, San Francisco, November 5, 1987, AWC.

27. Kawakami, "Camp Memories," 27.

28. Interview with Maya Nagata Aikawa, Oakland, November 4, 1987, AWC.

29. Interview with Lee Suyemoto, Newton, Mass., June 21, 1988, AWC.

30. Okubo, Citizen 13660 , 127-32; Arrington, Price of Prejudice , 13. The Delta mortuary recorded 156 (including stillbirths). Okubo stated that the dead were cremated in Salt Lake City and the ashes held for burial after the war ended.

31. Uchida, Desert Exile , 110.

32. Topaz files, February 4, 1943, WRA, RG 210.

33. Anonymous, "Diary," JERS; Topaz files, September 17, 1942, WRA, RG 210; Yasuo William Abiko, "Central Utah War Relocation Project, Topaz Center, 1942-1945," copy of manuscript given to the author by Jane Beckwith.

34. Telephone conversation with Kenji Fujii, Hayward, February 26, 1990.

35. Comment by Jane Beckwith, Delta, July 21, 1987.

36. Arrington, Price of Prejudice , 43, compiled from the War Relocation Authority, Evacuated People , tables 3, 4, and 8. Table 37a on page 100 of Evacuated People lists a total of 8,232 and gives the breakdown by sex as of January 1, 1943. The Topaz Times , January 30, 1943, gives a slightly larger figure. Of the ten camps, only Granada was smaller, according to Evacuated People , 20.

37. Arrington, Price of Prejudice , 14.

38. Bell, ''Relocation Center Life," ML; telephone conversation with Paul Bell, University Park, Pa., September 24, 1990, and with Roscoe Bell and Gladys Bell, Woodburn, Oreg., October 25, 1990.

39. Bell, "Relocation Center Life," ML.

40. Sekerak, "A Teacher at Topaz," 39; telephone conversation with Eleanor Sekerak and Emil Sekerak, Castro Valley, Calif., October 3, 1990.

41. Hochiyama, "Administration," JERS.

42. War Relocation Authority, WRA , 1.

43. Conversations with Paul Bell, University Park, Pa., September 24, 1990, and Eleanor Sekerak and Emil Sekerak, Castro Valley, Calif., October 3, 1990.

44. Pratt, "Utah Relocation Center." "Sox" Kitashima remembered how, in 1992, she still exchanged Christmas cards with him.

45. Hochiyama, "Administration," JERS.

46. Uchida, Desert Exile , 110.

47. Hochiyama, "Administration," JERS. The changed opinion of Ernst is documented in Hoffman's Community Analysis Newsletter No. 7 for week ending June 3, 1944, CA Reports.

48. Conversation with Eleanor Sekerak, Castro Valley, Calif., October 3, 1990.

49. Information on Ernst and Hoffman came from conversations with Roscoe Bell, Woodburn, Oreg., October 25, 1990, and Eleanor Sekerak, Castro Valley, Calif., October 3, 1990, and also from a letter to the author from Oscar Hoffman of Abilene, Kans., October 10, 1990.

50. Arrington, Price of Prejudice , 15.

51. Conversation with Eleanor Sekerak, Castro Valley, Calif., October 3, 1990, and letter from Oscar Hoffman, Abilene, Kans., October 10, 1990.

52. Hochiyama, "Administration," JERS.

53. Pratt, "Topaz Relocation Center."

54. Ibid.

55. Fumi Hayashi appended her comments to a rough draft of this manuscript, returned to me in October 1989, and Michi Kobi commu-

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nicated her sentiments to me in a letter at the same time. Hoffman's letter of October 10, 1990, contained his assessment of the role. Neither Hoffman nor his predecessor, anthropologist Weston LaBarre, had misgivings about undertaking the position of community analyst, but later scholars have tended to see the analysts as "company spies," which many may have been, however inadvertently. See Oscar F. Hoffman, "Closing Report of the Community Analysis Section," September 1, 1945, CA Reports.

56. "Welcome to Topaz," printed at Topaz in 1942.

57. Section 3, "The Profile of the Community," from Hoffman, "Closing Report," September 1, 1945, ca Reports.

58. Verdoia, Topaz transcript, 30.

59. Conversation with Roscoe Bell, Woodburn, Oreg., October 25, 1990.

60. Papanikolas, Peoples of Utah , 336-37; Masaoka, They Call Me Moses Masaoka , chaps. 1-2.

61. Papanikolas, Peoples of Utah, 339 .

62. Ibid., 337-40.

63. Ibid., 352.

64. Ibid., 343, 350, 352.

65. Conversation with Masi Nihei, San Francisco, September 1, 1989.

66. Papanikolas, Peoples of Utah , 352-53.

67. Ibid., 354-55. Eleanor Roosevelt persuaded the president to allow families to withdraw $100 a month, and this subsidy sustained Alice Kasai and her children.

68. Papanikolas, Peoples of Utah , 357.

69. In the Delta area water for irrigation was divided at the first of the year on the basis of a "call" system. The total amount available was divided on the basis of the number of shares an individual or company held. The water was stored in reservoirs until it was needed and then allotted by acre-feet to the shareholders. Topaz was supplied by the Abraham and Deseret Water Company shares. Telephone conversation with Roger Walker, Delta, Utah, November 27, 1990.

70. Interview by Jane Beckwith with Homer U. Petersen, Delta, Utah, May 1983; copy in possession of the author; Millard County Chronicle , May 28 and June 25, 1942.

71. Arrington, Price of Prejudice , 11; Millard County Chronicle , June 25 and August 2, 1942.

72. Verdoia, Topaz transcript, 19-20.

73. Millard County Chronicle , June 25 and August 6, 1942.

74. Anonymous, "Diary," October 2, 1942, JERS.

75. Suzuki, Ministry , 19.

76. Topaz files, September 11, 1942, WRA, RG 210.

77. Bell, "Relocation Center Life," ML.

78. Okihiro, Cane Fires , 214-24.

79. Bell, "Relocation Center Life," ML.

80. Arrington, Price of Prejudice , 14.

81. Topaz files, September 26, 1942, WRA, RG 210.

82. Anonymous, "Diary," October 2, 1942, JERS.

83. O'Brien, College Nisei .

84. War Relocation Authority, WRA , 30-31; Arrington, Price of Prejudice , 17.

85. Papanikolas, Peoples of Utah , 358.

86. Topaz files, October 7, 1942, WRA, RG 210; Ruth Griffin, "Relocation," Trek , June 1943, ML.

87. Topaz Files, October 7, 1942, WRA, RG 210.

88. War Relocation Authority, WRA , 37.

89. See Taylor, "Leaving the Camps," 4.

90. Drinnon, Keeper of Concentration Camps , 51.

91. Abiko, "Central Utah."

92. War Relocation Authority, WRA , 51-53; Warren Watanabe, "First Annual Report—September 1942-September 1943," November 20, 1943, JERS; and Drinnon, Keeper of Concentration Camps , 50-51.

93. Arrington, Price of Prejudice , 18.

94. "Relocation," Trek , June 1943, ML; Taylor, "Leaving the Camps."

95. Interview with Jane Beckwith, Delta, Utah, July 21, 1987; quotation from the Millard County Chronicle , October 15, 1942.

96. Jane Beckwith recalled that Yasuda paid $52 as monthly rent for himself and his family.

97. Anonymous, "Diary," October 2-December 9, 1942, JERS.

98. Watanabe, "First Annual Report," November 20, 1943, JERS.

99. Salt Lake Tribune , October 5, 1943.

100. Interview with Harry H. L. Kitano, Los Angeles, September 20, 1987, AWC.

101. George Sugihara, "Survey of Seasonal Work Leaves from Topaz," October 9-November 15, 1943, JERS.

102. War Relocation Authority, WRA , 52; Daniels, Concentration Camps, U.S.A ., 110-11; Drinnon, Keeper of Concentration Camps , 51.

103. Oscar F. Hoffman, "Resident Attitudes Toward Relocation," February 1, 1944, CA Reports.

1. Warren Watanabe, "First Annual Report—September 1942-September 1943," November 20, 1943, JERS.

2. Trek , December 1942, 8.

3. James, Exile Within , 8.

4. Ibid., 38-41.

5. Topaz files, October 11, 1942, WRA, RG 210.

6. Uchida, Desert Exile , 116-20. Quotations from pages 117-18 and 120.

7. Trek , December 1942, p. 9.

8. Claud H. Pratt, Ogden, Utah, "Topaz Relocation Center," April 1983, prepared for Jane Beckwith's high school class project, Delta, Utah; copy in possession of the author; Millard County Chronicle , October 1, 1942.

9. Arrington, Price of Prejudice , 32.

10. Trek , December 1942, p. 9.

11. "Education in Topaz," Topaz files, January 1, 1944, WRA, RG 210,

12. Uchida, Desert Exile , 125-26.

13. "Education in Topaz," Topaz files, January 1, 1944, WRA, RG 210.

14. Ibid., 43-45.

15. Russell Bankston, "Annual Cabinet Meeting at Topaz," Historical Section Topaz, Project Report H433, 67/14 H. 2.07, as cited in James, Exile Within , 51.

16. "Education in Topaz," Topaz files, January 1, 1944, WRA, RG 210,

17. Sekerak, "A Teacher at Topaz," 38-43.

18. Paul Bell, "Views From an Inside Outsider," August 16, 1980, delivered to a reunion of the Class of 1945 in San Francisco, August 16, 1980. Copy given to the author by Paul Bell; telephone conversation with Paul Bell, University Park, Pa., September 25, 1990.

19. Note from Fumi Hayashi, Berkeley, undated, October 1989.

20. Kitano, Japanese Americans: Evolution of a Subculture , 38.

21. James, Exile Within , 46-61.

22. Miyamoto, Social Solidarity , 51.

23. Ibid., 63-65.

24. Conversation with Grace Fujimoto Oshita, Salt Lake City, September 10, 1990.

25. Topaz files, April 7, 1943, WRA, RG 210.

26. Kitano, Japanese Americans: Evolution of a Subculture , 36-37; Takaki, Strangers , 396.

27. Note from Fumi Hayashi, Berkeley, undated, October 1989; conversation with Grace Fujimoto Oshita, Salt Lake City, October 10, 1990.

28. James, Exile Within , 74.

29. Ibid., citing examples from R. A. Bankston, "First High School Commencement," Topaz Reports Division, Project Report H 441, RG 210.

30. Statements written by Hisako Hibi, San Francisco, given to the author November 2, 1987; in possession of the author. Deborah Gesensway and Mindy Roseman have compiled a moving collection of camp art, much of it from Topaz, in Beyond Words .

31. Topaz files, May 1, 1943, WRA, RG 210.

32. Interview with Abu Keikoan Guilday, Sacramento, May 14, 1988, AWC.

33. Interview with Maya Nagata Aikawa, Oakland, November 4, 1987, AWC.

34. Interview with Michiko Okamoto, New York, October 6, 1987, AWC.

35. Interview with Shigeki J. Sugiyama, Washington, D.C., June 9, 1988, AWC.

36. Ibid.

37. Interview with Robert Utsumi, San Francisco, May 11, 1988, AWC.

38. Interview with Lee Suyemoto, Newton, Mass., June 21, 1988, AWC. See also Kitano, "Japanese-American Crime and Delinquency," 161-70.

39. Kitano, Japanese Americans: Evolution of a Subculture , 36.

40. Daniels, Asian America , 234-35.

41. Ibid.

42. War Relocation Authority, WRA , 83.

43. Ibid., 86-87; Arrington, Price of Prejudice , 26-27.

44. War Relocation Authority, WRA , 86-87.

45. Ibid., 90; Watanabe, "First Annual Report," November 20, 1942, JERS; Arrington, Price of Prejudice , 26.

46. Weglyn, Years of Infamy , 120-21.

47. Daniels, Asian America , 235.

48. Watanabe, "First Annual Report," November 20, 1942, JERS.

49. Ibid.

50. Russell A. Bankston, "The Wakasa Incident," May 10, 1943, Topaz files, WRA, RG 210.

51. Telephone conversation with Evelyn Hodges Lewis, Wellsville, Utah, August 30, 1990.

52. Minutes of the Community Council, April 15, 1943, JERS.

53. Ibid.; Topaz Times , April 13, 1943.

54. Minutes of the Community Council, April 15, 1943, JERS.

55. Bankston, "Wakasa Incident," May 10, 1943, Topaz files, WRA, RG 210; Daniels, Asian America , 228-31; Topaz Times , April 12, 1943.

56. Topaz Times , April 12, 1943.

57. Minutes of the Community Council, April 16, 1943, JERS.

58. Topaz Times , April 12, 1943.

59. Ibid., April 16, 17, and 20, 1943.

60. Minutes of the Community Council, April 20, 1943, JERS.

61. Ibid.

62. Weglyn, Years of Infamy , 312.

63. Topaz Times , April 13 and 20, 1943.

64. Ken Verdoia, transcript of Topaz , a KUED-TV production (Salt Lake City, 1987). Verdoia states that this information came from the National Archives but gives no specific reference for it. He also states that the sentry testified at the court martial that he intended the shot that killed Wakasa as a warning shot. See pp. 33-34.

65. Topaz Times , April 22, 1943.

66. Topaz Times , April 20, 1943.

67. Topaz Times , April 16, 1943.

68. Okubo, Citizen 13660 , 180.

69. Bankston, ''Wakasa Incident," May 10, 1943, Topaz files, WRA, RG 210; Uchida, Desert Exile , 140.

70. Bankston, "Wakasa Incident," May 10, 1943, Topaz files, WRA, RG 210. The subject of the dog was widely disputed; Roscoe Bell thought Wakasa was walking a dog, but Bell's wife Gladys said he "liked to walk the dogs of the city" and was walking about five when he was killed. Roscoe Bell, "Relocation Center Life,'' and Gladys K. Bell, "Memories of Topaz, Japanese War Relocation Center, 1942 to 1945," ML.

71. Interview with Karl Akiya, New York, June 16 and 18, 1988; Akiya, testimony to the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, November 23, 1981, New York City, copy in the possession of the author.

72. Conversation with Evelyn Hodges Lewis, Wellsville, Utah, August 30, 1990.

73. Interview with George Gentoku Shimamoto, Fort Lee, N.J., October 5, 1987, AWC.

74. Drinnon, Keeper of Concentration Camps , 6.

75. Weglyn, Years of Infamy , 312.

76. Uchida, Desert Exile , 139-40.

77. Okubo, Citizen 13660 , 180.

78. Conversation with Roscoe Bell, Woodburn, Oreg., September 25, 1990. Roscoe Bell, "Relocation Center Life," and Gladys Bell, "Memories of Topaz," ML.

79. Michi Kobi (Michiko Okamoto), interviewed in Verdoia, Topaz transcript, 32.

80. Hoffman to Myer, July 25, 1944, as cited in Drinnon, Keeper of Concentration Camps , 281. Drinnon incorrectly called Hoffman Louis instead of Luther.

81. Conversation with Jane Beckwith, Delta, July 21, 1987.

82. See Weglyn, Years of Infamy , 312 n.

83. Drinnon, Keeper of Concentration Camps , 281; Drinnon cited Jackman's article, "Collective Protest in Relocation Centers," American Journal of Sociology 63 (November 1957): 264-72.

84. Edward Ennis, interview in Verdoia, Topaz transcript, 35.

85. Daniels, Asian America , 261.

86. War Relocation Authority, WRA , 53-56.

87. Weglyn, Years of Infamy , 138.

88. Daniels, Asian America , 262-64; Russell Bankston, "Registration at Topaz," March 10, 1943, Topaz files, WRA, RG 210.

89. Personal Justice Denied , 195; see also War Relocation Authority, WRA , table 3, p. 199.

90. Bankston, "Registration at Topaz," March 10, 1943, Topaz files, WRA, RG 210.

91. Watanabe, "First Annual Report," November 20, 1943, JERS; Arrington, Price of Prejudice , 19-20; War Relocation Authority, WRA , table 3, p. 199; Bankston, "Registration at Topaz," March 10, 1943, Topaz files, WRA, RG 210.

92. Oscar F. Hoffman and Charles Ernst to Dillon Myer, October 12, 1943, CA Reports.

93. Interview with K. Morgan Yamanaka, San Francisco, May 11, 1988, and Mill Valley, Calif., March 9, 1990, AWC.

94. Arrington, Price of Prejudice , 20-21; Bankston, "Registration at Topaz," March 10, 1943, WRA, RG 210.

95. Interview with William Kochiyama, New York, October 6, 1987, AWC.

96. Drinnon, Keeper of Concentration Camps , 92.

97. Telephone conversation with Evelyn Hodges Lewis, Wellsville, Utah, August 30, 1990.

98. Watanabe, "First Annual Report," November 20, 1943, JERS.

99. Fumi Hayashi commented upon reading this section, "I think that it was a miracle that there wasn't more drinking and shouting in Topaz where the folks had so little to do and so little to console them." Her remarks say much about the persistence of the social mores of prewar Japanese America.

100. Hoffman and Charles F. Ernst to Myer, October 12, 1943, CA Reports.

101. Conversation with Roscoe Bell, Woodburn, Oreg., September 25, 1990.

102. Interview with Abu Keikoan Guilday, Sacramento, May 14, 1988, AWC.

103. Bankston, "Registration at Topaz," March 10, 1943, WRA, RG 210.

104. Kessler, "Fettered Freedoms."

105. Fumi Hayashi's comments on the rough draft of my interview with her, October 1989.

106. Oscar F. Hoffman, "Notes on Some Religious Cults at Topaz," June 15, 1946, CA Reports.

107. Suzuki, Ministry , 170-78, 191; Hoffman, "Notes on Some Religious Cults at Topaz," June 15, 1946, CA Reports.

108. See the cover of Trek , December 1942; Okubo, Citizen 13660, 156.

109. Interview with Tad Fujita, Berkeley, October 28, 1987, AWC; and Suzuki, Ministry , 189-90.

110. Hoffman, "Notes on Some Religious Cults at Topaz," June 15, 1946, CA Reports.

111. Suzuki, Ministry , 179-80; Roscoe Bell, "Relocation Center Life," ML; Arrington, Price of Prejudice , 33.

112. Arrington, Price of Prejudice , 22-23.

113. Russell Bankston, "Organization and Development of the Topaz Consumer Cooperative Enterprise," JERS; interview with Dave Tatsuno, San Jose, November 4, 1987, AWC.

114. Interview with Dave Tatsuno, San Jose, November 4, 1987; "Background to Topaz Films," statement prepared by Dave Tatsuno, in the possession of the author.

115. Statement by Chiyoko Yano and Isao James Yano, Berkeley, August 22, 1988, in possession of author; interview with Kazu Iijima, New York, October 5, 1987, AWC.

116. Topaz Times , April 1, 1943.

117. Conversation with Grace Fujimoto Oshita, Salt Lake City, January 25, 1993.

118. Reports from Topaz files, 1942-43, WRA, RG 210.

119. Conversation with Tom Kawaguchi, San Francisco, March 7, 1989; interview with Kazu Iijima, New York, October 5, 1987, AWC.

120. Drinnon, Keeper of Concentration Camps , 103-4.

121. Watanabe, "First Annual Report," November 20, 1943, RG 210.

122. Hoffman, "Notes on Some Religious Cults at Topaz," June 15, 1946, CA Reports.

123. Notes of interview with Faith Terasawa, San Francisco, November 6, 1987, in the possession of the author; interview with Kazu Iijima, New York, October 5, 1987, AWC.

124. Topaz files, November 16, 1942, WRA, RG 210. The complaints were listed in a grievance letter sent by the medical staff to the administration, dated November 16, 1942; the minutes of the Hospital Committee, January 20, 1943, also explain the situation. Both documents were given me by Kenji Fujii.

125. Topaz files, March 31, 1943, WRA, RG 210.

126. Interview with "Harry Ando," cited in Spickard, Mixed Blood , 52.

127. Several interviewees mention the sexual problem, and so does George Sugihara in "An Analysis of Delinquent Problems, Their Possible Causes and Cures," April 7, 1943, JERS; Bill Kochiyama made some reference to illegal drinking, as did Paul Bell. A report in the Topaz files, December 4, 1943, WRA, RG 210, refers to gambling.

128. Russell Bankston, "Labor Trouble in Topaz," October 2, 1943, JERS; Topaz files, November 5, 1943, WRA, RG 210; conversation with Roscoe Bell, Woodburn, Oreg., September 25, 1990.

129. Watanabe, "First Annual Report," November 20, 1943, WRA, RG 210.

1. Daniels, Introduction, 33.

2. On the instructions given the community analysts, see Suzuki, "Anthropologists."

3. Letter from Oscar F. Hoffman, Abilene, Kans., October 10, 1990. Hoffman, who was ninety-four when he wrote to the author, commented that discussing his role at Topaz made him feel as if he were "already facing judgement day."

4. Oscar F. Hoffman, "Closing Report of the Community Analysis Section," September 1, 1945, CA Reports.

5. Oscar F. Hoffman, "Notes on Some Religious Cults at Topaz," June 15, 1946, CA Reports.

6. Topaz files, April 8, 1944, WRA, RG 210.

7. Topaz files, March 25, 1944, WRA, RG 210.

8. Topaz files, April 22, 1944, WRA, RG 210.

9. Hoffman to Dillon S. Myer, Washington, D.C., Newsletter No. 18, for the week ending October 28, 1944, CA Reports.

10. Newsletter No. 10, for the week ending July 29, 1944, CA Reports.

11. Topaz files, December 31, 1944, WRA, RG 210.

12. Ibid; James, Exile Within , 140-41.

13. Hiro Katayama, "The Reinstitution of Selective Service," prepared for Oscar F. Hoffman, to Dillon S. Myer, April 10, 1944, CA Reports.

14. Daniels, Concentration Camps, North America , 123.

15. Topaz files, January 20, 1944, WRA, RG 210; Katayama, "The Reinstitution of Selective Service," April 10, 1944, CA Reports.

16. Katayama, "The Reinstitution of Selective Service," April 10, 1944, CA Reports. Katayama estimated that 87 percent of the population favored this "conservative" approach, while only 13 percent supported more radical action.

17. Newsletter No. 2, for the week ending March 26, 1944, CA Reports.

18. Ibid.

19. Katayama, "The Reinstitution of Selective Service," April 10, 1944, CA Reports. Although these phrases originated in Hawaiian pidgin, many of the Nisei I interviewed reported their widespread use at Topaz; especially interviews with Mari Eijima, New York, October 5, 1987, and Fumi Hayashi, Berkeley, October 28, 1987.

20. Katayama, "The Reinstitution of Selective Service," April 10, 1944, CA Reports.

21. Hoffman, "Evaluating the Community Council's Role," April 3, 1944, CA Reports.

22. The ACLU was divided over the proper response to Japanese American internment. Peter Irons, who used the Freedom of Information Act to discover that the War Department had deliberately presented tainted records to the Supreme Court and suppressed crucial evidence, stated, "Leaders of the American Civil Liberties Union bear much of the blame for the outcome of the Japanese American cases." He found that ACLU lawyers were personally so loyal to Franklin D. Roosevelt that the National Board refused to challenge the constitutionality of Executive Order 9066, thus crippling the presentation of appeals to the Supreme Court. Irons, Justice at War , vii-xi.

23. Interview with Tom Kawaguchi, San Francisco, November 5, 1987, AWC.

24. Oscar F. Hoffman, Weekly Trend Report No. 23, for the week ending December 8, 1944, CA Reports.

25. Hoffman, Weekly Trend Report No. 24, for the week ending December 15, 1944, CA Reports.

26. Topaz files, December 3, 1944, WRA, RG 210.

27. Interview with Tom Kawaguchi, San Francisco, November 5, 1987, AWC.

28. Interview with Kenji Fujii, Hayward, Calif., August 31, 1989; notes in possession of the author.

29. Interview with Tad Hayashi, Berkeley, October 28, 1987, AWC.

30. Interview with Tomoye Nozawe Takahashi, San Francisco, August 29, 1989; notes in possession of the author.

31. Oscar F. Hoffman, Newsletter No. 6, for the week ending May 20, 1944, CA Reports; Topaz files, May 19 and Supplementary Newsletter, July 5, 1944, WRA, RG 210.

32. Minutes of a meeting between the Hospital Committee, headed by Kenji Fujii, and the assistant project directors, James Hughes and Lorne W. Bell, January 20, 1943; given to the author by Kenji Fujii.

33. Newsletter No. 9, for the week ending July 24, 1944, CA Reports.

34. Project Director Reports to Myer, Topaz files, September 22-30, 1944, JERS.

35. Newsletter No. 10, for the week ending July 29, 1944, dated August 10, 1944, CA Reports.

36. Newsletter No. 11, for the week ending August 12, 1944, CA Reports.

37. Newsletter No. 12, for the week ending August 26, 1944, CA Reports.

38. Newsletter No. 13, for the week ending September 9, 1944, and Newsletter No. 14, for the week ending September 19, 1944, CA Reports.

39. Newsletter No. 10, for the week ending July 29, 1944, CA Reports.

40. Newsletter No. 17, for the week ending October 21, 1944, and Newsletter No. 19, for the week ending November 4, 1944, CA Reports.

41. Oscar F. Hoffman, "Evaluating the Community Council's Role," Trend Report No. 40, for the week ending April 3, 1944, CA Reports.

42. Weglyn, Years of Infamy , 160-63. The strike was the beginning of serious trouble at Tule; within a month the army had been called in and the camp placed under martial law. Strikebreakers were eventually found, housed outside Tule Lake, and paid a dollar an hour. Topaz did not participate.

43. Hoffman, "Closing Report of the Community Analysis Section," n.d. (1945), CA Reports.

44. Ibid., 13-17; Project Director Reports to Myer, Topaz files, September 22, 1944, JERS.

45. Roscoe Bell to Myer, Topaz files, July 30, 1945, JERS.

46. Topaz files, December 31, 1944, WRA, RG 210.

47. If Japan had wanted to help its interned nationals, it could have used the American prisoners of war held in Japan as leverage. It did not; in fact, one former Nisei resident recalled that many former internees refused to greet Prince Akihito when he visited New York City years after the war—as an act of symbolic protest against the way Japan had aban-

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doned them in their time of need. They did not wish that Tokyo had retaliated against American prisoners, only that it might have protested the treatment of the Issei. The situation of prisoners of war in Japan was far worse than that of the interned Japanese Americans, but the reasons for their incarceration were also vastly different.

48. Hoffman, "Closing Report of the Community Analysis Section," September 1945, CA Reports.

49. Interview with George Gentoku Shimamoto, New York, October 5, 1987, AWC; and Hoffman, "The New Council at Topaz," Trend Report No. 28, for the week ending December 28, 1944, CA Reports.

50. Sady, "Council History," CA Reports.

51. Trend Report No. 27, for the week ending January 3, and Trend Report No. 28, for the week ending January 6, 1945, JERS.

52. Daniels, Concentration Camps, North America , 138, 140-43; Irons, Justice at War , 99-103. Fred Korematsu, the subject of another landmark Supreme Court case, was also interned at Topaz after his conviction for refusing to obey the order to evacuate the West Coast. Unlike Endo, he applied for resettlement; in December he was working in Detroit, having been granted indefinite leave. Irons, Justice at War , 312.

53. Oscar F. Hoffman to Myer, Trend Report No. 25, for the week ending December 18, 1944, JERS.

54. Oscar F. Hoffman, "Resident Attitudes Toward Relocation," February 1, 1944, CA Reports.

55. Ibid.

56. Ibid.

57. Ibid.

58. War Relocation Authority, Evacuated People , 31.

59. Oscar F. Hoffman to Myer, Trend Report No. 22, November 21 and 25, 1944, JERS.

60. Weekly Trend Report No. 22, for the week ending November 25, 1944, CA Reports.

61. Newsletter No. 5, for the week ending May 6, 1944, CA Reports.

62. Oscar F. Hoffman, "Statement by Mr. S, a Resident Leader in Community Enterprises, on the History of Factionalism in His Organization," March 4, 1944, CA Reports.

63. Newsletter No. 4, for the week ending May 1, 1944, CA Reports.

64. Ibid.

65. Hoffman, "Closing Report," September 1945, CA Reports.

66. Newsletter No. 7, for the week ending June 3, 1944, CA Reports.

67. Newsletter No. 12, for the week ending August 26, 1944, CA Reports.

68. Newsletter No. 13, for the week ending September 9, 1944, CA Reports.

69. Newsletter No. 15, for the week ending October 7, 1944, CA Reports.

70. Weekly Trend Report No. 24, for the week ending December 9, 1944, CA Reports.

71. Oscar F. Hoffman, "Interview with Some Resident Teachers," Weekly Trend Report No. 1, for the week ending April 11, 1944, CA Reports.

72. Ibid.

73. Interview with Lee Suyemoto, Newton, Mass., June 21, 1988, AWC.

74. Oscar F. Hoffman, "Interview with Reverend T. Relative to the School Situation," May 24, 1944, CA Reports. James, Exile Within , 141, noted that resistance was "on the rise" in schools in all the camps in 1944, but apparently the technique of boycotting classes was most common in Topaz. James stated, ''In short, students made it known that they were part of the politics of education in the camps. They sometimes drew the line and resisted openly when they did not like how they were being treated.''

75. James, Exile Within , 45; Eleanor Sekerak vehemently denied that James's characterization applied to Topaz. She herself was scrupulously fair, as her former students have testified, and she said there was neither the turnover nor the turmoil that Hoffman reported. Conversation with Eleanor Sekerak, Castro Valley, Calif., October 3, 1990.

76. Oscar F. Hoffman, "Interview with Students at Topaz," Weekly Trend Report No. 1, for the week ending April 11, 1944, CA Reports.

77. Oscar F. Hoffman, "Thoughts of a High School Senior," April 26, 1944, CA Reports.

78. Of those I interviewed, Lee Suyemoto, Michiko Okamoto, Maya Nagata, and Bob Utsumi were very critical. Harry Kitano had high praise for Eleanor Gerard Sekerak, and Shigeki Sugiyama and Fumi Hayashi were relatively uncritical. Glenn Kumekawa remarked that in a sense, the students taught one another. Interview with Glenn Kumekawa, Wakefield, R.I., June 20, 1988; notes in the possession of the author.

79. Hoffman, Community Analysis Newsletter No. 4, April 22, 1944, CA Reports.

80. Oscar F. Hoffman, "Interview with the Student Relocation Counselor," April 26, 1944, CA Reports.

81. James, Exile Within , 129-31.

82. Newsletter No. 5, for the week ending May 6, 1944, CA Reports.

83. Oscar F. Hoffman, "Student Morale at Topaz," May 17, 1944, CA Reports; telephone conversation with Eleanor Sekerak, Castro Valley, Calif., January 29, 1993.

84. Hoffman, "Student Morale at Topaz," May 17, 1944, CA Reports.

85. Newsletter No. 9, for the week ending July 24, 1944, CA Reports.

86. Newsletter No. 10, for the week ending July 29, 1944, CA Reports.

87. Newsletter No. 12, for the week ending August 26, 1944, CA Reports.

88. Oscar F. Hoffman, "Profiles of the Centers: Central Utah," a paper given at a Community Analysis Conference, Denver, Colo., in "Monthly Narrative Report," September 30, 1944, CA Reports.

89. Newsletter No. 6, for the week ending May 20, 1944, CA Reports.

90. Hoffman, "Closing Report," September 1945, CA Reports.

91. Oscar F. Hoffman, "The School Situation at Topaz," June 17, 1944, CA Reports.

92. Newsletter No. 7, for the week ending June 3, 1944, CA Reports.

93. Weekly Trend Report No. 24, December 15, 1944, CA Reports.

94. Hoffman, "Interview with Rev. S.," October 11, 1944, CA Reports.

95. Ibid.

96. Weekly Trend Report No. 21, for the week ending November 19, 1944, CA Reports.

97. Newsletter No. 18, for the week ending November 3, 1944, CA Reports.

98. Sawada, "After the Camps."

99. Weekly Trend Report No. 20, for the week ending November 15, 1944, CA Reports.

100. Oscar F. Hoffman, "Atomization of Topaz Community," November 24, 1944, CA Reports.

101. Oscar F. Hoffman, "Relocation Prospects as of November 15, 1944," November 29, 1944, CA Reports.

102. Weekly Trend Report No. 25, for the week ending December 21, 1944, CA Reports.

103. Weekly Trend Report No. 26, for the week ending December 28, 1944, CA Reports.

1. Oscar F. Hoffman, Weekly Trend Report No. 23, for the week ending December 8, 1944, CA Reports; Daniels, Concentration Camps, North America , 157. The announcement appeared in the New York Times on December 17, 1944.

2. Irons, Justice at War , 344-45.

3. Topaz files, December 27, 1944, WRA, RG 210.

4. Oscar F. Hoffman to Myer, Weekly Trend Report No. 57, for the week ending July 19, 1945, CA Reports.

5. Topaz files, January 18, 1945, WRA, RG 210.

6. Weekly Trend Report No. 26, for the week ending December 28, 1944, CA Reports.

7. Weekly Trend Report No. 27, for the week ending December 30, 1944, received January 5, 1945, CA Reports.

8. Weekly Trend Report No. 39, for the week ending March 27, 1945, JERS.

9. Weekly Trend Report No. 27, for the week ending December 30, 1944, CA Reports.

10. Weekly Trend Report No. 29, for the week ending January 18, 1945, CA Reports.

11. Ibid.

12. Ibid.

13. Weekly Trend Report No. 28, for the week ending January 11, 1945, CA Reports.

14. Ibid.

15. Topaz files, January 1, 1945: a series of letters and mimeographed forms regarding relocated residents from Luther Hoffman to WRA field offices, WRA, RG 210.

16. Topaz files, February 15, 1945, WRA, RG 210.

17. Drinnon, Keeper of Concentration Camps , 68. Drinnon considered the sign an example of Nisei self-hatred. I think that even though it may seem obsequious, it was more likely intended as a compliment, one that—with the passage of years—seems misguided as well as ironic.

18. Topaz files, February 26, 1945, WRA, RG 210.

19. Drinnon, Keeper of Concentration Camps , 163-66.

20. Weekly Trend Report No. 33, for the week ending February 14, 1945, CA Reports.

21. Weekly Trend Report No. 29, for the week ending January 18, 1945, CA; statement written by Chiyoko Yano, Berkeley, August 22, 1988, in the possession of the author.

22. Weekly Trend Report No. 33, for the week ending February 14, 1945, CA Reports.

23. Weekly Trend Report No. 32, for the week ending February 9, 1945, CA Reports.

24. Daniels, Concentration Camps, North America , 167.

25. Weekly Trend Report No. 34, for the week ending February 27, 1945, JERS.

26. Topaz files, March 21, 1945, WRA, RG 210.

27. Weekly Trend Report No. 40, for the week ending March 31, 1945, CA Reports.

28. Weekly Trend Report No. 33, for the week ending February 10, 1945, CA Reports.

29. Weekly Trend Report No. 34, for the week ending February 17, 1945, CA Reports.

30. Ibid.

31. Conversation with Clifford Uyeda, San Francisco, September 14, 1990; Suzuki, Ministry , 43 n. 11.

32. Topaz files, April 16, 1945, WRA, RG 210.

33. Weekly Trend Report No. 45, for the week ending May 5, 1945, CA Reports.

34. Weekly Trend Report No. 37, for the week ending March 10, 1945, CA Reports.

35. Ibid.

36. Weekly Trend Report No. 38, for the week ending March 17, 1945, CA Reports.

37. Weekly Trend Report No. 39, for the week ending March 24, 1945, CA Reports.

38. Weekly Trend Report No. 40, for the week ending March 31, 1945, CA Reports.

39. Hosokawa, Nisei , 437.

40. Girdner and Loftis, Great Betrayal , 389-93; Daniels, Concentration Camps, U.S.A ., 159.

41. Weekly Trend Report No. 31, for the week ending January 27, 1945, CA Reports.

42. Daniels, Concentration Camps, North America , 158.

43. Shibutani, Improvised News , 70.

44. Weekly Trend Report No. 41, for the week ending April 7, 1945, and Weekly Trend Report No. 42, for the week ending April 14, 1945, CA Reports.

45. Weekly Trend Report No. 43, "Dissemination of Information on Post-evacuation Policies and Procedures," for the week ending April 21, 1945, CA Reports.

46. Weekly Trend Report No. 40, for the week ending March 31, and Weekly Trend Report No. 43, for the week ending April 21, 1945, CA Reports.

47. Weekly Trend Report No. 44, for the week ending April 28, 1945, CA Reports.

48. Weekly Trend Report No. 45, for the week ending May 5, 1945, CA Reports.

49. Weekly Trend Report No. 41, for the week ending April 7, 1945, CA Reports.

50. Weekly Trend Report No. 45, for the week ending May 5, 1945, CA Reports.

51. Weekly Trend Report No. 46, for the week ending May 12, 1945, CA Reports.

52. Weekly Trend Report No. 48, for the week ending June 19, 1945; Weekly Trend Report No. 51, for the week ending June 16, 1945, CA Reports.

53. Oscar F. Hoffman, "Special Report of Nisei Exploring Resettlement Opportunities in San Francisco Bay Area—Jobs or Business, in Particular a House," May 25, 1959, CA Reports.

54. Weekly Trend Report No. 47, for the week ending May 19, 1945, CA Reports.

55. Weekly Trend Report No. 31, for the week ending January 27, 1945, CA Reports.

56. Weekly Trend Report No. 49, for the week ending June 2, 1945, CA Reports.

57. Acting director Roscoe Bell to Myer, Director's file, July 30 and August 11, 1945, JERS.

58. Weekly Trend Report No. 50, for the week ending June 9, 1945, CA Reports.

59. Weekly Trend Report No. 52, for the week ending June 23, 1945; Weekly Trend Report No. 53, for the week ending June 30, 1945; Weekly Trend Report No. 54, for the week ending July 7, 1945, ca Reports.

60. Weekly Trend Report No. 56, for the week ending July 21, 1945, CA Reports.

61. Hosokawa, JACL , 259-62.

62. Weekly Trend Report No. 55, for the week ending July 14, 1945, CA Reports.

63. Hosokawa, JACL , 259-62; Roscoe Bell to Myer, July 30, 1945, Topaz files, JERS.

64. Weekly Trend Report No. 56, for the week ending July 21, 1945, CA Reports; Roscoe Bell to Myer, July 30, 1945, Topaz files, JERS.

65. Roscoe Bell to Myer, August 11, 1945, Topaz files, JERS.

66. Weekly Trend Report No. 56, for the week ending July 21, 1945, CA Reports.

67. Weekly Trend Report No. 58, for the week ending August 4, 1945, CA Reports.

68. Oscar F. Hoffman, "Closing Report of the Community Analysis Section," September 1, 1945, CA Reports.

69. Director's report to Myer, September 5, 1945, JERS.

70. Topaz files, "Project Director's Final Report," December 1, 1946, WRA, RG 210; Luther Hoffman to Myer, September 5, October 1, 16, November 5, 1945, JERS.

71. Shibutani, Improvised News , 152.

72. Topaz files, "Project Director's Final Report," December 1, 1946, WRA, RG 210; Luther Hoffman to Myer, October 16, 25, 1946, JERS.

73. Luther Hoffman to Myer, October 16 and 25, 1946.

74. War Relocation Authority, Evacuated People , tables 3, 4, and 8; Topaz Times , January 30, 1943.

75. The figures vary; Alice Kasai of the JACL in Salt Lake City has a list of 156 names that she obtained from Nickle Mortuary in Delta, Utah. This larger figure includes stillbirths and several deaths with no statistics.

76. "Welfare Section Final Report," November 1, 1945, WRA, RG 210. It is not clear who wrote this report; many original administrators had left by the time the camp closed.

77. "Evacuee Property Office, Final Report," November 1, 1945, WRA, RG 210.

78. "Closing Report of Project Reports Division," December 10, 1945, WRA, RG 210.

79. "Closing Report on Education," December 10, 1945, WRA, RG 210.

80. "Closing Report, Community Activities Section," December 10, 1945, WRA, RG 210.

81. Memo from Fumi Hayashi, n.d.; Suzuki, Ministry , 193.

1. See Drinnon, Keeper of Concentration Camps , for Myer's career. Works that deal specifically with dependency and the American Indians include Jorgensen, Sun Dance Religion , especially the Introduction, and White, Roots of Dependency .

2. Sucheng Chan ably summarized the controversy over whether Japanese Americans should properly be termed a "model minority" in Asian Americans . She held that by 1970 Asian Americans had outpaced whites in family income; but total income did not take into account the number of family members working, the amount of education received by each individual, and their high concentration in urban areas; see pp. 167-71.

3. Okubo, Citizen 13660 , 208-9.

4. Daniels, "Japanese Americans," 188.

5. See Taylor, "Evacuation and Economic Loss," 163-68.

6. Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, Personal Justice Denied , 118.

7. Daniels, Concentration Camps, U.S.A ., 168-69.

8. Interview with George Gentoku Shimamoto, New York, October 5, 1987, AWC.

9. Note from Chizu Kitano Iiyama, July 10, 1990.

10. Interview with Faith Terasawa, San Francisco, November 6, 1987, notes in the possession of the author; and conversations with her nephew, Donald Nakahata of Mill Valley on May 12, 1988.

11. Memo from Fumi Manabe Hayashi, March 1990, and conversation with Chitose Manabe, Berkeley, October 28, 1987 (translated by Tad Hayashi).

12. The age breakdown of camp residents as of January 30, 1943, was as follows:

Topaz Times , January 30, 1943.

13. Interviews with Tomoye Nozawe Takahashi, San Francisco, November 2, 1987, and August 29, 1989; notes in the possession of the author.

14. Ibid.

15. Ibid.

16. Ibid.

17. Tatsuno's film of Topaz was used extensively by Ken Verdoia in the television documentary "Topaz," made for public television station KUED in Salt Lake City in 1987. It has been restored and colorized and was used to illustrate news broadcasts in the Bay Area when the first redress checks were mailed. The original film was donated to the Japanese American National Museum in Los Angeles in 1992. Telephone conver-

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sation with Dave Tatsuno, San Jose, October 4, 1990; letter from Tatsuno to the author, January 7, 1993.

18. Telephone conversation with Dave Tatsuno, San Jose, October 4, 1990; letter from Tatsuno to the author, January 7, 1993.

19. Ibid.

20. Interview with Kenji Fujii, Hayward, Calif., August 31, 1989; notes in the possession of the author.

21. Ibid.

22. Dillon Myer, press conference, May 14, 1943, as cited in Drinnon, Keeper of Concentration Camps , 83; chapter 6 is entitled "Troublemakers."

23. Interview with Karl Akiya, New York, June 16 and 18, 1988, AWC; letters from Karl Akiya to Dillon Myer, January 15 and 27, 1943, copy in the possession of the author; Karl Akiya's testimony to the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, New York, November 23, 1981, copy in the possession of the author.

24. Interview with Karl Akiya, New York, June 16 and 18, 1988; Yoneda, Ganbatte , 112-13.

25. Interview with Karl Akiya, New York, June 16 and 18, 1988.

26. Ibid.

27. Interview with K. Morgan Yamanaka, San Francisco, May 11, 1988, AWC; "Morgan Yamanaka," in Tateishi, And Justice for All , 113-20.

28. Ibid.

29. Ibid.

30. Ibid.

31. Interview with Tsuyako "Sox" Kitashima, San Francisco, November 6, 1957, AWC.

32. Ibid.

33. Ibid.

34. Ibid.; letter to the author from Tsuyako "Sox" Kitashima, San Francisco, December 11, 1993.

35. I wish to thank Masa "Kitty" Tsuzuki Nakagawa for helping me place people in the proper high school classes. I have identified married women here by their maiden names only; elsewhere in the text their maiden and married names appear.

36. Mixed families such as the one referred to here were given the option of separating, the white parent remaining outside camp and the children and Japanese American parent being interned. This particular family chose to stay together. Information came from informal conversations with Fumi Hayashi and others associated with the JACL in San Francisco.

37. Interview with John Hada, San Francisco, November 2., 1987, AWC.

38. Ibid.

39. Interview with Robert Utsumi, San Francisco, May 11, 1988, AWC.

40. Ibid.

41. Interview with Tom Kawaguchi, San Francisco, November 5, 1987, AWC; "Tom Kawaguchi," in Tateishi, And Justice for All , 176-85.

42. Ibid.

43. Ibid.

44. Ibid.

45. Interview with William Kochiyama, New York, June 18, 1988, AWC.

46. Ibid.

47. Ibid.

48. Testimony of William Kochiyama at the Hearing of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, New York, November 2.3, 1981; copy in the possession of the author.

49. Interview with Chizu Kitano Iiyama and Ernest Iiyama, San Francisco, May 13, 1988, AWC.

50. Ibid.

51. Interview with Midori Shimanouchi Lederer, New York, June 17, 1988, AWC.

52. Ibid.

53. Hohri discussed his redress plan in "Redress as a Movement Towards Enfranchisement," in Daniels, Taylor, and Kitano, eds., Japanese Americans , 196-99.

54. Interview with Shigeki J. Sugiyama, Washington, D.C., June 9, 1988, AWC.

55. Written statement by Kiyo Ito, November 21, 1988, to the author; interview with Kiyo Ito, Leonia, N.J., June 14, 1988, AWC. Kiyo Ito is now Jean Kariya.

56. Ibid.

57. Ibid.

58. Interview with Kiyo Ito, Kitty Nakagawa, and Mari Eijima, Leonia, N.J., June 14, 1988, AWC.

59. Ibid.

60. Written statement by Michi Kobi, January 25, 1988, and interview, New York, November 6, 1987, AWC.

61. Ibid.

62. Ibid.

63. Ibid.

64. Interview with Maya Nagata Aikawa, Berkeley, November 4, 1987, AWC.

65. Ibid.

66. Ibid.

67. Ibid.

68. Ibid.

69. Interview with Donald Nakahata and Alice Nakahata, Mill Valley, Calif., May 12, 1988, AWC; "Donald Nakahata," in Tateishi, And Justice for All , 32-38.

70. Ibid.

71. Ibid.

72. Ibid.

73. Ibid.

74. Ibid.

1. District Intelligence Officer, Twelfth Naval District, to the Director of Naval Intelligence, Counter-Intelligence Report on Recent Developments in Japanese Situation, Twelfth Naval District, March 25, 1945, San Francisco, quoted in "Army and Navy Intelligence Reports, 1944-1945," 6-9, in Daniels, ed., Archival Documents .

2. Ibid.

3. Ibid., 19-22.

4. Ibid., 9-12.

5. Ibid., 15-17.

6. Ibid., 17-19.

7. Ibid., 27.

8. Ibid.

9. Girdner and Loftis, Great Betrayal , 356.

10. Daniels, Concentration Camps, U.S.A ., 158.

11. Ibid., 4.

12. See Taylor, "Evacuation and Economic Loss," 163-67.

13. Daniels, Asian America , 292-93.

14. Ibid., 5-6.

15. Yoneda, Ganbatte , 170-71.

16. Daniels, Asian America , 290-92; Taylor, "Evacuation and Economic Loss," 163-67.

17. Daniels, Asian America , 286.

18. Arrington, Price of Prejudice , 42. The phrase refers to the fact that many Japanese Americans, displaced from the harsh lives they faced in rural California, returned to urban areas there or elsewhere, not only moving out of regions of strong discrimination but also achieving economic mobility. It does describe the situation of some, particularly the younger Nisei, but it ignores the plight of the elderly Issei, many of whom had lost everything. Men who had no families to care for them were left destitute after the camps closed; they were too old to begin again and spent

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the remainder of their lives in poverty. As Harry H. L. Kitano remarked, no other ethnic group in America had to achieve upward mobility by losing its freedom, possessions, and livelihood; interview with Harry Kitano, Los Angeles, September 20, 1987, AWC. If this was a blessing, it was a very mixed, uneven one, and the phrase itself seems patronizing, since it assumes that Japanese Americans could have achieved upward mobility in no other way.

19. Interview with Dave Tatsuno, San Jose, November 4, 1987, AWC.

20. Ibid.

21. Telephone conversation with Dave Tatsuno in San Jose, October 3, 1990; letter from Tatsuno to the author, San Jose, January 7, 1993.

22. Interviews with Tomoye Nozawe Takahashi, San Francisco, November 2, 1987, and August 29, 1989; notes in the possession of the author.

23. Ibid.

24. Ibid.

25. Interview with Tsuyako "Sox" Kitashima, San Francisco, November 6, 1987, AWC.

26. Ibid.

27. Rafu Shinpo , October 9, 1990; Hokubei Mainichi , October 12, 1990; Salt Lake Tribune , October 9, 1990.

28. Interview with K. Morgan Yamanaka, San Francisco, May 11, 1988, AWC.

29. Interview with Donald Nakahata and Alice Nakahata, Mill Valley, Calif., May 12, 1988, AWC.

30. Ibid.; letter from Donald Nakahata to the author, Mill Valley, Calif., December 19, 1992.

31. Interview with Kenji Fujii, Hayward, Calif., November 5, 1987; notes in the possession of the author.

32. Ibid.; letter from Fujii to the author, Hayward, Calif., December 16, 1992.

33. Salt Lake Tribune , October 9, 1990; Hokubei Mainichi , October 10, 1990.

34. Rafu Shinpo , October 10, 1990.

35. Cited in Rafu Shinpo , October 9, 1990; Salt Lake Tribune , October 9, 1990.