Notes
Introduction
1. E. H. Carr, Nationalism and After . London: Macmillan, 1945, 18.
1 War and Postwar Intersections Latin America and the United States
1. Inter-American Affairs, 1943 , edited by Arthur P. Whitaker. New York: Columbia University Press, 1944, 203; Russell H. Fitzgibbon, "Latin America," in Problems of the Post-War World , edited by T. C. McCormick. New York: McGraw Hill, 1945, 476.
2. Donald Marquand Dozer, Are We Good Neighbors? Three Decades of Inter-American Relations, 1930-1960 . Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1959, 226-27; Inter-American Affairs, 1945 , edited by Arthur P. Whitaker. New York: Columbia University Press, 1946, 232.
3. Laurence Duggan, in George Wythe, Industry in Latin America . New York: Columbia University Press, 1945, vi.
4. Edwin Lieuwen, Arms and Politics in Latin America . New York: Praeger, 1960, 32.
5. Arthur P. Whitaker, quoted in Lieuwen, Arms , 51.
6. Ibid., 50.
5. Arthur P. Whitaker, quoted in Lieuwen, Arms , 51.
6. Ibid., 50.
7. Duggan, in Wythe, Industry , v.
8. Wythe, Industry , 1.
9. Ibid., 3.
10. Ibid., 4.
11. Ibid., 61, 65.
12. See ibid., 182.
8. Wythe, Industry , 1.
9. Ibid., 3.
10. Ibid., 4.
11. Ibid., 61, 65.
12. See ibid., 182.
8. Wythe, Industry , 1.
9. Ibid., 3.
10. Ibid., 4.
11. Ibid., 61, 65.
12. See ibid., 182.
8. Wythe, Industry , 1.
9. Ibid., 3.
10. Ibid., 4.
11. Ibid., 61, 65.
12. See ibid., 182.
8. Wythe, Industry , 1.
9. Ibid., 3.
10. Ibid., 4.
11. Ibid., 61, 65.
12. See ibid., 182.
13. See John D. French, "The Populist Gamble of Getúlio Vargas in 1945: Social, Political, and Ideological Transitions in Brazil," this volume.
14. See Charles P. Kindleberger, The Great Depression , Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1973, 190.
15. See Paul W. Drake, "International Crises and Popular Movements in Latin America: Chile and Peru from the Great Depression to the Cold War," this volume; Brian Loveman, Chile: The Legacy of Hispanic Capitalism . 2d ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988, 231-52.
16. These trends are discussed in more detail in Rosemary Thorp, "The Latin American Economies in the 1940s," this volume.
17. Whitaker, Inter-American Affairs, 1945 , 145, 147.
18. R. A. Humphreys, Latin America and the Second World War . Vol. 2. London: Athlone Press, 1982, 34.
19. Lt. Col. Mariano Abarca, La industrialización de la Argentina . Buenos Aires: Ministerio de Agricultura de la Nación, 1944, 17-32.
20. Sanford A. Mosk, Industrial Revolution in Mexico . Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1950, 63, 80.
21. See David Rock, Argentina, 1516-1987: From Spanish Colonization to Alfonsín . Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1987, 262-89.
22. Inter-American Affairs, 1944 , edited by Arthur P. Whitaker. New York: Columbia University Press, 1945, 107.
23. Mosk, Industrial Revolution , 36-53.
24. See Whitaker, Inter-American Affairs, 1943 , 130.
25. George Wythe, "Industry, Commerce, and Finance," in Whitaker, Inter-American Affairs, 1943 , 105.
26. Dozer, Neighbors , 226-27.
27. Whitaker, Inter-American Affairs, 1941 , 47.
28. Whitaker, Inter-American Affairs, 1944 , 42.
29. See William Krehm, Democracies and Tyrannies in the Caribbean . Westport, Conn.: Lawrence Hill, 1984, 19.
30. R. A. Humphreys, Latin America and the Second World War . Vol. 1 (1939-1942). London: Athlone Press, 1981, 13.
31. Quoted in Ronald M. Schneider, Communism in Guatemala, 1944-1954 . New York: Praeger, 1958, 11. (I have slightly modified Schneider's translation of this document to make the English more idiomatic.) In Schneider's own view of Guatemala in 1944: "In a world which was talking of the Four Freedoms and the triumph of democracy, the personalistic dictatorship of Ubico...seemed outdated. The students and young professional men were most affected by the democratic propaganda of the allies which served to awaken their sense of civic consciousness" (ibid., 9).
30. R. A. Humphreys, Latin America and the Second World War . Vol. 1 (1939-1942). London: Athlone Press, 1981, 13.
31. Quoted in Ronald M. Schneider, Communism in Guatemala, 1944-1954 . New York: Praeger, 1958, 11. (I have slightly modified Schneider's translation of this document to make the English more idiomatic.) In Schneider's own view of Guatemala in 1944: "In a world which was talking of the Four Freedoms and the triumph of democracy, the personalistic dictatorship of Ubico...seemed outdated. The students and young professional men were most affected by the democratic propaganda of the allies which served to awaken their sense of civic consciousness" (ibid., 9).
32. Ian Roxborough, personal communication.
33. Whitaker, Inter-American Affairs, 1945 , 137.
34. Ibid., 239.
33. Whitaker, Inter-American Affairs, 1945 , 137.
34. Ibid., 239.
35. Otis E. Milliken and Sarah E. Roberts, "Labor and Social Welfare," in Inter-American Affairs, 1943 , edited by Arthur P. Whitaker. New York: Columbia University Press, 1944, 66.
36. Whitaker, Inter-American Affairs, 1945 , 137.
37. Ibid., 136.
36. Whitaker, Inter-American Affairs, 1945 , 137.
37. Ibid., 136.
38. Quoted in Whitaker, Inter-American Affairs, 1943 , 127.
39. See David G. Haglund, Latin America and the Transformation of United States Strategic Thought . Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1984.
40. Nicholas John Spykman, America's Strategy in World Politics: The United States and the Balance of Power . New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1942, 247.
41. Quoted in J. Lloyd Mecham, The United States and Inter-American Security, 1889-1960 . Austin: University of Texas Press, 1961, 116.
42. Hubert Herring, Good Neighbors: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Seventeen Other Countries . New Haven: Yale University Press, 1941, 4.
43. Spykman, Strategy , 235.
44. Quoted in Carleton Beals, America South . Philadelphia: J. Lippincott, 1938, 492.
45. Spykman, Strategy , 315.
46. See David Green, The Containment of Latin America: A History of the Myths and Realities of the Good Neighbor Policy . Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1971, 43.
47. See Mecham, Security , 125-40.
48. Mecham, Security , 142.
49. Ibid., 203-7.
48. Mecham, Security , 142.
49. Ibid., 203-7.
50. See Green, Containment , 33.
51. Spykman, Strategy , 209.
52. Robert Angell, America's Dilemma, Alone or Allied? New York: Harper and Brothers, 1940, 105.
53. Spykman, Strategy , 198, 261.
54. See Humphreys, Latin America , 1, 99-102.
55. See George Wythe, "Economics and Finance in 1941," in Whitaker, Inter-American Affairs, 1941 , 77.
56. Mecham, Security , 243.
57. See Michael J. Francis, The Limits of Hegemony: United States Relations with Argentina and Chile during World II . Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1977.
58. See Whitaker, Inter-American Affairs, 1941 , 67.
59. See Mosk, Industrial Revolution , 84.
60. Humphreys, Latin America , 1, 63.
61. Whitaker, Inter-American Affairs, 1941 , 64; Humphreys, Latin America , 1, 144.
62. Humphreys, Latin America , 1, 180.
63. On these issues see Joseph S. Tulchin, Argentina and the United States: A Conflicted Relationship . Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1990, 63-96; Francis, Limits of Hegemony ; Carlos Escudé, Gran Bretaña, Estados Unidos, y la declinación argentina, 1942-1949 . Buenos Aires: Belgrano, 1983; U.S. Department of State, Memorandum of the United States among the American Republics with Respect to the Argentine Situation . Washington, D.C.: Department of State, 1946.
64. See Lloyd C. Gardner, Economic Aspects of New Deal Diplomacy . Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1963, 130; Green, Containment , 76.
65. Samuel Guy Inman, Latin America: Its Place in World Life . 2d ed. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1942, 413.
66. See the "Butler Report" of 1943, named after its sponsor, Senator Hugh A. Butler from Nebraska. See Whitaker, Inter-American Affairs , 1943, 41.
67. Laurence Duggan, in Wythe, Industry , v.
68. See Green, Containment , 62-64; Mecham, Security , 259.
69. José Rubén Romero, quoted in Mecham, Security , 258.
70. Haglund, Transformation , 220.
71. Quoted in Whitaker, Inter-American Affairs, 1943 , 47.
72. Arthur P. Whitaker, "Summary and Prospect," in Inter-American Affairs, 1944 , edited by Arthur P. Whitaker. New York: Columbia University Press, 1945, 209.
73. Spykman, Strategy , 320, 470.
74. Ibid., 456.
75. Ibid., 457, 470.
76. Ibid., 467.
73. Spykman, Strategy , 320, 470.
74. Ibid., 456.
75. Ibid., 457, 470.
76. Ibid., 467.
73. Spykman, Strategy , 320, 470.
74. Ibid., 456.
75. Ibid., 457, 470.
76. Ibid., 467.
73. Spykman, Strategy , 320, 470.
74. Ibid., 456.
75. Ibid., 457, 470.
76. Ibid., 467.
77. Nicholas John Spykman, The Geography of the Peace , edited by Helen R. Nicholl with an introduction by Frederick Sherwood Dunn. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1944, 43.
78. Ibid., xi.
79. Ibid., 57.
77. Nicholas John Spykman, The Geography of the Peace , edited by Helen R. Nicholl with an introduction by Frederick Sherwood Dunn. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1944, 43.
78. Ibid., xi.
79. Ibid., 57.
77. Nicholas John Spykman, The Geography of the Peace , edited by Helen R. Nicholl with an introduction by Frederick Sherwood Dunn. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1944, 43.
78. Ibid., xi.
79. Ibid., 57.
80. Robert Burr, "United States Latin American Policy," in The Dynamics of World Power: A Documentary History of United States Foreign Policy , edited by Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., Vol. 3. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1973, xxvii.
81. Whitaker, Inter-American Affairs, 1944 , 148.
82. Arthur P. Whitaker, "Politics and Diplomacy," in Whitaker, Inter-American Affairs, 1945 , 12-13.
83. Whitaker, Inter-American Affairs, 1945 , 120.
84. Ibid., 238.
85. Ibid., 244.
83. Whitaker, Inter-American Affairs, 1945 , 120.
84. Ibid., 238.
85. Ibid., 244.
83. Whitaker, Inter-American Affairs, 1945 , 120.
84. Ibid., 238.
85. Ibid., 244.
86. Dozer, Neighbors , 219.
87. For a detailed account of the events of 1945 in Argentina see Felix Luna, El '45 . Buenos Aires: Sudamericana, 1971.
88. Mosk, Industrial Revolution , 75.
89. Louis Rodriguez, "A Comparison: U.S. Economic Relations with Argentina and Brazil, 1947-1960." Ph.D. diss., Louisiana State University, 1963, 86.
90. Sumner Welles, The Time for Decision . New York: Harper and Brothers, 1944, 403-4.
91. Laurence Duggan, The Americas: The Search for Hemisphere Security . New York: Henry Holt, 1949, 130, 156, 203.
92. Sumner Welles, Where Are We Heading? New York: Harper and Brothers, 1946, 182, 185.
93. Ibid., 240.
94. Ibid., 241.
92. Sumner Welles, Where Are We Heading? New York: Harper and Brothers, 1946, 182, 185.
93. Ibid., 240.
94. Ibid., 241.
92. Sumner Welles, Where Are We Heading? New York: Harper and Brothers, 1946, 182, 185.
93. Ibid., 240.
94. Ibid., 241.
95. Mecham, Security , 352.
96. These figures appear in Peter Calvocoressi, Survey of International Affairs, 1953 . London: Oxford University Press, 1956, 353; for other figures showing a similar general trend see Tulchin, Argentina and the United States , 102-4. According to
Tulchin, Belgium and Luxembourg received more aid from the United States than the whole of Latin America. In these calculations, however, military aid to Latin America after the war was negligible. As late as 1958 Latin America's share of foreign aid from the United States was barely 3 percent of the total.
97. Juan Archibaldo Lanús, De Chapultepec al Beagle: Política exterior argentina, 1945-1980 . Buenos Aires: Emecé, 1984, 142-43; Lieuwen, Arms , 197; Gardner, New Deal Diplomacy , 259.
98. Welles, Where Are We Heading? , 185.
99. Arnold Toynbee, "Introduction," in Survey of International Affairs, 1947-1948 , edited by Peter Calvocoressi. London: Oxford University Press, 1952, 1.
100. These events are discussed in Calvocoressi, Survey of 1947-1948 .
101. Lanús, Chapultepec , 142.
102. Marshall's address at Bogotá, 1 April 1948. Quoted in Burr, "Latin American Policy," 44.
103. Burr, "Latin American Policy," 44-45.
104. Duggan, Americas , viii.
105. Ibid., 127.
104. Duggan, Americas , viii.
105. Ibid., 127.
106. Toynbee in Calvocoressi, Survey of 1947-1948 , 9.
107. The impact of the Cold War is discussed in more detail in Drake, "International Crises and Popular Movements."
108. For a recent analysis of the 1948 revolution see Fabrice Edouard Lehoucq, "Class Conflict, Political Crisis, and the Breakdown of Democratic Practices in Costa Rica: Reassessing the Origins of the 1948 Civil War," Journal of Latin American Studies 23 (February 1991), 37-60.
109. Germán Arciniegas, The State of Latin America , translated by Harriet de Onís. New York: Knopf, 1952, xi, xiv.
110. Lieuwen, Arms , 198.
111. Gordon Connell-Smith, The United States and Latin America: An Historical Analysis of Inter-American Relations . London: Heinemann, 1966, 208.
112. Mecham, Security , 371.
113. On the Eisenhower mission see Calvocoressi, Survey of 1953 , 352.
114. Connell-Smith, Relations , 209.
The author acknowledges the assistance of Marta Delgado in preparing this article.
2 The Latin American Economies in the 1940s
The author acknowledges the assistance of Marta Delgado in preparing this article.
1. W. Arthur Lewis, Economic Survey, 1919-1939 . London: George Allen and Unwin, 1949.
2. United Nations, Foreign Capital in Latin America . New York: United Nations, 1955, 155, 160.
3. J. Ashworth, A Short History of the World Economy since 1850 . London: Longman, 1975, 258.
4. See Stephen R. Niblo, "The Impact of War: Mexico and World War II." Occasional Paper no. 10, La Trobe University, Institute of Latin American Studies, Melbourne, 1988, 7ff.
5. The linkages are detailed in R. A. Humphreys, Latin America and the Second World War . 2 vols. London: Athlone Press, 1981-1982.
6. Bishnupriya Gupta, "Import Substitution in Capital Goods: The Case of Brazil, 1929-1979." D. Phil. diss., University of Oxford, 1989.
7. Robert Triffin, "La moneda y las instituciones bancarias en Colombia," supplement to Revista Banco de la República . Bogotá, August 1944.
8. United Nations, The Economic Development of Latin America in the Post-War Period . New York: United Nations, 1964, 3.
9. Stephen G. Rabe, "The Elusive Conference: United States Economic Relations with Latin America, 1945-1952," Diplomatic History 2, no. 3, 288.
10. United Nations, Economic Commission for Latin America, Foreign Capital in Latin America . New York, 1955.
11. Sanford A. Mosk, Industrial Revolution in Mexico . Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1950.
12. R. J. Shafer, Mexican Business Organizations: History and Analysis . Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1973.
13. Karin Kock, International Trade Policy and the GATT, 1947-1967 . Stockholm: Almquist and Wiksell, 1969.
14. See E. V. K. FitzGerald, "ECLA and the Formation of Latin American Economic Doctrine," this volume.
15. Albert O. Hirschman, Journeys towards Progress . New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1963, 183.
3 Labor Politics and Regime Change Internal Trajectories versus External Influences
1. This argument has been explored in Leslie Bethell and Ian Roxborough, "Latin America between the Second World War and the Cold War: Some Reflections on the 1945-1948 Conjuncture," Journal of Latin American Studies 20, no. 1 (May 1988), 169.
2. See Ruth Berins Collier and David Collier, Shaping the Political Arena: Critical Junctures, the Labor Movement and Regime Dynamics in Latin America . Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991. A similar argument for European countries appears in Gregory Luebbert, Liberalism, Fascism, or Social Democracy: Local Classes and the Political Origins of Regimes in Interwar Europe . New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.
3. The concepts of "aftermath" and "heritage" are explained on page 73.
4. Time (7 October 1940).
5. Time (13 April 1942).
6. Bethell and Roxborough, "Latin America," 171-72.
7. Liisa North and David Raby, "The Dynamic of Revolution and Counterrevolution: Mexico under Cárdenas, 1934-1940," Latin American Research Unit Studies 2, no. 1 (October 1977), 51.
8. Romulo Betancourt, Venezuela: Oil and Politics . Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1979, 72.
9. John D. French, "Industrial Workers and the Birth of the Populist Republic in Brazil, 1945-1946," Latin American Perspectives 16, no. 4 (Fall 1989), 5-27.
10. Collier and Collier, Shaping the Political Arena , also examined party incorporation in Colombia, Uruguay, Peru, and Argentina, where mobilization was limited to organized labor.
11. In Collier and Collier, Shaping the Political Arena , Uruguay presented the only other case of party incorporation in which the incorporation period was not terminated by a military coup that ousted the incorporating party. It was also the only other country in which the transition from party incorporation to the aftermath period was made before the onset of the Cold War.
My thanks are due to Edgardo Floto for our original conversations on the topic at Cambridge over a decade ago; Joseph Love and Cristóbal Kay for helpful comments on an earlier draft; and Sylvia Raw for her generous gift of Celso Furtado's postmodernist autobiography A fantasia organizada . Rio de Janeiro: Editorial Paz y Tierra, 1985.
4 ECLA and the Formation of Latin American Economic Doctrine
My thanks are due to Edgardo Floto for our original conversations on the topic at Cambridge over a decade ago; Joseph Love and Cristóbal Kay for helpful comments on an earlier draft; and Sylvia Raw for her generous gift of Celso Furtado's postmodernist autobiography A fantasia organizada . Rio de Janeiro: Editorial Paz y Tierra, 1985.
1. H. W. Arndt, "The Origins of Structuralism," World Development 13, no. 2 (1985), 151-59; José Hodara, Prebisch y la CEPAL: Sustancia, trayectoria, y contexto institucional . México, D.F.: Colegio de México, 1987; Cristóbal Kay, Latin American Theories of Development and Underdevelopment . London: Routledge, 1989; Joseph L. Love, "The Origins of Dependency Analysis," Journal of Latin American Studies 22, no. 1 (1990), 143-68; Felipe Pazos, "Cincuenta años de pensamiento económico en la América Latina," El trimestre económico , no. 50 (1983), 1015-48, and Octavio Rodríguez, La teoría del subdesarrollo de la CEPAL . México, D.F.: Siglo XXI, 1980; Osvaldo Sunkel, ''The Development of Development Theory," in Transnational Capitalism and National Development , edited by José Villamil. Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Hassocks, Harvester, 1979, 19-31; for a self-appraisal see Raúl Prebisch, "Five Stages in My Thinking on Development," in Pioneers in Development , edited by Gerald M. Meier and Dudley Seers. New York: Oxford University Press, 1984, 175-91.
2. The propositions are well set out in Octavio Rodríguez, Teoría del subdesarrollo , and Edgardo Floto, "The Center-Periphery System and Unequal Exchange," CEPAL Review 39 (1989), 135-54; institutional history can be found in Gabriel Guzmán, El desarrollo latinoamericano y la CEPAL . Barcelona: Editorial Planeta, 1976, and Hodara, Prebisch y la CEPAL .
3. Karl Mannheim, Estado y planificación demócratica , México, D.F.: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 1945, stresses the role of the intelligentsia in moments of crisis. The contemporary influence of this book in Latin America is noted by Furtado, A fantasia organizada .
4. Karin Kock, International Trade Policy and the GATT, 1947-1967 . Stockholm: Almquist and Wiksell, 1969.
5. League of Nations, Economic Stability in the Postwar Period . Geneva: League of Nations, 1945.
6. Colin Clark, The Conditions of Economic Progress . London: Macmillan, 1940.
7. J. Fred Rippy, Latin America and the Industrial Age . New York: Putnam, 1947.
8. Eugene Staley, World Economy in Transition . New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1939; idem, World Economic Development . Montreal: International Labour Office, 1944.
9. Staley, World Economy , 70.
10. Francis Paul Walters, A History of the League of Nations . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1952.
11. Xavier Alcalde, The Idea of Third World Development . Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1987, 120.
12. See Abba Lerner, "Economic Liberalization in the Postwar World," in Postwar Economic Problems , edited by Seymour Edwin Harris. New York: McGraw Hill, 1943, 71-103.
13. E. V. K. FitzGerald, "A Note on Income Distribution, Accumulation, and Recovery in the Depression," in Latin America in the 1930s: The Role of the Periphery in World Crisis , edited by Rosemary Thorp. London: Macmillan, 1984, 242-78. On the impact of inflation see Rosemary Thorp, "The Latin American Economies in the 1940s," this volume.
14. United Nations, Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, "Series históricas del crecimiento de América Latina." Cuadernos estadísticos de la CEPAL , no. 3. Santiago: CEPAL, 1978.
15. Richard Lynn Ground, "The Genesis of Import Substitution in Latin America," CEPAL Review 36 (1988), 179-203.
16. United Nations, Economic Commission for Latin America, Economic Survey of Latin America , 1948 . New York: United Nations, 1949: idem, Economic Survey of Latin America , 1949. New York: United Nations, 1951.
17. Carlos F. Díaz-Alejandro, "The 1940s in Latin America," in Economic Structure and Performance , edited by M. Syrquin, L. Taylor, and L. E. Westphal. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1984, 341-62.
18. Daniel Cosío-Villegas, American Extremes . Austin: University of Texas Press, 1964.
19. Simon Gabriel Hanson, Economic Development of Latin America . Washington, D.C.: Interamerican Affairs Press, 1951; William Adams Brown and Redvers Opie, American Foreign Assistance . Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1954.
20. Cosío-Villegas, American Extremes .
21. United Nations, Economic Commission for Latin America, Report on the First Session of the ECLA, 7-25 June 1948 . New York: United Nations, 1953.
22. Alcalde, Third World Development , 179.
23. Phyllis Deane, The State and the Economic System: An Introduction to the History of Political Economy . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.
24. Octavio Rodríguez, "On the Conception of the Center-Periphery System," CEPAL Review 3, (1977), 195-239.
25. Kurt Mandelbaum, The Industrialization of Backward Areas . Oxford: Blackwell, 1945: Friedrich List, The National System of Political Economy . London: Longman, 1909 (first published in Geneva, 1844).
26. Werner Sombart, Der Moderne Capitalismus . Munich and Leipzig: Dünscker und Humblut, 1928.
27. Martin Jay, The Dialectical Imagination: A History of the Frankfurt School and the Institute of Social Research, 1923-1950 . London: Heinemann, 1973.
28. Mihail Manoïlescu, The Theory of Protection and International Trade . London: King, 1931.
29. Love, Dependency Analysis .
30. My translation from the Spanish edition of Werner Sombart, El apogeo del capitalismo . México, D.F.: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1946, 3: 10.
31. Ernest Friedrich Wagemann, Evolución y ritmo de la economía mundial . Barcelona: Editorial Labor, 1933. On the influence of Wagemann in Latin America see Hodara, Prebisch y la CEPAL , and on that of Manoïlescu see Joseph L. Love, "Manoïlescu, Prebisch, and the Thesis of Unequal Exchange," Rumanian Studies 5 (1980-1986), 125-33.
32. Aldo Antonio Dadone and Luis Eugenio di Marco, "The Impact of Prebisch's Ideas on Modern Economic Analysis," in International Economics and Development: Essays in Honor of Raúl Prebisch , edited by Luis Eugenio di Marco. New York: Academic Press, 1972, 15-34.
33. Adolfo Dorfman, Desarrollo industrial en la Argentina . Buenos Aires: Escuela de Estudios Argentinos, 1942 (republished in 1970 as Historia de la industria argentina . Buenos Aires: Solar Hachette); Alejandro E. Bunge, Una nueva Argentina . Buenos Aires: Kraft, 1940. For discussion of this particular debate see Juan Carlos Korol and Hilda Sabato, "Incomplete Industrialization: An Argentine Obsession," Latin American Research Review 25, no. 1 (1990), 7-30; and for the context of Argentine economic nationalism see David Rock, Authoritarian Argentina: The Nationalist Movement, Its History, and Its Impact . Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993.
34. Carlos H. Waisman, The Reversal of Development in Argentina . Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987.
35. Roger Blackhouse, A History of Modern Economic Analysis . Oxford: Blackwell, 1985. The contemporary liberal critique of international economic management is well represented by Albert O. Hirschman, Power and International Trade . Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1945, and W. Arthur Lewis, Economic Survey, 1919-1939 . London: George Allen and Unwin, 1949. For contemporary views on late industrialization see Paul N. Rosenstein-Rodan, "Industrialization of Eastern and Southeastern Europe," Economic Journal 53, no. 3 (1943), 202-11.
36. Pazos, Pensamiento económico ; Victor L. Urquidi, "La postguerra y las relaciones economicas internacionales de Mexico," El Trimestre Económico 11, no. 2, (1944), 20-345; Victor L. Urquidi and Ernesto Fernández-Hurtado, "Diversos tipos de disequilibrio económico internacional," El Trimestre Económico 13, no. 1 (1946), 1-33.
37. Roy F. Harrod, The Life of John Maynard Keynes . London: Macmillan, 1951; Raúl Prebisch, Introducción a Keynes . México, D.F.: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1947. See also Aldo Ferrer, "The Early Teaching of Raúl Prebisch," CEPAL Review 42 (1990), 27-34. who states that Prebisch was one of the first economists to recognize the Keynesian revolution and make it known in Latin America.
38. Furtado. A fantasia organizada .
39. Alcalde, Third World Development ; David H. Pollock, "Some Changes in United States Attitudes toward CEPAL over the Past Thirty Years," CEPAL Review 6 (1978), 57-80.
40. Hodara, Prebisch y la CEPAL .
41. United Nations, Economic Commission for Latin America, Economic Survey of Latin America, 1948 . New York: United Nations, 1949.
42. United Nations, Economic Commission for Latin America. Economic Survey of Latin America, 1949 . New York: United Nations, 1951; Raúl Prebisch, The Economic Development of Latin America and Its Principal Problems . New York: United Nations, 1949.
43. Pollock, "United States Attitudes"; Hodara, Prebisch y la CEPAL .
44. Economic Commission for Latin America, Survey 1949 , xix. For a remarkably similar model derived from the statistical analysis in League of Nations, Economic Stability , see Hans Singer, "The Distribution of Gains between Investing and Borrowing Countries," American Economic Review 40, no. 2 (1950), 473-85.
45. Economic Commission for Latin America, Survey 1948 , 15.
46. Furtado, A fantasia organizada , lists the authors of these appendixes, including himself on Brazil and Víctor Urquidi on Mexico.
47. The data have since been revised in United Nations, Economic Commission for Latin America, The Economic Development of Latin America in the Postwar Period , New York: United Nations, 1964, but the figures presented here reflect contemporary perceptions and thus are more relevant to the argument of this chapter.
48. Rodríguez, Teoría del subdesarrollo ; Raúl Prebisch, Algunos problemas teóricos y
prácticos del crecimiento económico . Santiago: Comisión Económica para América Latina, 1951.
49. Furtado, A fantasia organizada , 76-80.
50. Economic Commission for Latin America, First Session of the ECLA .
51. Rodríguez, Teoría del subdesarrollo .
52. For an algebraic formulation see Floto, "The Center-Periphery System." The essence of this approach had been earlier stated by Urquidi; see note 36.
53. "The peripheral countries have no means of absorbing the surplus of their gainfully employed population except by developing their own industrial activity." Economic Commission for Latin America, Survey 1949, 49.
54. Werner Baer, "The Economics of Prebisch and the ECLA." Economic Development and Cultural Change 10, no. 2 (1962), 169-82. See also M. June Flanders, "Prebisch on Protectionism: An Evaluation," Economic Journal 74, no. 294 (1964), 305-26.
55. Fernando Henrique Cardoso, "The Originality of the Copy: CEPAL and the Idea of Development," CEPAL Review 4 (1977), 7-40; Jacob Viner, International Trade and Economic Development . Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1952; Gottfried Harberler, "Los términos de intercambio y el desarrollo económico," in El desarrollo económico y América Latina , edited by Howard Ellis. México, D.F.: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1960, 325-62.
56. Furtado, A fantasia organizada , 61-62.
57. Rodríguez, Teoría del subdesarrollo .
58. Cf. Viner, International Trade , and Harberler, Términos de intercambio , respectively; according to Furtado ( A fantasia organizada , 140), Viner had debated this theme with Manoïlescu too.
59. Cf. United Nations, Economic Commission for Latin America, Economic Survey, 1951-1952 . New York: United Nations, 1953.
60. As for instance Kay does in his otherwise excellent survey of modern social theories in Latin America. Cf. Kay, Latin American Theories .
61. Albert O. Hirschman, "Ideologies of Economic Development in Latin America," in Latin American Issues: Essays and Comments , edited by Albert O. Hirschman, 3-42. New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1961, 3-42.
62. Prebisch, "Five Stages"; Dadone and di Marco, "The impact of Prebisch's ideas"; Guzmán, El desarrollo .
63. Sunkel, "The Development of Development Theory."
64. Cardoso, "The Originality of the Copy"; Aníbal Pinto and J. Kñákal, "The Center-Periphery System Twenty Years Later," in di Marco International Economics , 97-128.
65. Rodríguez, La teoría del subdesarrollo .
66. Furtado, A fantasia organizada , 62.
67. Pollock, "United States Attitudes"; Kay, Latin American Theories .
68. Prebisch "Five Stages," 176.
69. Prebisch, "Five Stages."
70. Alexander Gerschenkron, "History of Economic Doctrines and Economic History," American Economic Review 59, no. 2 (1969), 1-17.
71. Singer, "Distribution of Gains"; Baer, "The Economics of Prebisch."
72. Furtado ( A fantasia organizada , ch. 4) claims to have "conceived" this idea himself in 1949. This may be so, but the concept is not a new one: for example, see the elaboration of Marx's formulation in Mandelbaum, Industrialization , written five years earlier. "The Law of Comparative Costs is just as valid in countries with surplus labor as it is in others. But whereas in the latter it is a valid foundation of arguments for free trade, in the former it is an equally valid foundation for arguments for protection." W. Arthur Lewis, "Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labour," Manchester School of Economic and Social Studies 22, no. 1 (1956), 139-91.
73. Osvaldo Sunkel, "La inflación chilena: Un enfoque heterodoxo," El trimestre económico 25 (1958), 570-99; Aníbal Pinto, Chile: Un caso de desarrollo frustrado . Santiago: Editorial Universitaria, 1958.
74. Carlos Bazdresch, El pensamiento de Juan Noyola . México, D.F.: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1984; E. V. K. FitzGerald, "Kalecki on the Financing of Development," Cambridge Journal of Economics 14, no. 2 (1990), 183-203; Arndt, "The Origins of Structuralism"; Guzmán, El desarrollo .
75. Samir Amin, Accumulation on a World Scale . New York: Monthly Review Press, 1974; Arghiri Emmanuel, Unequal Exchange . London: New Left Books, 1972.
76. Anthony P. Thirlwall, "A General Model of Growth and Development on Kaldorian Lines," Oxford Economic Papers 38, no. 2 (1986), 199-219.
77. Oscar Braun, Comercio internacional e imperialismo . Buenos Aires: Siglo XXI, 1973.
78. Ground, "The Genesis of Import Substitution."
79. José Antonio Ocampo, "New Economic Thinking in Latin America," Journal of Latin American Studies 22, no. 1 (1990), 169-81.
I wish to thank my research assistants, Lisa Baldez and Susanne Wagner, for their help with this project. Charles Bergquist, Stephen Brager, Thomas Davies, and Rosemary Thorp made valuable comments on the manuscript.
5 International Crises and Popular Movements in Latin America Chile and Peru from the Great Depression to the Cold War
I wish to thank my research assistants, Lisa Baldez and Susanne Wagner, for their help with this project. Charles Bergquist, Stephen Brager, Thomas Davies, and Rosemary Thorp made valuable comments on the manuscript.
1. I am particularly indebted to Charles Bergquist for the notion of ''crisis" and "resolution" suggested here.
2. Cf. Mikael Bostrom, "Political Waves in Latin America, 1940-1987." Typescript, Umea, Sweden, 1988; Paul W. Drake, "Debt and Democracy in Latin America, 1920s-1980s," in Debt and Democracy in Latin America , edited by Barbara Stallings and Robert Kaufman. Boulder: Westview Press, 1989, 39-58.
3. See Fernando Henrique Cardoso and Enzo Faletto, Dependency and Development in Latin America . Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1979; and Peter Gourevitch, Politics in Hard Times . Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1986.
4. Rosemary Thorp and Geoffrey Bertram, Peru, 1890-1977: Growth and Policy in an Open Economy . London: Macmillan, 1978, 152-53.
5. For a similar treatment of political and social coalitions in Latin America see Thomas E. Skidmore and Peter H. Smith, Modern Latin America . New York: Oxford University Press, 1984, 360-70.
6. Juan Manuel Reveco del Villar, "Los influjos del APRA en el Partido Socialista de Chile." Thesis, FLACSO, Santiago, 1989.
7. Norbert Lechner, La democracia en Chile . Buenos Aires: Ediciones Signos, 1970, 74-86.
8. Thorp and Bertram, Peru , 147-53; Baltazar Caravedo Molinari, Burguesía e industria en el Perú 1933-1945 . Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 1976.
9. Most of the sections on Chile draw heavily on Paul W. Drake, Socialism and Populism in Chile, 1932-1952 . Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1978. Also see Brian Loveman, Chile: The Legacy of Hispanic Capitalism . 2d ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988; Ricardo Donoso, Alessandri, agitador y demoledor . Vol. 2. México, D.F.: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1952, 1954; T. Ellsworth, Chile, an Economy in Transition . Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1945.
10. Paul W. Drake, "The Political Responses of the Chilean Upper Class to the Depression and the Threat of Socialism, 1931-1933," in The Rich, the Well Born, and the Powerful , edited by Frederic Cople Jaher. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973, 304-37.
11. Luis Alberto Sánchez, Testimonio personal . Vol. 2. Lima: Ediciones Villasan, 1969, 573-81; Alejandro Chelén Rojas, Flujo y reflujo del socialismo chileno . Montevideo: Ediciones Vanguardia Socialista, 1961; idem, Trayectoria del socialismo . Buenos Aires: Astral, 1967; Julio César Jobet, El Partido Socialista de Chile . 2 vols. Santiago: Prensa Latinoamericana, 1971; idem, El socialismo chileno a través de sus congresos . Santiago: Prensa Latinoamericana, 1965; Alan Angell, Politics and the Labour Movement in Chile . London: Oxford University Press, 1972. On the influence of the Spanish
Civil War on Peru as well as on Chile see Mark Falcoff and Fredrick B. Pike, The Spanish Civil War, 1936-1939: American Hemispheric Perspectives . Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982.
12. Luis Alberto Sánchez, Visto y vivido en Chile: Bitacora chilena, 1930-1970 . Lima: Editoriales Unidas, S.A.,., 1975; Carmelo Furci, The Chilean Communist Party and the Road to Socialism . London: Zed Books, 1984, 33-35; John Reese Stevenson, The Chilean Popular Front . Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1942; Ernst Halperin, Nationalism and Communism in Chile . Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1965, 43-52; Marta Infante Barros, Testigos del treinta y ocho . Santiago: Editorial Andrés Bello, 1972; Ricardo Boizard, Historia de una derrota . Santiago: Ediciones Orbe, 1941; Elías Ravines, La gran estafa . 2d ed. Santiago: Editorial del Pacífico, 1954; Elías Lafertte, Vida de un comunista . Santiago: n.p. 1961, 298-304; Gabriel González Videla, Memorias . Vol. 1. Santiago: Editorial Gabriela Mistral, 1975, 155; L. A. Sánchez, Testimonio , 581.
13. Víctor Villanueva, El APRA en busca del poder, 1930-1940 . Lima: Editorial Horizonte, 1975; Orazio Ciccarelli, "Fascism and Politics in Peru during the Benavides Regime, 1933-1939: The Italian Perspective," Hispanic American Historical Review 70, no. 3 (August 1990), 405-32.
14. Robert J. Alexander, Communism in Latin America . New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1957, 227-29; idem, Aprismo: The Ideas and Doctrines of Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre . Kent: Kent State University Press, 1973; Denis Sulmont, El movi-miento obrero en el Perú 1900-1956 . Lima: Pontífica Universidad Católica del Perú 1975, 151-74; Víctor Villanueva, El APRA y el ejército, 1940-1950 . Lima: Editorial Horizonte, 1977, 7-20; Alberto Moya Obeso, Sindicalismo aprista y clasista en el Perú, 1920-1956 . Trujillo: Librería Star, n.d.; Reveco, "APRA," 76.
15. R. Harrison Wagner, United States Policy toward Latin America . Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1970, 14-16, R. A. Humphreys, Latin America and the Second World War . 2 vols. London: Athlone Press, 1981, 1982, 2: 226-27; Irwin F. Gellman, Good Neighbor Diplomacy . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979, George Soule, David Efron, and Norman T. Ness, Latin America in the Future World . New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1945; Arthur Whitaker, ed. Inter-American Affairs . 5 vols. New York: Columbia University Press, 1942-1946.
16. William F. Sater, Chile and the United States: Empires in Conflict . Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1990, 113-20; Peter G. Snow, Radicalismo chileno . Buenos Aires: Editorial Francisco de Aguirre, 1972; Arturo Olavarría Bravo, Chile entre dos Alessandri . Vol. 2. Santiago: Editorial Nascimento, 1962, 29. For extensive information on industrialization throughout these decades see Oscar Muñoz, Crecimiento industrial de Chile, 1914-1965 . Santiago: Universidad de Chile, 1968.
17. Michael J. Francis, The Limits of Hegemony: United States Relations with Argentina and Chile during World War II . Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1977, 20-21; Whitaker, Inter-American Affairs, 1944 , 130-32.
18. Ellsworth, Chile , 85-93.
19. Andrew Barnard, "Chilean Communists, Radical Presidents, and Chilean
Relations with the United States, 1940-1947," Journal of Latin American Studies 13 , no. 2 (November 1981), 347-74; Florencio Durán Bernales, El Partido Radical . Santiago: Editorial Nascimento, 1958; Galo González Díaz, La lucha por la formación del Partido Comunista de Chile . Santiago: n.p.,., 1958, 20-42.
20. Quoted in Reveco, "APRA," 74-75.
21. H. Boris Yopo, "El Partido Socialista Chileno y Estados Unidos: 1933-1946," Documento de Trabajo del FLACSO , no. 224, October 1984, 1; Stevenson, Chilean Popular Front , 110-17; Oscar Schnake Vergara, América y la guerra . Santiago: Taller de Publicaciones del PS, 1941; idem, Chile y la guerra . Santiago: Ediciones Ercilla, 1941; Salvador Allende, La contradicción de Chile . Santiago: Talleres Gráficos, 1943.
22. Partido Socialista, Primer congreso de los partidos democráticos de latinoamérica . Santiago: Talleres Gráficos Gutenberg, 1940; Julio César Jobet, El Partido Socialista de Chile . Vol. 1. Santiago: Prensa Latinoamericana, 1971, 148-50; Reveco, "APRA," 89-90.
23. Barnard, "Chilean Communists," 347-74; Alexander, Communism , 15-29.
24. Humphreys, Latin America , 1: 124; ibid.,., 2: 99-105; Allen Gerlach, "Civil-Military Relations in Peru, 1914-1945." Ph.D. diss.,., University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, 1973, 501-5; James Carey, Peru and the United States, 1900-1962 . Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1964, 105-10; Thomas M. Davies, Jr.,., Indian Integration in Peru: A Half Century of Experience, 1900-1948 . Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1970, 129-31.
23. Barnard, "Chilean Communists," 347-74; Alexander, Communism , 15-29.
24. Humphreys, Latin America , 1: 124; ibid.,., 2: 99-105; Allen Gerlach, "Civil-Military Relations in Peru, 1914-1945." Ph.D. diss.,., University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, 1973, 501-5; James Carey, Peru and the United States, 1900-1962 . Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1964, 105-10; Thomas M. Davies, Jr.,., Indian Integration in Peru: A Half Century of Experience, 1900-1948 . Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1970, 129-31.
25. Waldo Frank, South American Journey . New York: Duell, Sloan, and Pearce, 1943, 266-67; Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre, Y después de la guerra ¿Qué? Lima: Editorial PTCM, 1946; Villanueva, El APRA y el ejército , 27-34.
26. Reveco, "APRA," 69-77.
27. Harry Kantor, The Ideology and Program of the Peruvian Aprista Movement . Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1953, 98-114; Fredrick B. Pike. The Modern History of Peru . New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1967, 277-278; Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre, La defensa continental . Buenos Aires: Ediciones Prob-lemas de América, 1942; idem, Obras completas . Vol. 1. Lima: Editorial Juan Mejía Baca, 1977, 268-99; Manuel Seoane, Nuestra América y la guerra . Santiago: Ediciones Ercilla, 1940; idem, El gran vecino: América en la encrucijada . Santiago: Editorial Orbe, 1944, Luis Alberto Sánchez, Un sudamericano en norteamérica . Lima: Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, 1968, 298-322; L. A. Sánchez, Testimonio , 586; Carey, Peru , 116-18; Moya, Sindicalismo , 87-88.
28. Sulmont, Movimiento obrero , 177-84.
29. Alexander, Communism , 229-31; Sulmont, Movimiento obrero , 171-87; Moya, Sindicalismo , 92-94.
30. See David Rock, "War and Postwar Intersections: Latin America and the United States," this volume.
31. Wagner, United States Policy , 17-20, 92; Humphreys, Latin America , 2: 215-16; James C. Tillapaugh, "From War to Cold War: United States Policies toward Latin America, 1943-1948." Ph.D. diss.,., Northwestern University, Evanston, 1973, Fre-
drick B. Pike, The United States and the Andean Republics: Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador . Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1977, 269-70.
32. On economic trends see Rosemary Thorp, "The Latin American Economies in the 1940s," this volume; Universidad de Chile, Desarrollo económico de Chile, 1940-1956 . Santiago: Instituto de Economía, 1956.
33. Wagner, United States Policy , 46-49; Humphreys, Latin America , 2: 227-28.
34. Claude G. Bowers, Chile through Embassy Windows . New York: Simon and Schuster, 1958, 329.
35. Partido Comunista, Ricardo Fonseca: Combatiente ejemplar . Santiago: Talleres Gráficos Lautaro, 1952, 124-49; González Videla, Memorias , 467-69; Chelén, Trayectoria , 103-13; Halperin, Nationalism and Communism , 53.
36. Partido Comunista, Ricardo , 127-34; Barnard, "Chilean Communists," 348.
37. Lafertte, Un comunista , 330; Bowers, Chile , 159-62.
38. Ibáñez was an admirer of Haya de la Torre, and he had been a guest of the AFL-CIO in the United States during the war. Cf. Reveco, "APRA," 80; Whitaker, Inter-American Affairs , 1944, 72-73; Chelén, Trayectoria , 106-7, Bowers, Chile , 39; Bernardo Ibáñez, El socialismo y el porvenir de los pueblos . Santiago: Ediciones Difusión Popular, 1946.
39. The 1946 congress was also known as the "First American Congress of Parties of Socialist Tendencies." As in 1940 the Communists were excluded, and they denigrated this "American Social Democrat Congress." "to serve North American imperialist plans.'' Reveco, "APRA," 90-94; Jobet, El Partido , 194-95.
40. Gonzalo Portocarrero Maisch, De Bustamante a Odría . Lima: Mosca Azul Editores, 1983, 67-75, 90-92; José Luis Bustamante y Rivero, Tres años de lucha por la democracia en el Perú . Buenos Aires: n.p.,., 1949, esp. 11-25; Sulmont, Movimiento obrero , 185-87; Haya de la Torre, Obras , 5: 343-412; Moya, Sindicalismo , 141.
41. Reveco, "APRA," 81-83.
42. Nigel Haworth, "Peru," in Latin America between the Second World War and the Cold War, 1944-1948 , edited by Leslie Bethell and Ian Roxborough. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993, 170-89; Fredrick B. Pike, The Politics of the Miraculous in Peru: Haya de la Torre and the Spiritualist Tradition . Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986, 200-203.
43. Pike, Modern History , 283-89; Portocarrero, Bustamante a Odría , 111-14; Haworth, "Peru", Moya, Sindicalismo , 125-29; Haya de la Torre, Obras , 1: 300-320; Percy MacLean y Estenós, Historia de una revolución . Buenos Aires: Editorial E.A.A.L.,., 1953; Grant Hilliker, The Politics of Reform in Peru . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1971.
44. Sulmont, Movimiento obrero , 181.
45. González Videla, Memorias , 506, 603-4.
46. Gilbert J. Butland, Chile . London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1953, 108-9; Barnard, "Chilean Communists," 363-74; González Videla, Memorias , 573-765; Durán, Partido Radical , 426-29, 478-97, 549-89; Lafertte, Un comunista , 341; Partido Comunista, Ricardo , 152-78; Bowers, Chile , 166-75, 309-29.
47. Furci, Chilean Communist Party , 43-56; Partido Comunista, Ricardo , 15-19, 159-78; S. Cole Blasier, "Chile: A Communist Battleground," Political Science Quarterly 65 (1950), 353-74.
48. González Videla, Memorias , 529-31.
49. Ibáñez, El socialismo , 3-63; El movimiento sindical internacional y la fundación de la C.I.T. Santiago: n.p..,., 1949; Serafino Romualdi, Presidents and Peons . New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1967, 37-42, 73-139, 323-32; George Morris, CIA and American Labor . New York: International Publishers, 1967, 48-91; Moya, Sindicalismo , 198-200.
50. Chelén, Trayectoria , 116-31; Barnard, "Chilean Communists"; Oscar Waiss, El drama socialista . N.p.,., [1948].
51. Chelén, Trayectoria , 125-92; Lafertte, Un comunista , 348; Angell, Labour Movement , 174-82; Halperin, Nationalism and Communism , 57-61, 128-44, 192-201.
52. Pike, Politics of the Miraculous , 226-30; Moya, Sindicalismo , 133-35; Ray Josephs, Latin America: Continent in Crisis . New York: Random House, 1948, 173-76.
53. Portocarrero, De Bustamante a Odría , 138-64.
54. Romualdi, Presidents and Peons , 294-95; Portocarrero, De Bustamante a Odría , 161-72; Sulmont, Movimiento obrero , 226-28; Haworth, "Peru."
55. L. A. Sánchez, Testimonio , 864-65; Haya de la Torre, Obras , 1: 242-58; Bustamante, Democracia , 244-45; Pike, Politics of the Miraculous 232-41; Víctor Villanueva, La sublevación aprista del 48 . Lima: Editorial Horizonte, 1973; Villanueva, El APRA y el ejército .
56. Moya, Sindicalismo , 152-54, MacLean, Revolución: Alexander, Communism , 231-33; Josephs, Latin America , 178-81.
57. Bustamante, Democracia , 319-27; Pike, Modern History , 290-91; Thorp and Bertram, Peru , 149; Sulmont, Movimiento obrero , 197-240; Portocarrero, Bustamante, democracia a Odría , 201-5. Haworth, "Peru."
58. Oscar Waiss, Nacionalismo y socialismo en América Latina . Santiago: Prensa Latinoamericana, 1954.
59. Hilliker, Reform , 125.
An earlier version of this essay was published in John D. French, The Brazilian Workers' ABC: Class Conflict and Alliances in Modern São Paulo . Copyright © 1992 by the University of North Carolina Press. Used by permission of the author and publisher.
6 The Populist Gamble of Getúlio Vargas in 1945 Political and Ideological Transitions in Brazil
An earlier version of this essay was published in John D. French, The Brazilian Workers' ABC: Class Conflict and Alliances in Modern São Paulo . Copyright © 1992 by the University of North Carolina Press. Used by permission of the author and publisher.
1. Cf. Thomas E. Skidmore, Politics in Brazil, 1930-1964 . New York: Oxford University Press, 1967, 58-59.
2. Armando de Salles Oliveira, Diagrama de uma situação política: Manifestos, políticos do exilio . São Paulo: Editora Renascenca, 1945, 95-96.
3. Salles, Diagrama , 23.
4. Cf. Helio Silva, 1945: Por que depuseram Vargas . Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 1976, 113.
5. Ibid., 113-16, 260-63.
4. Cf. Helio Silva, 1945: Por que depuseram Vargas . Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 1976, 113.
5. Ibid., 113-16, 260-63.
6. Cf. Osvaldo Trigueiro do Vale, O General Dutra e a redemocratização de 1945 . Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 1978, 40-42; Silva, 1945 , 138. John W. F. Dulles refers to a conspiracy between Goés Monteiro and Dutra in late 1944. Cf. John W. F. Dulles, Vargas of Brazil . Austin: University of Texas Press, 1967, 255.
7. Cf. Trigueiro, Dutra ; Stanley Hilton, "The Overthrow of Getúlio Vargas in 1945: Intervention, Defense of Democracy, or Political Retribution?" Hispanic American Historical Review 67, no. 1 (February 1987), 1-37.
8. Cf. Trigueiro, Dutra , 86, 94, 65-66.
9. Azis Simão, Sindicato e estado (Suas relaciones na formação do proletariado de São Paulo) . São Paulo: Atica, 1981, 40.
10. Getúlio Vargas, A nova política do Brasil . Vol. 11, O Brasil na guerra . Rio de Janeiro: José Olympio, 1947, 38, 27, 58, 56.
11. Cf. Vargas, Nôva política, 40.
12. Vargas, Nôva política, 37 , 123-25.
13. Russell Landstrom. The Associated Press News Annual: 1945 . New York: Rinehart and Company, 1946, 280.
14. Vargas, Nôva política , 141-51.
15. Ibid., 11: 19.
16. Ibid., 11: 125, 18.
14. Vargas, Nôva política , 141-51.
15. Ibid., 11: 19.
16. Ibid., 11: 125, 18.
14. Vargas, Nôva política , 141-51.
15. Ibid., 11: 19.
16. Ibid., 11: 125, 18.
17. Cf. Edgard Carone, A terceira república (1937-1945) . São Paulo: DIFEL, 1976, 453.
18. Cf. Angela de Castro Gomes, A invençãdo do trabalhismo . São Paulo: Vertice/ IUPERJ, 1988, 305.
19. Vargas, Nova Política , 103; Castro Gomes, Invenção , 296-97.
20. Cf. Boris Fausto, ed., Historia geral da civilição brasileira . Vol. 4. São Paulo: DIFEL, 1984, 236; Levi Carneiro, Voto dos analfabetos . Petrópolis: Vozes, 1964.
21. On the political role of women see John D. French and Mary Lynn Pedersen,
"Women and Working-Class Mobilization in Postwar São Paulo, Brazil, 1945-1948," Latin American Research Review 24, no. 3 (Fall 1989), 99-125.
22. See Castro Gomes, Invenção , 297-300, for a discussion of the secret Plan B drawn up in December 1943 in preparation for the impending postwar transition.
23. Eduardo Gomes, Campanha da libertação . São Paulo: Livraria Martins Editora, n.d., 331-35.
24. Cf. Vargas, Nôva política , 148.
25. Trigueiro, Dutra , 86, 110.
26. Gomes, Campanha, 115, 336-44.
27. Cf. João Almino, Os demócratas autoritarios . São Paulo: Brasiliense, 1980, 39.
28. Gomes, Campanha , 278, 46, 278.
29. Ibid., 278, 48, 266.
30. Ibid., 46, 30-33, 45, 51-52.
31. Ibid., 336, 342.
28. Gomes, Campanha , 278, 46, 278.
29. Ibid., 278, 48, 266.
30. Ibid., 46, 30-33, 45, 51-52.
31. Ibid., 336, 342.
28. Gomes, Campanha , 278, 46, 278.
29. Ibid., 278, 48, 266.
30. Ibid., 46, 30-33, 45, 51-52.
31. Ibid., 336, 342.
28. Gomes, Campanha , 278, 46, 278.
29. Ibid., 278, 48, 266.
30. Ibid., 46, 30-33, 45, 51-52.
31. Ibid., 336, 342.
32. Cf. Maria Victoria de Mesquita Benevides, A UDN e o Udenismo: Ambiguidades do liberalismo brasileiro (1945-1965) . Rio de Janeiro: Paz e Terra, 1981, 45. This issue is also discussed in Folha da Manhã , 12 December 1945.
33. Gomes, Campanha , 16-17.
34. On the Socialists see Edgard Carone, ed., Movimento operario no Brasil . Vol. 2. São Paulo: DIFEL, 1979, 3-16.
35. For the Sorocaba speech see Carone, Movimento , 280-85.
36. Almino, Demócratas , 36-37.
37. Ibid.
36. Almino, Demócratas , 36-37.
37. Ibid.
38. For the text of this speech see Edgard Carone, O PCB (1943-1964) . Vol. 2. São Paulo: DIFEL, 1982, 25-40.
39. On the life and fate of Olga Benario Prestes see Fernando Morais, Olga . 14th ed. São Paulo: Alfa-Omega, 1987.
40. Carone, PCB , 2, 36-37.
41. Maria Andrea Loyola, Os sindicatos e o PTB . Petrópolis: Vozes/CEBRAP, 1980, 60.
42. Carone, PCB, 2, 40-57.
43. Silva, 1945 , 195-96; Carone, PCB , 56.
44. Adolph A. Berle, Navigating the Rapids, 1918-1971 . New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973, 551, which recounts an interview with Vargas on I October 1945.
45. Ibid., 529-30.
44. Adolph A. Berle, Navigating the Rapids, 1918-1971 . New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973, 551, which recounts an interview with Vargas on I October 1945.
45. Ibid., 529-30.
46. Interview with Robert Alexander, 27 August 1946. Private archive of Robert Alexander.
47. Cf. Valentina da Rocha Lima, ed., Getúlio: Uma historia oral . Rio de Janeiro: Record, 1986, 155-56. Queremismo is discussed, but very sketchily, in Arnaldo Spindel, O Pártido Comunista na genese do populismo . São Paulo: Simbolo, 1980, 59-67.
48. Silva, 1945 , 136-37.
49. Vargas, Nôva política , 103.
50. Silva, 1945 , 136.
51. Gomes, Campanha , 40.
52. Castro Gomes, Invenção , 308-14.
53. John D. French, "The Communications Revolution: Radio and Working-Class Life and Culture in Postwar São Paulo, Brazil." Paper presented at the Third Latin American Labor History Conference, Yale University, April 1978; Elysabeth Carmona and Geraldo Leite, "Radio Povo e poder: Subserviencia e paternalismo," in Populismo y communicação , edited by José Marques de Melo. São Paulo: Cortez, 1981, 125-34; Silva, 1945, 302; Trigueiro, Dutra , 178.
54. Cf. Lima, Getúlio, 157.
55. Berle, Navigating , 548; Almino, Democratas , 57.
56. Trigueiro, Dutra, 115, 145.
57. Gomes, Campanha , 57.
58. The latter term was used by the UDN in São Paulo in campaign advertisements; see also Trigueiro, Dutra , 120-22.
59. Gomes, Campanha , 81, 108-10,
60. Ibid., 148-50.
59. Gomes, Campanha , 81, 108-10,
60. Ibid., 148-50.
61. Luiz Vergara, Fui Secretario de Getúlio Vargas: Memorias dos anos de 1926-1954 . Rio: Globo, 1960, 158.
62. Trigueiro, Dutra , 107-14; Lourival Coutinho, O General Goés depoe . Rio de Janeiro: Coelho Branco, 1956, 415-18.
63. Trigueiro, Dutra , 123, 144-45.
64. Silva, 1945 , 214-23; Berle, Navigating , 553; Bryce Wood, The Dismantling of the Good Neighbor Policy . Austin: University of Texas Press, 1985, 122-25
65. Vargas, Nôva política , 185-92; Trigueiro, Dutra , 151.
66. Cf. Coutinho, O General , 437; Trigueiro, Dutra , 151-54.
67. Trigueiro, Dutra , 154-64.
68. Ibid., 166-69.
67. Trigueiro, Dutra , 154-64.
68. Ibid., 166-69.
69. Cf. Denis de Moraes and Francisco Viana, eds., Prestes: Lutas e autocriticas . Petropólis: Vozes, 1982, 109.
70. Silva, 1945 , 292-93, 204, 305-6, 309; Castro Gomes, Invenção , 315-18.
71. Carone, PCB , 2, 60-61.
72. Moraes and Viana, Prestes, 111.
73. Ibid.
72. Moraes and Viana, Prestes, 111.
73. Ibid.
74. Silva, 1945 , 297, 308.
75. Ibid., 312, 317-18; Trigueiro, Dutra , 177-80.
74. Silva, 1945 , 297, 308.
75. Ibid., 312, 317-18; Trigueiro, Dutra , 177-80.
76. Trigueiro, Dutra , 181-84; Silva, 1945 , 318-19.
77. Cf. Kenneth Erickson, "Populism and Political Control of the Working Class in Brazil." Proceedings of the Pacific Coast Conference of Latin American Studies 4 (1975), 126; Glaúcio Soares, Sociedade e política no Brasil . São Paulo: DIFEL, 1973, 41.
78. Tribunal Regional Eleitoral, São Paulo [hereafter cited as TRE SP]: Serviço Informática, "1945: Resultado final do número de eleitores devidamente inscritos." Unpublished document.
79. Castro Gomes, Invenção , 318.
80. Almino, Demócratas , 68-69.
81. Silva, 1945, 286-87.
82. Moraes and Viana, Prestes, 112.
83. For election results see TRE SP: Serviço Informática, "1945: Resultado final," and "Quadro demonstrativo da votação obtido no estado de São Paulo, pelos candidatos a Presidencia da República." Unpublished document, [29 December 1945].
84. Hermes Lima, Notas da vida brasileira . São Paulo: Brasiliense, 1945. Reprinted in Luis Washington Vita, ed., Antologia do pensamento social e politico no Brasil . São Paulo: Grijalbo, 1945, 404-8.
85. John D. French, The Brazilian Workers' ABC: Class Conflict and Alliances in Modern São Paulo . Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992, 256-60, 268-69.
7 Peace in the World and Democracy at Home The Chilean Women's Movement in the 1940s
1. Paul W. Drake, Socialism and Populism in Chile, 1932-1952 . Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1978, 47.
2. Felicitas Alvarado Klimpel, La mujer chilena: El aporte femenino al progreso de Chile . Santiago: Editorial Andres Bello, 1962, 150.
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid., 151.
2. Felicitas Alvarado Klimpel, La mujer chilena: El aporte femenino al progreso de Chile . Santiago: Editorial Andres Bello, 1962, 150.
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid., 151.
2. Felicitas Alvarado Klimpel, La mujer chilena: El aporte femenino al progreso de Chile . Santiago: Editorial Andres Bello, 1962, 150.
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid., 151.
5. Alieto Aldo Guadagni, La fuerza de trabajo en Chile, 1930-1960 . Santiago: Universidad de Chile, 1961, 56.
6. República de Chile, Dirección de Estadísticas y Censos. Cifras comparativas de los censos de 1940 y 1952 y muestra del censo de 1960 . N.p., n.d., 9 (my pagination).
7. See Office of Inter-American Affairs, Research Division, Social and Geographic Section, The Status of Women in Chile . Washington, D.C., 1944, 1-5.
8. Georgina Durand, Mis entrevistas: Escritores, artistas, y hombres de ciencia de Chile . Vol. 1. Santiago: Editorial Nascimiento, 1943, 199.
9. Brian Loveman, Chile: The Legacy of Hispanic Capitalism . 2d ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988, 227.
10. See Sergio Bizarro, Historical Dictionary of Chile . 2d ed. Metuchen, N.J., London: Scarecrow Press, 1987, 400.
11. See John Stevenson, The Chilean Popular Front . Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1942, 69; Loveman, Chile , 241-42.
12. Stevenson, Popular Front , 72.
13. Ibid., 101-5.
12. Stevenson, Popular Front , 72.
13. Ibid., 101-5.
14. Isabel Morel (Delia Ducoing de Arrate), Charlas femeninas . N.p.: Unión Femenina de Chile, 1937, 58. The book is a collection of the weekly columns she wrote for El Mercurio .
15. Interview with Labarca by Georgina Durand in Durand, Mis entrevistas , 226.
16. Amanda Labarca, Feminismo contemporáneo . Santiago de Chile: Ediciones Zig-Zag, 1947, 148.
17. This view is also advanced by contemporary writers Amanda Hermosilla Aedo, La mujer en la vida economica . Santiago: Soc. Imp. y Lito. Universo, 1936, and Luciano Pinto, Como arreglar este pais . Santiago: Imprenta Nascimento, 1949.
18. Interview with Elena Caffarena in María Angelica Meza, La otra mitad de Chile . Santiago: CESOC, 1986, 49.
19. MEMCH Antología: Para una historia de movimiento femenino en Chile . 2d ed. N.p., n.d., 14. The prologue of the first edition was dated August 1982.
20. Other petitions concerned equal work opportunities for women and working conditions of minors. See MEMCH Antología , 21-22, 25, 30-31, 71.
21. El Mercurio , 7 September 1935. El Mercurio , of liberal orientation, was the largest newspaper in Santiago.
22. Meza, La otra mitad , 50-51.
23. El Mercurio , 15, 16 December 1939; 2, 12 January 1940.
24. María Correa de Irarrázaval was described as an "aristocrat" by the magazine Ercilla (5 June 1945). Her good relations with the Edwards family publishing house, which published the Mercurio, corroborate this description.
25. Echeverría published under the pseudonym "Iris" and was well known for her novels La hora de queda (1918), Entre dos mundos (1918), and Cuando mi tierra fue moza (1943).
26. Cf. El Mercurio , 17 August 1941.
27. El Mercurio , 20 August, 6 October 1941.
28. El Mercurio , 6 October 1941.
29. Stevenson, Popular Front, 117-19.
30. Durand, Mis entrevistas , 199.
31. Marta Vergara, Memorias de una mujer irreverente . Santiago: Editora Nacional Gabriela Mistral Ltda., 1974, 237.
32. Labarca, Feminismo contemporáneo, 136.
33. Zig-Zag, 23 February 1945; Ercilla , 2 July 1946.
34. Amanda Labarca and Elena Caffarena in particular stood out as such writers, in El Mercurio, La Opinión, Ercilla , and Zig-Zag .
35. El Siglo, 7, 8, 23 March 1944.
36. Ercilla , 20 November 1945.
37. Amanda Labarca in El Siglo, 2 November 1944.
38. Ibid. Vicentini later became a member of the Women's Union, a last attempt of the left to hold up an independent women's group in the early 1950s. Cf. Klimpel, Mujer chilena, 245. The book is a valuable source since it lists women active in many fields. It is flawed, however, by blatant misinformation regarding some women's organizations that appears to be politically motivated.
37. Amanda Labarca in El Siglo, 2 November 1944.
38. Ibid. Vicentini later became a member of the Women's Union, a last attempt of the left to hold up an independent women's group in the early 1950s. Cf. Klimpel, Mujer chilena, 245. The book is a valuable source since it lists women active in many fields. It is flawed, however, by blatant misinformation regarding some women's organizations that appears to be politically motivated.
39. El Siglo, 28 October 1944; Ercilla, 10 October 1944. The congress received most coverage from El Siglo, the organ of the Communist party. It was also covered extensively by Luis Hernández Parker, who wrote for Ercilla . His frequent articles
about women's activities are tinged by a certain paternalism, but he seems to have been a supporter of women's rights.
40. Ercilla, 31 October 1944.
41. El Mercurio, 1 November 1944; El Siglo, 1 November 1944.
42. The participation of working women merited a picture in Ercilla, with the caption "Authentic workers leaving the Municipal Theater." Ercilla , 31 October 1944.
43. El Siglo , 2 November 1944.
44. Ibid.
43. El Siglo , 2 November 1944.
44. Ibid.
45. El Mercurio, 5 November 1944.
46. El Mercurio, 8 November 1944. The Liberals were: Correa de I., Aguirre; Radicals: Labarca, Arancibia; Communists: Marchant, Campusano.
47. Zig-Zag, 13 September 1945.
48. The speech was reprinted in Labarca, Feminismo contemporáneo , 110-14.
49. Zig-Zag, 26 July 1945.
50. El Mercurio, 11 March 1946.
51. Zig-Zag, 26 July 1945.
52. Labarca, Feminismo contemporáneo, 120.
53. The directory board of the Feminine party included Georgina Durand, the journalist whose interviews have been repeatedly cited in this paper, and Felicitas Klimpel. Klimpel and de la Cruz became politically active again in the early 1970s as organizers of the famous marches of the "empty pots," women's protests against the leftist Allende government.
54. Ercilla , 21 January 1947.
55. "They want to be representatives and senators," proclaimed the headline. Ercilla, 5 June 1945.
56. Ercilla , 19 June 1945; Zig-Zag, 5 July 1945.
57. Zig-Zag, 5 July 1945.
58. Quoted from a flyer distributed at a rally in May 1946. In Paz Covarrubias, "El movimiento feminista chileno," in Chile: Mujer y sociedad , edited by Paz Covarrubias and Rolando Franco. Santiago: UNICEF, 1978, 638.
59. Carmelo Furci, The Chilean Communist Party and the Road to Socialism . London: Zed Books, 1984, 39.
60. Francesca Miller, "Latin American Feminism and the Transnational Area," in Women, Culture, and Politics in Latin America, Seminar on Feminism and Culture in Latin America, edited by Francesca Miller. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1990, 22.
61. Drake, Socialism and Populism , 288-91.
62. Memoria del Primer Congreso Interamericano de Mujeres . Guatemala: n.p., 1947, 12.
63. Quoted in Miller, "Feminism and the Transnational Area," 23.
64. El Mercurio, 27 August 1947.
65. Klimpel, La mujer chilena, 191. Mueller wrote under the pseudonym "Mme.
Veronique." See as an example her article "A Husband Who May Guide Us," El Mercurio, 7 January 1940.
66. Interview with Caffarena and Poblete, in Meza, La otra mitad, 62.
67. El Mercurio , 22 September 1947.
68. See Edda Gaviola Artigas et al., Queremos votar en las próximas elecciones: Historia del movimiento femenino chileno, 1913-1952. Santiago: Centro de Análisis y Difusión de la Condición de la Mujer, 1986, 76.
69. Caffarena says simply that González Videla had attacked the Communists and had called them traitors of the country. That angered her enormously and induced her to leave under protest. Meza, La otra mitad, 62.
70. Ibid., 63.
69. Caffarena says simply that González Videla had attacked the Communists and had called them traitors of the country. That angered her enormously and induced her to leave under protest. Meza, La otra mitad, 62.
70. Ibid., 63.
71. Gaviola, Queremos votar , 79; Meza, La otra mitad, 64.
72. El Mercurio , 26 August 1947.
73. Covarrubias, "El movimiento feminista chileno," 639.
74. El Mercurio, 18 September 1948.
75. Meza, La otra mitad, 64.
76. El Mercurio, 12, 13 September 1948.
77. El Mercurio, 10 January 1949.
78. MEMCH Antología, 8, 45.
79. Klimpel, La mujer chilena, 139-45.
80. Ibid.
79. Klimpel, La mujer chilena, 139-45.
80. Ibid.
8 Why Not Corporatism? Redemocratization and Regime Formation in Uruguay
1. The dominance of neo- batllismo , whose features are examined at length in this chapter, extended from 1946 to 1958.
2. For a full account of political system formation and the role of economic elites in Uruguay see Fernando Lopez-Alves, Between the Economy and the Polity, Uruguay 1810-1880 . London: Institute of Latin American Studies, University of London, 1993.
3. A contrasting case is Colombia. For a comparison between Uruguay and Colombia see Fernando Lopez-Alves, "Why Do Unions Coalesce? Labor Solidarity in Colombia and Uruguay." Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 1989, chs. 2-3.
4. See Jorge L. Lanzaro, Sindicatos y sistema político: Relaciones corporativas en el Uruguay . Montevideo: Fundación de Cultura Universitaria, 1986.
5. On democratic corporatist practices in Norway and Sweden see Peter Katzen-stein, Small States in World Markets . Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985; and Gerhard A. Lehmbruch and Philippe C. Schmitter, eds., Patterns of Corporatist Policy-Making . New York: Sage, 1982.
6. Philippe C. Schmitter, "Still the Century of Corporatism?" Review of Politics 36 (1974): 90.
7. M. H. J. Finch, A Political Economy of Uruguay since 1870 . New York: St. Martin's Press, 1981, 2.
8. The tax reforms of the late 1930s are discussed in Ana Frega, Mónica Maronna, and Yvette Trochon, Baldomir y la restauración democrática . Montevideo: Banda Oriental, 1987, ch. 4: Benjamín Nahum et al., Historia uruguaya . Vol. 7. Montevideo: Banda Oriental, 1989.
9. Quoted in Frega, Baldomir , 114.
10. For a detailed account of the 1942 constitutional reform see Frega, Baldomir , 114.
11. For a statement of the issues see El Debate , 2 July 1940.
12. Colorado attitudes toward Perón appear in El Día , the party newspaper. See particularly April-June 1946. See also Germán Rama, La democracia en el Uruguay . Montevideo: Arca, 1989, ch. 5.
13. Aldo Solari, El desarrollo social del Uruguay en la postguerra . Montevideo: Alfa, 1967, 32, 68-70.
14. The size and political weight of this bourgeoisie, however, has been exaggerated. Cf. J. Bonilla Sauns, "La restructuración capitalista del Uruguay: 1958-1976," in Uruguay, dictadura y realidad nacional , edited by América Latina, Estudios y Perspectivas. México, D.F.: ERESU, 1981.
15. After 1914 the Cámara de Industrias (Chamber of Industry) became the joint administrator of the Unión Industrial.
16. See Lopez-Alves, "Why Do Unions Coalesce?" 215-30.
17. Rama, La democracia , 67; Finch, Uruguay since 1870 , 169.
18. Cf. Finch, Uruguay since 1870 , 63-91.
19. Germán D'Elía has argued persuasively along these lines. See his El Uruguay neo-batllista: 1946-1958 . Montevideo: Banda Oriental, 1986, 15 and passim. D'Elía reviews a range of hypotheses as to who financed industrial development in Uruguay.
20. See Luis Bertola, Industrialization in Uruguay . Ph.D. diss., Centro Uruguayo Independiente, Montevideo—University of Uppsala, Sweden, 1991; Raúl Jacob, Breve historia de la industria en el Uruguay . Montevideo: FCU, 1981, and Modelo batllista:
¿Variación sobre un viejo tema? Montevideo: Proyección, 1988; Rama, Democracia , 62-147.
21. Presidential National Address, 25 August 1949.
22. On Luis Batlle's economic ideas see Nahum, Historia uruguaya , 98-101.
23. Solari, Desarrollo social , 17. Gino Germani estimated that in 1947 the middle class of Argentina made up 45.4 percent of the population. In Solari's view 40 percent of the rural population of Uruguay could be considered middle class. (Cf. Solari, Desarrollo social , 15, 35.)
24. Batlle's speech to Congress, 3 September 1948, quoted in Rama, Democracia , 45.
25. See Alfredo Errandonea and Daniel Costabile, Sindicato y sociedad en el Uruguay . Montevideo: Biblioteca de Cultura Universitaria, 1969; also Pedro Alfonso, Sindicalismo y revolución en Uruguay . Montevideo: Nuevo Mundo, 1970; and Francisco Pintos, Historia del movimiento obrero del Uruguay . Montevideo: Gaceta de Cultura, 1960.
26. See Adam S. Bronstein, "The Evolution of Labour Relations in Uruguay: Achievements and Challenges," International Labor Review 128, no. 2 (1989), 28-42.
27. This information is based on interviews conducted in Montevideo in 1987 with the labor lawyer Leonel Bismark and the labor historian Germán D'Elía.
9 Internal and External Convergence The Collapse of Argentine Grain Farming
1. John Newton Smith, Argentine Agriculture: Trends in Production and World Competition . Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, 1968, 18, 129.
2. The most comprehensive statement of his argument is in Carlos F. Díaz Alejandro, Essays on the Economic History of the Argentine Republic . New Haven: Yale University Press, 1970, 206-56.
3. Horacio C. E. Giberti, Historia económica de la ganadería argentina . 2d ed. Buenos Aires: Raigal, 1961.
4. Jorge Sabato, La pampa pródiga: Claves de una frustración . Buenos Aires: Centro de Investigaciones sobre el Estado y la Administración, 1981, 70-96.
5. For a critique of Giberti's view that ranching drove farming see Alfredo Pucciarelli, El capitalismo agrario pampeano, 1880-1930 . Buenos Aires: Hyspamérica. 1986, 158-63.
6. See James R. Scobie, Revolution on the Pampas: A Social History of Argentine Wheat, 1860-1910 . Austin: University of Texas Press, 1964, 27-70; Díaz Alejandro, Essays, 148-65.
7. For data on crop acreages see República Argentina, Comisión Nacional del Censo Agropecuario, Censo agropecuario national, año 1937 . Vol. 1. Buenos Aires: Guillermo Kraft, Ltda., 1939, xxiii, xxv, xxix.
8. Bill Albert, South America and the First World War: The Impact of the War on Brazil, Argentina, Peru, and Chile . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988, 61-77, 142-56, 210-22, 239-55.
9. On these wartime measures see Daniel Lewis, ''A Political and Economic History of Grain Farming in Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, 1914-1943." Ph.D. diss., University of California, Santa Barbara, 1990, 331-32.
10. Ibid., 350-75.
11. Ibid., 402-15.
9. On these wartime measures see Daniel Lewis, ''A Political and Economic History of Grain Farming in Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, 1914-1943." Ph.D. diss., University of California, Santa Barbara, 1990, 331-32.
10. Ibid., 350-75.
11. Ibid., 402-15.
9. On these wartime measures see Daniel Lewis, ''A Political and Economic History of Grain Farming in Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, 1914-1943." Ph.D. diss., University of California, Santa Barbara, 1990, 331-32.
10. Ibid., 350-75.
11. Ibid., 402-15.
12. José O. Dowling, "Resultados agrícolas generales y particulares: Una contradicción," Gaceta rural 21, no. 245 (December 1927), 435.
13. Leon M. Estabrook, Agricultural Survey of South America: Argentina and Paraguay . U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin, no. 1409. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1926, 66-72.
14. Data on farmers' strategies during the depression appear in Banco de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, Memoria y balance general . Buenos Aires, 1931, 5-6; and República Argentina, Ministerio de Agricultura de la Nación, Anuario agropecuario, año 1932 . Buenos Aires, 1932, v-viii.
15. For figures on acreages see República Argentina, Estadísticas agrícolas retrospectivas . Buenos Aires, 1987, 19, 21, 31.
16. Revista del Ferrocarril Sud 8, no. 98 (August 1933), 7.
17. On the Grain Board see Virgil Salera, Exchange Control and the Argentine Market . New York: Columbia University Press, 1941, 102-51; and Harry R. Woltman, "The Decline of Argentina's Agricultural Trade: Problems and Policies." Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1959, 87-117.
18. For details on the workings of the program see República Argentina, Ministerio de Agricultura de la Nación, Memoria de la Junta Reguladora de Granos, campaña 1933-1934 . Buenos Aires, 1935, 40; and idem, Memoria de la Junta Reguladora de Granos, 2 ejercicio, año 1935 . Buenos Aires, 1936, 15.
19. Export statistics appear in República Argentina, Ministerio de Agricultura de la Nación, Almanaque (1946), 78.
20. For data see Héctor Pérez-Brignoli, "The Economic Cycle in Latin American Export Economies (1880-1930): A Hypothesis for Investigation," Latin American Research Review 15, no. 2 (1980), 19; Curto E. Hotschewer, Evolución de la agricultura en la provincia de Santa Fe: Su dependencia de factores geográficas y económicos . Santa Fe: Province of Santa Fe, Ministerio de Hacienda, Economía e Industrias, 1953.
21. Antonio Arena and Antonio Román Guiñazú, "La erosión eólica de los suelos en el centro-oeste de la Argentina." In República Argentina, Ministerio de Agricultura de la Nación, Publicaciones misceláneas 65 (1939), 8-15.
22. For figures on rural population see Alfredo E. Lattes, "La dinámica de la población rural en la Argentina entre 1870 y 1970," Cuadernos del CENEP , vol. 9. Buenos Aires: Centro de Estudios de Población, 1979.
23. For a review of international farm and trade policies after World War I see Arturo O'Connell, "Free Trade in One (Primary Producing) Country: The Case of Argentina in the 1920s," in The Political Economy of Argentina, 1880-1946 , edited by Guido di Tella and D. C. M. Platt. London: Macmillan Press, 1986, 74-94.
24. For investment data see United Nations, Comisión Económica para América Latina, El desarrollo económico de la Argentina . México, D.F.: CEPAL, 1959, pt. 2, 85.
25. Eprime Eshag and Rosemary Thorp, "Economic and Social Consequences of Orthodox Economic Policies in Argentina in the Post-War Years," Bulletin of the Oxford University Institute of Economics and Statistics 27, no. 1 (February 1965), 6.
26. Woltman, "Decline," 112-13.
27. Ibid., 108.
26. Woltman, "Decline," 112-13.
27. Ibid., 108.
28. Brunini's comments appear in Ministerio de Obras Públicas de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, Dirección de Agricultura, Ganadería e Industrias, La regulación de la producción agrícola: Consejos a los agricultores . La Plata, 1939, 6, 7.
29. On the activities of the grain board in World War II see Woltman, "Decline," 164-73; on the policy shift in 1942 see "Los precios básicos del maíz y la política agraria nacional," in República Argentina, Comisión Nacional de Elevadores de Granos, Boletín Informativo 6, no. 5 (15 May 1942), 221-29.
30. Lewis, "Grain Farming," 523-32, 552-54.
31. On the rural population see Alfredo E. Lattes, "La dinámica de la población rural en la Argentina entre 1870 y 1970," in Cuadernos del CENEP , vol. 9. Buenos Aires: Centro de Estudios de Población, 1979, 35; for data on the labor force see Guillermo Flichman, La renta del suelo y el desarrollo agrario argentino . Buenos Aires: Siglo XXI, 1977, 179.
32. Humberto Mascali, Desocupación y conflictos laborales en el campo argentino (1940-1965) . Buenos Aires: Centro Editor de América Latina, 1986, 29-68.
33. Woltman, "Decline," 185-260.
34. Government measures of cattle production are unavailable for the years 1939-1951. For an alternative production series that suggests that ranching leveled off after the war see Lovell S. Jarvis, Supply Response in the Cattle Industry: The Argentine Case , Giannini Foundation Special Report. Oakland: Giannini Foundation, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, 1986.
10 The Origins of the Green Revolution in Mexico Continuity or Change?
1. Cynthia Hewitt de Alcantara, Modernizing Mexican Agriculture: Socioeconomic Implications of Technological Change . Geneva: United Nations Research Institute for Social Development, 1976; Bruce H. Jennings, Foundations of International Agricultural Research: Science and Politics in Mexican Agriculture . Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1988; Deborah Fitzgerald, "The Rockefeller Foundation in Mexico, 1943-1953," Social Studies of Science 16 (1986), 457-83.
2. Angus Wright, The Death of Ramón González: The Modern Agricultural Dilemma . Austin: University of Texas Press, 1991, 171.
3. Hewitt de Alcantara, Modernizing Mexican Agriculture , n. 1, 19.
4. These Porfirian origins are discussed in detail in Joseph Cotter, "Before the Green Revolution: Mexican Agricultural Policy, 1920-1949," Ph.D. diss., University of California, Santa Barbara, 1993.
5. Luis L. León, "La actuación del gremio agrónomico en la reforma agraria," Boletín de la Sociedad Mexicana de Geografia y Estadística 78 (1954), 57-71.
6. Enrique Beltrán, "La dirección de estudios biológicos de la Secretaría de Fomento y El Instituto de Biología de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma," Anales de la Sociedad Mexicana de Historia de la Ciencia y de la Tecnología , no. 1 (1969), 105-41.
7. Eduardo Chávez, "El maquinismo agrícola exige la formación de obreros mecánicos agrícolas." Paper presented at the V Consejo Nacional Directivo of the Sociedad Agrónomica Mexicana (hereafter cited as SAM), in Sociedad Agronómica Mexicana, V Consejo Nacional Directivo, BCM #186-10.
8. Linda B. Hall, Alvaro Obregón: Power and Revolution in Mexico, 1911-1920 . College Station: Texas A & M University Press, 1981, 217-18.
9. Juan de Dios Bojórquez, "Momento decisivo para el gremio agronómico." Paper presented at Segundo Consejo Nacional Agronómico (SCNA), 1 December 1922, BCM #168-40.
10. Eustacio L. Contreras, "¿Qué es un agrónomo?" Agros 1, no. 2 (July 1923), 6; idem, "El próximo Congreso Agronómico," El Nacional , 17 October 1935. Eyler N. Simpson used the term proyectismo to describe Mexican government programs of the 1930s; see The Ejido: Mexico's Way Out . Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1937, 580.
11. "Acta de la inauguración de la ENA en terrenos de la hacienda de Chapingo, México," n.d., in Escuela Nacional de Agricultura, BCM #168-2.
12. Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público, Presupuesto general de egresos de la Federación para el año de 1925 , México, D.F.: 1925; Secretaría de Agricultura y Fomento (hereafter cited as SAF), Memoria de la SAF correspondiente al periodo de 1 ° de agosto de 1924 al 31 de julio de 1935, Tacubaya, D.F.: 1927, 69-70.
13. De Dios Bojórquez, "Momento Decisivo," 3-4.
14. Rufino Monroy, "La avicultura en México como se ha vista y como debe verse," Agros 1, no. 1 (June 1923), 5.
15. For examples, see "Campos experimentales para la resolución del problema agrario," El Nacional , 15 February 1935.
16. H. Vinberger to Gonzalo Robles, 11 August 1921, and others, Archivo General de la Nación (hereafter cited as AGN), FGR/Sección Correspondencia [SC]/41/34.
17. Extensión agrícola 1, no. 2 (March 1933), 34.
18. "Campaña del maíz," Extensión agrícola 1, no. 3 (April 1933), 115-16.
19. Translation, Circular no. 88, Mexican North Western Railway, General Freight and Passenger Department, "Free Transportation of Seeds, Bulbs, and Fruit Trees," n.d., National Archives, Record Group 166, Box 62, Washington, D.C. (hereafter cited as NA).
20. Antonio Rivas Tagle, El cultivo racional del maíz . Tacubaya, D.F., 1929, 261-73.
21. "Una nueva industria existe en Morelos," El Nacional , 27 March 1933.
22. "Es ya hecho el cultivo de la uva en el estado de Morelos," El Nacional , 17 June 1933; "Campaña de los plantas oleaginosas," Extensión Agrícola 1, no. 6 (July 1933), 261.
23. David S. Ibarra, "El trigo 'Marquis' en el Bajío," Agricultura 1, no. 2 (April-May 1935), 10.
24. Rivas Tagle, Cultivo racional , n. 26. The last chapter describes work on corn hybridization done in the United States. "El cultivo del maíz en México debe modernizarse," El Universal , 17 December 1933.
25. "Lo que debe hacer," n.d., AGN, FGR/SA/5/70; "Proyecto para la creación de un departamento autónomo para fomento de la producción del maíz," n. d., AGN, FGR/SA/13/118.
26. Alejandro Brambila, Jr., "La granja experimental en Rodríguez, N.L.," Irrigación en México 1, no. 1 (May 1930), 44-48.
27. Alejandro Brambila Jr., El análisis químico y la fertilidad de los suelos . Dirección General de Agricultura, México, D.F.: 1928; "Campaña para la explotación racional del suelo," Extensión agrícola 1, no. 3 (April 1933), 112-14.
28. Pandurang Khankhoje, Maíz Granada 'Zea Maíz Digitata': Su origen, evolución, y cultivo . Estación Experimental Agrícola, Boletín de Divulgación no. 1, Tacubaya, D.F., 1936, 9-13.
29. "Un limonero que da frutas sin semilla," El Nacional , 29 July 1931.
30. For an example of the former see División Estación Experimental, "El cultivo de secano es de gran porvenir en México," 30 November 1931, Archivo de Ramón Fernández y Fernández (hereafter cited as ARFF), Caja 5, Document 380, Zamora,
Michoacán. For an example of the latter see Alfonso Dampf, "Como defendernos contra las plagas de la agricultura," ARFF, 139/222.
31. For the program in Chihuahua see Francis H. Styles, "Agriculture Department: Excerpt from Annual Report on Commerce and Industries of the Chihuahua, Chihuahua, Consular District for 1932," 19 January 1933, NA, 166/308. For the Centrales see "Memorandum sobre las Escuelas Centrales Agricolas," n.d., AGN, FGR/Sección Educación [SE]/49/23.
32. Miguel Alvarez Gleason, "La política de irrigación que más conviene a la agricultura Mexicana," in Partido Nacional Revolucionario, Las problemas agrícolas de México . México, D.F.: 1934, 132.
33. For the former see Herbert S. Bursley, "Excerpt from a Review of Commerce and Industries Quarter Ended September 30, 1927," n.d., NA, 166/151. For the latter see José Antonio Rivera, "El jitomate mexicano de exportación a los Estados Unidos," n.d., ARFF, 117/2.
34. Alfonso Dampf, "La importancia de la mosca de la fruta para el cultivo de la naranja y demas frutas cítricas en México," in Consejo Nacional de Agricultura (hereafter cited as CNA), Memoria de la Primera Convención Nacional de Productores de Naranja . México, D.F.: CNA, 1936, 2.
35. Gonzalo Robles, "Educación agrícola, propaganda," September 1921, AGN, FGR/SE/49/24; "Discurso presentado por el C. Ingeniero Luis L. León. . . ," in Concurso de la mejor mazorca del maíz . Tacubaya, D.F.: Imprenta de la Dirección de Estudios Geográficos y Climatológicos, 1926, 20.
36. SAF, Dirección de Economía Rural, Boletín mensual de la dirección de economía rural , years 1928-1933.
37. The debate is discussed at length in Jesús Silva Herzog, El agrarismo mexicano y la reforma agraria . México, D.F.: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1959.
38. "Microscopio," Agronómica 1, no. 4 (January 1932), 10; Ramón Fernández y Fernández, "El fracaso de los agrónomos," El Universal , 4 February 1932; Ramón Fernández y Fernández, Los agrónomos . México, D.F.: 1933.
39. Eduardo Villaseñor, "Las zonas nuevas y el indio," Revista mexicana de economía 1 (1928-1929), 41-47.
40. SAM, Exposición del criterio ideológico del gremio agronómico mexicano . México, D.F., 1932.
41. "Microscopio," Agronómica 1, no. 4 (January 1932), 11.
42. Fernández y Fernández, Los agrónomos , n. 46.
43. Ramón Fernández y Fernández, "Los agrónomos y la reglamentación de las professiones." Crisol , March 1934: "Nuestra agricultura, los agrónomos, y la prensa," Irrigación en México 4, no. 2 (February 1933), 102-3.
44. Alfredo De León, "Técnicos! Técnicos!" Irrigación en México 1, no. 2 (June 1930), 33; George I. Sánchez, Mexico: A Revolution by Education . New York: Viking Press, 1936, 145.
45. For an example of the spirit of cooperation see Alfonso Dampf to Gumaro García de la Cadena, 17 March 1934, NA, 7/1394.
46. "Notes on Dr. Ferrell's Trip to Mexico March 15-April 21, 1933." Rockefeller Archive Center (hereafter cited as RAC), 2/323[stacks] Fer-1/3678.
47. SAF, Ley de Servicios Agrícolas Nacionales . México, D.F.: 1932; Antonio Martínez Barragan, "El Consejo Nacional de, Agricultura," Agricultura 1, no. 2 (September-October 1937), 59-60.
48. Emilio Alanis Patiño, Diversos aspectos de la situación agrícola de México . México, D.F.: Instituto Mexicano de Estudios Agrícolas (IMEA), 1934.
49. "Proyectos para el mejoramiento a la agricultura," Excelsior , 12 August 1934.
50. Enrique Beltrán, Medio siglo de recuerdos de un biólogo mexicano . México, D.F.: Sociedad Mexicana de Historia Natural, 1977, 129-49.
51. Enrique Beltrán, "Instituto Biotécnico (1934-1940) de la SAF," Anales de la Sociedad mexicana de historia de la ciencia y de la tecnología , no. 1 (1969), 150-80.
52. SAF, Memoria de trabajos de las Direcciones de Agricultura y Ganadería dependiente de la SAF durante el periodo presidencial de Lázaro Cárdenas . México, D.F.: DAPP, 1940, 430-37.
53. Guillermo Gándara to Lázaro Cárdenas, 17 August 1937; Leopoldo de la Barreda to Cárdenas, 17 August 1937, AGN, FP/SLC/703.2/642.
54. Jacobo Aragón Aguillón, "Las estaciones agrícolas para la experimentación," El Nacional , 19 January 1935.
55. "Estaciones agrícolas en todo el país," El Nacional , 29 November 1934; José de Jesús Urquizo to Subsecretario de Agricultura y Fomento, 20 April 1936, AGN, FP/SLC/534.4/101.
56. Damién Correu, "Estaciones agrícolas experimentales, lo que son y las actividades que en ellas se desarrollan," Jalisco agrícola y ganadero 1, no. 9 (June-July 1934), 18; Gabriel Atie, "Estaciones agrícolas experimentales," Chapingo 1, no. 2 (September 1935), 22.
57. SAF, Memoria de la SAF de septiembre de 1937 a agosto de 1938 . México, D.F.: DAPP, 1938.
58. Conrado E. Rodríguez to Director de Fomento Agrícola, 4 May 1934, Archivo Histórico de Jalisco, Caja AG-27bis-E, Expediente 22, Legajo 2, Guadalajara, Jalisco (hereafter cited as AHJ).
59. "Asuntos tratados por el Consejo de Agricultura del Estado, Sesión del día de 12 de junio de 1934," n.d., AHJ, AG-27bis-E/100/6.
60. Arturo R. Cuellar, "El cruzamiento del tomate," El Nacional , 27 December 1935.
61. Memorandum para acuerdo con el C. Presidente de la República, n.d., AGN, FP/SLC/606.3/164; Rodrigo M. Quevedo to Cárdenas, 12 January 1936, AGN, FP/ SLC/702.1/84.
62. "La esclavitud del maíz," El Universal Gráfico , 7 February 1936; "Trigo en vez de maíz en la alimentación," El Nacional , 15 May 1937.
63. SAF, Estudio agro-económico del maíz . Pt. 3. México, D.F.: Oficina de Publicaciones y Propaganda, 1940, 142.
64. "Informe del general de división Lázaro Cárdenas, presidente de la República
Mexicana, ante el H. Congreso de la Unión, correspondiente al ejercicio comprendido entre el 1° de septiembre de 1936 al 31 de agosto de 1937. México, D.F., 1° de septiembre de 1937," in Lázaro Cárdenas, Palabras y documentos públicos de Lázaro Cárdenas: Informes del gobierno y mensaje presidenciales de año nuevo . México, D.F.: Siglo Ventiuno Editores, 1978, 107.
65. "Importación de cereales extranjeros," El Nacional , 17 November 1937.
66. For examples, see L. Iñíguez de la Torre, "El rancho americano y el rancho mexicano," Jalisco Rural 17, no. 7 (July 1937), 177-78.
67. For free imports see Cárdenas Decree, 22 July 1937, ARFF, 202/21. For farmer reliance on foreign seed see "Estudio presentado por la Delegación de Defensa Agrícola de León, Gto.," in CNA, Memoria de la primera reunión nacional de productores de la papa . México, D.F.: CNA, 1939, 40-41. Bernardo A. Avílez, Cultivo y comercio del algodón en México . México, D.F.: Dirección de Economía Rural, 1939, i-iii and 106-12. For the Banco Ejidal see "Importación de semilla de algodón," El Nacional , 4 February 1937. Horacio Mooers, "Wheat and Cotton Notes, Mexicali, B.C.," 9 December 1938, NA, 166/388.
68. For examples see Alfredo Tellez Girón, "El Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Pecuarias y sus antecedentes," Anales de la Sociedad mexicana de historia de la ciencia y de la tecnología 2 (1970), 196.
69. J. Francisco Andraca and S. Gutiérrez Silva to Cárdenas, 8 May 1936, AGN, FP/SLC/506.22/2.
70. For examples see Lorenzo R. Jiménez to Hoidale, 10 July 1936, NA, 7/1393.
71. For examples see McDonald to Strong, 9 March 1936; "Weekly Report, Pink Bollworm and Thurberia Weevil Control," 4 October 1937; D. M. MacEachern, "Progress Report on Pink Bollworm Activities in the Lower Rio Grande Valley," 27 January 1937, NA, 7/1400.
72. "Numerosas despepitadoras de algodón serán adquiridos en el Banco de Crédito Ejidal," El Nacional , I July 1937.
73. Agustín García Rea and Isidoro Garibay Vázquez to Tranquilano Manríquez, 27 January 1937.
74. "Necesidad de aumentar la producción," El Nacional , 6 January 1938; "Selección de semillas para el maíz," El Nacional , 28 February 1938.
75. "Los cultivos del maíz en la Republica," El Nacional , 16 March 1938.
76. "Subsidio para importar catorce mil toneladas del maíz," El Universal , 31 October 1939. William P. Blocker to Secretary of State, "Rise in Prices of Essential Food Commodities," 7 March 1939, NA, 166/146.
77. Stacey May and Galo Plaza, The United Fruit Company in Latin America . Washington, D.C.: National Planning Association, 1958, 154.
78. Jeannot Stern, "El chamusco de plátano," Agricultura 1, no. 4 (January-February 1938), 43-50.
79. "Las plantaciones bajo la amenaza de nueva plaga," El Nacional , 11 September 1937; "La plaga del chumusco es combatida," El Nacional , 26 October 1937.
80. Guillermo Liera B., "Informe de trabajos de la campaña contra el chamusco
de plátano," in Primera Convención Resolutiva del Problema Platanero, patrocinada por la SAF del 25 al 30 de octubre de 1938. ARFF, 145/208.
81. "Plaga sobre los plantaciones en el Edo. de Tabasco," Excelsior , 29 January 1939.
82. Thomas H. Lockett, "Monthly Economic Review—Mexico, Conditions in Mexico during the Month of May, 1940," NA, 166/147.
83. For examples see Bruno Jiménez to Cárdenas, 25 February 1939.
84. For examples see Miguel García Cruz, "El fracaso de la experimentación agrícola en México," El Popular , 23 May 1939.
85. For examples see "Estudio formulado en la Oficina de Geografia Económico Agrícola por el C. Guillermo Rodríguez G. y sometida a la consideración del C. Presidente de la República con fecha de 2 de mayo de 1938," AGN, FP/SLC/437.1/ 556.
86. Jesús Patiño N. to Aaron Sáenz, 21 September 1939, AGN, FGR/SC/39/5. For the Banco Ejidal see "Los 5 futuros clasificadores del algodón," El siglo de Torreón , 26 May 1939. For the Secretaría de Educación Pública see "Estudios sobre la genética del maíz en EE UU," El Nacional , 13 April 1938.
87. SAF, Memoria de la SAF de lo de septiembre de 1939 al 31 de agosto de 1940 . México, D.F.: DAPP, 1940, 79.
88. "Memorandum que por el estimable conducto del Señor Secretario Particular, se somete a la respetable consideración del Presidente de la República," 14 March 1939, AGN, FP/SLC/425.5/134.
89. "Las siembras se apresurán," El siglo de Torreón , 24 February 1939.
90. Louis V. Boyle to Secretary of State, 15 April 1939.
91. "Interdepartmental Committee on Cooperation with the American Republics, Minutes of Meeting on April 28, 1939," NA, 353/29.
92. Francisco Trujillo Gurria, "Acuerdo con el C. Presidente de la República," 27 May 1940, AGN, FP/SLC/506.17/22.
93. "Convention on the Inter-American Bank," Bulletin of the Pan American Union 74, no. 7 (July 1940), 532.
94. Ramón Beteta to Josephus Daniels, 28 August 1940; Daniels to Secretary of State, 4 September 1940, NA, 166/151.
95. For examples see Ramón Fernández y Fernández, "La experimentación agrícola," Germinal , 28 June 1939.
96. For the "socialist" agronomists views on agricultural modernization see "Una revisión a nuestra política económica," n.d., ARFF, 180/356. For warnings about U.S. "imperialism" see Comité Ejecutivo a socios de la Liga de Agrónomos Socialistas, 28 October 1940, ARFF, 180/408.
97. José del Riego, Juan Francisco Kaldman, and Manuel Marcue P. to Manuel Ávila Camacho, 9 July 1941, AGN, FP/Sección Manuel Ávila Camacho [SMAC]/ 133.2/67; "Mayor producción con cultivos científicos," El Universal , 10 April 1944.
98. SAF, Informe de labores de la SAF del 1° de septiembre de 1940 al 31 de agosto de 1941 . México, D.F.: Editorial Cultura, 1941, 23; SAF, Informe de labores de la SAF del
1° de septiembre de 1945 al 31 de agosto de 1946 . México, D.F.: Editorial Cultura, 1946, 12-13.
99. For program continuity see Edwin J. Wellhausen, Oral History, RAC, Record Groups 13, 39, and 113. For politics see L. D. Mallory to Cordell Hull, San Jacinto Agricultural Exposition, 29 November 1943, NA, 166/302. For shortages of funds see José María Aguirre and Cesar Domínguez V. to Ávila Camacho, 7 November 1941, AGN, FP/SMAC/506.17/14. Mexican Agriculture, Annual Meeting, 17 October 1946, RAC, 6.13/1.1/32/359.
100. SAF, Planeación agrícola . México, D.F.: 1943, 1-5.
101. The SAF had been anxious for the program to begin since its proposal in 1941.
102. "El XXV aniversario de la fundación de la escuela," in Ecos del aniversario de la plata de la Escuela Particular de Agricultura de Ciudad Juárez. Ciudad Juárez: 1931, 6-7.
11 Labor Control and the Postwar Growth Model in Latin America
1. Some revisionist historians have placed the origins of ISI as early as the 1920s. For Brazil see Warren Dean, The Industrialization of São Paulo . Austin: University of Texas Press, 1969; for Chile see Henry Kirsch, Industrial Development in a Traditional Society . Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1977.
2. This terminology has been used by Nicos Mouzelis, Politics in the Semi-Periphery . London: Macmillan, 1986.
3. A more detailed version of this argument may be found in Leslie Bethell and Ian Roxborough, "Latin America between the Second World War and the Cold
War," Journal of Latin American Studies 20, no. 1 (May 1988), 167-89; Leslie Bethell, "From the Second World War to the Cold War, 1944-1954," in Exporting Democracy , edited by Abraham F. Lowenthal. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991, 41-70.
4. Bombay Chronicle , 27 and 28 July, 8 August 1945. Quoted by Christopher Thorne, Border Crossings . London: Blackwell, 1988, 293.
5. There is an abundant literature on the postwar settlements. For Japan see Michael Schaller, The American Occupation of Japan . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985; for Korea, most useful is Bruce Cummings, The Origins of the Korean War . Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2 vols., 1981 and 1990. For Europe as a whole and "the politics of productivity" see Charles Maier, In Search of Stability . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
6. U.S. Department of State, Office of Intelligence Research, Report 4489, "The World Strength of the Communist Party Organizations," 1 October 1947.
7. Jeffrey Gould, "For an Organized Nicaragua: Somoza and the Labour Movement, 1944-1948," Journal of Latin American Studies 19, pt. 2 (November 1987), 353-87.
8. Víctor Alba, Politics and the Labor Movement in Latin America . Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1968, 325.
9. Vicente Lombardo Toledano, "Por la industrialización de México," in El marxismo en América Latina , edited by Michael Lowy. México, D.F.: ERA, 1982, 158-60; Confederación de Trabajadores de América Latina (CTAL), Por un mundo mejor . México, D.F.: Confederación de Trabajadores de América Latina, 1948; Victor Manuel Durand, La ruptura de la nación . México, D.F.: Universidad Autónoma de México, 1986, 103-43
10. Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre, Y después de la guerra ¿Qué? Lima: Editorial PTCM, 1946.
11. The debates between Gudin and Simonsen in Brazil over that country's "agrarian vocation" are an obvious example. Eugenio Gudin and Roberto Simonsen, A controversia do planejamento na economia brasileira . Rio de Janeiro: IPEA, 1978; Ricardo Bielschowsky, Pensamento económico brasileiro . Rio de Janeiro: IPEA, 1988,
12. U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States , 1945, vol. 9. Washington, D.C., 1970, esp. 49, 64-65, 68-70, 83, 96-97, 103-105, 111-114, 138.
13. Stephen Rabe, Eisenhower and Latin America . Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988, 16-18; Forrest Pogue, George C. Marshall: Statesman, 1945-1959 . New York: Penguin, 1987, 380-86.
14. See Paul W. Drake, "International Crises and Popular Movements in Latin America: Chile and Peru from the Great Depression to the Cold War," this volume.
15. Jean Stubbs, Tobacco on the Periphery: A Case Study in Cuban Labor Histoty, 1860-1958 . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985, 147-49; Jon v. Kofas, The Struggle for Legitimacy: Latin American Labor and the United States, 1930-1960 . Tempe, Ariz.: Arizona State University Press, 1992, 126-44.
16. Gonzalo Portocarrero Maisch, De Bustamante a Odría . Lima: Mosca Azul, 1983; Piedad Pareja, Aprismoy sindicalismo en el Perú . Lima: Ediciones Rikchay Perú, 1980.
17. Steve Ellner, Los partidos políticos y su disputa por el control del movimiento sindical en Venezuela, 1936-1948 . Caracas: Universidad Católica Andres Bello, 1980.
18. For a discussion of the international campaign to divide the union movement see Gary K. Busch, The Political Role of International Trades Unions . London: Macmillan, 1983. For Latin America see Kofas, Struggle for Legitimacy .
19. Kofas, Struggle for Legitimacy , 290.
20. Charles Maier, In Search of Stability . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
21. The empirical evidence on the social organization of dominant classes in Latin America is still quite limited. For a preliminary discussion see Ian Roxborough, "Unity and Diversity in Latin American History," Journal of Latin American Studies 16, pt. 1 (May 1984), 1-26.
22. See, for example, Ian Roxborough, Unions and Politics in Mexico . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984.
23. See, inter alia, Thomas Skidmore, "The Politics of Economic Stabilization in Postwar Latin America," in Authoritarianism and Corporatism in Latin America , edited by James Malloy. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1977; Guillermo O'Donnell, El estado burocrático-autoritario . Buenos Aires: Belgrano, 1982.
Conclusion
1. Robert Burr, "United States Latin American Policy," in The Dynamics of World Power: A Documentary History of United States Foreign Policy , edited by Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., vol. 3. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1973, xix.
2. George Pendle, "Latin America," in Survey of International Affairs, 1953 , edited by Peter Calvocoressi. London: Oxford University Press, 1956, 336.
3. See Laurence Duggan in George Wythe, Industry in Latin America . New York: Columbia University Press, 1945, viii.
4. Cf. Rollie Poppino, International Communism in Latin America: A History of the Movement, 1914-1963 . Glencoe, ill.: Free Press, 1964, 36, 224-331.
5. Geoffrey Barraclough, ed., Survey of International Affairs, 1956-1962 . London: Oxford University Press, 1962, 304.
6. Ronald M. Schneider, Communism in Guatemala, 1944-1954 . New York: Praeger, 1958, v.
7. On the intended scope of the Alliance for Progress see Lincoln Gordon, A New Deal for Latin America: The Alliance for Progress . Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1963; for some of the basic criticisms of the Alliance see Víctor Alba, Alliance without Allies: The Mythology of Progress in Latin America . New York: Praeger, 1965.
8. Bill Albert, South America and the First World War: The Impact of the War on Brazil, Argentina, Peru, and Chile . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988, 5.
9. On Paraguay see Poppino, Communism , 83.