Notes
The following abbreviations have been used in the notes:
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1 The Languages of Engagement
1. For more theoretical studies, see Philip Rieff, ed., On Intellectuals (New York, 1969); Lewis A. Coser, Men of Ideas: A Sociologist's View (New
York, 1970); Alvin W. Gouldner, The Future of Intellectuals and the Rise of the New Class (New York, 1979).
2. Theodore Zeldin, The French (New York, 1982), 394-413, also see Theodore Zeldin, France, 1848-1945 , 2 vols. (Oxford, 1977), 2:243-345. Régis Debray, Teachers, Writers, Celebrities: The Intellectuals of Modern France, trans. David Macey (London, 1981), 39-94. Raymond Aron, The Opium of the Intellectuals , trans. Terence Kilmartin (New York, 1962), 203-324; J. E. Flower, Writers and Politics in Modern France, 1909-1961 (New York, 1977). Michel Foucault, "Truth and Power," in Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977 , ed. Colin Gordon (New York, 1980), 127-133.
3. See George L. Mosse, "Fascism and the Intellectuals," in The Nature of Fascism , ed. S. J. Woolf (New York, 1969), 205-225; Robert Soucy, Fascism in France: The Case of Maurice Barrès (Berkeley, Calif. 1972); and Zeev Sternhell, Maurice Barrès et le nationalisme français (Paris, 1972).
4. Michel Winock, Histoire politique de la revue "Esprit," 1930-1950 (Paris, 1975); J.-L. Loubet del Bayle, Les Non-conformistes des années 30 (Paris, 1969).
5. Daniel Guérin, Ni Dieu ni maître: Histoire et anthologie de l'anarchisme, 2 vols. (Lausanne, 1969); Jean Maitron, Histoire du mouvement anarchiste en France (Paris, 1955).
6. David L. Schalk, The Spectrum of Political Engagement (Princeton, N.J., 1979), 3-25.
7. Jean-Paul Sartre, Sartre by Himself , trans. Richard Seaver (New York, 1978), 63.
8. Micheline Tison-Braun, La Crise de l'humanisme , 2 vols. (Paris, 1958, 1967), 1:463-502; 2:54-58, 168-171, 257-271.
9. H. Stuart Hughes, Consciousness and Society (New York, 1958); George L. Mosse, The Culture of Western Europe (New York, 1961); Wilson H. Coates and Hayden V. White, The Ordeal of Liberal Humanism (New York, 1970), vol. 2.
10. Julien Benda, The Treason of the Intellectuals , trans. Richard Aldington (New York, 1969); David L. Schalk, Spectrum of Political Engagement , 26-48.
11. Jean-Paul Sartre, What Is Literature? trans. Bernard Frechtman (New York, 1965).
2 An Oceanic Sensibility
1. Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents , in The Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud , standard ed., trans. James Strachey, 24 vols. (London, 1953-1974) (hereinafter cited as Standard Edition ), 21:64.
2. Ibid.; Sigmund Freud, "A Disturbance of Memory on the Acropolis: An Open Letter to Romain Rolland on the Occasion of His Seventieth Birthday" (1936), Standard Edition 22:238, 248.
1. Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents , in The Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud , standard ed., trans. James Strachey, 24 vols. (London, 1953-1974) (hereinafter cited as Standard Edition ), 21:64.
2. Ibid.; Sigmund Freud, "A Disturbance of Memory on the Acropolis: An Open Letter to Romain Rolland on the Occasion of His Seventieth Birthday" (1936), Standard Edition 22:238, 248.
3. Letters from Sigmund Freud to Rolland, 4 March 1923, 29 January 1926, 13 May 1926; Freud to Victor Wittkowski, 6 January 1936, in Letters of Sigmund Freud, 1873-1939 , trans. Tania Stern and James Stern (London, 1970), 346, 365, 371, 423.
4. David James Fisher, "Reading Freud's Civilization and Its Discon-
tents ," in Modern European Intellectual History: Reappraisals and New Perspectives , ed. Dominick LaCapra and Steven L. Kaplan (Ithaca, N.Y., 1982), 251-279; David James Fisher, "Sigmund Freud and Romain Rolland: The Terrestrial Animal and His Great Oceanic Friend," American Image 33 (Spring 1976): 1-59; David S. Werman, "Sigmund Freud and Romain Rolland," International Review of Psycho-Analysis 4 (1977): 225-242; Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson, The Oceanic Feeling: The Origins of Religious Sentiment in Ancient India (Dordrecht, 1980), 33-50.
5. Letter from Rolland to Freud, 5 December 1927, BV , 264-266.
6. Letter from Freud to Rolland, 14 July 1929, Letters of Sigmund Freud , 388.
7. Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents, Standard Edition 22:68.
8. Letter from Freud to Rolland, 19 January 1930, Letters of Sigmund Freud , 392-393.
9. Romain Rolland, The Life of Ramakrishna , trans. E. F. Malcolm-Smith (Calcutta, 1970), 6-7; this first appeared as Essai sur la mystique et l' action de l'Inde vivante. La Vie de Ramakrishna (Paris, 1929).
10. Romain Rolland, Le Voyage intérieur (Songe d'une vie) (Paris, 1959), 19-26, 40; William T. Starr, Romain Rolland: One Against All (The Hague, 1971), 11-21; Stefan Zweig, Romain Rolland: The Man and His Work (1921; New York, 1972), 3-7; Ronald A. Wilson, The Pre-War Biographies of Romain Rolland (1939; New York, 1972), 1-5.
11. Rolland, Voyage intérieur , 139-173; Starr, Romain Rolland , 33-44; Wilson, Pre-War Biographies , 21-26; Zweig, Romain Rolland , 23-31; René Cheval, Romain Rolland, l'Allemagne et la guerre (Paris, 1963), 94-116.
12. Letter from Rainer Maria Rilke to Princess Marie von Thurn und Taxis-Hohenlohe, 17 April 1913, in Letters of Rainer Maria Rilke , trans. Jane B. Greene and M. D. H. Norton (New York, 1972), 92.
13. Zweig, Romain Rolland , 45-47.
14. Ibid., 8-11; Wilson, Pre-War Biographies , 6-12.
13. Zweig, Romain Rolland , 45-47.
14. Ibid., 8-11; Wilson, Pre-War Biographies , 6-12.
15. Starr, Romain Rolland , 176, 200; Cheval, Romain Rolland, l'Allemagne et la guerre , 29n.6.
16. Romain Rolland, Mémoires (Paris, 1956), 21-35.
17. Rolland, Voyage intérieur , 27-41.
18. Romain Rolland, Le Cloître de la rue d'Ulm. Journal de Romain Rolland à l'Ecole normale (1886-1889) (Paris, 1952); Rolland, Mémoires , 36-71.
19. Rolland, Cloître de la rue d'Ulm , 313; on the Sorbonne of this period, see Steven Lukes, Emile Durkheim: His Life and Work (New York, 1972), 373-375. Also see Robert J. Smith, The Ecole Normale Supérieure and the Third Republic (Albany, N.Y., 1982).
20. Romain Rolland, Les Origines du théâtre lyrique moderne. Histoire de l'opéra en Europe avant Lully et Scarlatti (Paris, 1895).
21. Romain Rolland, De la décadence de la peinture italienne au XVI e siècle (1895) (1931; Paris, 1957); Rolland, Mémoires , 195-196.
22. Rolland, Mémoires , 222.
23. Zweig, Romain Rolland , 32-36; Jacques Robichez, Romain Rolland (Paris, 1961), 31-32, 47-48, 55-56.
24. Romain Rolland, Péguy , 2 vols. (Paris, 1944), 1:40-41, 137-143.
25. Ibid., 15-41.
24. Romain Rolland, Péguy , 2 vols. (Paris, 1944), 1:40-41, 137-143.
25. Ibid., 15-41.
26. Rolland, Cloître de la rue d'Ulm , 17, 80-81, 85-86, 89, 145, 148.
27. Ibid., 73-74.
26. Rolland, Cloître de la rue d'Ulm , 17, 80-81, 85-86, 89, 145, 148.
27. Ibid., 73-74.
28. Claude Digeon, La Crise allemande de la pensée française (1870-1914) (Paris, 1959), 519-533; Allan Mitchell, The German Influence in France After 1870 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1981).
29. Romain Rolland completed eight plays in a projected cycle of twelve for his Théâtre de la Révolution . The following list is in thematic order and indicates year of publication: Pâques fleuries. Prologue (Paris, 1926) Le 14 juillet (Paris, 1902) Les Loups (Paris, 1898) Le Triomphe de la raison (Paris, 1899) Le Jeu de l'amour et de la mort (Paris, 1925) Danton (Paris, 1900) Robespierre (Paris, 1939) Les Léonides. Epilogue (Paris, 1928)
See Romain Rolland, Les Tragédies de la foi: Saint-Louis, Aërt, Le Triomphe de la raison (Paris, 1913); and Rolland, Le Théâtre de la Révolution: Le 14 juillet, Danton, Les Loups (Paris, 1909).
Various dimensions of the French popular theater have been studied in David James Fisher,"Romain Rolland and the Ideology and Aesthetics of the French People's Theatre," Theatre Quarterly 9, no. 33 (1979): 83-103; David James Fisher, "The Origins of the French Popular Theatre," Journal of Contemporary History 12 (1977): 461-497; David James Fisher, "Romain Rolland and the French People's Theatre," Drama Review , March 1977, 75-90; "People's Theatre in France Since 1870,'' Theatre Quarterly 6, no. 23 (1976); Michael Ragon, Histoire de la littérature prolétarienne en France (Paris, 1974), 134; Denis Gontard, La Décentralisation théâtrale (Paris, 1973), 21-41; Emile Copfermann, Le Théâtre populaire, pourquoi? (Paris, 1969), 22; Léon Moussinac, Le Théâtre des origines à nos jours (Paris, 1966); Jack Lang, L'Etat et le théâtre (Paris, 1968), 109-110; Helen W. Machan, "The Popular Theatre Movement in France,'' Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1950; Maurice Edgar Coindreau, La Farce est jouée: Vingt Ans de théâtre français (New York, 1942), 153-177; Jacques Copeau, "Le Théâtre populaire," Théâtre populaire , no. 36 (1959): 91-94; Marcel Doisy, Le Théâtre français contemporain (Brussels, 1947), 232-233; Jean-Richard Bloch, "Le Théâtre du peuple. Critique d'une utopie," in Carnaval est mort (Paris, 1920), 27-40.
30. Romain Rolland, "Préface à mon théâtre" (1892), Textes politiques, sociaux et philosophiques choisis , ed. Jean Albertini (Paris, 1970), 118-119.
31. Ibid., 119-123; for an analysis of Romain Rolland's "critical realism," see Georg Lukács, Realism in Our Time , trans. John Mander and Necke Mander (New York, 1964), 93-94, 96, 97-103, 105, 108; Lukács wrote a short essay on Romain Rolland's Colas Breugnon in The Historical Novel , trans. Hannah Mitchell and Stanley Mitchell (New York, 1963), 322-332.
30. Romain Rolland, "Préface à mon théâtre" (1892), Textes politiques, sociaux et philosophiques choisis , ed. Jean Albertini (Paris, 1970), 118-119.
31. Ibid., 119-123; for an analysis of Romain Rolland's "critical realism," see Georg Lukács, Realism in Our Time , trans. John Mander and Necke Mander (New York, 1964), 93-94, 96, 97-103, 105, 108; Lukács wrote a short essay on Romain Rolland's Colas Breugnon in The Historical Novel , trans. Hannah Mitchell and Stanley Mitchell (New York, 1963), 322-332.
32. Romain Rolland, "Réponse à l'enquête sur la critique dramatique," Revue d'art dramatique , 5 February 1899, 160-161.
33. Romain Rolland, "La Poison idéaliste," Revue d'art dramatique , July 1900, 661-665; reprinted in Romain Rolland, Compagnons de route. Essais littéraires (Paris, 1936), 17-22.
34. Romain Rolland, "Enquête sur la Comédie-Française," Revue naturiste , 1 October 1901, 62-65.
35. On Pottecher's People's Theater of Bussang, see Fisher, "Origins of the French Popular Theatre," 463-465; Gontard, Décentralisation théâtrale , 21-41.
36. Letter from Rolland to Maurice Pottecher, 27 November 1897, ARR.
37. Rolland, Mémoires , 281-295.
38. Ibid., 247, 262-264, 275.
39. Ibid., 284-288; letters from Rolland to Lucien Herr, 1 February 1898, 15 December 1898, cited in Robert J. Smith, "A Note on Romain Rolland in the Dreyfus Affair," French Historical Studies 7 no. 2 (Fall 1971): 284-287; Michael R. Marrus, The Politics of Assimilation: The French Jewish Community at the Time of the Dreyfus Affair (Oxford, 1971).
37. Rolland, Mémoires , 281-295.
38. Ibid., 247, 262-264, 275.
39. Ibid., 284-288; letters from Rolland to Lucien Herr, 1 February 1898, 15 December 1898, cited in Robert J. Smith, "A Note on Romain Rolland in the Dreyfus Affair," French Historical Studies 7 no. 2 (Fall 1971): 284-287; Michael R. Marrus, The Politics of Assimilation: The French Jewish Community at the Time of the Dreyfus Affair (Oxford, 1971).
37. Rolland, Mémoires , 281-295.
38. Ibid., 247, 262-264, 275.
39. Ibid., 284-288; letters from Rolland to Lucien Herr, 1 February 1898, 15 December 1898, cited in Robert J. Smith, "A Note on Romain Rolland in the Dreyfus Affair," French Historical Studies 7 no. 2 (Fall 1971): 284-287; Michael R. Marrus, The Politics of Assimilation: The French Jewish Community at the Time of the Dreyfus Affair (Oxford, 1971).
40. Rolland, Mémoires , 289-290.
41. Ibid., 283; Christophe Charle, "Champ litteraire et champ du pouvoir: Les Ecrivains et l'Affaire Dreyfus," Annales, ESC 32, no. 2 (March-April 1977): 240-264; Jean-Denis Bredin, The Affair: The Case of Alfred Dreyfus , trans. Jeffrey Mehlman (New York, 1986), 275-285, 520.
40. Rolland, Mémoires , 289-290.
41. Ibid., 283; Christophe Charle, "Champ litteraire et champ du pouvoir: Les Ecrivains et l'Affaire Dreyfus," Annales, ESC 32, no. 2 (March-April 1977): 240-264; Jean-Denis Bredin, The Affair: The Case of Alfred Dreyfus , trans. Jeffrey Mehlman (New York, 1986), 275-285, 520.
42. Rolland, Mémoires , 291, 316; Antoinette Blum, "Romain Rolland face à l'Affaire Dreyfus," Relations internationales , no. 14 (Summer 1978).
43. Ibid., 286; Rolland, Voyage intérieur , 164-165.
42. Rolland, Mémoires , 291, 316; Antoinette Blum, "Romain Rolland face à l'Affaire Dreyfus," Relations internationales , no. 14 (Summer 1978).
43. Ibid., 286; Rolland, Voyage intérieur , 164-165.
44. Letter from Rolland to Malwida von Meysenbug, 22 May 1898, RR-MvM , 233.
45. Rolland, Mémoires , 290-291.
46. Romain Rolland, "Préface" (January 1909), Le 14 juillet. Théâtre de la Révolution (Paris, 1926), vi.
47. Rolland, "Préface" (June 1901), Le 14 juillet , 3.
48. Romain Rolland, Le Théâtre du peuple. Essai d'esthétique d'un théâtre nouveau (Paris, 1926), 74-85, 171-191. This work was originally published in Cahiers de la Quinzaine , 24 November 1903; first published in book form in 1904; a tenth edition was published in 1913. I cite the thirteenth edition of 1926. It appeared in English as The People's Theater , trans. Barrett H. Clark (New York, 1918); Clark's translation, now out of print, omitted a critical chapter on people's festivals. One segment of Romain Rolland's text has been reprinted in The Theory of the Modern Stage , ed. Eric Bentley (Baltimore, 1968), 455-470; another segment, entitled "Theatre for the Real People," appeared in Theatre Quarterly 6, no. 23 (1976): 17-23.
49. Cheval, Romain Rolland, l'Allemagne et la guerre ; Marcelle Kempf, Romain Rolland et l'Allemagne (Paris, 1962); Michael Kelly, Modern French Marxism (Baltimore, 1982), 5-23; Daniel Lindenberg, Le Marxisme introuvable (Paris, 1975); George Lichtheim, Marxism in Modern France (New York, 1965); Claude Willard, Les Guesdistes (Paris, 1965).
50. Rolland, Mémoires , 240, 241, 244.
51. Ibid., 292, 293, 294, 296-298, 314; letter from Rolland to Louis Gillet, 18 January 1901, LG-RR , 117-118.
50. Rolland, Mémoires , 240, 241, 244.
51. Ibid., 292, 293, 294, 296-298, 314; letter from Rolland to Louis Gillet, 18 January 1901, LG-RR , 117-118.
52. Letter from Rolland to Gillet, 22 January 1901, LG-RR , 121.
53. Rolland, Mémoires , 251, 295, 312.
54. Rolland, Le 14 juillet , 7; first published in Cahiers de la Quinzaine , 20 March 1902; published in English as The Fourteenth of July , trans. Barrett H. Clark (New York, 1928).
55. Rolland, Le 14 juillet , 125-138.
56. Rolland, "Préface" (June 1901), Le 14 juillet , 3.
57. Letter from Rolland to Firmin Gémier, 11 January 1902, ARR; also see Romain Rolland, "Variante. Pour une représentation de fête populaire avec orchestre et choeurs," Le 14 juillet , 138-149; Rolland, "Note sur la dernière scène," ibid., 150-151; David Sices, Music and the Musician in Jean-Christophe (New Haven, Conn., 1968), 105-110; and Romain Rolland, "Le 14 juillet,'' L'Art du théâtre , 18 June 1902, 107-111.
56. Rolland, "Préface" (June 1901), Le 14 juillet , 3.
57. Letter from Rolland to Firmin Gémier, 11 January 1902, ARR; also see Romain Rolland, "Variante. Pour une représentation de fête populaire avec orchestre et choeurs," Le 14 juillet , 138-149; Rolland, "Note sur la dernière scène," ibid., 150-151; David Sices, Music and the Musician in Jean-Christophe (New Haven, Conn., 1968), 105-110; and Romain Rolland, "Le 14 juillet,'' L'Art du théâtre , 18 June 1902, 107-111.
58. Letters from Rolland to Julien Tiersot, 12 February 1902, 8 May 1902, ARR; Romain Rolland, "La Musique pendant la Révolution," Pages libres , no. 80 (12 July 1902): 35-36.
59. Letter from Rolland to Malwida von Meysenbug, 31 December 1899, RR-MvM , 273.
60. Romain Rolland, "Le Théâtre du peuple," Cahiers de la Quinzaine , 24 November 1903.
61. Rolland, Théâtre du peuple , 65, 106-107.
62. Ibid., 108-112.
63. Ibid., 64-65.
64. Ibid., 106-107.
61. Rolland, Théâtre du peuple , 65, 106-107.
62. Ibid., 108-112.
63. Ibid., 64-65.
64. Ibid., 106-107.
61. Rolland, Théâtre du peuple , 65, 106-107.
62. Ibid., 108-112.
63. Ibid., 64-65.
64. Ibid., 106-107.
61. Rolland, Théâtre du peuple , 65, 106-107.
62. Ibid., 108-112.
63. Ibid., 64-65.
64. Ibid., 106-107.
65. Letter from Rolland to Sofia Guerrieri-Gonzaga, 22 May 1903, RR-SBGG (1959) , 116.
66. Rolland, Théâtre du peuple , 153-168.
67. Ibid., 169.
66. Rolland, Théâtre du peuple , 153-168.
67. Ibid., 169.
68. Letter from Rolland to Henrik Ibsen, 5 July 1894, BV , 43-46; Ibsen replied in a letter dated 23 July 1894, "Your letter inspired me with a very lively sympathy." ARR.
69. Romain Rolland, "Préface" (January 1908), Vie de Beethoven (Paris, 1969), 13-18.
70. Romain Rolland, Vie de Michel-Ange (Paris, 1964), 209.
71. Rolland, Mémoires , 310. Lives of Illustrious Men included Vie de Beethoven (Paris, 1903), Vie de Michel-Ange (Paris, 1906), and Vie de Tolstoï (Paris, 1911).
72. Romain Rolland, "Préface" (March 1927), Vie de Beethoven (Paris, 1969), 7-10.
73. Romain Rolland, "Richard Strauss," in Richard Strauss and Romain Rolland: Correspondence, Diary, and Essays , ed. Rollo Myers (Berkeley, Calif., 1968), 175-195; originally published in Revue de Paris , 15 June 1899.
74. Rolland, Vie de Beethoven (Paris, 1969), esp. 98-102.
75. Rolland, Vie de Tolstoï (Paris, 1959), 1-4.
76. Ibid., 156-174.
75. Rolland, Vie de Tolstoï (Paris, 1959), 1-4.
76. Ibid., 156-174.
77. Letter from Rolland to Tolstoy, 16 April 1887, BV , 17-19.
78. Letter from Tolstoy to Rolland, 4 October 1887, Compagnons de route , 237-246; first published in Cahiers de la Quinzaine , 25 February 1902.
79. Romain Rolland, "Introduction á une lettre de Tolstoy," Compagnons de route , 219-223; Rolland, "In Memoriam Léon Tolstoy," ibid., 224.
78. Letter from Tolstoy to Rolland, 4 October 1887, Compagnons de route , 237-246; first published in Cahiers de la Quinzaine , 25 February 1902.
79. Romain Rolland, "Introduction á une lettre de Tolstoy," Compagnons de route , 219-223; Rolland, "In Memoriam Léon Tolstoy," ibid., 224.
80. Rolland, Vie de Tolstoï (Paris, 1959); translated by Bernard Miall as Tolstoy (Port Washington, N.Y., 1972).
81. Rolland, Vie de Tolstoï (Paris, 1959), 111-125.
82. Ibid., 170-171, 174.
83. Ibid., 159-168.
84. Ibid., 4, 18; for the influence of Hugo and Michelet on him, see Romain Rolland, "Le Vieux Orphée: Victor Hugo" (1935), Compagnons de route , 198-217; Rolland, Mémoires , 265-266; and Rolland, Théàtre du peuple , 85-86.
81. Rolland, Vie de Tolstoï (Paris, 1959), 111-125.
82. Ibid., 170-171, 174.
83. Ibid., 159-168.
84. Ibid., 4, 18; for the influence of Hugo and Michelet on him, see Romain Rolland, "Le Vieux Orphée: Victor Hugo" (1935), Compagnons de route , 198-217; Rolland, Mémoires , 265-266; and Rolland, Théàtre du peuple , 85-86.
81. Rolland, Vie de Tolstoï (Paris, 1959), 111-125.
82. Ibid., 170-171, 174.
83. Ibid., 159-168.
84. Ibid., 4, 18; for the influence of Hugo and Michelet on him, see Romain Rolland, "Le Vieux Orphée: Victor Hugo" (1935), Compagnons de route , 198-217; Rolland, Mémoires , 265-266; and Rolland, Théàtre du peuple , 85-86.
81. Rolland, Vie de Tolstoï (Paris, 1959), 111-125.
82. Ibid., 170-171, 174.
83. Ibid., 159-168.
84. Ibid., 4, 18; for the influence of Hugo and Michelet on him, see Romain Rolland, "Le Vieux Orphée: Victor Hugo" (1935), Compagnons de route , 198-217; Rolland, Mémoires , 265-266; and Rolland, Théàtre du peuple , 85-86.
85. Letter from Rolland to Malwida von Meysenbug, 10 April 1900, RR-MvM , 281.
86. See Romain Rolland, Pour l'honneur de l'esprit. Correspondance entre Charles Péguy et Romain Rolland (Paris, 1973).
87. Letter from Rolland to Malwida von Meysenbug, 30 December 1901, RR-MvM , 305-306.
88. See the bibliography in Bernard Duchatelet, "Des débuts de Jean-Christophe (1886-1906)," 2 vols., doctoral thesis, University of Lille, 1975, 1:781-793.
89. Romain Rolland, Jean-Christophe (Paris, 1966), 1562; English trans. Gilbert Cannan (New York, 1913), 473.
90. Ibid., 1559, 1562 (English, 470, 474).
91. Ibid., 983, 1024, 1062, 1077 (English, 361, 405, 448, 463).
92. Ibid., 801, 1115, 1024, 1055, 1072, 1077, 1138, 1435 (English, 168, 395-396, 405, 439, 458, 463, 52, 353).
93. Ibid., 942, 943-944, 1008-1009, 1282 (English, 317, 318-319, 387, 194); also see Victor Brombert, The Intellectual Hero: Studies in the French Novel, 1880-1955 (Chicago, 1960), 21-22, 25, 33, 38, 138, 157, 160-161; William M. Johnston, "The Origin of the Term 'Intellectuals' in French Novels and Essays of the 1890's," Journal of European Studies 4 (1974): 43-56.
89. Romain Rolland, Jean-Christophe (Paris, 1966), 1562; English trans. Gilbert Cannan (New York, 1913), 473.
90. Ibid., 1559, 1562 (English, 470, 474).
91. Ibid., 983, 1024, 1062, 1077 (English, 361, 405, 448, 463).
92. Ibid., 801, 1115, 1024, 1055, 1072, 1077, 1138, 1435 (English, 168, 395-396, 405, 439, 458, 463, 52, 353).
93. Ibid., 942, 943-944, 1008-1009, 1282 (English, 317, 318-319, 387, 194); also see Victor Brombert, The Intellectual Hero: Studies in the French Novel, 1880-1955 (Chicago, 1960), 21-22, 25, 33, 38, 138, 157, 160-161; William M. Johnston, "The Origin of the Term 'Intellectuals' in French Novels and Essays of the 1890's," Journal of European Studies 4 (1974): 43-56.
89. Romain Rolland, Jean-Christophe (Paris, 1966), 1562; English trans. Gilbert Cannan (New York, 1913), 473.
90. Ibid., 1559, 1562 (English, 470, 474).
91. Ibid., 983, 1024, 1062, 1077 (English, 361, 405, 448, 463).
92. Ibid., 801, 1115, 1024, 1055, 1072, 1077, 1138, 1435 (English, 168, 395-396, 405, 439, 458, 463, 52, 353).
93. Ibid., 942, 943-944, 1008-1009, 1282 (English, 317, 318-319, 387, 194); also see Victor Brombert, The Intellectual Hero: Studies in the French Novel, 1880-1955 (Chicago, 1960), 21-22, 25, 33, 38, 138, 157, 160-161; William M. Johnston, "The Origin of the Term 'Intellectuals' in French Novels and Essays of the 1890's," Journal of European Studies 4 (1974): 43-56.
89. Romain Rolland, Jean-Christophe (Paris, 1966), 1562; English trans. Gilbert Cannan (New York, 1913), 473.
90. Ibid., 1559, 1562 (English, 470, 474).
91. Ibid., 983, 1024, 1062, 1077 (English, 361, 405, 448, 463).
92. Ibid., 801, 1115, 1024, 1055, 1072, 1077, 1138, 1435 (English, 168, 395-396, 405, 439, 458, 463, 52, 353).
93. Ibid., 942, 943-944, 1008-1009, 1282 (English, 317, 318-319, 387, 194); also see Victor Brombert, The Intellectual Hero: Studies in the French Novel, 1880-1955 (Chicago, 1960), 21-22, 25, 33, 38, 138, 157, 160-161; William M. Johnston, "The Origin of the Term 'Intellectuals' in French Novels and Essays of the 1890's," Journal of European Studies 4 (1974): 43-56.
89. Romain Rolland, Jean-Christophe (Paris, 1966), 1562; English trans. Gilbert Cannan (New York, 1913), 473.
90. Ibid., 1559, 1562 (English, 470, 474).
91. Ibid., 983, 1024, 1062, 1077 (English, 361, 405, 448, 463).
92. Ibid., 801, 1115, 1024, 1055, 1072, 1077, 1138, 1435 (English, 168, 395-396, 405, 439, 458, 463, 52, 353).
93. Ibid., 942, 943-944, 1008-1009, 1282 (English, 317, 318-319, 387, 194); also see Victor Brombert, The Intellectual Hero: Studies in the French Novel, 1880-1955 (Chicago, 1960), 21-22, 25, 33, 38, 138, 157, 160-161; William M. Johnston, "The Origin of the Term 'Intellectuals' in French Novels and Essays of the 1890's," Journal of European Studies 4 (1974): 43-56.
94. Rolland, Jean-Christophe , 987, 993, 995-996, 1062, 1068, 1257, 1325 (English, 365, 370, 373, 448, 453, 167, 242).
95. Ibid., 1176 (English, 91); and Romain Rolland, "Dialogue de l'auteur avec son ombre" (March 1908), Jean-Christophe , 635-639. Jean-Christophe was dedicated "to the free souls of every nation who suffer, who struggle, and who will vanquish." See Paul Claudel, "La Pensée religieuse de Romain Rolland," in Accompagnements (Paris, 1949), 62-88; Pierre Sipriot, Romain Rolland (Bruges, 1968).
94. Rolland, Jean-Christophe , 987, 993, 995-996, 1062, 1068, 1257, 1325 (English, 365, 370, 373, 448, 453, 167, 242).
95. Ibid., 1176 (English, 91); and Romain Rolland, "Dialogue de l'auteur avec son ombre" (March 1908), Jean-Christophe , 635-639. Jean-Christophe was dedicated "to the free souls of every nation who suffer, who struggle, and who will vanquish." See Paul Claudel, "La Pensée religieuse de Romain Rolland," in Accompagnements (Paris, 1949), 62-88; Pierre Sipriot, Romain Rolland (Bruges, 1968).
96. Starr, Romain Rolland , 124-145; Zweig, Romain Rolland , 157-237; letter from Rolland to Charles Péguy, 14 June 1913, Pour l'honneur de l'esprit , 340.
3 Above the Battle
1. Letter from Rolland to H. G. Wells, 1 July 1911, BV , 95-96.
2. Letter from Rolland to Alphonse Séché, 14 January 1914, BV , 118-120; also see letters from Rolland to Jean-Richard Bloch, 14 January 1912 and 16 January 1913, JRB-RR , 99-100, 177-179.
3. Letter from Rolland to Louis Gillet, 6 July 1914, LG-RR , 280; see also letter from Rolland to Jean-Richard Bloch, 14 January 1912, JRB-RR , 99. In this period Romain Rolland completed his second novel. See Romain Rolland, Colas Breugnon. Bonhomme vit encore (Paris, 1919); Romain Rolland, De Jean-Christophe à Colas Breugnon. Pages de journal (Paris, 1946); Stefan
Zweig, Romain Rolland: The Man and His Work (1921; New York, 1972), 241-253; William T. Starr, Romain Rolland: One Against All (The Hague, 1971), 172-174.
4. Henri Giordan, ed., Romain Rolland et le mouvement florentin de "la Voce" (Paris, 1966).
5. Letter from Rolland to Sofia Bertolini Guerrieri-Gonzaga, 23 September 1913, RR-SBGG (1960) , 184; Rolland, De Jean-Christophe à Colas Breugnon , 106.
6. For a day-by-day account of Romain Rolland's activities during the Great War, see the magnificent Journal des années de guerre (Paris, 1952) ( JAG ), surely one of the most stirring intellectual documents produced during this period.
7. Romain Rolland, Au-dessus de la mêlée (September 1915), reprinted in L'Esprit libre (Geneva, 1971), 53-55; letters from Rolland to Bloch, 21 September 1914, 24 September 1914, JRB-RR , 270-278.
8. Roland N. Stromberg, Redemption by War: The Intellectuals and 1914 (Lawrence, Kans., 1982), 39-60, 153-156; Robert Wohl, The Generation of 1914 (Cambridge, Mass., 1979), 1-41; Sandi Cooper, "Liberal Internationalism Before World War I," Peace and Change 1 (1973): 11-19; Sandi Cooper, "The Guns of August and the Doves of Italy: Intervention and Internationalism," Peace and Change 7, no. 1-2 (Winter 1981): 29-43.
9. See Romain Rolland, "Lettre ouverte à Gerhard Hauptmann" (24 August 1914), L'Esprit libre , 57-59; Romain Rolland, "Pro Aris" (September 1914), ibid., 61-69; and Romain Rolland, "Au-dessus de la mêlée" (15 September 1914), ibid., 70-83 (reprinted in English translation of Au-dessus de la mêlée , titled Above the Battle , trans. C. K. Ogden [Chicago, 1916], 19-55).
10. Romain Rolland, "Jaurès" (1 August 1915), L'Esprit libre , 165-172 ( Above the Battle , 181-192). Also see Romain Rolland, "Lettre à ceux qui m'accusent" (17 November 1914), L'Esprit libre , 104-110; and Romain Rolland, "Les Idoles" (4 December 1914), ibid., 111-120.
8. Roland N. Stromberg, Redemption by War: The Intellectuals and 1914 (Lawrence, Kans., 1982), 39-60, 153-156; Robert Wohl, The Generation of 1914 (Cambridge, Mass., 1979), 1-41; Sandi Cooper, "Liberal Internationalism Before World War I," Peace and Change 1 (1973): 11-19; Sandi Cooper, "The Guns of August and the Doves of Italy: Intervention and Internationalism," Peace and Change 7, no. 1-2 (Winter 1981): 29-43.
9. See Romain Rolland, "Lettre ouverte à Gerhard Hauptmann" (24 August 1914), L'Esprit libre , 57-59; Romain Rolland, "Pro Aris" (September 1914), ibid., 61-69; and Romain Rolland, "Au-dessus de la mêlée" (15 September 1914), ibid., 70-83 (reprinted in English translation of Au-dessus de la mêlée , titled Above the Battle , trans. C. K. Ogden [Chicago, 1916], 19-55).
10. Romain Rolland, "Jaurès" (1 August 1915), L'Esprit libre , 165-172 ( Above the Battle , 181-192). Also see Romain Rolland, "Lettre à ceux qui m'accusent" (17 November 1914), L'Esprit libre , 104-110; and Romain Rolland, "Les Idoles" (4 December 1914), ibid., 111-120.
8. Roland N. Stromberg, Redemption by War: The Intellectuals and 1914 (Lawrence, Kans., 1982), 39-60, 153-156; Robert Wohl, The Generation of 1914 (Cambridge, Mass., 1979), 1-41; Sandi Cooper, "Liberal Internationalism Before World War I," Peace and Change 1 (1973): 11-19; Sandi Cooper, "The Guns of August and the Doves of Italy: Intervention and Internationalism," Peace and Change 7, no. 1-2 (Winter 1981): 29-43.
9. See Romain Rolland, "Lettre ouverte à Gerhard Hauptmann" (24 August 1914), L'Esprit libre , 57-59; Romain Rolland, "Pro Aris" (September 1914), ibid., 61-69; and Romain Rolland, "Au-dessus de la mêlée" (15 September 1914), ibid., 70-83 (reprinted in English translation of Au-dessus de la mêlée , titled Above the Battle , trans. C. K. Ogden [Chicago, 1916], 19-55).
10. Romain Rolland, "Jaurès" (1 August 1915), L'Esprit libre , 165-172 ( Above the Battle , 181-192). Also see Romain Rolland, "Lettre à ceux qui m'accusent" (17 November 1914), L'Esprit libre , 104-110; and Romain Rolland, "Les Idoles" (4 December 1914), ibid., 111-120.
11. Romain Rolland, "Inter Arma Caritas" (30 October 1914), L'Esprit libre , 90-100 ( Above the Battle , 76-92); and Romain Rolland, "Le Meurtre des élites" (14 June 1915), L'Esprit libre , 154-164 ( Above the Battle , 168-180).
12. Rolland, "Au-dessus de la mélée," 77 ( Above the Battle , 47).
13. Rolland, "Au-dessus de la mêlée," 82 ( Above the Battle , 55).
14. Rolland, "Au-dessus de la mêlée," 74 ( Above the Battle , 43); and Rolland, "Les Idoles," 116-118 ( Above the Battle , 115-119).
15. Rolland, "Inter Arma Caritas," 100 ( Above the Battle , 91).
16. Romain Rolland, "Littérature de guerre," L'Esprit libre , 143 ( Above the Battle , 153); also see Romain Rolland, Clérambault. Histoire d'une conscience libre pendant la guerre (1920; Geneva, 1971), 148.
17. Rolland, "Inter Arma Caritas," 100 ( Above the Battle , 91).
18. Rolland, "Lettre à ceux qui m'accusent," 107 ( Above the Battle , 101-102).
19. Rolland, "Pour l'Europe," L'Esprit libre , 121 ( Above the Battle , 122); Romain Rolland, "Pour l'Europe: Un Appel de la Hollande," L'Esprit libre , 125-127 ( Above the Battle , 127-130).
20. Rolland, "Les Idoles," 117-118 ( Above the Battle , 116-117).
21. René Cheval, Romain Rolland, l'Allemagne et la guerre (Paris, 1963), 476-583; William T. Starr, Romain Rolland and a World at War (Evanston, Ill.
1956), 97-114; David James Fisher, "Pacifism and the Intellectual: The Case of Romain Rolland," Peace and Change 7, no. 1-2 (Winter 1981): 85-96.
22. Cheval, Romain Rolland , 564-565; Starr, Romain Rolland and a World at War , 130-136.
23. Letter from Rolland to his mother, 18 December 1914, in Je commence à devenir dangereux. Choix de lettres de Romain Rolland à sa mère (1914-1916) (Paris, 1971), 45; Cheval, Romain Rolland , 584-697; Starr, Romain Rolland and a World at War , 137-198.
24. Romain Rolland, "Introduction" (6 April 1931), L'Esprit libre , 29-31; see also Rolland, Above the Battle , 14.
25. JAG , 558, 1129-1131; Cheval, Romain Rolland , 594-599; telegram from V. I. Lenin to Henri Guilbeaux, 8 April 1917, The Letters of Lenin , ed. Elizabeth Hill and Doris Mudie (New York, 1937), 423; also see Alfred E. Senn, The Russian Revolution in Switzerland, 1914-1917 (Madison, Wis., 1971), 162, 213.
26. Shaul Ginsburg, Raymond Lefebvre et les origines du communisme français (Paris, 1975), 25-27, 29, 37-38, 80; Christian Gras, Alfred Rosmer (1877-1964 et le mouvement révolutionnaire international (Paris, 1971); Robert Wohl, French Communism in the Making (Stanford, Calif., 1966), 58.
27. Letter from Rosa Luxemburg to Luise Kautsky, 17 December 1917, in Rosa Luxemburg, Letters to Karl and Luise Kautsky, 1896 to 1918 , trans. Louis P. Lochner (New York, 1925), 211-212.
28. Letter from Lenin to V. A. Karpinski, 13 September 1915, in Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, Oeuvres (Paris, 1959), 36:351.
29. Romain Rolland, " Le Feu par Henri Barbusse" (February 1917), L'Esprit libre , 245; JAG , 496.
30. Romain Rolland, "Ara Pacis," L'Esprit libre , 179-181; Rolland, "Aux peuples assassinés," ibid., 189-197; Rolland, "Un Grand Européen: G. F. Nicolai," ibid., 262-298.
31. Romain Rolland, "Tolstoy: L'Esprit libre," L'Esprit libre , 207-210; Rolland, "A Maxime Gorki," ibid., 211-212; Rolland, "Voix libres d'Amérique," ibid., 218-221; Rolland, "Pour E. D. Morel," ibid., 235-236.
29. Romain Rolland, " Le Feu par Henri Barbusse" (February 1917), L'Esprit libre , 245; JAG , 496.
30. Romain Rolland, "Ara Pacis," L'Esprit libre , 179-181; Rolland, "Aux peuples assassinés," ibid., 189-197; Rolland, "Un Grand Européen: G. F. Nicolai," ibid., 262-298.
31. Romain Rolland, "Tolstoy: L'Esprit libre," L'Esprit libre , 207-210; Rolland, "A Maxime Gorki," ibid., 211-212; Rolland, "Voix libres d'Amérique," ibid., 218-221; Rolland, "Pour E. D. Morel," ibid., 235-236.
29. Romain Rolland, " Le Feu par Henri Barbusse" (February 1917), L'Esprit libre , 245; JAG , 496.
30. Romain Rolland, "Ara Pacis," L'Esprit libre , 179-181; Rolland, "Aux peuples assassinés," ibid., 189-197; Rolland, "Un Grand Européen: G. F. Nicolai," ibid., 262-298.
31. Romain Rolland, "Tolstoy: L'Esprit libre," L'Esprit libre , 207-210; Rolland, "A Maxime Gorki," ibid., 211-212; Rolland, "Voix libres d'Amérique," ibid., 218-221; Rolland, "Pour E. D. Morel," ibid., 235-236.
32. Romain Rolland, "Introduction" (June 1919) to Les Précurseurs , in L'Esprit libre , 178; letter from Rolland to René Arcos, 19 December 1920, indicating that he had received twenty death threats during the war, ARR.
33. Rolland, "Pour E. D. Morel," 236; Romain Rolland, "Pour l'Internationale de l'esprit" (15 March 1918), L'Esprit libre , 322-331.
4 The Intellectual's International
1. Sigmund Freud, "Thoughts for the Times on War and Death" (1915), The Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud , standard ed., trans. James Strachey, 24 vols. (London, 1953-1974) 14:274-302.
2. Benedict de Spinoza, A Political Treatise , in The Chief Works of Benedict de Spinoza , trans. R. H. M. Elwes (London, 1883), 314.
3. Romain Rolland, "Pour l'Internationale de l'esprit" (1918) in L'Esprit libre (Geneva, 1971), 322-331; for other perspectives on Romain Rolland's pacifist intellectual stance, see David James Fisher, "Pacifism and the Intellectual: The Case of Romain Rolland," Peace and Change 7, no. 1-2 (Winter 1981): 85-96; René Cheval, Romain Rolland, l'Allemagne et la guerre
(Paris, 1963), 681-699; William T. Starr, Romain Rolland and a World at War (Evanston, Ill., 1956), 162-169, 173-174, 207-208.
4. Letters, Rolland to Maxim Gorky, 18 March 1917, 27 January 1919, ARR; JAG , 1052; Jean Perus, Romain Rolland et Maxim Gorki (Paris, 1968), 45-52.
5. Letter from Rolland to Rabindranath Tagore, 26 August 1919, RTRR , 27-28; JAG , 1272-1273; letter from Rolland to Paul Vaillant-Couturier, 30 March 1919, JAG , 1777.
6. Romain Rolland, "Romain Rolland et l'Espéranto," La Vie ouvrière , 6 August 1919; Rolland, "L'Opinion de Romain Rolland sur l'Espéranto," La Vie ouvrière , 23 April 1920.
7. Letter from Rolland to Upton Sinclair, 22 August 1919, Upton Sinclair MSS, Lilly Library, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana.
8. Romain Rolland, "Pour bâtir la cité libre de l'esprit" (1 November 1918), JAG , 1637.
9. JAG , 242, 699, 1113.
10. Ibid., 1129-1131, 558, 644-645; for Henri Guilbeaux's attitude toward Romain Rolland, see his "L'Age nouveau et les intellectuels," Demain , August-September 1918, 198; on Guilbeaux, see Alfred Senn, The Russian Revolution in Switzerland (Madison, Wis., 1971), 37, 141, 162, 174, 180, 213, 227-228.
9. JAG , 242, 699, 1113.
10. Ibid., 1129-1131, 558, 644-645; for Henri Guilbeaux's attitude toward Romain Rolland, see his "L'Age nouveau et les intellectuels," Demain , August-September 1918, 198; on Guilbeaux, see Alfred Senn, The Russian Revolution in Switzerland (Madison, Wis., 1971), 37, 141, 162, 174, 180, 213, 227-228.
11. Romain Rolland, "Journal inédit (1919-1920)," Europe , November-December 1965, 201-204, 207; and Journal intime , carnet 32, May 1920-July 1920, 28, 56-57, 74, 183, ARR.
12. Romain Rolland, "A la Russie libre et libératrice" (1 May 1917) in L'Esprit libre , 205-206; first published in Demain , 1 May 1917; republished in Le Populaire , 22 July 1919.
13. JAG , 1227-1228, 1366, 1426, 1537, 1547-1548, 1577; letter, Rolland to Jean-Richard Bloch, 24 October 1918, JRB-RR , 375-380; letter from Rolland to Monsieur B., 26 January 1919, JAG , 1700.
14. Romain Rolland, "Pour nos frères de Russie. Contre le blocus affameur" (23 October 1919), QAC , 31-32; first published in L'Humanité , 26 October 1919.
15. Romain Rolland, untitled article, La Vie ouvrière , 22 October 1919.
16. JAG , 915, 1010, 1131, 1139, 1167-1168, 1183, 1365, 1784.
17. For Lenin's views on imperialism, see Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, Imperialism, The Highest Stage of Capitalism (1917; Moscow, 1964), 185-304; for his views on pacifism, see Lenin, "Bourgeois Pacifism and Socialist Pacifism" (1917), Collected Works (Moscow, 1964), 23:177-194.
18. JAG , 1342, 1366, 1367, 1426-1427, 1537, 1547-1548, 1577.
19. Ibid., 1700, 1782, 1784; letter from Rolland to Bloch, 24 October 1918, JRB-RR , 375-380.
18. JAG , 1342, 1366, 1367, 1426-1427, 1537, 1547-1548, 1577.
19. Ibid., 1700, 1782, 1784; letter from Rolland to Bloch, 24 October 1918, JRB-RR , 375-380.
20. JAG , 152, 766, 802, 1205, 1343, 1524, 1661-1662; letter from Rolland to Jean Longuet, 22 August 1918, BV , 158-159; letter from Rolland to Bloch, 24 November 1918, JRB-RR , 380; also see Peter Nettl, Rosa Luxemburg (Oxford, 1969), 486-489.
21. Romain Rolland, "Janvier sanglant à Berlin," QAC , 11-30; first published in L'Humanité , 16-18 February 1919; also see Romain Rolland, "Sur un martyr," L'Avenir international , no. 13 (January 1919): 36-39; JAG , 1704.
22. JAG , 1704.
23. Rolland, "Janvier sanglant à Berlin," QAC , 27-29.
24. Ibid., 11, 12, 15.
25. Ibid., 27.
26. Ibid., 30.
23. Rolland, "Janvier sanglant à Berlin," QAC , 27-29.
24. Ibid., 11, 12, 15.
25. Ibid., 27.
26. Ibid., 30.
23. Rolland, "Janvier sanglant à Berlin," QAC , 27-29.
24. Ibid., 11, 12, 15.
25. Ibid., 27.
26. Ibid., 30.
23. Rolland, "Janvier sanglant à Berlin," QAC , 27-29.
24. Ibid., 11, 12, 15.
25. Ibid., 27.
26. Ibid., 30.
27. Romain Rolland, "Journal inédit (1919-1920)," Europe , November-December 1965, 181-182.
28. JAG , 66, 969, 1002, 1053-1054, 1368, 1431, 1537, 1654; for Romain Rolland's public positions on Wilson, see Romain Rolland, "Lettre ouverte au présidente Wilson" (November 1918), L'Esprit libre , 332-333; and Rolland, "Une Lettre de Romain Rolland à Jean Longuet," ibid., 334; the letters were published in Le Populaire , 18 November 1918 and 4 December 1918, respectively.
27. Romain Rolland, "Journal inédit (1919-1920)," Europe , November-December 1965, 181-182.
28. JAG , 66, 969, 1002, 1053-1054, 1368, 1431, 1537, 1654; for Romain Rolland's public positions on Wilson, see Romain Rolland, "Lettre ouverte au présidente Wilson" (November 1918), L'Esprit libre , 332-333; and Rolland, "Une Lettre de Romain Rolland à Jean Longuet," ibid., 334; the letters were published in Le Populaire , 18 November 1918 and 4 December 1918, respectively.
29. JAG , 1661, 1665; also see 1696-1697, 1738, 1776, 1799, 1822, 1828-1829, 1832.
30. Romain Rolland, "Une Lettre de Romain Rolland à Jean Longuet" (4 December 1918), L'Esprit libre , 334 n. 1 (dated June 1919); also see Romain Rolland, QAC , 186; Journal intime , carnet 30, July 1919-October 1919, ARR. Romain Rolland refused to contribute an article to L'Art libre on Wilson in 1924, accusing the ex-president of profound insincerity and "failure of internal truth"; see letter from Rolland to Paul Colin, 6 February 1924, ARR.
31. Nicole Racine, "The Clarté Movement in France, 1919-1921," Journal of Contemporary History 2, no. 2 (April 1967): 195-208; Annie Kriegel, "Naissance du mouvement Clarté," Mouvement social , no. 42 (January-March 1963): 117-135.
32. JAG , 1824.
33. Ibid., 1272, 1273, 1777.
32. JAG , 1824.
33. Ibid., 1272, 1273, 1777.
34. Letter from Rolland to Henri Barbusse, 23 June 1919, JAG , 1831-1832.
35. Letter from Rolland to Barbusse, 14 June 1919, JAG , 1828.
36. JAG , 1826; also see the letters of collective resignation from seven Rollandists to the Clarté group, 18 June 1919, signed by Charles Vildrac, Georges Chennevière, F. Crucy, Léon Werth, Albert Doyen, L. Bazalgette, Paul Signac; ibid., 1830.
35. Letter from Rolland to Barbusse, 14 June 1919, JAG , 1828.
36. JAG , 1826; also see the letters of collective resignation from seven Rollandists to the Clarté group, 18 June 1919, signed by Charles Vildrac, Georges Chennevière, F. Crucy, Léon Werth, Albert Doyen, L. Bazalgette, Paul Signac; ibid., 1830.
37. JAG , 1824-1825; letters from Rolland to Marcel Martinet, 10 July 1919; to Edouard Dujardin, 10 July 1919; to Edouard Dujardin, 4 September 1919, ARR.
38. Letters from Rolland to Barbusse, 17 June 1919; 23 June 1919, JAG , 1829, 1831-1832.
39. Romain Rolland, "Journal inédit (1919-1920)," entry of 14 December 1919, Europe , November-December 1965, 185.
40. Ibid., 184-185, 187-188; Romain Rolland, Henri Barbusse, Georges Duhamel, "Appel pour le premier Congrès de l'Internationale intellectuelle," L'Humanité , 23 January 1920; Clarté , 24 January 1920. See also letters from Rolland to Raymond Lefebvre, 31 December 1919, 4 January 1920, 15 January 1920, 19 February 1920, ARR; Shaul Ginsburg, Raymond Lefebvre et les origines du communisme français (Paris, 1975), 114-116, 119-122; Racine, "The Clarté Movement in France, 1919-1921," 203.
39. Romain Rolland, "Journal inédit (1919-1920)," entry of 14 December 1919, Europe , November-December 1965, 185.
40. Ibid., 184-185, 187-188; Romain Rolland, Henri Barbusse, Georges Duhamel, "Appel pour le premier Congrès de l'Internationale intellectuelle," L'Humanité , 23 January 1920; Clarté , 24 January 1920. See also letters from Rolland to Raymond Lefebvre, 31 December 1919, 4 January 1920, 15 January 1920, 19 February 1920, ARR; Shaul Ginsburg, Raymond Lefebvre et les origines du communisme français (Paris, 1975), 114-116, 119-122; Racine, "The Clarté Movement in France, 1919-1921," 203.
41. JAG , 1726-1727, 1744-1748; on Morel, see Sheldon Spear, "E. D. Morel's U.D.C. International," Peace and Change 7, no. 1-2 (Winter 1981): 97-108.
42. Letter from Rolland to E. D. Morel, 30 March 1919, JAG , 1778.
43. Letters from Rolland to Amédée Dunois, 6 January 1919, 24 June 1919, ARR; Pierre-Jean Jouve, Romain Rolland vivant (Paris, 1920), 217-219n.1.
The Declaration first appeared as "Fière déclaration d'intellectuels," L'Humanité , 26 June 1919, 1; it was also published in L'Art libre , June 1919; La Feuille , June 1919; Rassegna internazionale , July 1919; Forum , August 1919; Demokratie , 18 July 1919; Foreign Affairs , August 1919; New York Times Current History Magazine , October 1919; and The Liberator , December 1919. It was reprinted in Romain Rolland's Les Précurseurs (1919), in L'Esprit libre , 337-342; and his QAC , 1-6. For contemporary echoes, see Paul Souday, "Une Déclaration d'intellectuels," Le Temps , 27 June 1919; Marcel Martinet, "Les Intellectuels et la guerre," La Vie ouvrière , 2 July 1919; F. Vandérem, Le Miroir de lettres (Paris, 1919), 112-116. The following is a national breakdown of those who signed the Declaration:
France: Alain, Raoul Alexandre, René Arcos, Henri Barbusse, Charles Baudouin, Léon Bazalgette, Edouard Bernaert, Lucien Besnard, Jean-Richard Bloch, Louise Bodin, Samuel Buchet, Dr. E. Burnet, Alphonse de Chateaubriant, Georges Chennevière, François Crucy, Paul Desanges, Fernard Després, Albert Doyen, Georges Duhamel, Edouard Dujardin, Amédée Dunois, Gustave Dupin, Dr. Joseph Fiévez, Waldemar George, G. Georges-Bazile, Jean Guéhenno, Augustin Hamon, Pierre-Jean Jouve, C. A. Laisant, A. M. Labouré, Raymond Lefebvre, Marcel Martinet, Emile Masson, Alexandre Mercereau, Luc Mériga, Mathias Morhardt, Georges Matisse, Madeleine Matisse, A. Pierre, August Prenant, Gabriel Reuilland, Romain Rolland, Jules Romains, Nelly Roussel, Han Ryner, Dr. Schirardin, Edouard Schoen, P. Schultz, Edouard Schneider, Séverine, Paul Signac, Dr. Robert Sorel, Gaston Thiesson, Jules Uhry, Paul Vaillant-Couturier, Charles Vildrac, Dr. Wacker, Léon Werth.
Germany: G. van Arco, Albert Einstein, W. Foerster, Leonard Frank, H. von Gerlach, Ivan Goll, Wilhelm Herzog, Hermann Hesse, David Hilbert, Käthe Kollwitz, Max Lehmann, Heinrich Mann, A. Moissi, Paul Natorp, Georg F. Nicolai, Nithack-Stahn, H. Paasche, Hélène Stoecker, Fritz von Unruh, H. Wehberg, Franz Werfel.
Italy: Enrico Bignami, Roberto Bracco, Benedetto Croce, Amaldo Lucci, Attilio Cimbro, Marie Cimbro-Bonnet, Confucio Cotti, Dino Muratore, Dr. Enrico Lenzi, Dr. Elsa Castagneri.
Belgium: Paul Colin, Georges Eekhound, J. F. Eslander, Frans Hellens, Georges Khnopff, Frans Masereel, Mélot du Dy, Jacques Mesnil, Edmond Picard, Henry van de Velde.
Switzerland: Ernst Bloch, Dr. Robert Eder, August Forel, Charles Hofer, Professor Ragaz, H. Roorda van Eysinga.
England: Edward Carpenter, Lowes Dickinson, Roger Fry, Bertrand Russell, Israel Zangwill.
Sweden: Verner von Heidenstam, Ellen kay, Selma Lagerlöf, Carl Lindhagen.
Catalonia: M. Lopez-Pico, Alfons Maseras, Eugenio d'Ors, Paul M. Turull, Emilio H. del Villar.
Holland: Dr. L.-G. Brouwer, Dr. Frederick van Eeden, J. C. Kapteyn.
Austria: Dr. A. H. Fried, Stefan Zweig.
Russia: Paul Birukof, Maxim Gorky, Nicolas Rubakin, L. de Wiskovatov.
Hungary: Monseigneur Alexandre Giesswein, Andreas Latzko.
Poland: Dr. M. de Rusiecka.
Greece: Georges Donvalis, Yannios.
United States: Jane Addams, Sherwood Anderson, Van Wyck Brooks, Waldo Frank, Frederick P. Hier, B. W. Huebsch, John Haynes Holmes, Horace B. Liveright, Edgar Lee Masters, Scott Nearing, Upton Sinclair, Alfred Stieglitz, Louis Untermeyer, Oswald Garrison-Villard.
India: Ananda Coomaraswamy, Rabindranath Tagore.
Argentina: Dr. Manuel Galvez.
Brazil: Benedicta Costa.
The appeal was also signed by over 100 Spanish writers and scholars, the signatures collected by Emilio H. del Villar; 28 professors from the University of Turin; 56 professors and students from Piedmont; and 617 individuals from central Europe, whose signatures were collected by Georg F. Nicolai and published in his brochure, Romain Rollands Manifest und die deutschen Antworten (Charlottenburg, 1919).
44. Romain Rolland, "Déclaration de l'Indépendance de l'Esprit," L'Esprit libre , 337-338.
45. JAG , 16 March 1919, 1769-1771.
46. Ibid., 1770.
45. JAG , 16 March 1919, 1769-1771.
46. Ibid., 1770.
47. Romain Rolland, "The Intellectuals: Their Failure—Their Opportunity," Foreign Affairs 1, no. 2 (August 1919): 5-6; this was reprinted in QAC as "Pour l'union des travailleurs des mains et de l'esprit (commentaire à la Déclaration de l'Indépendance de l'Esprit)," 7-10.
48. Rolland, "The Intellectuals," 5.
49. Ibid., 6.
50. Ibid., 5.
51. Ibid., 6.
52. Ibid.
48. Rolland, "The Intellectuals," 5.
49. Ibid., 6.
50. Ibid., 5.
51. Ibid., 6.
52. Ibid.
48. Rolland, "The Intellectuals," 5.
49. Ibid., 6.
50. Ibid., 5.
51. Ibid., 6.
52. Ibid.
48. Rolland, "The Intellectuals," 5.
49. Ibid., 6.
50. Ibid., 5.
51. Ibid., 6.
52. Ibid.
48. Rolland, "The Intellectuals," 5.
49. Ibid., 6.
50. Ibid., 5.
51. Ibid., 6.
52. Ibid.
53. Romain Rolland, "Déclaration de l'Indépendance de l'Esprit," L'Esprit libre , 342.
54. Perus, Romain Rolland et Maxime Gorki , 53, 57-64, 73.
55. Romain Rolland, Dedication to Les Précurseurs (1919) , in L'Esprit libre , 175.
56. Letter from Rolland to George Bernard Shaw, 25 April 1919, JAG , 1796.
57. JAG , 1771; Jouve, Romain Rolland vivant , 218 n. 1.
58. JAG , 126, 1007.
59. Letter from Rolland to Shaw, 25 April 1919, JAG , 1796.
60. Letter from Shaw to Rolland, 7 May 1919, JAG , 1815.
61. Ibid.
60. Letter from Shaw to Rolland, 7 May 1919, JAG , 1815.
61. Ibid.
62. Letter from Rolland to Shaw, 28 May 1919, JAG , 1817.
63. Letter from Shaw to Rolland, 27 June 1919, cited in PRP , 13-14.
64. Letter from Rolland to Shaw, 29 June 1919, PRP , 14.
65. Letter from Shaw to Rolland, 10 July 1919, PRP , 14 n. 1.
66. QAC , lxiv; PRP , 14-15.
67. Max Eastman, ''A Letter to Romain Rolland," The Liberator , December 1919, 24-25; for Romain Rolland's relations with Eastman during the war, see Romain Rolland, "Voix libres d'Amérique" (August 1917), L'Esprit libre , 222-234.
68. Eastman, "Letter to Romain Rolland," 24.
69. Ibid., 25.
68. Eastman, "Letter to Romain Rolland," 24.
69. Ibid., 25.
70. Letter from Rolland to Max Eastman, 5 December 1919, BV , 161-162; Rolland, "Journal inédit (1919-1920)," 183-184.
71. Rolland, "Journal inédit (1919-1920)," 183.
72. Letter from Rolland to Waldo Frank, 21 March 1920, ARR.
73. JAG , 510-515, 1284-1286, 1762, 1771.
74. Ibid., 1820.
73. JAG , 510-515, 1284-1286, 1762, 1771.
74. Ibid., 1820.
75. Letters from Albert Einstein to a colleague in Breslau, 17 August 1919, and to a liberal professor in Potsdam, 18 August 1919, cited in Einstein on Peace , ed. Otto Nathan and Heinz Norden (New York, 1965), 31-32.
76. JAG , 1817.
77. Romain Rolland, "Un Grand Européen: G. F. Nicolai" (15 October 1917), L'Esprit libre , 262-297; JAG , 802, 1600-1602, 1607-1609, 1756-1769, 1771.
78. Nicolai, Romain Rollands Manifest , 27. Some of the signers included Alfred Adler, Johannes R. Becher, Edouard Bernstein, Max Brod, Martin Buber, Richard Dehmel, Kasimir Edschmid, Albert Einstein, August Forel, Wilhelm Foerster, Leonard Frank, Ivan Goll, Walter Gropius, Wilhelm Herzog, Hermann Hesse, Kurt Hiller, Hermann Kantorowicz, Karl Kautsky, Annette Kolb, Käthe Kollwitz, Andreas Latzko, Carl Lindhagen, Emil Ludwig, Heinrich Mann, Walter Rathenau, Arthur Rosenberg, René Schickele, Artur Schnabel, Arthur Schnitzler, Wilhelm Steckel, Hélène Stocker, Ernst Toller, Kurt Tucholsky, Fritz von Unruh, Franz Werfel, Kurt Wolff, Stefan Zweig.
79. Karl Kraus, in Nicolai, Romain Rollands Manifest , 54-56.
80. JAG , 574, 606; also see Roland N. Stromberg, Redemption by War: The Intellectuals and 1914 (Lawrence, Kans. 1982), 74-75, 150.
81. Letter from Benedetto Croce to Rolland, 9 April 1919, JAG , 1792, 1864.
82. Letter from Rolland to Croce, 18 April 1919, BV , 160.
83. Letter from Charles Gide to Rolland, May 1919, JAG , 1817-1818.
84. Letter from Charles Richet to Rolland, May 1919, JAG , 1818.
85. QAC , lxiv, n. 1; also see JAG , 1814.
86. For a sample of the positive responses, see letter from Israel Zangwill to Rolland, May 1919, JAG , 1818-1819; E. D. Morel, "Contributions from Abroad," Foreign Affairs , 1 (August 1919): 5; letters from Louis Untermeyer to Rolland, 28 September 1919, ARR; from Stefan Zweig to Rolland, 20 March 1919, 23 March 1919, 7 April 1919, 14 April 1919, ARR; Hermann Hesse to Rolland, 2 May 1919, HH-RR , 61; Alain to Rolland, 29 June 1919, Salut et fraternité. Alain et Romain Rolland (Paris, 1969), 79-80; Jean Guéhenno to Rolland, 4 July 1919, JG-RR , 15; August Prenant to Rolland, June 1919, JAG , 1820; Rabindranath Tagore to Rolland, 24 June 1919, 4 October 1919, RT-RR , 25-26, 29-30.
87. Letter from Bertrand Russell to Rolland, 7 April 1919, JAG , 1790.
88. Ibid., 1791.
87. Letter from Bertrand Russell to Rolland, 7 April 1919, JAG , 1790.
88. Ibid., 1791.
89. JAG , 1792.
90. Ibid., 1814.
91. Letter from Rolland to Russell, 4 June 1919, JAG , 1819; Russell had proposed on 4 May 1919 to revise paragraph 3 of the Declaration, ibid., 1818.
89. JAG , 1792.
90. Ibid., 1814.
91. Letter from Rolland to Russell, 4 June 1919, JAG , 1819; Russell had proposed on 4 May 1919 to revise paragraph 3 of the Declaration, ibid., 1818.
89. JAG , 1792.
90. Ibid., 1814.
91. Letter from Rolland to Russell, 4 June 1919, JAG , 1819; Russell had proposed on 4 May 1919 to revise paragraph 3 of the Declaration, ibid., 1818.
92. Letter from Rolland to Russell, 4 June 1919, JAG , 1819.
93. Ibid.
94. Ibid., 1820.
92. Letter from Rolland to Russell, 4 June 1919, JAG , 1819.
93. Ibid.
94. Ibid., 1820.
92. Letter from Rolland to Russell, 4 June 1919, JAG , 1819.
93. Ibid.
94. Ibid., 1820.
95. Letter from Rolland to Russell, 23 June 1919, ARR.
96. Letter from Rolland to Russell, 16 March 1920, BV , 162-163.
97. Letter from Rolland to Pierre-Jean Jouve, 9 June 1919, cited in Jouve, Romain Rolland vivant , 263.
98. Ibid., 262-263.
97. Letter from Rolland to Pierre-Jean Jouve, 9 June 1919, cited in Jouve, Romain Rolland vivant , 263.
98. Ibid., 262-263.
5 The Rolland-Barbusse Debate
1. David James Fisher, "The Rolland-Barbusse Debate," Survey , no. 2/3 (91/92) (Spring-Summer 1974): 121-159; Jean Albertini, "Barbusse et Rolland," Europe , September 1974, 119-129; Jean Albertini, "Controverse entre Henri Barbusse et Romain Rolland au sujet de l'Indépendance de l'Esprit," in Textes politiques, sociaux et philosophiques choisis , ed. Jean Albertini (Paris, 1970), 182-190; David Caute, Communism and the French Intellectuals, 1914-1960 (London, 1964), 80-83.
2. Charles S. Maier, Recasting Bourgeois Europe: Stabilization in France, Germany, and Italy in the Decade After World War I (Princeton, N.J., 1975); Felix Gilbert, The End of the European Era, 1890 to the Present (New York, 1979), 204-254; Philippe Bernard, La Fin d'un monde, 1914-1929 (Paris, 1974), 121-167.
3. Ronald Tiersky, French Communism, 1920-1972 (New York, 1974), 23-53; Nicole Racine and Louis Bodin, Le Parti communiste français pendant l'entre-deux-guerres (Paris, 1972), 89-102; Jederman, La 'Bolchevisation' du P.C.F. (1923-1928) (Paris, 1971); Robert Wohl, French Communism in the Making, 1914-1924 (Stanford, Calif., 1966), 396-432; Jacques Fauvet, Histoire du parti communiste français , 2 vols. (Paris, 1964), 1:67-82.
4. Annie Kriegel, Aux origines du communisme français, 1914-1920. Contribution à l'histoire du mouvement ouvrier français , 2 vols. (Paris, 1964); Annie Kriegel, Le Congrès de Tours. Naissance du parti communiste français (Paris, 1964).
5. Daniel Lindenberg, Le Marxisme introuvable (Paris, 1975), 221-230
George Lichtheim, Marxism in Modern France (New York, 1966), 1-68; Wohl, French Communism in the Making , 441-454.
6. Lindenberg, Marxisme introuvable , 230; Lichtheim, Marxism in Modern France , 67-68; Annie Kriegel, The French Communists: Profiles of a People , trans. Elaine P. Halperin (Chicago, 1972).
7. Letter from Rolland to Jean Longuet, 19 March 1921, ARR.
8. QAC , xvii.
9. Letters from Rolland to Jean-Richard Bloch, 30 January 1920, 28 March 1920, 17 September 1920, 20 September 1920, ARR. In this final letter, Romain Rolland hyperbolically asserted that ''a book is worth an army."
10. Romain Rolland, Liluli (Geneva, 1919; English trans. New York, 1920).
11. Letter from Rolland to Istar de Thionville, 13 May 1920, BV , 164.
12. Rolland, Liluli , 116-118, 188, 189, 190, 199-200.
13. Letter from Rolland to Bloch, 20 December 1921, ARR; also see letters from Rolland to Louise Cruppi, 9 February 1919, 25 February 1919, ARR. For a discerning discussion of Liluli as a work of art, see Pierre-Jean Jouve, Romain Rolland vivant (1914-1919) (Paris, 1920), 280-293.
14. Romain Rolland, Pierre et Luce (Geneva, 1971), 41-42; first published in Geneva in 1920, English trans., Pierre and Luce (New York, 1922).
15. Letters from Rolland to Paul Colin, 23 February 1920, 27 February 1920, ARR.
16. Romain Rolland, Clérambault. Histoire d'une conscience libre pendant la guerre (Geneva, 1971); first published in Paris in 1920; translated by Katherine Miller as Clérambault: The Story of an Independent Spirit During the War (New York, 1921).
17. Romain Rolland, "Introduction à l'un contre tous" (March 1917), Clérambault , 82.
18. Rolland, Clérambault , 367.
19. Ibid., 148.
20. Ibid., 281.
21. Ibid., 269.
22. Ibid., 293.
23. Ibid., 368.
18. Rolland, Clérambault , 367.
19. Ibid., 148.
20. Ibid., 281.
21. Ibid., 269.
22. Ibid., 293.
23. Ibid., 368.
18. Rolland, Clérambault , 367.
19. Ibid., 148.
20. Ibid., 281.
21. Ibid., 269.
22. Ibid., 293.
23. Ibid., 368.
18. Rolland, Clérambault , 367.
19. Ibid., 148.
20. Ibid., 281.
21. Ibid., 269.
22. Ibid., 293.
23. Ibid., 368.
18. Rolland, Clérambault , 367.
19. Ibid., 148.
20. Ibid., 281.
21. Ibid., 269.
22. Ibid., 293.
23. Ibid., 368.
18. Rolland, Clérambault , 367.
19. Ibid., 148.
20. Ibid., 281.
21. Ibid., 269.
22. Ibid., 293.
23. Ibid., 368.
24. Eugen Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870-1914 (Stanford, Calif., 1976), 99, 295, 297, 544 n. 11.
25. David James Fisher, "Pacifism and the Intellectual: The Case of Romain Rolland," Peace and Change 7, no. 1-2 (Winter 1981): 88-90.
26. Jean Maxe, "L'Idole 'l'européen' Romain Rolland," Cahiers de l'anti-France 1 (Paris 1922): 10, 13, 67, 91; for earlier attacks on Romain Rolland by the French extreme right, see Henri Massis, Romain Rolland contre la France (Paris, 1915); J. M. Renaitour, Stéphane Servant, and Paul-Hyacinthe Loyson, Au-dessus ou au coeur de la mêlée? (Paris, 1916); Isabelle Debran, M. Romain Rolland, initiateur du défaitisme (Geneva, 1918).
27. Letter from Rolland to Cruppi, 7 December 1922; also see Rolland, Journal intime , December 1920, 43, ARR.
28. André Gide, "Réflexions sur l'Allemagne," Nouvelle Revue française , 1 June 1919, 46n; André Gide, "Journal sans dates," Nouvelle Revue fran-
çaise, 1 July 1919, 278: "His book ( Jean-Christophe ) never seems better than when translated."
29. Albert Thibaudet, "La Conscience libre et la guerre," Nouvelle Revue française, no. 88 (1 January 1921): 67-80; Frederick John Harris, André Gide and Romain Rolland: Two Men Divided (New Brunswick, N.J., 1973), 71-85; on the intellectual importance of the Nouvelle Revue française, see Herbert R. Lottman, The Left Bank: Writers, Artists, and Politics from the Popular Front to the Cold War (Boston, 1982), 32-34; Régis Debray, Teachers, Writers, Celebrities: The Intellectuals of Modern France, trans. Francis Mulhern (London, 1981), 60-75.
30. Letters from Rolland to Bloch, 12 October 1920; to Pierre Abraham, 26 July 1932, ARR.
31. Paul Colin, La Vertu d'héroïsme et Romain Rolland (Brussels, 1919); Stefan Zweig, Romain Rolland, der Mann und das Werk (Frankfurt, 1920), English trans. 1921, Russian 1923, French 1930; Pierre-Jean Jouve, Romain Rolland vivant (1914-1919) (Paris, 1920); Jean Bonnerot, Romain Rolland. Sa vie, son oeuvre (Paris, 1921); Marcel Martinet, Pages choisies de Romain Rolland, 2 vols. (Paris, 1921).
32. Stefan Zweig, Romain Rolland: The Man and His Work (New York, 1972), v; Stefan Zweig, The World of Yesterday (Lincoln, Neb., 1964), 265-267.
33. Jean Albertini, Introduction to Avez-vous lu Jean-Richard Bloch? (Paris, 1981), 9-140.
34. Letter from Bloch to Rolland, 27 January 1920, in Romain Rolland, "Journal inédit (1919-1920)," Europe, November-December 1965, 196; Bloch had favorably reviewed Romain Rolland's works. See " Colas Breugnon . Un Livre gai," L'Humanité, 7, 8, 9 June 1919; Jean-Richard Bloch, "Le Théàtre du peuple. Critique d'une utopie," Carnaval est mort (Paris, 1920), 27-40.
35. Letter from Rolland to Bloch, 30 January 1920, in Rolland, "Journal inédit (1919-1920)," 196-198.
36. Romain Rolland, "Un Livre de Raymond Lefebvre. Le Sacrifice d'Abraham," L'Humanité, 19 March 1920, 1.
37. Raymond Lefebvre, Review of Les Précurseurs, in Le Populaire, 11 January 1920.
38. On Barbusse, see Annette Vidal, Henri Barbusse. Soldat de la paix (Paris, 1953); Vladimir Brett, Henri Barbusse, sa marche vers la clarté, son mouvement Clarté (Prague, 1963); "Henri Barbusse," Europe, January 1969, 3-77; "Henri Barbusse," Europe, September 1974, 3-241.
39. Romain Rolland, " Le Feu par Henri Barbusse" (February 1917), in L'Esprit libre (Geneva, 1971), 237-245.
40. Letters from Rolland to Raymond Lefebvre, 31 December 1919, 4 January 1920, 12 January 1920, 15 January 1920, 19 February 1920, and esp. 10 March 1920, ARR.
41. Romain Rolland, Journal intime, cahier 29, 32, ARR.
42. Rolland, Journal intime, cahier 30, 28; letters from Rolland to Bloch, 20 September 1920; to Stefan Zweig, 26 July 1919, ARR. Also see QAC, xvi, lxv.
43. Letter from Rolland to Bloch, 10 April 1920; Rolland, Journal intime, cahier 29, 32, ARR.
44. Rolland, "Journal inédit (1919-1920)," 187; the conversation with Duhamel was dated 17 December 1919.
45. Henri Barbusse, Le Couteau entre les dents. Aux intellectuels (Paris, 1921).
46. Ibid., 14, 36.
47. Ibid., 47, 60-62, 74, 77, 80.
45. Henri Barbusse, Le Couteau entre les dents. Aux intellectuels (Paris, 1921).
46. Ibid., 14, 36.
47. Ibid., 47, 60-62, 74, 77, 80.
45. Henri Barbusse, Le Couteau entre les dents. Aux intellectuels (Paris, 1921).
46. Ibid., 14, 36.
47. Ibid., 47, 60-62, 74, 77, 80.
48. Henri Barbusse, "L'Autre Moitié du devoir. A propos du 'Rollandisme,'" Clarté, no. 2, 3 (December 1921): 25-28; the text was also published in Journal du peuple, no. 31-32 (31 January-1 February 1922). The entire Rolland-Barbusse debate in chronological order was published in Textes politiques, 190-233.
49. Barbusse, "L'Autre Moitié du devoir," in Textes politiques, 12-194.
50. Ibid., 194, 198-199.
51. Ibid., 193, 194, 199, 200.
52. Ibid., 194, 195, 197, 199.
53. Ibid., 196, 197, 198.
49. Barbusse, "L'Autre Moitié du devoir," in Textes politiques, 12-194.
50. Ibid., 194, 198-199.
51. Ibid., 193, 194, 199, 200.
52. Ibid., 194, 195, 197, 199.
53. Ibid., 196, 197, 198.
49. Barbusse, "L'Autre Moitié du devoir," in Textes politiques, 12-194.
50. Ibid., 194, 198-199.
51. Ibid., 193, 194, 199, 200.
52. Ibid., 194, 195, 197, 199.
53. Ibid., 196, 197, 198.
49. Barbusse, "L'Autre Moitié du devoir," in Textes politiques, 12-194.
50. Ibid., 194, 198-199.
51. Ibid., 193, 194, 199, 200.
52. Ibid., 194, 195, 197, 199.
53. Ibid., 196, 197, 198.
49. Barbusse, "L'Autre Moitié du devoir," in Textes politiques, 12-194.
50. Ibid., 194, 198-199.
51. Ibid., 193, 194, 199, 200.
52. Ibid., 194, 195, 197, 199.
53. Ibid., 196, 197, 198.
54. Romain Rolland, "Lettre ouverte de Romain Rolland à Henri Barbusse," L'Art libre, January 1922, 1-2; republished in Clarté, no. 6 (1 February 1922): 126-127; Rassegna internazionale 4:14-17; Journal du peuple, no. 33 (2 February 1922); The Nation, 8 February 1922; Les Humbles, March 1922. All of Romain Rolland's open letters to Barbusse were included in QAC, 43-59, translated into English as I Will Not Rest, trans. K. S. Shelvankar (New York [1935]), 127-145.
55. Romain Rolland, "Lettre ouverte de Romain Rolland à Henri Barbusse," Textes politiques, 202, 204.
56. Ibid., 202, 203, 204-205.
57. Ibid., 202, 204.
58. Ibid., 203, 204.
59. Ibid., 203.
60. Ibid.
61. Ibid., 204, 205, 206.
62. Ibid., 205.
55. Romain Rolland, "Lettre ouverte de Romain Rolland à Henri Barbusse," Textes politiques, 202, 204.
56. Ibid., 202, 203, 204-205.
57. Ibid., 202, 204.
58. Ibid., 203, 204.
59. Ibid., 203.
60. Ibid.
61. Ibid., 204, 205, 206.
62. Ibid., 205.
55. Romain Rolland, "Lettre ouverte de Romain Rolland à Henri Barbusse," Textes politiques, 202, 204.
56. Ibid., 202, 203, 204-205.
57. Ibid., 202, 204.
58. Ibid., 203, 204.
59. Ibid., 203.
60. Ibid.
61. Ibid., 204, 205, 206.
62. Ibid., 205.
55. Romain Rolland, "Lettre ouverte de Romain Rolland à Henri Barbusse," Textes politiques, 202, 204.
56. Ibid., 202, 203, 204-205.
57. Ibid., 202, 204.
58. Ibid., 203, 204.
59. Ibid., 203.
60. Ibid.
61. Ibid., 204, 205, 206.
62. Ibid., 205.
55. Romain Rolland, "Lettre ouverte de Romain Rolland à Henri Barbusse," Textes politiques, 202, 204.
56. Ibid., 202, 203, 204-205.
57. Ibid., 202, 204.
58. Ibid., 203, 204.
59. Ibid., 203.
60. Ibid.
61. Ibid., 204, 205, 206.
62. Ibid., 205.
55. Romain Rolland, "Lettre ouverte de Romain Rolland à Henri Barbusse," Textes politiques, 202, 204.
56. Ibid., 202, 203, 204-205.
57. Ibid., 202, 204.
58. Ibid., 203, 204.
59. Ibid., 203.
60. Ibid.
61. Ibid., 204, 205, 206.
62. Ibid., 205.
55. Romain Rolland, "Lettre ouverte de Romain Rolland à Henri Barbusse," Textes politiques, 202, 204.
56. Ibid., 202, 203, 204-205.
57. Ibid., 202, 204.
58. Ibid., 203, 204.
59. Ibid., 203.
60. Ibid.
61. Ibid., 204, 205, 206.
62. Ibid., 205.
55. Romain Rolland, "Lettre ouverte de Romain Rolland à Henri Barbusse," Textes politiques, 202, 204.
56. Ibid., 202, 203, 204-205.
57. Ibid., 202, 204.
58. Ibid., 203, 204.
59. Ibid., 203.
60. Ibid.
61. Ibid., 204, 205, 206.
62. Ibid., 205.
63. Henri Barbusse, "Lettre à Romain Rolland à propos du Rollandisme," Clarté, no. 6 (1 February 1922): 127-128; also published in Journal du peuple, no. 36 (5 February 1922) and L'Art libre, February 1922, 19; Textes politiques, 206-209.
64. Romain Rolland, "Deuxième Lettre à Henri Barbusse," L'Art libre, February 1922, 17-19; also published in Journal du peuple, no. 47 (16 February 1922); Textes politiques, 209-218.
65. Rolland, Textes politiques, 209-210.
66. Ibid., 210, 211, 213.
67. Ibid., 211, 213.
68. Ibid., 213.
69. Ibid.
70. Ibid., 214.
71. Ibid., 216-217.
72. Ibid., 217-218.
65. Rolland, Textes politiques, 209-210.
66. Ibid., 210, 211, 213.
67. Ibid., 211, 213.
68. Ibid., 213.
69. Ibid.
70. Ibid., 214.
71. Ibid., 216-217.
72. Ibid., 217-218.
65. Rolland, Textes politiques, 209-210.
66. Ibid., 210, 211, 213.
67. Ibid., 211, 213.
68. Ibid., 213.
69. Ibid.
70. Ibid., 214.
71. Ibid., 216-217.
72. Ibid., 217-218.
65. Rolland, Textes politiques, 209-210.
66. Ibid., 210, 211, 213.
67. Ibid., 211, 213.
68. Ibid., 213.
69. Ibid.
70. Ibid., 214.
71. Ibid., 216-217.
72. Ibid., 217-218.
65. Rolland, Textes politiques, 209-210.
66. Ibid., 210, 211, 213.
67. Ibid., 211, 213.
68. Ibid., 213.
69. Ibid.
70. Ibid., 214.
71. Ibid., 216-217.
72. Ibid., 217-218.
65. Rolland, Textes politiques, 209-210.
66. Ibid., 210, 211, 213.
67. Ibid., 211, 213.
68. Ibid., 213.
69. Ibid.
70. Ibid., 214.
71. Ibid., 216-217.
72. Ibid., 217-218.
65. Rolland, Textes politiques, 209-210.
66. Ibid., 210, 211, 213.
67. Ibid., 211, 213.
68. Ibid., 213.
69. Ibid.
70. Ibid., 214.
71. Ibid., 216-217.
72. Ibid., 217-218.
65. Rolland, Textes politiques, 209-210.
66. Ibid., 210, 211, 213.
67. Ibid., 211, 213.
68. Ibid., 213.
69. Ibid.
70. Ibid., 214.
71. Ibid., 216-217.
72. Ibid., 217-218.
73. Henri Barbusse, "Réponse de Henri Barbusse," Clarté, no. 10 (1 April 1922): 221-225; also in Journal du peuple, no. 92 (2 April 1922); no. 94 (4 April 1922); Textes politiques, 218-227.
74. Barbusse, "Réponse de Henri Barbusse," 219, 223, 226.
75. Ibid., 224, 225, 226.
76. Ibid., 220.
77. Ibid., 220, 221, 222.
78. Ibid., 226-227.
74. Barbusse, "Réponse de Henri Barbusse," 219, 223, 226.
75. Ibid., 224, 225, 226.
76. Ibid., 220.
77. Ibid., 220, 221, 222.
78. Ibid., 226-227.
74. Barbusse, "Réponse de Henri Barbusse," 219, 223, 226.
75. Ibid., 224, 225, 226.
76. Ibid., 220.
77. Ibid., 220, 221, 222.
78. Ibid., 226-227.
74. Barbusse, "Réponse de Henri Barbusse," 219, 223, 226.
75. Ibid., 224, 225, 226.
76. Ibid., 220.
77. Ibid., 220, 221, 222.
78. Ibid., 226-227.
74. Barbusse, "Réponse de Henri Barbusse," 219, 223, 226.
75. Ibid., 224, 225, 226.
76. Ibid., 220.
77. Ibid., 220, 221, 222.
78. Ibid., 226-227.
79. On the trial of the Social Revolutionaries, see Roy A. Medvedev, Let History Judge: The Origins and Consequences of Stalinism, trans. Colleen Taylor (New York, 1972), 381-384.
80. Romain Rolland, "La Révolution et les intellectuels. Lettre aux amis communistes," L'Art libre, April 1922, 49-50; also in Journal du peuple, no. 117 (29 April 1922); Textes politiques, 227-233.
81. Textes politiques, 230; for Romain Rolland's information about the Social Revolutionaries, see QAC, lxvi-lxvii.
82. Rolland, "La Révolution et les intellectuels," Textes politiques, 228, 229, 230.
83. Ibid., 232-233.
84. Ibid., 230, 231.
85. Ibid., 231.
86. Ibid., 232-233.
82. Rolland, "La Révolution et les intellectuels," Textes politiques, 228, 229, 230.
83. Ibid., 232-233.
84. Ibid., 230, 231.
85. Ibid., 231.
86. Ibid., 232-233.
82. Rolland, "La Révolution et les intellectuels," Textes politiques, 228, 229, 230.
83. Ibid., 232-233.
84. Ibid., 230, 231.
85. Ibid., 231.
86. Ibid., 232-233.
82. Rolland, "La Révolution et les intellectuels," Textes politiques, 228, 229, 230.
83. Ibid., 232-233.
84. Ibid., 230, 231.
85. Ibid., 231.
86. Ibid., 232-233.
82. Rolland, "La Révolution et les intellectuels," Textes politiques, 228, 229, 230.
83. Ibid., 232-233.
84. Ibid., 230, 231.
85. Ibid., 231.
86. Ibid., 232-233.
87. Letters from Rolland to Barbusse, 18 January 1922; to Colin, 27 December 1921, 1 January 1922; Rolland, Journal intime, 1 January 1922, 81-82, ARR.
88. Letters from Rolland to Edouard Dujardin, 20 January 1922; to Colin, 9 January 1922, ARR.
89. Amédée Dunois, "A propos du 'Manifeste communiste,' " L'Humanité, 10 March 1922, 1.
90. Romain Rolland's letter was published in L'Humanité, 12 March 1922.
91. Amédée Dunois, "Neutralité est impossible," L'Humanité, 12 March 1922, 1.
92. Marcel Martinet, "Les Intellectuels et la révolution," L'Humanité, 25 March 1922, 1; Martinet wrote an earlier piece on the same themes, "La Révolution et la liberté," L'Internationale, 8 March 1922.
93. Albert Mathiez, "L'Elite européenne et la Terreur," Clarté, no. 14 (June 1922): 323.
94. Romain Rolland, "L'Elite européenne et la Terreur. Réponse à Albert Mathiez," Clarté, no. 16 (1 July 1922): 372-373; republished in Journal du peuple, 13 July 1922; see also Albert Mathiez, "Réplique à Romain Rolland," Clarté, no. 16 (1 July 1922): 373-374.
95. Letters from Rolland to Colin, 3 February 1922, 10 February 1922, 27 February 1922, 3 March 1922, 6 March 1922, ARR.
96. Romain Rolland, "Deuxième lettre de Rolland à Barbusse," Textes politiques, 215-216.
97. "L'Indépendance de l'Esprit. Réponses à l'appel de Romain Rolland," L'Art libre, no. 3 (March 1922). The following intellectuals participated in the debate: René Arcos, Georg Brandes, Léon Bazalgette, Georges Chennevière, Paul Colin, Jean Debrit, Georges Duhamel, Edouard Dujardin, Luc Durtain, Gustave Dupin, Kasimir Edschmid, Fernand Gouttenoire de Toury, Pierre-Jean Jouve, Annette Kolb, Andreas Latzko, Frans Masereel, Heinrich Mann, Marcel Martinet, Jacques Mesnil, Jules Romains
René Schickelé, Fritz von Unruh, Charles Vildrac, Henry van de Velde, Léon Werth, and Stefan Zweig.
98. Edouard Dujardin, "L'Indépendance de l'Esprit," 36-37; Marcel Martinet, ibid., 39-40. Martinet and Pierre Monatte had visited Romain Rolland on 18 March 1922. See Rolland, Journal intime, cahier 32, 123, ARR; Kasimir Edschmid, L'Art libre, no. 4 (April 1922): 50-51.
99. Fernand Gouttenoire de Toury, "L'Indépendance de l'Esprit," 38; Léon Werth, ibid., 42.
97. "L'Indépendance de l'Esprit. Réponses à l'appel de Romain Rolland," L'Art libre, no. 3 (March 1922). The following intellectuals participated in the debate: René Arcos, Georg Brandes, Léon Bazalgette, Georges Chennevière, Paul Colin, Jean Debrit, Georges Duhamel, Edouard Dujardin, Luc Durtain, Gustave Dupin, Kasimir Edschmid, Fernand Gouttenoire de Toury, Pierre-Jean Jouve, Annette Kolb, Andreas Latzko, Frans Masereel, Heinrich Mann, Marcel Martinet, Jacques Mesnil, Jules Romains
René Schickelé, Fritz von Unruh, Charles Vildrac, Henry van de Velde, Léon Werth, and Stefan Zweig.
98. Edouard Dujardin, "L'Indépendance de l'Esprit," 36-37; Marcel Martinet, ibid., 39-40. Martinet and Pierre Monatte had visited Romain Rolland on 18 March 1922. See Rolland, Journal intime, cahier 32, 123, ARR; Kasimir Edschmid, L'Art libre, no. 4 (April 1922): 50-51.
99. Fernand Gouttenoire de Toury, "L'Indépendance de l'Esprit," 38; Léon Werth, ibid., 42.
97. "L'Indépendance de l'Esprit. Réponses à l'appel de Romain Rolland," L'Art libre, no. 3 (March 1922). The following intellectuals participated in the debate: René Arcos, Georg Brandes, Léon Bazalgette, Georges Chennevière, Paul Colin, Jean Debrit, Georges Duhamel, Edouard Dujardin, Luc Durtain, Gustave Dupin, Kasimir Edschmid, Fernand Gouttenoire de Toury, Pierre-Jean Jouve, Annette Kolb, Andreas Latzko, Frans Masereel, Heinrich Mann, Marcel Martinet, Jacques Mesnil, Jules Romains
René Schickelé, Fritz von Unruh, Charles Vildrac, Henry van de Velde, Léon Werth, and Stefan Zweig.
98. Edouard Dujardin, "L'Indépendance de l'Esprit," 36-37; Marcel Martinet, ibid., 39-40. Martinet and Pierre Monatte had visited Romain Rolland on 18 March 1922. See Rolland, Journal intime, cahier 32, 123, ARR; Kasimir Edschmid, L'Art libre, no. 4 (April 1922): 50-51.
99. Fernand Gouttenoire de Toury, "L'Indépendance de l'Esprit," 38; Léon Werth, ibid., 42.
100. See P.-J. Jouve and Charles Vildrac, "L'Indépendance de l'Esprit," 39, 42, respectively.
101. Joseph Rivière, "Enquête Romain Rolland-Henri Barbusse," Cahiers idéalistes, June 1922, 126-127; Marcel Millet, ibid., 123-124.
102. Fabrice, "Romain Rolland et Henri Barbusse," Le Libertaire, no. 158 (3 February 1922); Maurice Wullens, "Romain Rolland et Barbusse," ibid. no. 160 (17 February 1922); Fabrice, "Littérateur," ibid., no. 160 (17 February 1922); André Colomer, ''La Révolution et le prolétariat," ibid., no. 165 (24 March 1922); André Colomer, ''Philosophie ou révolution," ibid., no. 168 (14 April 1922); Génold, "Le Bon Grain et l'ivraie," Revue anarchiste, no. 5 (May 1922); Han Ryner, "Rollandists," Journal du peuple, no. 99 (9 April 1922); Marceline Hecquet, "De la non-coopération," Journal du peuple, no. 179 (29 June 1922).
100. See P.-J. Jouve and Charles Vildrac, "L'Indépendance de l'Esprit," 39, 42, respectively.
101. Joseph Rivière, "Enquête Romain Rolland-Henri Barbusse," Cahiers idéalistes, June 1922, 126-127; Marcel Millet, ibid., 123-124.
102. Fabrice, "Romain Rolland et Henri Barbusse," Le Libertaire, no. 158 (3 February 1922); Maurice Wullens, "Romain Rolland et Barbusse," ibid. no. 160 (17 February 1922); Fabrice, "Littérateur," ibid., no. 160 (17 February 1922); André Colomer, ''La Révolution et le prolétariat," ibid., no. 165 (24 March 1922); André Colomer, ''Philosophie ou révolution," ibid., no. 168 (14 April 1922); Génold, "Le Bon Grain et l'ivraie," Revue anarchiste, no. 5 (May 1922); Han Ryner, "Rollandists," Journal du peuple, no. 99 (9 April 1922); Marceline Hecquet, "De la non-coopération," Journal du peuple, no. 179 (29 June 1922).
100. See P.-J. Jouve and Charles Vildrac, "L'Indépendance de l'Esprit," 39, 42, respectively.
101. Joseph Rivière, "Enquête Romain Rolland-Henri Barbusse," Cahiers idéalistes, June 1922, 126-127; Marcel Millet, ibid., 123-124.
102. Fabrice, "Romain Rolland et Henri Barbusse," Le Libertaire, no. 158 (3 February 1922); Maurice Wullens, "Romain Rolland et Barbusse," ibid. no. 160 (17 February 1922); Fabrice, "Littérateur," ibid., no. 160 (17 February 1922); André Colomer, ''La Révolution et le prolétariat," ibid., no. 165 (24 March 1922); André Colomer, ''Philosophie ou révolution," ibid., no. 168 (14 April 1922); Génold, "Le Bon Grain et l'ivraie," Revue anarchiste, no. 5 (May 1922); Han Ryner, "Rollandists," Journal du peuple, no. 99 (9 April 1922); Marceline Hecquet, "De la non-coopération," Journal du peuple, no. 179 (29 June 1922).
103. QAC, xxiii-xxix; letters from Rolland to Colin, 21 April 1922; to Maxim Gorky, 20 December 1921, 21 January 1922; letters from Gorky to Rolland, 3 January, 25 January 1922, ARR.
104. Letters from Rolland to Colin, 23 April 1922; to Einstein, 21 April 1922; to Ernst Robert Curtius, 19 January 1923, ARR; also see Joseph Kvapil, Romain Rolland et les amis d'Europe (Prague, 1971), 86-109; Pierre Abraham, "La Naissance d'une revue," Europe, September-October 1973, 6-13.
105. QAC, lxx.
106. Romain Rolland, L'Ame enchantée, vol. 1, Annette et Sylvie (Paris, 1922).
107. Letter from Rolland to Paul Seippel, 28 May 1922, ARR. During the heat of the debate, Romain Rolland interceded on behalf of Barbusse's candidacy in the Cercle Littéraire Internationale. See letters from Rolland to Léon Bazalgette, 9 March 1922; to Bloch, 3 March 1922, ARR.
108. Romain Rolland, "Le Banditisme du capital aux Etats-Unis. Une Lettre de Romain Rolland," L'Humanité, 15 June 1922, 1.
109. "Lettre de Romain Rolland," Journal du peuple, no. 87 (8 July 1922); "Le Procès des S.R. russes," Journal du peuple, no. 196 (16 July 1922); Rolland, Journal intime, 12 July 1922, ARR.
110. Letter from Rolland to Marcel Martinet, 18 July 1922; Rolland, Journal intime, 18 July 1922, ARR.
111. Letter from Rolland to Martinet, 13 July 1922, ARR.
112. Leon Trotsky, "Le Drame du prolétariat français," Clarté , no. 22 (1 October 1922): 507-511; Leon Trotsky, "Une Pièce qui est une date," L'Humanité, 7 October 1922, 1; the Clarté piece first appeared in Russian in Izvestia, 16 May 1922; in English in Labour Monthly, 22 August 1922; reprinted in Trotsky on Literature and Art, ed. Paul N. Siegel (New York, 1970), 148-161.
113. Letter from Rolland to Frans Masereel, 11 October 1922, ARR.
114. Rolland, Journal intime, October 1922, 49-51, 56, ARR. A year later, Romain Rolland argued for an education that stressed free inquiry and opposed every church mentality: "And churches—all clericalism (bourgeois or proletarian)—that is the enemy!" L'Ecole émancipée, no. 45 (1 September 1923): 2-3; Victor Serge defended Soviet forms of collective education in his rebuttal and accused Romain Rolland of taking flight into an abstract form of neutrality; see Victor Serge, "Au-dessus de la mêlée sociale," L'Ecole émancipée, no. 4 (14 October 1923): 49-51.
115. Letter from Rolland to Edouard Dujardin, 2 March 1922, ARR.
6 Gandhian
1. Romain Rolland, "Europe and the Coloured Peoples," Foreign Affairs 1, no. 11 (1 May 1920): 1; Romain Rolland, "A Letter from Romain Rolland," Foreign Affairs 2, no. 12 (June 1921): 185.
2. Romain Rolland, "The Iron Net," Survey 56, no. 9 (1 August 1926): 495-496; for the full version of this article, see letter from Rolland to Paul Kellog, 18 November 1925, BV, 227-230.
3. Rolland, "Iron Net," 496.
4. Romain Rolland, "L'Appel aux intellectuels. Une Lettre de Romain Rolland," published in La Liberté (Cairo), no. 981; letter is dated 18 December 1924, ARR.
5. Romain Rolland, "Réponse de Romain Rolland, 'Que pensez-vous de la guerre du Maroc?' " Clarté, no. 76 (15 July 1925): 271; Rolland, "Appel aux travailleurs intellectuels. Oui ou non, condamnez-vous la guerre?" ibid., 285; this appeal was also signed by Barbusse and the Clarté group, the Philosophies circle of Norbert Guterman, Henri Lefebvre, Pierre Morhange, and Georges Politzer, as well as by Marcel Martinet, Georges Pioch, Charles Vildrac, and Léon Werth.
4. Romain Rolland, "L'Appel aux intellectuels. Une Lettre de Romain Rolland," published in La Liberté (Cairo), no. 981; letter is dated 18 December 1924, ARR.
5. Romain Rolland, "Réponse de Romain Rolland, 'Que pensez-vous de la guerre du Maroc?' " Clarté, no. 76 (15 July 1925): 271; Rolland, "Appel aux travailleurs intellectuels. Oui ou non, condamnez-vous la guerre?" ibid., 285; this appeal was also signed by Barbusse and the Clarté group, the Philosophies circle of Norbert Guterman, Henri Lefebvre, Pierre Morhange, and Georges Politzer, as well as by Marcel Martinet, Georges Pioch, Charles Vildrac, and Léon Werth.
6. Rolland, "Réponse de Romain Rolland, 'Que pensez-vous de la guerre du Maroc?'" 271.
7. Rolland, "Iron Net," 495, 496.
8. Ibid.
9. Ibid. Also see Romain Rolland, "Protestation contre l'invasion du Nicaragua par les troupes des Etats-Unis," Front uni des travailleurs et intellectuels de l'Amérique latine (1927), ARR.
7. Rolland, "Iron Net," 495, 496.
8. Ibid.
9. Ibid. Also see Romain Rolland, "Protestation contre l'invasion du Nicaragua par les troupes des Etats-Unis," Front uni des travailleurs et intellectuels de l'Amérique latine (1927), ARR.
7. Rolland, "Iron Net," 495, 496.
8. Ibid.
9. Ibid. Also see Romain Rolland, "Protestation contre l'invasion du Nicaragua par les troupes des Etats-Unis," Front uni des travailleurs et intellectuels de l'Amérique latine (1927), ARR.
10. Romain Rolland, "Adresse aux étudiants et travailleurs indo-chinois en France" (17 May 1926), QAC, 69-71; this first appeared in the monthly Indochinese newspaper, Viêt-Nam-Hön, published in Paris; also see letter from Rolland to Cheng Tcheng, 13 January 1927, ARR. For Romain Rolland's influence on Chinese intellectuals, see T. B. Kin-Yn-Yn, "La Renaissance Chinoise et l'influence de Romain Rolland," Europe, 15 September 1927, 101-108.
11. Letters from Rolland to Count Richard Coudenhove-Kalergi, 14 September 1925, QAC, xxx; and to Louis Rougier, 14 November 1924, ibid., xxxii-xxxiii; also see Romain Rolland, "Sur Pan-Europe," ibid., 97-98; this was first published in L'Effort (Lyons), 28 January 1930; for a full critique of pan-European ideas, see Romain Rolland's debate with Gaston Riou, summarized in his "Europe, élargis-toi, ou meurs." QAC, 112-126.
10. Romain Rolland, "Adresse aux étudiants et travailleurs indo-chinois en France" (17 May 1926), QAC, 69-71; this first appeared in the monthly Indochinese newspaper, Viêt-Nam-Hön, published in Paris; also see letter from Rolland to Cheng Tcheng, 13 January 1927, ARR. For Romain Rolland's influence on Chinese intellectuals, see T. B. Kin-Yn-Yn, "La Renaissance Chinoise et l'influence de Romain Rolland," Europe, 15 September 1927, 101-108.
11. Letters from Rolland to Count Richard Coudenhove-Kalergi, 14 September 1925, QAC, xxx; and to Louis Rougier, 14 November 1924, ibid., xxxii-xxxiii; also see Romain Rolland, "Sur Pan-Europe," ibid., 97-98; this was first published in L'Effort (Lyons), 28 January 1930; for a full critique of pan-European ideas, see Romain Rolland's debate with Gaston Riou, summarized in his "Europe, élargis-toi, ou meurs." QAC, 112-126.
12. Romain Rolland, "Le Pact Kellog," Monde, no. 12 (25 August 1928): 1; "Le Pact Kellog et la comédie de la paix," L'Effort, 30 October 1928; ''Contre le traité de paix,'' Cri des peuples, 10 February 1929; "Contre la guerre. Un Appel de Romain Rolland," Monde, no. 67 (14 September 1929): 3; "La Piraterie de la paix," PRP, 19-26; this first appeared in Europe, 15 November 1929, 431-436; Russian trans. Izvestia; "Il faut réviser les traités" (30 October 1931), PRP, 107-109; "Il faut réviser les traités," PRP, 110-111, first published in L'Effort, January 1932; and "Il faut réviser tout l'ordre social" (23 April 1932), PRP, 112-118.
13. See Peter Brock, Twentieth Century Pacifism (New York, 1970). Though Brock's essay is excellent on British, Indian, and American varieties of pacifism, it is scanty on Continental peace movements.
14. Romain Rolland, "Message à la Volonté de paix," PRP, 100-104, first published in Volonté de paix, no. 5 (October-December 1928); Romain Rolland, "Réponse à l'exposé d'Eugen Relgis," in Eugen Relgis, L'Internationale pacifiste (Paris, 1929), 27-29; see Jean Train, "Sur Romain Rolland," Mère éducatrice, no. 7-9 (July-September 1929): 5.
15. These debates are discussed in David James Fisher, "Romain Rolland and the Question of the Intellectual," Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, 1973, 320-372.
16. Romain Rolland, "Contre la loi militaire," PRP, 144 n. 1; this first appeared in Europe, no. 53 (15 May 1927): 62. Also see Romain Rolland, "Postface," in Marianne Rauze, L'AntiGuerre. Essai d'une doctrine et d'une philosophie de l'antimilitarisme en 1923 (Niort, 1923), 187-192; this was reprinted as "Contre du pacifisme négatif," in PRP, 93-97. One of the leading advocates of peacetime civil service was the Swiss Pierre Cérésole; see Pierre Hirsch, ed., Bon Voisinage. Edmond Privat et Romain Rolland (Neuchâtel, 1977).
17. Romain Rolland, "Le Devoir des intellectuels contre la guerre," PRP, 143-148; first published in L'Avenir social (Brussels), 1 May 1927.
18. Jean Biès, Littérature française et pensée hindouie. Des origins à 1950 (Paris, 1974), 9-351; Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York, 1979), 166-197, 226-254.
19. David James Fisher, "Pacifism and the Intellectual: The Case of Romain Rolland," Peace and Change 7, no. 1-2 (Winter 1981): 91-94; R. A. Francis, "Romain Rolland and Gandhi: A Study in Communication," Journal of European Studies 5 (1975): 291-307; David James Fisher, "Romain Rolland and the Popularization of Gandhi, 1923-1925," Gandhi Marg, 18, no. 3 (July 1974): 145-180; Biès, Littérature française et pensée hindoue, 357-428; Margaret W. Fisher, "Introduction" to Romain Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi (New York, 1973), 5-36; V. V. Ramana Murti, "Romain Rolland and Gandhi," Gandhi Marg, no. 37 (January 1966): 40; Pierre Meile, "Gandhi, ou la sagesse déchainée," in M. K. Gandhi, Autobiographie ou mes expériences de vérité (Paris, 1964), 6; Camille Drevet, "Gandhi in France," Gandhi Marg, no. 4 (October 1959): 302.
20. Paul Clay Sorum, Intellectuals and Decolonization in France (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1977).
21. Joseph J. Doke's M. K. Gandhi, An Indian Patriot in South Africa (London, 1909) was the first book on Gandhi.
22. René Grousset, Histoire de la philosophie orientale (Paris, 1923); Histoire de l'Asie (Paris, 1924), vol. 2; and Le Réveil de l'Asie (Paris, 1924). See also René Guénon, Introduction aux doctrines hindoues (Paris, 1921), and L'Orient et l'Occident (Paris, 1924).
23. "Les Appels de l'Orient," Cahiers du mois, no. 9-10 (February-March 1925). Participants included Gabriel Audisio, Henri Barbusse, André Breton, Paul Claudel, André Desson, Florent Fels, Claude Ferrière, André Gide, René Guénon, André Harlaire, Franz Hellens, Dinet and Sliman ben Ibraham, Sylvain Lévi, René Lalou, Henri Massis, Paul Masson-Oursel, André Maurois, Romain Rolland, Sédir, Fritz von Unruh, and Paul Valéry.
24. Henri Barbusse, "Les Appels de l'Orient," Cahiers du mois, no. 9-10 (February-March 1925): 244; André Breton, ibid., 250-251.
23. "Les Appels de l'Orient," Cahiers du mois, no. 9-10 (February-March 1925). Participants included Gabriel Audisio, Henri Barbusse, André Breton, Paul Claudel, André Desson, Florent Fels, Claude Ferrière, André Gide, René Guénon, André Harlaire, Franz Hellens, Dinet and Sliman ben Ibraham, Sylvain Lévi, René Lalou, Henri Massis, Paul Masson-Oursel, André Maurois, Romain Rolland, Sédir, Fritz von Unruh, and Paul Valéry.
24. Henri Barbusse, "Les Appels de l'Orient," Cahiers du mois, no. 9-10 (February-March 1925): 244; André Breton, ibid., 250-251.
25. Paul Valéry, "Puissance de choix de l'Europe," Cahiers du mois, no. 9-10 (February-March 1925): 16-17.
26. Henri Massis, "Mises au point," Cahiers du mois, no. 9-10 (February-March 1925): 30-38; also see "Henri Massis nous parle de la Grande Asie de Romain Rolland et Rabindranath Tagore," Journal littéraire, no. 42 (7 February 1925): 4; Henri Massis, Défense de l'Occident (Paris, 1927). For an introduction to Massis, see Robert Wohl, The Generation of 1914 (Cambridge, Mass., 1979), 5-18.
27. This was well articulated by Sylvain Lévi's "Distinction," Cahiers du mois, no. 9-10 (February-March 1925): 11-13; and André Gide, "Les Appels de l'Orient," ibid., 18; also see Sylvain Lévi's L'Inde et le monde (Paris, 1926).
26. Henri Massis, "Mises au point," Cahiers du mois, no. 9-10 (February-March 1925): 30-38; also see "Henri Massis nous parle de la Grande Asie de Romain Rolland et Rabindranath Tagore," Journal littéraire, no. 42 (7 February 1925): 4; Henri Massis, Défense de l'Occident (Paris, 1927). For an introduction to Massis, see Robert Wohl, The Generation of 1914 (Cambridge, Mass., 1979), 5-18.
27. This was well articulated by Sylvain Lévi's "Distinction," Cahiers du mois, no. 9-10 (February-March 1925): 11-13; and André Gide, "Les Appels de l'Orient," ibid., 18; also see Sylvain Lévi's L'Inde et le monde (Paris, 1926).
28. Romain Rolland, "Les Appels de l'Orient," Cahiers du mois, no. 9-10 (February-March 1925): 322.
29. For Romain Rolland's personal reaction to the works of Massis and Lévi, see letters to Kalidas Nag, 18 July 1924, ARR; and 2 May 1925, RT-RR, 132; also see Romain Rolland, L'Inde. Journal, 1915-1943 (Paris, 1951), 46, 289, 411, 488; he preferred the scholarly works of Paul Masson-Oursel to those of Lévi and Massis. For Romain Rolland's thoughts on Europe's degeneration, see his conversation with Tagore, 24 June 1926, RT-RR, 183.
30. Rolland, L'Inde, 39-40. In addition, see letter from Rolland to Hermann Hesse, 5 April 1923, HH-RR, 100-101; Hesse replied on 6 April 1923, ibid., 101-103. Hesse's ability to absorb Eastern religious ideas was related to his marginal position in European intellectual currents.
29. For Romain Rolland's personal reaction to the works of Massis and Lévi, see letters to Kalidas Nag, 18 July 1924, ARR; and 2 May 1925, RT-RR, 132; also see Romain Rolland, L'Inde. Journal, 1915-1943 (Paris, 1951), 46, 289, 411, 488; he preferred the scholarly works of Paul Masson-Oursel to those of Lévi and Massis. For Romain Rolland's thoughts on Europe's degeneration, see his conversation with Tagore, 24 June 1926, RT-RR, 183.
30. Rolland, L'Inde, 39-40. In addition, see letter from Rolland to Hermann Hesse, 5 April 1923, HH-RR, 100-101; Hesse replied on 6 April 1923, ibid., 101-103. Hesse's ability to absorb Eastern religious ideas was related to his marginal position in European intellectual currents.
31. Romain Rolland, "Au P.E.N. Club de Londres (Pour la première réunion internationale du Club Internationale des Ecrivains)," 1 May 1923, QAC, 59-61; first published in Europe, 15 June 1923, 102-105. Romain Rolland, "'Sur l'occupation de la Ruhr," QAC, 61-62; first published in Rassegna internazionale, July 1923, and in Libres Propos, 6 October 1923, 218. Romain Rolland, "Appel aux français pour venir en aide aux malheureux d'Allemagne," QAC, 62-64; this first appeared in Europe, 15 February 1924, 233-234; L'Universel, February 1924, 1; and Revue européene, no. 13 (1 March 1924): 72-73; letter from Rolland to Ernst Toller, 20 November 1924, ARR; also consult QAC, 71.
32. Rolland, L'Inde, 9-11.
33. Ibid., 12-13; also see Romain Rolland, Les Précurseurs (1919; Ge-
neva, 1971), 191; Rabindranath Tagore, "Le Message de l'Inde au Japon," trans. Andrée Jouve, in Romain Rolland, A la civilisation (Paris, 1917), 25-30.
32. Rolland, L'Inde, 9-11.
33. Ibid., 12-13; also see Romain Rolland, Les Précurseurs (1919; Ge-
neva, 1971), 191; Rabindranath Tagore, "Le Message de l'Inde au Japon," trans. Andrée Jouve, in Romain Rolland, A la civilisation (Paris, 1917), 25-30.
34. Letters from Rolland to Tagore, 26 August 1919, 10 April 1919, 25 April 1921, RT-RR, 26-28, 21-22, 34-35; also see Rolland, L'Inde, 19-27.
35. Rolland, "Avant-Propos pour La Danse de Civa d'Ananda Coomaraswamy," L'Inde, 598-604; this first appeared in Ananda Coomaraswamy, La Danse de Civa, trans. Madeleine Rolland (Paris, 1922). Letter from Rolland to Dilip Kumar Roy, 24 February 1924, in D. K. Roy, Among the Great (Bombay, 1945), 86-89; also published in G-RR, 208-210; English translation, Romain Rolland and Gandhi Correspondence, trans. R. A. Francis (New Delhi, 1976), 23-25; also see letters from Rolland to Maxim Gorky, 4 April 1922, 16 September 1922, 8 February 1923, 4 October 1923, 1 August 1924, 16 October 1924, ARR; from Rolland to Roy, 1 October 1924, Among the Great, 60-62.
36. Romain Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi (Paris, 1924), 14.
37. Letters from Rolland to Nag, 21 October 1924, RT-RR, 118-119; from Rolland to Marcel Martinet, 1 November 1924, ARR. From 1923 to 1924, Revue européene was more receptive than Europe to the Indian cultural influence; it published "Deux Poèmes de Tagore," trans. P.-J. Jouve, no. 8 (1923): 21-23; and C. F. Andrews, "Une Journée avec Mahatma Gandhi," no. 21 (1 November 1924): 47-54; with an introduction by Romain Rolland.
38. Rolland, L'Inde, 18.
39. Ibid., 34-35.
40. Ibid., 39. Rolland acknowledged his intellectual debt to Nag in Mahatma Gandhi (Paris, 1966), 9; see letters from Rolland to Nag, 14 August 1922, G-RR, 172, and 12 November 1922, ARR.
38. Rolland, L'Inde, 18.
39. Ibid., 34-35.
40. Ibid., 39. Rolland acknowledged his intellectual debt to Nag in Mahatma Gandhi (Paris, 1966), 9; see letters from Rolland to Nag, 14 August 1922, G-RR, 172, and 12 November 1922, ARR.
38. Rolland, L'Inde, 18.
39. Ibid., 34-35.
40. Ibid., 39. Rolland acknowledged his intellectual debt to Nag in Mahatma Gandhi (Paris, 1966), 9; see letters from Rolland to Nag, 14 August 1922, G-RR, 172, and 12 November 1922, ARR.
41. Romain Rolland, "La Réponse de l'Asie à Tolstoï" (May 1927), Vie de Tolstoï (Paris, 1959), 214-231; first published in Europe, 15 July 1928, 338-357; "Lettre écrite par Tolstoï deux mois avant sa mort, à Gandhi," in Rolland, Vie de Tolstoï, 331-335. For Romain Rolland's relations with Tolstoy and Tolstoy as a bridge between Gandhi and Romain Rolland, see Romain Rolland, Monsieur le Comte. Romain Rolland et Léon Tolstoy textes (Paris, 1981), 135, 139, 149, 166-167.
42. Letter from Rolland to Nag, 21 December 1922, G-RR, 173.
43. Letter from Rolland to Nag, 12 November 1922, ARR; also see letters from Rolland to Louise Cruppi, 25 January 1923; to Paul Colin, 25 January 1923; to Maurice Delamin, 7 February 1923, G-RR, 175, 175-176, 177-178; to Colin, 25 January 1923; to Paul Amann, 9 February 1923, G-RR, 175, 180. The biography was published in three parts in Europe, 15 March 1923, 129-163; 15 April 1923, 267-310; 15 May 1923, 427-454; the concluding remarks of the final chapter were published under the title "L'Evangile de la nonviolence," in Libres Propos, 16 June 1923, 72-74. It was released in book form by the French publisher Les Editions Stock in 1924, and translated into English by Catherine P. Groth as Mahatma Gandhi: The Man Who Became One with the Universal Being (New York, 1924; reprint, New York, 1973). I will cite the definitive French edition of 1966.
44. Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi, 27, 28-29.
45. Ibid., 64.
46. Ibid., 15, 35, 47-48.
47. Ibid., 48, 73.
48. Ibid., 49-50.
49. Ibid., 109-112.
50. Ibid., 59; also see 21, 69, 95-96.
44. Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi, 27, 28-29.
45. Ibid., 64.
46. Ibid., 15, 35, 47-48.
47. Ibid., 48, 73.
48. Ibid., 49-50.
49. Ibid., 109-112.
50. Ibid., 59; also see 21, 69, 95-96.
44. Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi, 27, 28-29.
45. Ibid., 64.
46. Ibid., 15, 35, 47-48.
47. Ibid., 48, 73.
48. Ibid., 49-50.
49. Ibid., 109-112.
50. Ibid., 59; also see 21, 69, 95-96.
44. Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi, 27, 28-29.
45. Ibid., 64.
46. Ibid., 15, 35, 47-48.
47. Ibid., 48, 73.
48. Ibid., 49-50.
49. Ibid., 109-112.
50. Ibid., 59; also see 21, 69, 95-96.
44. Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi, 27, 28-29.
45. Ibid., 64.
46. Ibid., 15, 35, 47-48.
47. Ibid., 48, 73.
48. Ibid., 49-50.
49. Ibid., 109-112.
50. Ibid., 59; also see 21, 69, 95-96.
44. Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi, 27, 28-29.
45. Ibid., 64.
46. Ibid., 15, 35, 47-48.
47. Ibid., 48, 73.
48. Ibid., 49-50.
49. Ibid., 109-112.
50. Ibid., 59; also see 21, 69, 95-96.
44. Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi, 27, 28-29.
45. Ibid., 64.
46. Ibid., 15, 35, 47-48.
47. Ibid., 48, 73.
48. Ibid., 49-50.
49. Ibid., 109-112.
50. Ibid., 59; also see 21, 69, 95-96.
51. For representative historical evaluations of the events at Chauri Chaura, see D. G. Tendulkar, Mahatma: The Life of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (Bombay, 1951), 2:101-123; B. R. Nanda, Mahatma Gandhi: A Biography (London, 1958), 235-237; Francis Watson, The Trial of Mr. Gandhi (London, 1969), 184-185; Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi , 89, 96.
52. Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi , 96.
53. Ibid., 84-85.
54. Ibid., 44, 48.
52. Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi , 96.
53. Ibid., 84-85.
54. Ibid., 44, 48.
52. Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi , 96.
53. Ibid., 84-85.
54. Ibid., 44, 48.
55. Erik H. Erikson, Gandhi's Truth: On the Origins of Militant Nonviolence (New York, 1969), 229-254; Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi , 86.
56. Ibid., 85; V. V. Ramana Murti, "Romain Rolland and Gandhi," Gandhi Marg , no. 37 (January 1966): 40, observes that Romain Rolland draws his portrait from "a Tagorean viewpoint."
55. Erik H. Erikson, Gandhi's Truth: On the Origins of Militant Nonviolence (New York, 1969), 229-254; Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi , 86.
56. Ibid., 85; V. V. Ramana Murti, "Romain Rolland and Gandhi," Gandhi Marg , no. 37 (January 1966): 40, observes that Romain Rolland draws his portrait from "a Tagorean viewpoint."
57. Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi , 85.
58. Ibid., 113.
57. Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi , 85.
58. Ibid., 113.
59. Romain Rolland, "L'Inde depuis la libération de Gandhi," Europe , 15 April 1924, 507-514. This essay served as the "postface" in later editions (see Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi , 117-126) but is not included in the English translation. Gandhi was released from prison on 2 February 1924.
60. Romain Rolland, "Introduction à La Jeune Inde ," G-RR , 349-361; first published in Revue européene , no. 20 (1 October 1924): 1-15. This served as Romain Rolland's introduction to the French abridgement of Gandhi's Jeune Inde (Paris, 1924), trans. Hélène Hart; English translation in Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 509-519.
61. Rolland, "Introduction à La Jeune Inde ," 514.
62. Ibid., 513.
63. Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi , 21, 43 n. 25, 111; Romain Rolland cited M. N. Roy, India in Transition (Geneva, 1922), and M. N. Roy and Evelyn Roy, One Year of Non-Cooperation (Calcutta, 1923), adding that these brochures "set forth the communist thesis, in opposition to Gandhi," ibid., 130.
61. Rolland, "Introduction à La Jeune Inde ," 514.
62. Ibid., 513.
63. Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi , 21, 43 n. 25, 111; Romain Rolland cited M. N. Roy, India in Transition (Geneva, 1922), and M. N. Roy and Evelyn Roy, One Year of Non-Cooperation (Calcutta, 1923), adding that these brochures "set forth the communist thesis, in opposition to Gandhi," ibid., 130.
61. Rolland, "Introduction à La Jeune Inde ," 514.
62. Ibid., 513.
63. Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi , 21, 43 n. 25, 111; Romain Rolland cited M. N. Roy, India in Transition (Geneva, 1922), and M. N. Roy and Evelyn Roy, One Year of Non-Cooperation (Calcutta, 1923), adding that these brochures "set forth the communist thesis, in opposition to Gandhi," ibid., 130.
64. Despite the popularity of Romain Rolland's volume on Gandhi, it was ignored by reviewers. Three rare but not substantive reviews are Charles Henry Hirsch, Mercure de France 165 (1 July 1923): 191-192, and 175 (1 November 1924): 793; Jean Caves, "Le Nihilisme européen et les Appels de l'Orient," Philosophies , no. 2 (15 May 1924): 190-195; and Paul Souday, " Mahatma Gandhi de R. Rolland," Le Temps , 13 March 1924. Letters from Rolland to Luc Durtain, 1 June 1923; to Waldo Frank, 17 June 1923; to Stefan Zweig, 22 March 1924; G-RR , 192, 196, 212.
65. Ram-Prasad Dube, "Les Aspects sociaux au mouvement Gandhi dans l'Inde," Clarté , no. 8 (1 March 1922): 188-191.
66. M. N. Roy, "Le Congrès national de Gaya. Vers la disparition du quiétisme de Gandhi," L'Humanité , 3 March 1923, 3.
67. Executive Committee of the Communist International, "Les Crimes de l'impérialisme brittanique," L'Humanité , 19 March 1923, 3.
68. Henri Barbusse, "Révolutionnaires d'Orient et d'Occident. A propos de Gandhi," Clarté , no. 39 (13 July 1923): 314.
69. Ibid., 315.
70. Ibid., 316.
71. Ibid., 317.
72. Ibid., 317-318.
73. Ibid., 318.
74. Ibid.
75. Ibid., 319.
76. Ibid., 320; Evelyn Roy's "Mahatma Gandhi. Révolutionnaire ou contre-révolutionnaire?" Clarté , no. 46 (November 1926): 437-439, was critical of both Barbusse and Romain Rolland; Clarté had evolved to an extreme left position by 1926.
68. Henri Barbusse, "Révolutionnaires d'Orient et d'Occident. A propos de Gandhi," Clarté , no. 39 (13 July 1923): 314.
69. Ibid., 315.
70. Ibid., 316.
71. Ibid., 317.
72. Ibid., 317-318.
73. Ibid., 318.
74. Ibid.
75. Ibid., 319.
76. Ibid., 320; Evelyn Roy's "Mahatma Gandhi. Révolutionnaire ou contre-révolutionnaire?" Clarté , no. 46 (November 1926): 437-439, was critical of both Barbusse and Romain Rolland; Clarté had evolved to an extreme left position by 1926.
68. Henri Barbusse, "Révolutionnaires d'Orient et d'Occident. A propos de Gandhi," Clarté , no. 39 (13 July 1923): 314.
69. Ibid., 315.
70. Ibid., 316.
71. Ibid., 317.
72. Ibid., 317-318.
73. Ibid., 318.
74. Ibid.
75. Ibid., 319.
76. Ibid., 320; Evelyn Roy's "Mahatma Gandhi. Révolutionnaire ou contre-révolutionnaire?" Clarté , no. 46 (November 1926): 437-439, was critical of both Barbusse and Romain Rolland; Clarté had evolved to an extreme left position by 1926.
68. Henri Barbusse, "Révolutionnaires d'Orient et d'Occident. A propos de Gandhi," Clarté , no. 39 (13 July 1923): 314.
69. Ibid., 315.
70. Ibid., 316.
71. Ibid., 317.
72. Ibid., 317-318.
73. Ibid., 318.
74. Ibid.
75. Ibid., 319.
76. Ibid., 320; Evelyn Roy's "Mahatma Gandhi. Révolutionnaire ou contre-révolutionnaire?" Clarté , no. 46 (November 1926): 437-439, was critical of both Barbusse and Romain Rolland; Clarté had evolved to an extreme left position by 1926.
68. Henri Barbusse, "Révolutionnaires d'Orient et d'Occident. A propos de Gandhi," Clarté , no. 39 (13 July 1923): 314.
69. Ibid., 315.
70. Ibid., 316.
71. Ibid., 317.
72. Ibid., 317-318.
73. Ibid., 318.
74. Ibid.
75. Ibid., 319.
76. Ibid., 320; Evelyn Roy's "Mahatma Gandhi. Révolutionnaire ou contre-révolutionnaire?" Clarté , no. 46 (November 1926): 437-439, was critical of both Barbusse and Romain Rolland; Clarté had evolved to an extreme left position by 1926.
68. Henri Barbusse, "Révolutionnaires d'Orient et d'Occident. A propos de Gandhi," Clarté , no. 39 (13 July 1923): 314.
69. Ibid., 315.
70. Ibid., 316.
71. Ibid., 317.
72. Ibid., 317-318.
73. Ibid., 318.
74. Ibid.
75. Ibid., 319.
76. Ibid., 320; Evelyn Roy's "Mahatma Gandhi. Révolutionnaire ou contre-révolutionnaire?" Clarté , no. 46 (November 1926): 437-439, was critical of both Barbusse and Romain Rolland; Clarté had evolved to an extreme left position by 1926.
68. Henri Barbusse, "Révolutionnaires d'Orient et d'Occident. A propos de Gandhi," Clarté , no. 39 (13 July 1923): 314.
69. Ibid., 315.
70. Ibid., 316.
71. Ibid., 317.
72. Ibid., 317-318.
73. Ibid., 318.
74. Ibid.
75. Ibid., 319.
76. Ibid., 320; Evelyn Roy's "Mahatma Gandhi. Révolutionnaire ou contre-révolutionnaire?" Clarté , no. 46 (November 1926): 437-439, was critical of both Barbusse and Romain Rolland; Clarté had evolved to an extreme left position by 1926.
68. Henri Barbusse, "Révolutionnaires d'Orient et d'Occident. A propos de Gandhi," Clarté , no. 39 (13 July 1923): 314.
69. Ibid., 315.
70. Ibid., 316.
71. Ibid., 317.
72. Ibid., 317-318.
73. Ibid., 318.
74. Ibid.
75. Ibid., 319.
76. Ibid., 320; Evelyn Roy's "Mahatma Gandhi. Révolutionnaire ou contre-révolutionnaire?" Clarté , no. 46 (November 1926): 437-439, was critical of both Barbusse and Romain Rolland; Clarté had evolved to an extreme left position by 1926.
68. Henri Barbusse, "Révolutionnaires d'Orient et d'Occident. A propos de Gandhi," Clarté , no. 39 (13 July 1923): 314.
69. Ibid., 315.
70. Ibid., 316.
71. Ibid., 317.
72. Ibid., 317-318.
73. Ibid., 318.
74. Ibid.
75. Ibid., 319.
76. Ibid., 320; Evelyn Roy's "Mahatma Gandhi. Révolutionnaire ou contre-révolutionnaire?" Clarté , no. 46 (November 1926): 437-439, was critical of both Barbusse and Romain Rolland; Clarté had evolved to an extreme left position by 1926.
77. Letters from Rolland to Jacques Mesnil, 12 March 1923; and to J. Taupin, 12 March 1923, G-RR , 188, 188-189.
78. Letter from Rolland to Roy, 24 February 1924, G-RR , 209.
79. Letter from Rolland to C. F. Andrews, 24 September 1924, G-RR , 218. Romain Rolland noted in March 1924 that his portrait of Gandhi was proscribed in the Soviet Union (ibid., 432).
78. Letter from Rolland to Roy, 24 February 1924, G-RR , 209.
79. Letter from Rolland to C. F. Andrews, 24 September 1924, G-RR , 218. Romain Rolland noted in March 1924 that his portrait of Gandhi was proscribed in the Soviet Union (ibid., 432).
80. Letter from Rolland to Andrews, 24 September 1924, G-RR , 217-218.
81. For the text of Gandhi's statement, see M. K. Gandhi, Non-Violence in Peace and War (Ahmedabad, 1962), 1:29-30, which first appeared in Young India , 12 December 1924.
82. Rolland, journal extract, January 1924, G-RR , 437-438. For Le Matin's exploitation of Gandhi's statement, see "Gandhi refuse de l'argent offert par Moscou pour fomenter la révolution aux Indes," Le Matin , 20 January 1925, 1.
83. Letter from Rolland to Roger Avermaete, 28 July 1924, G-RR , 215.
84. Letter from Rolland to Gandhi, 24 February 1924, G-RR , 13-14.
85. Letters from Rolland to Gandhi, 1 October 1925, G-RR , 15; from Madeleine Slade to Rolland, 12 November 1925, ibid., 15-16; from Gandhi to Rolland, 13 November 1925, ibid., 16; journal extract, 14 September 1925, ibid., 439-440. Also consult Madeleine Slade, The Spirit's Pilgrimage (New York, 1960).
84. Letter from Rolland to Gandhi, 24 February 1924, G-RR , 13-14.
85. Letters from Rolland to Gandhi, 1 October 1925, G-RR , 15; from Madeleine Slade to Rolland, 12 November 1925, ibid., 15-16; from Gandhi to Rolland, 13 November 1925, ibid., 16; journal extract, 14 September 1925, ibid., 439-440. Also consult Madeleine Slade, The Spirit's Pilgrimage (New York, 1960).
86. Letter from Gandhi to Rolland, 22 March 1924, G-RR , 14.
87. Rolland, journal extract, December 1924, G-RR , 437.
88. Letter from Gandhi to Emil Roniger, October 1926, G-RR , 26 (English translation in Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 77); also published in Liber Amicorum Romain Rolland , ed. Georges Duhamel, Maxim Gorky, and Stefan Zweig (Zurich, 1926), 155.
89. Letter from Rolland to Slade, 26 September 1926, G-RR , 22-23 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 72).
90. G-RR , 23 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 73).
91. Romain Rolland, "Hic et Nunc" (22 November 1926), in Le Voyage intérieur (Paris, 1959), 374-379.
92. Letters from Rolland to George Lenard, 8 March 1928; to Reginald Reynolds, 19 September 1930, G-RR , 240, 253 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 410, 423). Romain Rolland also used the line from Spinoza as the epigraph to Mère et fils (1927), in L'Ame enchantée , 431.
93. Rolland, "Hic et Nunc," 375, 376, 379.
94. Letter from Rolland to Slade, 10 December 1927, G-RR , 30-32 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 88-90); letters from Slade to Rolland, 6 January 1928, 12 February 1928, G-RR , 32-33, 34-35 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 90-91, 93-94); letter from Gandhi to Rolland, 17 February 1928, G-RR , 36-37 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 95-96); letter from Rolland to Slade, 21 January 1928, G-RR , 33 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 91-92).
95. Letter from Rolland to Gandhi, 8 March 1928, G-RR , 39-41 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 99-102); M. K. Gandhi, "My Part in the War," and "A Spiritual Dilemma," in An Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments with Truth (New York, 1971), 346-348, 348-350.
96. Letter from Rolland to Gandhi, 7 March 1928, G-RR , 41 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 101).
97. Letters from Rolland to Gandhi, 16 April 1928, 17 February 1928, G-RR , 46-48, 51-53 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 111-114, 128-130).
98. Message from Rolland to Reginald Reynolds for Gandhi's birthday, 1 October 1930, G-RR , 254-255 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 141).
99. Letter from Rolland to Gandhi, 10 September 1931, G-RR , 61-62 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 147-148); letter from Rolland to Slade, 9 November 1931, G-RR , 65-68 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence 156-159).
100. Rolland, journal extract, December 1931, G-RR , 70 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 163-164); the full text of Gandhi's visit is recorded in G-RR , 69-127.
101. Geoffrey Ashe, Gandhi (New York, 1969), 311-312; Louis Fischer, The Life of Mahatma Gandhi (New York, 1962), 298-301.
102. Rolland, journal extract, G-RR , 73-76 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 168-171).
103. Rolland, journal extract, G-RR , 75-76 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 169-170).
104. Rolland, journal extract, G-RR , 83-85, 86, 115-116 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 179-181, 183, 217-218).
105. G-RR , 97-98, 114-117, 118-119 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 195-197, 216-217, 218-219). Only the revolutionary syndicalists covered Gandhi's visit to Europe; see D. Guérin, "Gandhi à Paris," Révolution prolétarienne , no. 122 (December 1931): 306-309. Gandhi replied to Monatte's question (posed by Romain Rolland) in Révolution prolétarienne , no. 123 (January 1932): 5-6.
106. Rolland, L'Inde , 315-321, 338.
107. Ibid., 353, 362-364, 376-380.
108. Ibid., 320, 364.
109. Ibid.
106. Rolland, L'Inde , 315-321, 338.
107. Ibid., 353, 362-364, 376-380.
108. Ibid., 320, 364.
109. Ibid.
106. Rolland, L'Inde , 315-321, 338.
107. Ibid., 353, 362-364, 376-380.
108. Ibid., 320, 364.
109. Ibid.
106. Rolland, L'Inde , 315-321, 338.
107. Ibid., 353, 362-364, 376-380.
108. Ibid., 320, 364.
109. Ibid.
110. Letter from Gandhi to Rolland, 20 December 1931, G-RR , 129.
111. Rolland, L'Inde , 423; dated 1933.
112. Letter from Rolland to Gandhi, 2 January 1932, G-RR , 134-135, ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 245-248). This letter was neither completed nor mailed because of Gandhi's arrest in India.
113. G-RR , 135.
114. Romain Rolland, Le Voyage intérieur. (Songe d'une vie) (Paris, 1959); Rolland, Beethoven. Les Grandes Epoques créatrices de l'Héroïque à l'Appassionata (Paris, 1928); Rolland, Goethe et Beethoven (Paris, 1930); Rolland
Essai sur la mystique et l'action de l'Inde vivante. La Vie de Ramakrishna (Paris, 1929) and La Vie de Vivekananda et l'évangile universel , 2 vols. (Paris, 1930).
115. Rolland, L'Inde , 262; also see letters from Rolland to Albert Crémieux, 8 February 1928; to Swami Ashkananda, 4 October 1927; to Swami Shivananda, 12 September 1927, ARR. Letter from Rolland to Roy, 22 August 1928, in Roy, Among the Great , 51-54.
116. Rolland coined the term "oceanic sensation" in a letter written to Sigmund Freud on 5 December 1927 ( BV , 264-266); see David James Fisher, "Sigmund Freud and Romain Rolland: The Terrestrial Animal and His Great Oceanic Friend," American Imago 33, no. 1 (Spring 1976): 1-59; and David James Fisher, "Reading Freud's Civilization and Its Discontents ," in Modern European Intellectual History , ed. Dominick LaCapra and Steven Kaplan (Ithaca, N.Y., 1982), 251-279.
117. Letter from Rolland to Freud, 17 July 1929, ARR. Also see Romain Rolland, The Life of Ramakrishna , trans. E. F. Malcolm-Smith (Calcutta, 1970), 4-5, 6-7; Rolland, The Life of Vivekananda and the Universal Gospel , trans. E. F. Malcolm-Smith (Calcutta, 1970), 254. For a study of Romain Rolland's religiosity, see Paul Claudel, "La Pensée religieuse de Romain Rolland," in Accompagnements (Paris, 1949), 62-88.
118. The following is a list of Romain Rolland's "Courrier de l'Inde" articles: "Courrier de l'Inde. La Déclaration de guerre de l'Angleterre à l'Inde," G-RR , 383-393 (first published in Europe , 15 February 1932, 250-260); "Courrier de l'Inde II. Echec au Roi!" G-RR , 394-406 (first published in Europe , 15 March 1932, 416-427); ''Courrier de l'Inde III. Révolution, le chef invisible," G-RR , 406-417 (first published in Europe , 15 May 1932, 108-119); "Le Christ des Indes,'' G-RR , 417-419 (first published in Journée internationale pour l'Inde , 6 October 1932); "Tagore et Gandhi pendant le jeune," L'Inde , 559-562 (first published in Europe , 15 November 1932, 448-551); "Vers l'unité de l'Inde par l'entente Hindoue-Musulmane," L'Inde , 559-562 (first published in Europe , 15 January 1933, 107-110); "Documents sur l'Inde," L'Inde , 568-572 (first published in Europe , 15 February 1933, 254-257); "Pour les condamnés de Meerut," L'Inde , 573-577 (first published in Europe , 15 April 1933, 593-597); "Les Resolutions du Congrès National de Toute L'Inde, ô Calcutta" (May 1933), L'Inde , 578-581 (first published in Europe , 15 June 1933, 273-276).
119. Letters from Rolland to Lucien Price, 25 December 1931; to Stefan Zweig, 30 December 1931; to Marcel Lob, 1 January 1932; to Ré Meynard, 17 January 1932; G-RR , 284-287, 287-291, 295, 300-301.
120. Letter from Rolland to Waldo Frank, 26 January 1932, G-RR , 301-302. Also see letters from Rolland to Reginald Reynolds, 12 July 1933; to Eugene Lagot, 4 November 1933; to Saumyendranath Tagore, 14 November 1933; G-RR , 316-318, 320, 321-322. For Romain Rolland's attempts to bridge the communist and Gandhian movements, see "Entretien entre Romain Rolland et S. Tagore," G-RR , 330-332.
121. Letter from Rolland to Gandhi, 14 April 1932, G-RR , 154-157 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 302-305).
122. Gandhi had attacked socialist theory and practice in his "Adresse au Congrès de Bombay," Europe , 15 March 1935, delivered in September 1934. Also see letter from Gandhi to Madeleine Rolland, 28 March 1935, G-RR , 162-163. For Romain Rolland's reactions, see PRP , 74 n. 1; and
Rolland, journal extract, G-RR , 340-343 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 324-327).
123. Romain Rolland, "Acte de reconnaissance d'un homme d'Occident à Gandhi" (February 1939), G-RR , 420-422 ( Rolland-Gandhi Correspondence , 345-348).
124. See Joan V. Bondurant, The Conquest of Violence: The Gandhian Philosophy of Conflict (Berkeley, Calif., 1971), for the connection between Gandhism and the liberal democratic ideologies; Erikson, Gandhi's Truth , for the correspondences between Gandhism and psychoanalysis; and George Woodcock, Mohandas Gandhi (New York, 1971), for the link to anarchist ideas.
7 Intellectual Antifascism and the Amsterdam-Pleyel Movement
1. Letter from Rolland to Louise Cruppi, 15 February 1922, ARR; also QAC , xl.
2. Letter from Rolland to Cruppi, 1 November 1922, ARR.
3. Letter from Rolland to Sofia Guerrieri-Gonzaga, 27 July 1922, RR-SBGG (1960) , 287; letter from Rolland to Cruppi, 8 February 1923, ARR.
4. Letter from Rolland to Guerrieri-Gonzaga, 31 December 1922, RR-SBGG (1960) , 290-291; letter from Rolland to Cruppi, 13 September 1923, ARR.
5. Rolland, Journal intime , December 1924-December 1925, ARR; letter from Rolland to Umberto Zanotti-Bianco, 31 August 1925, ARR.
6. Letters from Rolland to René Arcos, 31 August 1925; to Léon Bazalgette, 7 September 1925; to Jean-Richard Bloch, 5 September 1925 and 15 October 1925, ARR.
7. Romain Rolland, "Contre la guerre et ses agents provocateurs," QAC , 66-67; first delivered as an address to the French League of the Rights of Man, Drôme and Ardèche sections, 19 April 1926.
8. Romain Rolland, "Vita sine libertate, nihil," QAC , 67; this was first a letter written to Henry Torrès, 23 April 1926.
9. Romain Rolland, "Lettre à Filippo Turati" (1 May 1927), QAC , 67-68; Romain Rolland, "La Veuve de Matteotti séquestrée," Le Populaire , 3 October 1927, 3. For a description of the weekly La Libertà and for information on the activities of Turati and Claudio Treves, see Charles Delzell, Mussolini's Enemies: The Italian Antifascist Resistance (Princeton, N.J., 1961), 58.
10. Henri Giordan, ed., Romain Rolland et le mouvement florentin de "la Voce" (Paris, 1966). Giovanni Amendola's tribute to Romain Rolland appeared in Liber Amicorum Romain Rolland (Zurich, 1926), 393-394.
11. Letter from Rolland to Giorgio Amendola, 22 May 1926, in Giordan, Romain Rolland et la mouvement florentin de "la Voce," 355-356; also see QAC , xl; published in Italian in Giorgio Amendola, Communismo antifascismo resistenza (Rome, 1967), 411-412.
12. Romain Rolland, L'Inde. Journal, 1915-1943 (Paris, 1951), 109-119, 126-127, 134.
13. Letter from Rolland to Gaetano Salvemini, 5 July 1926, RT-RR , 147.
14. Letter from Rolland to Rabindranath Tagore, 11 November 1926; RT-RR , 78; also see the conversation between Rolland and Tagore, 25 June 1926, ibid., 187-191.
13. Letter from Rolland to Gaetano Salvemini, 5 July 1926, RT-RR , 147.
14. Letter from Rolland to Rabindranath Tagore, 11 November 1926; RT-RR , 78; also see the conversation between Rolland and Tagore, 25 June 1926, ibid., 187-191.
15. Letter from Rolland to Kalidas Nag, 6-7 July 1926, RT-RR , 149-151.
16. Letter from Rolland to Salvemini, 5 July 1926, RT-RR , 147; also see Rolland, L'Inde , 138-146, 157, 159-166, 179, 182-192. For Tagore's final statement on Italian fascism, see "Tagore en Italie," Europe , 15 August 1926, and L'Humanité , 16 August 1926. See Romain Rolland, "Lettre à The Indian Daily Mail," L'Inde , 184-185, for a protest against the spread of pro-Italian-fascist propaganda in India.
17. Letter from Rolland to Madame Thérèse Dispan de Floran, 31 January 1927, ARR.
18. Letter from Rolland to Salvemini, 28 May 1927, BV , 248-251; also see QAC , lxxiv.
19. Romain Rolland and Henri Barbusse, "Aux esprits libres, contre le fascisme," Bulletin du Comité de défense des victimes du fascisme et de la terreur blanche (February 1927), QAC , xlii; in a letter to Barbusse dated 28 January 1928, Romain Rolland condemned this bulletin for its communist invective and propaganda, ARR.
20. Letter from Rolland to Heinz Haeberlin, 3 March 1927, in Pierre Abraham, Romain Rolland (Neuchâtel, 1969), 135.
21. Letters from Rolland to Henri Barbusse, 30 November 1926, 10 February 1927, ARR.
22. Letter from Rolland to Barbusse, 28 January 1928, ARR.
23. Letter from Rolland to Barbusse, 28 October 1928, ARR.
24. Romain Rolland, "M. Romain Rolland prend position," Clarté , no. 5 (15 January 1927): 158; Marcel Fournier had challenged Romain Rolland in Clarté , no. 4 (15 December 1926): 124.
25. Letter from Rolland to André Berthet, 30 October 1928, ARR.
26. Romain Rolland, "Avertissement à l'Amérique" (10 September 1926), QAC , 72-73. Romain Rolland also protested the abuse of justice in the Sacco and Vanzetti case; see "Lettre à un ami Américain sur le meutre judiciaire de Sacco et Vanzetti," ibid., 74-78; first published in Europe , 15 October 1927, and The Nation , 28 September 1927.
27. Romain Rolland, "Au Flambeau d'Egypte," 14 October 1929, BV , 284-286; letter from Rolland to Charles Lecôeur, 28 June 1930, ibid., 305-307.
25. Letter from Rolland to André Berthet, 30 October 1928, ARR.
26. Romain Rolland, "Avertissement à l'Amérique" (10 September 1926), QAC , 72-73. Romain Rolland also protested the abuse of justice in the Sacco and Vanzetti case; see "Lettre à un ami Américain sur le meutre judiciaire de Sacco et Vanzetti," ibid., 74-78; first published in Europe , 15 October 1927, and The Nation , 28 September 1927.
27. Romain Rolland, "Au Flambeau d'Egypte," 14 October 1929, BV , 284-286; letter from Rolland to Charles Lecôeur, 28 June 1930, ibid., 305-307.
25. Letter from Rolland to André Berthet, 30 October 1928, ARR.
26. Romain Rolland, "Avertissement à l'Amérique" (10 September 1926), QAC , 72-73. Romain Rolland also protested the abuse of justice in the Sacco and Vanzetti case; see "Lettre à un ami Américain sur le meutre judiciaire de Sacco et Vanzetti," ibid., 74-78; first published in Europe , 15 October 1927, and The Nation , 28 September 1927.
27. Romain Rolland, "Au Flambeau d'Egypte," 14 October 1929, BV , 284-286; letter from Rolland to Charles Lecôeur, 28 June 1930, ibid., 305-307.
28. Romain Rolland, "Sur pan-Europa" (28 January 1930), QAC , 97-98; this first appeared in L'Effort (Lyons) as an address to secular educators for a conference organized by the League of the Rights of Man.
29. Romain Rolland, "Le Gouvernement reste muet sur les massacres du 1 er mai. Une Protestation de Romain Rolland contre le repatriement forcé de Tao à Saigon," L'Humanité , 12 May 1931, 1.
30. Rolland, journal extract, 16 March 1931, ARR.
31. Romain Rolland, "Un Meeting grandiose et vibrant pour la libération de Tao en faveur de l'indépendance de l'Indochine," L'Humanité , 20 May 1931, 1; this reappeared as "Politique coloniale," in L'Oeuvre sociale (Besançon), no. 463 (18 July 1931): 1.
32. Romain Rolland, "Romain Rolland appelle à la lutte révolutionaire," L'Humanité , 4 November 1931, 3; also see his review of Pin Yin's Une Jeune Chinoise à l'armée révolutionnaire , in L'Intransigeant , 18 July 1931. For a discussion of Romain Rolland's impact on contemporary Chinese intellectuals, see T. B. Kin-Yn-Yn, "La Renaissance Chinoise et l'influence de Romain Rolland," Europe , 15 September 1927, 101-108.
33. Romain Rolland, "The Action of the League Against Imperialism," Anti-Imperialist Review , 1, no. 3 (January-February 1932): 209; also signed by Barbusse and Gorky.
34. Romain Rolland, "Pour les condamnés de Meerut," QAC , 189-197; first published in L'Humanité , 18 March 1933; Europe , 15 April 1933; The World Tomorrow , 14 September 1933; reprinted in L'Inde , 573-577.
35. Rolland, "Pour les condamnés de Meerut," 192.
36. Romain Rolland, "Pour les condamnés de Saigon en Indochine," QAC , 197-198; this first appeared in Monde , no. 273 (26 August 1933): 13. Romain Rolland became one of the honorary presidents (along with Barbusse, Paul Langevin, and Victor Margueritte) of the Committee for Amnesty and Defense of Indochinese and Colonized Peoples; see Rolland, "Message de Romain Rolland," in Félicien Challaye, Souvenirs sur la colonisation (Paris, 1935), xiii, 138.
37. Key literature on the Amsterdam-Pleyel movement includes E. H. Carr, The Twilight of the Comintern, 1930-1935 (New York, 1982), 385-399; Babette Gross, Willi Münzenberg (New York, 1974), 223-246; Helmut Gruber, "Willi Münzenberg: Propagandist For and Against the Comintern," International Review of Social History 11 (1965): 188-210; Helmut Gruber, "Willi Münzenberg's German Communist Propaganda Empire, 1921-1933," Journal of Modern History 38, no. 3 (September 1966): 278-297; Daniel H. Brower, The New Jacobins: The French Communist Party and the Popular Front (Ithaca, N.Y., 1968), 17-18, 39-41, 54-55, 102, 105, 142-143; Georges Lefranc, Histoire du front populaire (Paris, 1965), 36-47; Jacques Fauvet, Histoire du Parti communiste français (Paris, 1964) 1:116-118; Maurice Thorez, Fils du peuple (Paris, 1960), 79-80; Nicole Racine, ''L'Association des Ecrivains et Artistes Révolutionnaires (A.E.A.R.)," Mouvement social , no. 54 (January-March 1966): 29-47; André Legendre, "Bibliographie," Cahiers de l'Institut Maurice Thorez , no. 1 (April 1966): 165-181; Claude Willard, "Les Intellectuels français et le front populaire,'' Cahiers de l'Institut Maurice Thorez , no. 3-4 (October 1966-March 1967): 115-124.
38. Nathanael Greene, Crisis and Decline: The French Socialist Party in the Popular Front Era (Ithaca, N.Y., 1969); Peter J. Larmour, The French Radical Party in the 1930s (Stanford, Calif., 1964); Stanley Hoffmann, "Paradoxes of the French Political Community," in In Search of France , ed. Stanley Hoffmann et al. (New York, 1965), 23-24, 33. See the entries by Sandi E. Cooper, David James Fisher, James Friguglietti, and David Schalk in Biographical Dictionary of Modern Peace Leaders , ed. Harold Josephson (Westport, Conn., 1985).
39. Maurice Thorez, "Pourquoi les communistes iront à Genève," L'Humanité , 28 June 1932, 1; earlier Marcel Cachin had exhorted the congress to be "practical and realistic." See " L'Humanité sera au congrès mondial contre la guerre," L'Humanité , 17 June 1932, 1.
40. Carr, Twilight of the Comintern , 396-427; Ronald Tiersky, French Communism, 1920-1972 (New York, 1974), 54-95; George Lichtheim, Marxism in Modern France (New York, 1966), 34-68.
41. Letter from Rolland to Barbusse, 10 September 1932, ARR. Guessler Normand, "Henri Barbusse and his Monde (1928-1935)," Journal of Contemporary History , Spring 1976, 173-197. Also see the joint appeal signed by Rolland and Barbusse, "Appel de Romain Rolland et Henri Barbusse,"
leaflet issued by Comité contre la guerre impérialiste, Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, Imprimés no. 2638.
42. Romain Rolland, "La Patrie est en danger!" PRP , 27, 28; first published in L'Humanité , 1 May 1932, and in Pravda .
43. Romain Rolland, "Contre la guerre. Rassemblement!" (1 June 1932), PRP , 29.
44. Romain Rolland, "Appel à la Ligue des Combattants de la Paix" (10 June 1932), PRP , 34.
45. Ibid., 36.
44. Romain Rolland, "Appel à la Ligue des Combattants de la Paix" (10 June 1932), PRP , 34.
45. Ibid., 36.
46. Romain Rolland, "Lettre à Victor Méric," 12 July 1932, PRP , 40.
47. Romain Rolland, "Lettre à Albert de Jong" (31 July 1932), PRP , 42; first published in Europe , no. 118 (15 October 1932): 302-304. De Jong was general secretary of the International Antimilitarist Bureau in Amsterdam.
48. Friedrich Adler, "Lettre de Fritz Adler à Henri Barbusse," Monde , no. 217 (20 July 1932), 13; E.-Paul Graber, "Les Idéalistes entre les mains des manoeuveristes," La Sentinelle , no. 168 (22 July 1932), 1.
49. Friedrich Adler, "Un Congrès contre la guerre. Lettre du secrétaire de I.O.S. à Romain Rolland," La Sentinelle , no. 164 (18 July 1932): 1; Friedrich Adler, "Le Congrès mondial contre la guerre n'est qu'une manoeuvre communiste dirigée contre les partis socialistes," Populaire de Paris , 20 July 1932, 3.
50. Letters from Rolland to Friedrich Adler, 7 July 1932, 16 July 1932, ARR; Rolland, "La Réponse de Romain Rolland," Monde , no. 217 (20 July 1932): 13; Barbusse, "Réponse de Henri Barbusse," Monde , no. 217 (20 July 1932): 13-14; Rolland, "La Réponse de Romain Rolland au chief socialiste Graber," L'Humanité , 4 August 1932, 1; Rolland, ''Lettre de Romain Rolland à Paul Graber," Europe , 15 September 1932, 151-152. Maurice Thorez used the Amsterdam Congress to attack French Socialist leader Léon Blum and to accuse the Socialists of being agents of imperialism; see Maurice Thorez, ''Avec les ouvriers socialistes contre les saboteurs du Congrès," L'Humanité , 21 July 1932, 1.
51. Congrès mondial contre la guerre impérialiste, "Bulletin du Congrès," typescript, 1-8, International Institute for Social History, Amsterdam.
52. Romain Rolland, "Déclaration lue à la première séance du congrès mondial de tous les partis contre la guerre," PRP , 45, 46; first published in Europe , 15 September 1932, 148-151; also in Monde , no. 222 (3 September 1932); in Wladimir Martel, Vers la guerre ou la révolution (Alençon, 1933), 18-21; in The World Congress Against War , ed. American Committee for Struggle Against War (New York, 1933), 11-15; also see Romain Rolland, "La Guerre est entre les mains du peuple ouvrier," L'Humanité , 28 August 1932, 1-2.
53. Rolland, "Déclaration lue . . . du congrès mondial," 46.
54. Ibid., 47-48.
55. Ibid., 49.
53. Rolland, "Déclaration lue . . . du congrès mondial," 46.
54. Ibid., 47-48.
55. Ibid., 49.
53. Rolland, "Déclaration lue . . . du congrès mondial," 46.
54. Ibid., 47-48.
55. Ibid., 49.
56. "Manifesto of the World Congress Against War at Amsterdam, August 27-29, 1932," in The World Congress Against War , 16-24; first published as "Le Manifeste du congrès d'Amsterdam," Monde , no. 223 (September 1932): 4-5; also published in Martel, Vers la guerre ou la révolution
63-69. Martel's book, with introduction by Barbusse, summarized the Amsterdam Congress from the French communist perspective. For the Soviet viewpoint, see the anonymous pamphlet Voix de l'URSS à Amsterdam [1932].
57. "Manifesto of the World Congress at Amsterdam," 20, 24.
58. Letters from Madeleine Rolland to Rolland, 28 and 29 August 1932, ARR. For a right-wing perspective on the Amsterdam Congress see Le Figaro, 12 September 1932; for the communist perspective, see Gabriel Peri and J. Berlioz, "Acclamé par le congrès mondial, Marcel Cachin expose les méthodes léninistes de lutte contre la guerre," L'Humanité, 29 August 1932, 1; for the French pacifist perspective, see Victor Margueritte, "Quelques Observations sur le congrès d'Amsterdam," Evolution, no. 81 (October 1932): 614-621; Victor Méric, ''Nos Moyens de lutte,'' Patrie humaine, no. 66 (29 April 1933): 1; for the socialist position, see Adolf Strumthal, "La Manifestation communiste d'Amsterdam," Populaire de Paris, 4 September 1932, 3; for the Trotskyist, see Léon Trotsky, "Lettre sur le congrès contre la guerre," Lutte de classe, no. 39 (15 June 1932): 2-3; Pierre Naville, "Camarades du parti, repoussez le manifeste de confusion adopté par le congrès d'Amsterdam," La Verité, 5 September 1932, 1. For the Surrealist view, see André Breton, "La Mobilisation contre la guerre n'est pas la paix" (1933), in Maurice Nadeau, Histoire du surrealisme (Paris, 1964), 371-376; and for the Soviet viewpoint, see Maxim Gorky, "To the Delegates of the Antiwar Congress (A Speech That Was Not Delivered)," in Maxim Gorky, Articles and Pamphlets (Moscow, 1951), 342-354.
59. Romain Rolland, "Le Congrès mondial d'Amsterdam contre la guerre," PRP, 50; this was first published in Europe, 15 October 1932, 249-255. Also see Annette Vidal, Henri Barbusse. Soldat de la paix (Paris, 1953), 266 n. 1.
60. Rolland, "Le Congrès mondial," PRP, 53, 55-56.
61. Ibid., 56-58.
62. Ibid., 58-59.
60. Rolland, "Le Congrès mondial," PRP, 53, 55-56.
61. Ibid., 56-58.
62. Ibid., 58-59.
60. Rolland, "Le Congrès mondial," PRP, 53, 55-56.
61. Ibid., 56-58.
62. Ibid., 58-59.
63. Romain Rolland, "Lettre à Henri Barbusse" (20 December 1932), PRP, 61-64.
64. Bureau international du comité mondial de lutte contre la guerre, "Declaration sur la participation des groupements d'action individuelle au mouvement d'Amsterdam," in PRP, 64, signed by Henri Barbusse, Marcel Cachin, Willi Münzenberg, J. Chvernik, and H. Stassova.
65. Rolland, "Le Congrès mondial," PRP, 60; Carr, Twilight of the Comintern, 391-392.
66. Carr, Twilight of the Comintern, 392-394; for primary documents on the Amsterdam-Pleyel movement, see Tracts politiques d'organisations et partis pacifistes divers circa 1930-1939, Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, Lb57 16552; anonymous editorial, "Après le congrès d'Amsterdam," Europe, 15 September 1932, 1122-1129; Jacques Duclos, "Le Congrès européen antifasciste," Europe, 15 June 1933, 803-808; anonymous editorial, "Après le congrès mondial des jeunes," Europe, 1 October 1933, 1303-1306; Henri Barbusse, "Une Etape du front unique," Monde, no. 264 (24 June 1933): 15-16; Tracts du comité mondial de lutte contre la guerre impérialiste (1933), Archives Nationale, Paris, F 17 13148.
67. Letters from Rolland to Louis Gibarti, 16 September 1933, 17 September 1933; from Rolland to Willi Münzenberg, 26 December 1933; from Münzenberg to Rolland, December 1933; ARR.
68. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée (Paris, 1967), 1143-1144, 1248, 1259, 1358; these volumes of the novel cycle were first published as L'Annonciatrice. La Mort d'un monde. L'Enfantement, 2 vols. (Paris, 1933).
69. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée, 1152, 1284.
70. Ibid., 1280-1281, 1302, 1305.
71. Ibid., 1009, 1219, 1284, 1300, 1303, 1305.
72. Ibid., 1147-1151.
69. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée, 1152, 1284.
70. Ibid., 1280-1281, 1302, 1305.
71. Ibid., 1009, 1219, 1284, 1300, 1303, 1305.
72. Ibid., 1147-1151.
69. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée, 1152, 1284.
70. Ibid., 1280-1281, 1302, 1305.
71. Ibid., 1009, 1219, 1284, 1300, 1303, 1305.
72. Ibid., 1147-1151.
69. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée, 1152, 1284.
70. Ibid., 1280-1281, 1302, 1305.
71. Ibid., 1009, 1219, 1284, 1300, 1303, 1305.
72. Ibid., 1147-1151.
73. In a letter to Lucien Roth dated 1 December 1933, Romain Rolland revealed that the liberal antifascist Gaetano Salvemini was the prototype for the character Count Bruno Chiarenza (ARR).
74. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée, 1217-1221, 1288.
75. Ibid., 1260-1264.
76. Ibid., 1309-1310, 1343.
77. Ibid., 1358-1361; also see Romain Rolland, "Le Combat," Commune, no. 1(July 1933): 41-44.
74. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée, 1217-1221, 1288.
75. Ibid., 1260-1264.
76. Ibid., 1309-1310, 1343.
77. Ibid., 1358-1361; also see Romain Rolland, "Le Combat," Commune, no. 1(July 1933): 41-44.
74. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée, 1217-1221, 1288.
75. Ibid., 1260-1264.
76. Ibid., 1309-1310, 1343.
77. Ibid., 1358-1361; also see Romain Rolland, "Le Combat," Commune, no. 1(July 1933): 41-44.
74. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée, 1217-1221, 1288.
75. Ibid., 1260-1264.
76. Ibid., 1309-1310, 1343.
77. Ibid., 1358-1361; also see Romain Rolland, "Le Combat," Commune, no. 1(July 1933): 41-44.
78. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée, 1426-1430, 1448-1453; also see his "Introduction à L'Icare de Lauro de Bosis," Europe, May—August 1933, 5-15.
79. Rolland, Introduction (1 January 1934), L'Ame enchantée, xv-xix.
80. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée, 1357-1358, also quoted in QAC, lii-lxii. The German Fascists prevented L'Annonciatrice from being translated into German; see ibid., lxxix. For three favorable reviews, see Magdeleine Paz, "L'Annonciatrice par Romain Rolland," Monde, no. 249 (11 March 1933): 10; "Romain Rolland— L'Annonciatrice, " Commune, no. 7-8 (March-April 1934): 819-820; and Christian Sénéchal, Europe, no. 35 (15 March 1934): 137-142.
79. Rolland, Introduction (1 January 1934), L'Ame enchantée, xv-xix.
80. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée, 1357-1358, also quoted in QAC, lii-lxii. The German Fascists prevented L'Annonciatrice from being translated into German; see ibid., lxxix. For three favorable reviews, see Magdeleine Paz, "L'Annonciatrice par Romain Rolland," Monde, no. 249 (11 March 1933): 10; "Romain Rolland— L'Annonciatrice, " Commune, no. 7-8 (March-April 1934): 819-820; and Christian Sénéchal, Europe, no. 35 (15 March 1934): 137-142.
8 Antifascist Resistance
1. Romain Rolland, "Fragments de journal," Europe, 1 January 1946, 4 (dated 1 February 1933); ibid., 9-10 (dated March 1933).
2. Ibid., 7 (dated 2 March 1933).
3. Ibid., 7-8 (dated 2 March 1933). Romain Rolland felt that it was extremely important to have non-Jewish writers protest Nazi injustices. This piece was first published as "Contre le fascisme hitlérien," Europe, 15 March 1933, 440; also in QAC, 199-200; English translation in I Will Not Rest, trans. K. S. Shelvankar (New York, [1935]), 291-292.
1. Romain Rolland, "Fragments de journal," Europe, 1 January 1946, 4 (dated 1 February 1933); ibid., 9-10 (dated March 1933).
2. Ibid., 7 (dated 2 March 1933).
3. Ibid., 7-8 (dated 2 March 1933). Romain Rolland felt that it was extremely important to have non-Jewish writers protest Nazi injustices. This piece was first published as "Contre le fascisme hitlérien," Europe, 15 March 1933, 440; also in QAC, 199-200; English translation in I Will Not Rest, trans. K. S. Shelvankar (New York, [1935]), 291-292.
1. Romain Rolland, "Fragments de journal," Europe, 1 January 1946, 4 (dated 1 February 1933); ibid., 9-10 (dated March 1933).
2. Ibid., 7 (dated 2 March 1933).
3. Ibid., 7-8 (dated 2 March 1933). Romain Rolland felt that it was extremely important to have non-Jewish writers protest Nazi injustices. This piece was first published as "Contre le fascisme hitlérien," Europe, 15 March 1933, 440; also in QAC, 199-200; English translation in I Will Not Rest, trans. K. S. Shelvankar (New York, [1935]), 291-292.
4. Romain Rolland, "Contre les bourreaux de l'Allemagne" (20 March 1933), QAC, 200 (English translation, I Will Not Rest, 292).
5. Letters from Rolland to Jean Guéhenno, 2 February 1933, 1 March 1933, JG-RR, 255, 258. On 22 May 1933, Rolland urged Guéhenno to commission a rigorous critique of Hitler's Mein Kampf (ibid., 270).
4. Romain Rolland, "Contre les bourreaux de l'Allemagne" (20 March 1933), QAC, 200 (English translation, I Will Not Rest, 292).
5. Letters from Rolland to Jean Guéhenno, 2 February 1933, 1 March 1933, JG-RR, 255, 258. On 22 May 1933, Rolland urged Guéhenno to commission a rigorous critique of Hitler's Mein Kampf (ibid., 270).
6. Rolland, "Fragments de journal" (dated 10 January 1933), 4-5; letter from German consul in Geneva to Rolland, 19 April 1933, in "Fragments de journal," 12.
7. Letter from Rolland to German consul in Geneva, 30 April 1933, in "Fragments de journal," 12. Also see QAC, lxxvii, where this letter is dated 20 April 1933.
8. Letter from Rolland to Stefan Zweig, 30 March 1933, "Fragments de journal," 1-11; published as "Lettre á un ami allemand contre l'abdication du parti social-démocrate allemand," QAC, 200-201 ( I Will Not Rest, 292-293).
9. Letter from Rolland to Ingeborg Andreas, 15 May 1932, ARR.
10. Romain Rolland, "Contre l'antisémitisme en Allemagne" (dated 5 April 1933), QAC, 201-202 ( I Will Not Rest, 293).
11. Romain Rolland, "Contre le racisme et l'antisémitisme" (dated 9 April 1933), QAC, 202-204 ( I Will Not Rest, 294-295); originally a letter to Hardo Bruckner.
12. Letter from Rolland to Vladimir Pozner, secretary of the Guild for Emancipation Through Books, 4 May 1933, "Fragments de journal," 13; Rolland, "From Romain Rolland," Fight Against War and Fascism 1, no. 10 (August 1934): 14.
13. Rolland, "Fragments de journal," 15; Henri Barbusse, "Un Appel mondial du Comité d'Amsterdam pour le front unique de lutte contre la guerre et son instrument: Le Fascisme," Front mondial, no. 4 (April 1933): 2-3.
14. Romain Rolland, "Lettre á la Koelnische Zeitung, " 14 May 1933, QAC, 205 ( I Will Not Rest, 295-297); first published in Europe, 15 May 1933, and Front mondial, no. 6 (June 1933): 14.
15. Rolland, "Lettre á la Koelnische Zeitung, " QAC, 206.
16. Ibid., 206-207.
15. Rolland, "Lettre á la Koelnische Zeitung, " QAC, 206.
16. Ibid., 206-207.
17. Rolland, "Fragments de journal," 15; also see "Auseinanderdersetzing mit Romain Rolland ein Briefwechsel über das neue Deutschland," Koelnische Zeitung, 21 May 1933, 1.
18. Sechs Bekenntnisse zum neuen Deutschland (Hamburg, 1933); this included a German translation of Romain Rolland's letter to the Koelnische Zeitung, 7-9, a reply from the editorial board, and open letters from Rudolf Binding (14-20), E. G. Kolbenheyer, Wilhelm von Scholz, Otto Wirz, and Robert Fabre-Luce.
19. Rolland, "Fragments de journal," 16, 17.
20. Letter from Rolland to the director of the Nietzsche Archive in Weimar, 4 August 1933, "Fragments de journal," 17.
21. Romain Rolland, "Appel á la jeunesse" (17 May 1933), QAC, 207-210 ( I Will Not Rest, 297-299); first published in Front mondial, no. 6 (June 1933): 8-9.
22. Livre brun sur l'incendie du Reichstag et la terreur hitlérienne, ed. Comité international d'aide aux victimes du fascisme hitlérien (Paris, 1933).
23. Dimitroff Contra Goering, ed. Comité international d'aide aux victimes du fascisme hitlérien (Paris, 1934). See also Rolland, "Fragments de journal," 18; letter from Rolland to Guéhenno, 12 July 1934, JG-RR, 304.
24. Romain Rolland, "Contre les vrais incendiaires du Reichstag" (4 September 1933), QAC, 210-211; ibid., lxxviii ( I Will Not Rest, 299).
23. Dimitroff Contra Goering, ed. Comité international d'aide aux victimes du fascisme hitlérien (Paris, 1934). See also Rolland, "Fragments de journal," 18; letter from Rolland to Guéhenno, 12 July 1934, JG-RR, 304.
24. Romain Rolland, "Contre les vrais incendiaires du Reichstag" (4 September 1933), QAC, 210-211; ibid., lxxviii ( I Will Not Rest, 299).
25. Romain Rolland, "Pour Thaelmann," QAC, 214-215; first published in Monde, 6 July 1934, 11 ( I Will Not Rest, 302). Also see Rolland's "Appel au peuple d'Allemagne, pour l'acquittement de Dimitrov et de ses compagnons," QAC, 211-212; first published in Monde, no. 289 (23 December 1933): 3; "Pour Torgler," QAC, 213-214, first published in L'Humanité, 22
December 1933, and Dépêche de Toulouse, 21 December 1933; "Sur Ossietzsky et Kurt Hiller," 17 September 1933, published in the Times (London), the Chicago Daily News, The Nation, and the New York Times .
26. Letter from Dimitrov to Rolland, 31 August 1933, cited in Georgi Dimitrov, Letters from Prison, ed. Alfred Kurella (London, 1935), 60-61; also in Rolland, "Fragments de journal," 19-20.
27. Paul Vaillant-Couturier, "Qu'est-ce que l'AEAR?" in Ceux qui ont choisi (Paris, 1933), 1-4; quote is from Rolland's "Message," ibid., 5.
26. Letter from Dimitrov to Rolland, 31 August 1933, cited in Georgi Dimitrov, Letters from Prison, ed. Alfred Kurella (London, 1935), 60-61; also in Rolland, "Fragments de journal," 19-20.
27. Paul Vaillant-Couturier, "Qu'est-ce que l'AEAR?" in Ceux qui ont choisi (Paris, 1933), 1-4; quote is from Rolland's "Message," ibid., 5.
28. Romain Rolland, "Réponse au questionnaire du comité mondial de la jeunesse contre la guerre et le fascisme," 22 March 1934, ARR; Romain Rolland, "Appel à l'aide des victimes au fascisme autrichien," Front mondial, no. 13 (April 1934): 7; Rolland, "Fragments de journal" (18 August 1933), 18.
29. Rolland, "Fragments de journal," 19.
30. Rolland, QAC, lxxix, dated summer 1934.
31. Letter from Rolland to Victor Margueritte, 6 October 1933, "Fragments de journal," 21.
32. Nathanael Greene, From Versailles to Vichy (New York, 1970), 69.
33. Romain Rolland, "Appel au peuple de Paris (après l'émeute fasciste du 6 février)," QAC, 215; first published in Littérature internationale, no. 1 (1934):3 ( I Will Not Rest, 303).
34. Romain Rolland, "Appel à l'union des travailleurs intellectuels avec le prolétariat," QAC, 215-216; written for the sixth day of international solidarity sponsored by the Secours Ouvrier International ( I Will Not Rest, 303-304).
35. Romain Rolland, "Appel aux jeunes contre le fascisme," QAC, 216-218 ( I Will Not Rest, 304-305), first published in Tribune des jeunes (Périgueux), May 1934.
36. Romain Rolland, "La Croix et le faisceau (introduction au livre antifasciste autrichien)" (20 June 1934), QAC, 218-222; this first appeared as the preface to Oesterreich Brandherd, Europas (Zurich, 1934).
37. Letter from Rolland to Carlo Rosselli, 30 May 1934, ARR.
38. Romain Rolland, "Pour ceux qui meurent dans les prisons de Mussolini. Antonio Gramsci," QAC, 223 ("For Those Dying in Mussolini's Jails. Antonio Gramsci," in I Will Not Rest, 307-313); first published in L'Humanité, 27 October 1934, 3; released as a brochure; translated into German as Die in den Gefangness sterben (Zurich, 1934); in Italian as Quelli che muiono nelle prigioni di Mussolini (1934). During this period Rolland was honorary president of the Comitato Internationale di Aiuto ai Carcerati e Deportati Antifascisti Italiani. Also see "Appel de Romain Rolland au Secours rouge international pour l'envoi d'une délégation de contrôle en Italie" (also signed by Barbusse, Einstein, and Langevin), ARR. For more information on the relationship between Romain Rolland and Gramsci, see Alfonso Leonetti, ''Romain Rolland et Gramsci,'' in Notes sur Gramsci (Paris, 1974), 209-220; in an extract from Romain Rolland's journal of 28 June 1935, he reported meeting Gramsci's two sons in Moscow, who thanked him for his intercessions for their father. Sandro Nelli, "Romain Rolland et le peuple italien," L'Humanité, 20 March 1936, 8, applauded Romain Rolland for his antifascist activities and his help in getting the dying Gramsci released from prison. Romain Rolland's last public statement on Antonio Gramsci was
entitled, "Notre Gramsci n'est pas un mort, ni un vaincu," L'Humanité , 24 May 1937, 3.
39. Rolland, "Pour ceux qui meurent dans les prisons de Mussolini," QAC , 223-225.
40. Ibid., 229.
39. Rolland, "Pour ceux qui meurent dans les prisons de Mussolini," QAC , 223-225.
40. Ibid., 229.
41. Romain Rolland, "Salut à la révolution d'Espagne," QAC , 230; first published in L'Humanité , 6 November 1934, 1; Rolland, "Declaration de Romain Rolland," La Verité , no. 199 (30 March 1934).
42. Romain Rolland, "Le Fascisme est l'ennemi. Il faut le briser" (10 June 1934), QAC , 230-235; first published in the Soviet review Front de la science et de la technique .
43. Romain Rolland, "Appel au monde pour la défense de la paix en danger," Vigilance , no. 29 (15 October 1935): 15; also see Romain Rolland and Jean-Richard Bloch, "Contre les crimes du fascisme italien," Vigilance , no. 26 (20 July 1935): 14. Vigilance was a bimonthly bulletin of the Committee of Antifascist Action, headed by Paul Rivet, Alain, and Paul Langevin. Also see Nicole Racine-Furlaud, ''Le Comité de Vigilance des Intellectuals Antifascistes (1934-1939). Antifascisme et pacifisme," Mouvement social , no. 101 (October-December 1977): 87-113. Romain Rolland also signed the manifesto "Réponse aux intellectuels fascistes,'' Europe , no. 153 (15 November 1935): 452-453.
44. Romain Rolland, "Pour la défense du peuple éthiopien," 3 September 1935, ARR.
45. Romain Rolland, "Par la révolution, la paix" (20 March 1935), in PRP , 169-171; first published as "La Paix est mortelle pour l'hitlérisme," Monde , no. 329 (29 March 1935): 1-2. By May-June 1935 there was a consciousness of intellectual antifascism in France, and Romain Rolland was frequently cited as its prototype. See Louis Dolicet, "Courants antifascistes chez les intellectuels français," Monde , no. 336 (16 May 1935): 5; and Henri Barbusse, "Pour une compréhension claire des devoirs à propos de la résolution des intellectuels," ibid., no. 340 (13 June 1935): 1.
44. Romain Rolland, "Pour la défense du peuple éthiopien," 3 September 1935, ARR.
45. Romain Rolland, "Par la révolution, la paix" (20 March 1935), in PRP , 169-171; first published as "La Paix est mortelle pour l'hitlérisme," Monde , no. 329 (29 March 1935): 1-2. By May-June 1935 there was a consciousness of intellectual antifascism in France, and Romain Rolland was frequently cited as its prototype. See Louis Dolicet, "Courants antifascistes chez les intellectuels français," Monde , no. 336 (16 May 1935): 5; and Henri Barbusse, "Pour une compréhension claire des devoirs à propos de la résolution des intellectuels," ibid., no. 340 (13 June 1935): 1.
46. Romain Rolland, "Le Plus Grand Danger," in Comment empêcher la guerre? (Paris, 1936), 7-11. This brochure was published by the World Committee Against War and Fascism in a series called Stratégie et tactique de lutte contre la guerre et le fascisme .
47. Louis Aragon, "Une Entrevue avec Romain Rolland, l'ingénieur des âmes," Cahiers du bolchevisme 13, no. 5 (15 March 1936): 257-263.
48. Romain Rolland, "Lettre adressé par Romain Rolland aux intellectuels et à la jeunesse bulgare," 12 July 1936, ARR.
49. Claude Estier, La Gauche hebdomadaire, 1914-1962 (Paris, 1962), 57-74; J.-P. Bernard, Le Parti communiste français et la question littéraire, 1921-1939 (Grenoble, 1972), 191-198.
50. Romain Rolland, "Pour l'indivisible paix," in Comment empêcher la guerre? 12-19; first published in Vendredi , no. 12 (24 January 1936): 1; also appeared in L'Humanité , 29 January 1936, 4; Le Barrage , no. 83 (6 February 1936): 2; Cahiers du bolchevisme 13, no. 3-4 (15 February 1936): 212-217; Cahiers des droits de l'homme , no. 7 (10 March 1936): 156-159.
51. Rolland, "Pour l'indivisible paix," in Comment empêcher la guerre? 14-15.
52. Ibid., 16-19.
51. Rolland, "Pour l'indivisible paix," in Comment empêcher la guerre? 14-15.
52. Ibid., 16-19.
53. Romain Rolland, "Lettre à Georges Pioch, 13 April 1933," PRP , 85. Pioch was president of the International League of Fighters for Peace.
54. Henri Bouché, "L'Allemagne est-elle prête?" Vendredi , no. 13 (31 January 1936): 1-2.
55. Félicien Challaye, "Réponse à Romain Rolland," Vendredi , no. 13 (31 January 1936): 4; also in Le Barrage , no. 83 (6 February 1936): 1, and Cahiers des droits de l'homme , no. 7 (10 March 1936): 159-161. Challaye outlined his strategy and tactics in two brochures, Pour la paix désarmée même en face de Hitler (Paris, 1933) and Pour la paix sans aucune réserve (Paris, 1935). The pacifist weekly Le Barrage , organ of the International League of Fighters for Peace, most consistently advocated the integral pacifist position. See René Gerin, "Les Pontins s'agitent. Notre Position reste inchangée," Le Barrage , no. 16 (30 August 1934): 1; Félicien Challaye, "Le Discours de M. Hitler," Le Barrage , no. 54 (30 May 1935): 1-2; Félicien Challaye, ''Le Conflit italo-éthiopien et les principes de notre ligue," Le Barrage , no. 64 (12 September 1935): 1; Félicien Challaye, "Pour un rassemblement universel des pacifistes intégraux,'' Le Barrage , no. 79 (9 January 1936): 1. The Dutch pacifist Barthélemy de Ligt's book, Pour vaincre sans violence (Paris, 1933), most coherently argued the Gandhian position, even deployed against Hitler.
56. Challaye, "Réponse à Romain Rolland," 4.
57. Georges Pioch, "Questions à Romain Rolland," Le Barrage , no. 82 (30 January 1936): 1, 3; Georges Pioch, "D'un article nécessaire," Le Barrage , no. 83 (6 February 1936): 1; L. Cancouet, "A Romain Rolland. Réponse d'un prolétaire," Le Barrage , no. 83 (6 February 1936): 3; Sylvain Brousaudier, "A propos de l'article de Romain Rolland," Le Barrage , no. 83 (6 February 1936): 3; L. Emery, "Réponse à Romain Rolland," Feuilles libres de la quinzaine , no. 9 (10 February 1936): 33-35.
58. See Salut et fraternité. Alain et Romain Rolland (Paris, 1969), 63-132. In the period of this debate, Alain wrote "Pour Romain Rolland" (29 January 1936) and "Propos d'Alain" (15 May 1936), arguing that the great and true spirit of Rolland was that of Jean-Christophe and Liluli (ibid., 119-126); Alain, "La Politique au citoyen. Propos d'Alain," Feuilles libre de la quinzaine , no. 10 (25 February 1936): 56.
57. Georges Pioch, "Questions à Romain Rolland," Le Barrage , no. 82 (30 January 1936): 1, 3; Georges Pioch, "D'un article nécessaire," Le Barrage , no. 83 (6 February 1936): 1; L. Cancouet, "A Romain Rolland. Réponse d'un prolétaire," Le Barrage , no. 83 (6 February 1936): 3; Sylvain Brousaudier, "A propos de l'article de Romain Rolland," Le Barrage , no. 83 (6 February 1936): 3; L. Emery, "Réponse à Romain Rolland," Feuilles libres de la quinzaine , no. 9 (10 February 1936): 33-35.
58. See Salut et fraternité. Alain et Romain Rolland (Paris, 1969), 63-132. In the period of this debate, Alain wrote "Pour Romain Rolland" (29 January 1936) and "Propos d'Alain" (15 May 1936), arguing that the great and true spirit of Rolland was that of Jean-Christophe and Liluli (ibid., 119-126); Alain, "La Politique au citoyen. Propos d'Alain," Feuilles libre de la quinzaine , no. 10 (25 February 1936): 56.
59. Romain Rolland, "Pour la défense de la paix," Vendredi , no. 18 (6 March 1936): 3; also published in Cahiers des droits de l'homme , no. 7 (10 March 1936): 160-164; Commune , no. 32 (April 1936); text published in Comment empêcher la guerre? 20-30. Also see Romain Rolland's letters to André Chamson, 18 February 1936, 25 February 1936 (ARR), for the editorial politics of this piece. He explained his intention to Jean Courregelongue, 3 March 1936 (ARR). Romain Rolland and Jean Guéhenno debated the issues of war and peace versus revolution and antifascism in letters exchanged between January and March 1936; see JG-RR , 368-374.
60. Rolland, "Pour la défense de la paix," in Comment empêcher la guerre? 28.
61. Ibid., 28-30.
62. Ibid., 28, 30.
60. Rolland, "Pour la défense de la paix," in Comment empêcher la guerre? 28.
61. Ibid., 28-30.
62. Ibid., 28, 30.
60. Rolland, "Pour la défense de la paix," in Comment empêcher la guerre? 28.
61. Ibid., 28-30.
62. Ibid., 28, 30.
63. Victor Basch, "Le Problème de la paix," Cahiers des droits de l'homme , no. 7 (10 March 1936): 148-156; Romain Rolland answered in "Une Lettre
de Romain Rolland à la ligue des droits de l'homme," ibid., no. 8 (20 March 1936): 184.
64. Michel Alexandre and L. Emery, "Une Lettre à Vendredi," Vendredi , no. 23 (3 April 1936): 4; Pierre Cuenat, "Paix indivisible? Oui . . . mais d'abord faites la paix," Le Barrage , no. 92 (2 April 1936): 3-4; Pierre Cuenat, "Manifeste pacifiste," Feuilles libres de la quinzaine , no. 18 (25 June 1936): 191-192; Pierre Cuenat, "Où est la paix? Pacifisme et révolution,'' Vigilance , no. 36 (28 April 1936): 15.
65. Marc Rivière, "Nous voulons vivre et éspérer. Lettre ouverte à Romain Rolland," Feuilles libre de la quinzaine , no. 39 (25 June 1937): 166-167; Félicien Challaye, "Deux pacifismes," Cahiers des droits de l'homme , no. 10 (10 April 1936): 225; Félicien Challaye, "Seconde réponse à Romain Rolland," ibid., 225-228; also in Le Barrage , no. 90 (19 March 1936): 2. Romain Rolland came under attack by Gérard de Lacaze-Duthiers, "Preface,'' in Eugen Relgis, Les Voies de la paix (Paris, 1936), 9, 11; and by Victor Margueritte, Le Cadavre maquillé. La S.D.N. (mars-septembre 1936) (Paris, 1936), 241, 243.
66. Romain Rolland, "La Paix pour tous," Paix et liberté , no. 8 (16 March 1936): 1; Rolland, "La Paix que nous voulons," ibid., no. 19 (14 June 1936): 1; and Rolland, "Discours du rassemblement universel de la paix," ibid., no. 24 (19 July 1936): 2. Romain Rolland replied directly to Alain in Le Peuple allemand accuse. Appel à la conscience du monde (Paris, 1937), 7-8. He answered Cuenat's criticism in "Une Lettre de Romain Rolland," Feuilles libres de la quinzaine , no. 27 (10 December 1936): 336. For further brochures attacking the French integral pacifists from an antifascist and communist perspective, see Francis Jourdain, Faut-il donner les colonies à Hitler? (Paris, 1936); Sir Norman Angell, La Paix et la securité collective (Paris, 1936); and esp. René Maublanc, Le Pacifisme et les intellectuels (Paris, 1936).
64. Michel Alexandre and L. Emery, "Une Lettre à Vendredi," Vendredi , no. 23 (3 April 1936): 4; Pierre Cuenat, "Paix indivisible? Oui . . . mais d'abord faites la paix," Le Barrage , no. 92 (2 April 1936): 3-4; Pierre Cuenat, "Manifeste pacifiste," Feuilles libres de la quinzaine , no. 18 (25 June 1936): 191-192; Pierre Cuenat, "Où est la paix? Pacifisme et révolution,'' Vigilance , no. 36 (28 April 1936): 15.
65. Marc Rivière, "Nous voulons vivre et éspérer. Lettre ouverte à Romain Rolland," Feuilles libre de la quinzaine , no. 39 (25 June 1937): 166-167; Félicien Challaye, "Deux pacifismes," Cahiers des droits de l'homme , no. 10 (10 April 1936): 225; Félicien Challaye, "Seconde réponse à Romain Rolland," ibid., 225-228; also in Le Barrage , no. 90 (19 March 1936): 2. Romain Rolland came under attack by Gérard de Lacaze-Duthiers, "Preface,'' in Eugen Relgis, Les Voies de la paix (Paris, 1936), 9, 11; and by Victor Margueritte, Le Cadavre maquillé. La S.D.N. (mars-septembre 1936) (Paris, 1936), 241, 243.
66. Romain Rolland, "La Paix pour tous," Paix et liberté , no. 8 (16 March 1936): 1; Rolland, "La Paix que nous voulons," ibid., no. 19 (14 June 1936): 1; and Rolland, "Discours du rassemblement universel de la paix," ibid., no. 24 (19 July 1936): 2. Romain Rolland replied directly to Alain in Le Peuple allemand accuse. Appel à la conscience du monde (Paris, 1937), 7-8. He answered Cuenat's criticism in "Une Lettre de Romain Rolland," Feuilles libres de la quinzaine , no. 27 (10 December 1936): 336. For further brochures attacking the French integral pacifists from an antifascist and communist perspective, see Francis Jourdain, Faut-il donner les colonies à Hitler? (Paris, 1936); Sir Norman Angell, La Paix et la securité collective (Paris, 1936); and esp. René Maublanc, Le Pacifisme et les intellectuels (Paris, 1936).
64. Michel Alexandre and L. Emery, "Une Lettre à Vendredi," Vendredi , no. 23 (3 April 1936): 4; Pierre Cuenat, "Paix indivisible? Oui . . . mais d'abord faites la paix," Le Barrage , no. 92 (2 April 1936): 3-4; Pierre Cuenat, "Manifeste pacifiste," Feuilles libres de la quinzaine , no. 18 (25 June 1936): 191-192; Pierre Cuenat, "Où est la paix? Pacifisme et révolution,'' Vigilance , no. 36 (28 April 1936): 15.
65. Marc Rivière, "Nous voulons vivre et éspérer. Lettre ouverte à Romain Rolland," Feuilles libre de la quinzaine , no. 39 (25 June 1937): 166-167; Félicien Challaye, "Deux pacifismes," Cahiers des droits de l'homme , no. 10 (10 April 1936): 225; Félicien Challaye, "Seconde réponse à Romain Rolland," ibid., 225-228; also in Le Barrage , no. 90 (19 March 1936): 2. Romain Rolland came under attack by Gérard de Lacaze-Duthiers, "Preface,'' in Eugen Relgis, Les Voies de la paix (Paris, 1936), 9, 11; and by Victor Margueritte, Le Cadavre maquillé. La S.D.N. (mars-septembre 1936) (Paris, 1936), 241, 243.
66. Romain Rolland, "La Paix pour tous," Paix et liberté , no. 8 (16 March 1936): 1; Rolland, "La Paix que nous voulons," ibid., no. 19 (14 June 1936): 1; and Rolland, "Discours du rassemblement universel de la paix," ibid., no. 24 (19 July 1936): 2. Romain Rolland replied directly to Alain in Le Peuple allemand accuse. Appel à la conscience du monde (Paris, 1937), 7-8. He answered Cuenat's criticism in "Une Lettre de Romain Rolland," Feuilles libres de la quinzaine , no. 27 (10 December 1936): 336. For further brochures attacking the French integral pacifists from an antifascist and communist perspective, see Francis Jourdain, Faut-il donner les colonies à Hitler? (Paris, 1936); Sir Norman Angell, La Paix et la securité collective (Paris, 1936); and esp. René Maublanc, Le Pacifisme et les intellectuels (Paris, 1936).
67. Rolland, Introduction to Comment empêcher la guerre? 6.
68. George Lichtheim, Marxism in Modern France (New York, 1966), 44.
69. André Malraux, "Préface," JG-RR , 5-13, esp. 7.
70. Ibid., 12.
69. André Malraux, "Préface," JG-RR , 5-13, esp. 7.
70. Ibid., 12.
9 The Politics of Critical Support
1. Romain Rolland, "Sur la mort de Lénine," QAC , 65 ( I Will Not Rest , 155), written 1 February 1924 as a letter to W. J. Panski-Solski, Berlin correspondent of Izvestia . Also see letter from Rolland to Marcel Martinet, 28 February 1924, ARR.
2. Romain Rolland, "Réponse à une adresse de l'Académie d'état des sciences d'art," 20 October 1925, QAC , xxxvii, lxxii ( I Will Not Rest , 41-42, 78). This was a reply to P. Kogan's "Address to Western European and American Artists"; for the full text, see Jean-Bertrand Barrère, Romain Rolland par lui-même (Paris, 1967), 141-142.
3. Letter from Rolland to Léon Bazalgette, 12 March 1925, ARR.
4. Romain Rolland, "M. Romain Rolland prend position," Clarté , no. 5 (15 January 1927): 158; Fourrier answered in "Réponse de Marcel Fourrier," ibid., 158.
3. Letter from Rolland to Léon Bazalgette, 12 March 1925, ARR.
4. Romain Rolland, "M. Romain Rolland prend position," Clarté , no. 5 (15 January 1927): 158; Fourrier answered in "Réponse de Marcel Fourrier," ibid., 158.
5. Romain Rolland, "Lettre au Libertaire sur 'la répression en Russie'"
(28 May 1927), QAC , 79-80 ( I Will Not Rest , 175-176); first published in Le Libertaire , no. 114 (10 June 1927): 2; also published in Europe , 15 October 1927, 270-271.
6. Jean Brecot, "Une Enquête du Libertaire sur la répression en Russie," La Vie ouvrière , no. 419 (17 June 1927).
7. Letter from Anatole Lunacharsky to Rolland, 2 September 1927, QAC , 81 ( I Will Not Rest , 176-177).
8. Letter from Rolland to Anatole Lunacharsky, 23 September 1927, QAC , 81-83 ( I Will Not Rest , 177-178). The Rolland-Lunacharsky exchange was first published in Europe , 15 October 1927, 271-272.
9. Romain Rolland, "Réponse à l'invitation adressé par Voks, pour les fêtes du X e anniversaire de la Révolution d'Octobre" (14 October 1927), QAC , 83-84 ( I Will Not Rest , 178-179); first published in Nouvelles soviétiques , and L'Humanité , 7 November 1927, 3. See also Romain Rolland, "Salut au plus grand anniversaire de l'histoire sociale," 4 November 1927, QAC , 85-86 ( I Will Not Rest , 179-180); first published in Vetchernaya-Moskwa .
10. N. Lazarevitch, "A Romain Rolland," Le Libertaire , no. 139 (5 December 1927).
11. Romain Rolland, "Romain Rolland et la Russie," Le Libertaire , no. 140 (16 December 1927): 1; see Guido Miglioli, Le Village soviétique (Paris, 1927).
12. N. Lazarevitch, "Romain Rolland et la Russie," Le Libertaire , no. 141 (23 December 1927): 2.
13. Romain Rolland, "Romain Rolland et la Russie," Le Libertaire , no. 141 (23 December 1927): 2; also see letters from Rolland to Amédeé Dunois, 14 October 1927; to Charles Bernard, 14 November 1927; to Edouard Dujardin, 10 January 1928; and to Martinet, 2 February 1928, ARR.
14. Constantin Balmont and Ivan Bounine, "Le Martyre des écrivains russes. A Romain Rolland. Un Appel déséspéré de Constantin Balmont et Ivan Bounine," L'Avenir , no. 3592 (12 January 1928): 1-2.
15. Romain Rolland, "Réponse à Constantin Balmont et à Ivan Bounine" (20 January 1928), QAC , 86, 95 ( I Will Not Rest , 180-187); first published in Europe , 15 February 1928, 246-252. For Gorky's reflections on this debate, see "Une Lettre de Maxime Gorky à Romain Rolland" (January 1928), Europe , 15 March 1928, 430-432.
16. Rolland, "Réponse à Balmont et à Bounine," QAC , 88.
17. Ibid., 92-94.
18. Ibid., 88-89.
19. Ibid., 91 n. 1.
20. Ibid., 96.
21. Romain Rolland, Les Léonides (Paris, 1928); Rolland, "Préface" (28 October 1927), ibid., 7—15; letter from Rolland to Lucien Roth, 28 November 1928, ARR.
16. Rolland, "Réponse à Balmont et à Bounine," QAC , 88.
17. Ibid., 92-94.
18. Ibid., 88-89.
19. Ibid., 91 n. 1.
20. Ibid., 96.
21. Romain Rolland, Les Léonides (Paris, 1928); Rolland, "Préface" (28 October 1927), ibid., 7—15; letter from Rolland to Lucien Roth, 28 November 1928, ARR.
16. Rolland, "Réponse à Balmont et à Bounine," QAC , 88.
17. Ibid., 92-94.
18. Ibid., 88-89.
19. Ibid., 91 n. 1.
20. Ibid., 96.
21. Romain Rolland, Les Léonides (Paris, 1928); Rolland, "Préface" (28 October 1927), ibid., 7—15; letter from Rolland to Lucien Roth, 28 November 1928, ARR.
16. Rolland, "Réponse à Balmont et à Bounine," QAC , 88.
17. Ibid., 92-94.
18. Ibid., 88-89.
19. Ibid., 91 n. 1.
20. Ibid., 96.
21. Romain Rolland, Les Léonides (Paris, 1928); Rolland, "Préface" (28 October 1927), ibid., 7—15; letter from Rolland to Lucien Roth, 28 November 1928, ARR.
16. Rolland, "Réponse à Balmont et à Bounine," QAC , 88.
17. Ibid., 92-94.
18. Ibid., 88-89.
19. Ibid., 91 n. 1.
20. Ibid., 96.
21. Romain Rolland, Les Léonides (Paris, 1928); Rolland, "Préface" (28 October 1927), ibid., 7—15; letter from Rolland to Lucien Roth, 28 November 1928, ARR.
16. Rolland, "Réponse à Balmont et à Bounine," QAC , 88.
17. Ibid., 92-94.
18. Ibid., 88-89.
19. Ibid., 91 n. 1.
20. Ibid., 96.
21. Romain Rolland, Les Léonides (Paris, 1928); Rolland, "Préface" (28 October 1927), ibid., 7—15; letter from Rolland to Lucien Roth, 28 November 1928, ARR.
22. On Istrati, see Michel Ragon, Historie de la littérature prolétarienne en France (Paris, 1974), 220.
23. Romain Rolland, "Foreword," in Panaït Istrati, Kyra Kyralina , trans. James Whithall (New York, 1926), v; first published as "Un Gorki balkanique," Europe , 15 August 1923, 257-259.
24. Letter from Rolland to Panaït Istrati, cited in Istrati, "Preface," Kyra Kyralina , ix. Also see letter from Rolland to Istrati, Holy Friday, 1921, BV , 175-177.
25. Panaït Istrati, Vers l'autre flamme (Paris, 1929), 3 vols.; Victor Serge, Memoirs of a Revolutionary , trans. Peter Sedgwick (London, 1963), 254, 278-279.
26. Letter from Rolland to Jean Guéhenno, 9 October 1929, JG-RR , 71.
27. Letter from Rolland to Istrati, 8 October 1929, cited in JG-RR , 71-72.
28. Letter from Rolland to Guéhenno, 9 October 1929, JG-RR , 72. For Romain Rolland's last reflections on the dying and isolated Istrati, see ibid., 256-257, 337-339.
27. Letter from Rolland to Istrati, 8 October 1929, cited in JG-RR , 71-72.
28. Letter from Rolland to Guéhenno, 9 October 1929, JG-RR , 72. For Romain Rolland's last reflections on the dying and isolated Istrati, see ibid., 256-257, 337-339.
29. Letters from Rolland to Charles Vildrac, 14 December 1928; to Madame Félicien Challaye, 9 March 1929; to Valentin Boulgakov, 11 April 1929, ARR.
30. Romain Rolland, "Lettre à Eugène Relgis sur les devoirs des intellectuels et la confédération internationale du travail intellectuel et manuel" (20 October 1930), QAC , 102-111 ( I Will Not Rest , 199-207). Also see Eugène Relgis, L'Internationale pacifiste (Paris, 1929); Julien Benda, La Trahison des clercs (Paris, 1927). Benda specifically censured Romain Rolland as a clerc who committed treason ( The Treason of the Intellectual , trans. Richard Aldington [New York, 1969], 76, 80-81, 164, 187, 217 n. 2). For a contextual analysis of Benda, see David L. Schalk, The Spectrum of Political Engagement (Princeton, N.J., 1979), 26-48.
31. Rolland, "Lettre à Eugène Relgis," 106.
32. Romain Rolland, "Deux Voix lancent l'appel contre les forces de réaction" (with Theodore Dreiser), QAC , 99-101 ( I Will Not Rest , 195-196); first published in Monde , no. 98 (19 April 1930): 3; Rolland, "Que sera votre attitude en cas d'agression contre l'Union soviétique?" L'Humanité , 7 July 1930, 4. Also see letters from Rolland to Martinet, 11 July 1930; to Frans Masereel, 27 September 1930, ARR; and to Heinz Haeberlin, 28 May 1930, in Pierre Abraham, ed., Romain Rolland (Neuchâtel, 1969), 139-140.
33. Romain Rolland, "Europe, élargis-toi, ou meurs!" (January 1931), QAC , 121; first published in Nouvelle Revue mondiale , no. 2 (February 1931), and Paix mondiale , April-May 1931. Riou replied in "Les Etats-Unis de l'Europe ou les Etat-Unis du monde," Nouvelle Revue mondiale , no. 1 (January 1931) and no. 3 (March 1931). See letter from Rolland to Lucien Roth, 6 February 1931, ARR. Also see letter from Rolland to Count Richard Coudenhove-Kalergi, 14 September 1925, cited in Barrère, Romain Rolland par luimême , 165.
34. Rolland, "Europe, élargis-toi, ou meurs!" 120-121 ( I Will Not Rest , 209-219). Also see letter from Rolland to Charles Baudouin, 31 January 1931, ARR.
35. Romain Rolland, "Lettre à Serge Radine sur le 'materialisme' communiste," QAC , 131 ( I Will Not Rest , 229-230); letter from Rolland to Baudouin, 24 August 1932 (ARR), paraphrasing Lenin, that "a good idealism was worth more than a bad or foolish materialism."
36. Romain Rolland, "Lettre à Fedor Gladkov et à Ilya Selvinsky sur l'individualisme et l'humanisme" (February, 1931), QAC , 129 ( I Will Not Rest , 223-225). First published in Literaturnaya gazeta ; letter from Rolland to Baudouin, 14 March 1931, ARR.
37. Rolland, "Europe, élargis-toi, ou meurs!" 124.
38. Romain Rolland, "Salut à Gorki" (10 May 1931) QAC , 134-135 ( I Will Not Rest , 233-235); first published in Literaturnaya gazeta .
39. Rolland, "Salut à Gorki," 134.
40. Ibid., 135.
39. Rolland, "Salut à Gorki," 134.
40. Ibid., 135.
41. Romain Rolland, "Au premier oudarnik de la République universelle du Travail, salut d'un compagnon français" (October 1931), QAC , 136 ( I Will Not Rest , 236-240); first published as a preface to the French edition of Gorky's Eux et nous (Paris, 1931), and in L'Humanité , 6 December 1931. Letter from Rolland to Roth, 1 October 1931, ARR.
42. Rolland, "Au premier oudarnik ," 137.
43. Ibid., 140-141; see Jean Perus, Romain Rolland et Maxime Gorki (Paris, 1968), 243-283.
42. Rolland, "Au premier oudarnik ," 137.
43. Ibid., 140-141; see Jean Perus, Romain Rolland et Maxime Gorki (Paris, 1968), 243-283.
44. Rolland, "Au premier oudarnik ," 142.
45. Romain Rolland, "Adieu au passé" (6 April 1931), QAC , 142-154 ( I Will Not Rest , 243-278); first published in Europe , 15 June 1931, 161-202.
46. Rolland, "Adieu au passé," 181, 184-185.
47. Ibid., 187-188.
46. Rolland, "Adieu au passé," 181, 184-185.
47. Ibid., 187-188.
48. André Breton, Misère de la poésie (Paris, 1932), esp. 10-13; English trans. in André Breton, What Is Surrealism? Selected Writings , ed. Franklin Rosemont (New York, 1978), 76-82.
49. "Lettre de Romain Rolland aux Surréalistes" (4 February 1932), in Breton, Misère de la poésie , 29-30.
50. Romain Rolland, L'Ame enchantée (Paris, 1967). This conclusion to the novel cycle, called L'Annonciatrice , was first published in 2 vols., each over 300 pages, in December 1933 by Editions Albin Michel; vol. 1 was called La Mort d'un monde , vol. 2, L'Enfantement . I will cite the definitive edition of 1967. Rolland also published an important introduction, dated 1 January 1934, ibid., vii-xix. The secondary literature on this text is virtually nonexistent. See Christian Sénéchal, review of L'Ame enchantée, Europe , 15 May 1934, 137-142; and Marie-Louise Coudert, "L'Ame enchantée," Europe , November-December 1966, 52-57.
49. "Lettre de Romain Rolland aux Surréalistes" (4 February 1932), in Breton, Misère de la poésie , 29-30.
50. Romain Rolland, L'Ame enchantée (Paris, 1967). This conclusion to the novel cycle, called L'Annonciatrice , was first published in 2 vols., each over 300 pages, in December 1933 by Editions Albin Michel; vol. 1 was called La Mort d'un monde , vol. 2, L'Enfantement . I will cite the definitive edition of 1967. Rolland also published an important introduction, dated 1 January 1934, ibid., vii-xix. The secondary literature on this text is virtually nonexistent. See Christian Sénéchal, review of L'Ame enchantée, Europe , 15 May 1934, 137-142; and Marie-Louise Coudert, "L'Ame enchantée," Europe , November-December 1966, 52-57.
51. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée , 1094-1097 (English trans., 111-112); this second volume translated into English as A World in Birth , trans. Amalia de Alberti (New York, 1934).
52. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée , 961 (English trans., 301); this first volume translated into English as The Death of a World , trans. Amalia de Alberti (New York, 1933).
53. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée , 1141 ( World in Birth , 175).
54. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée , 1141 ( World in Birth , 175); Paul Nizan coined the phrase "watchdogs" ( Les Chiens de garde [Paris, 1932]).
55. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée , 1043 ( World in Birth , 44).
56. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée , 1094 ( World in Birth , 110-111).
57. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée , 1198 ( World in Birth , 250).
58. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée , 1043 ( World in Birth , 43); also see letter from Rolland to Bela Illès, 22 September 1932, in Literaturnaya nasledstvo (Literary heritage) (Moscow, 1969), 286.
59. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée , 909 ( Death of a World , 229).
60. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée , 787-788 ( Death of a World , 67-68).
61. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée , 982 ( Death of a World , 328).
62. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée , 1255 ( World in Birth , 326).
63. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée , 1146 ( World in Birth , 182).
64. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée , 1285 ( World in Birth , 364).
65. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée , 1046 ( World in Birth , 49).
66. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée , 1252 ( World in Birth , 321).
67. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée , 1047, 1259 ( World in Birth , 50, 317).
68. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée , 1151 ( World in Birth , 188).
69. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée , 1047 ( World in Birth , 49-50).
70. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée , 1440-1441 ( World in Birth , 572-574); also see letter from Rolland to Alfred Kurella, 10 December 1933, in Literaturnaya nasledstvo , 299-300.
71. Rolland, L'Ame enchantée , 1146 ( World in Birth , 181).
10 The Cultural Politics of the Popular Front
1. David Caute, The Fellow Travellers: A Postscript to the Enlightenment (New York, 1973), 126-135; David Caute, Communism and the French Intellectuals, 1914-1960 (London, 1964), 102-111; Michael Kelly, Modern French Marxism (Baltimore, 1982), 24-48; George Ross, Workers and Communists in France: From Popular Front to Eurocommunism (Berkeley, Calif., 1982), 1-18; Jürgen Rühle, Literature and Revolution: A Critical Study of the Writer and Communism in the Twentieth Century , trans. Jean Steinberg (London, 1969), 321-326.
2. L. Darnar, "Chez Romain Rolland," L'Humanité , 26 May 1933, 1; Ivan Anissimov, "Romain Rolland passe à la Revolution," La Littérature internationale , no. 1 (1933): 26-32; Magdeleine Paz, " L'Annonciatrice par Romain Rolland,'' Monde , no. 249 (11 March 1933): 10; Lucie River, "De Jean-Christophe à l'Ame enchantée ,'' Monde , no. 283 (4 November 1933): 7; "Romain Rolland à Marcel Cachin," L'Humanité , 15 September 1934, 1.
3. Romain Rolland, "Lénine, l'art et l'action," Compagnons de route. Essais littéraires (Paris, 1936), 225-236, esp. 230, 233; first published in Europe , 15 January 1934, 5-14; translated as "A Great Master of Action," International Literature , no. 1 (January 1939): 71-72.
4. Rolland, "Lénine, l'art et l'action," 225-227, 234-236.
5. Karl Radek, "Contemporary World Literature and the Tasks of Proletarian Art," in Problems of Soviet Literature , ed. A. Zhadanov (New York, n.d.), 95, 138-139, 145; published in French, Correspondance internationale , no. 83-84 (15 September 1934); also see Romain Rolland, QAC , xxxix, lxxiii.
6. Romain Rolland, "Panorama," QAC , ix-lxxx (translated into English as "Panorama," in I Will Not Rest , 15-88); first published in Europe , 15 January-15 April 1935, 5-36, 153-175, 305-328.
7. Rolland, "Panorama," lix-lxii, lxxix; see letter from Rolland to René Arcos, 23 October 1934, requesting that Arcos send him a copy of Marx's Morceaux choisis and Paul Nizan's "Marx philosophe" (ARR).
8. Rolland, "Panorama," lx, Rolland's emphasis.
9. Ibid., lviii, lix.
10. Ibid., lvii, lix, lxi, lxiii.
11. Ibid., xxxvii-xxxix, xlv, liv-lvii, lix.
12. Ibid., lix, lvii-lviii.
13. Ibid., xxxviii, li.
14. Ibid., xxxviii.
8. Rolland, "Panorama," lx, Rolland's emphasis.
9. Ibid., lviii, lix.
10. Ibid., lvii, lix, lxi, lxiii.
11. Ibid., xxxvii-xxxix, xlv, liv-lvii, lix.
12. Ibid., lix, lvii-lviii.
13. Ibid., xxxviii, li.
14. Ibid., xxxviii.
8. Rolland, "Panorama," lx, Rolland's emphasis.
9. Ibid., lviii, lix.
10. Ibid., lvii, lix, lxi, lxiii.
11. Ibid., xxxvii-xxxix, xlv, liv-lvii, lix.
12. Ibid., lix, lvii-lviii.
13. Ibid., xxxviii, li.
14. Ibid., xxxviii.
8. Rolland, "Panorama," lx, Rolland's emphasis.
9. Ibid., lviii, lix.
10. Ibid., lvii, lix, lxi, lxiii.
11. Ibid., xxxvii-xxxix, xlv, liv-lvii, lix.
12. Ibid., lix, lvii-lviii.
13. Ibid., xxxviii, li.
14. Ibid., xxxviii.
8. Rolland, "Panorama," lx, Rolland's emphasis.
9. Ibid., lviii, lix.
10. Ibid., lvii, lix, lxi, lxiii.
11. Ibid., xxxvii-xxxix, xlv, liv-lvii, lix.
12. Ibid., lix, lvii-lviii.
13. Ibid., xxxviii, li.
14. Ibid., xxxviii.
8. Rolland, "Panorama," lx, Rolland's emphasis.
9. Ibid., lviii, lix.
10. Ibid., lvii, lix, lxi, lxiii.
11. Ibid., xxxvii-xxxix, xlv, liv-lvii, lix.
12. Ibid., lix, lvii-lviii.
13. Ibid., xxxviii, li.
14. Ibid., xxxviii.
8. Rolland, "Panorama," lx, Rolland's emphasis.
9. Ibid., lviii, lix.
10. Ibid., lvii, lix, lxi, lxiii.
11. Ibid., xxxvii-xxxix, xlv, liv-lvii, lix.
12. Ibid., lix, lvii-lviii.
13. Ibid., xxxviii, li.
14. Ibid., xxxviii.
15. André Malraux, cited in Rolland, "Panorama," lxxx; see Jean Lacouture, André Malraux , trans. Alan Sheridan (New York, 1975), 163-196.
16. Romain Rolland, "Pour qui écrivez-vous?" Commune , no. 9 (May 1934): 779-780; in QAC , 237-238 (translated into English as "For Whom Do I Write?" in I Will Not Rest , 319-320). Also see Rolland's ''Enquête," in Littérature internationale , no. 3 (1934): 3-6. Louis Aragon, Commune , no. 9 (May 1934): 778.
17. On Barbusse, see Guessler Normand, "Henri Barbusse and His Monde (1928-1935)," Journal of Contemporary History , Spring 1976, 173-197; Rühle, Literature and Revolution , 326-329; Jean-Pierre Bernard, Le Parti communiste français et la question littéraire, 1921-1939 (Grenoble, 1972), 57-61, 71-77.
18. Letter from Rolland to Henri Barbusse, 28 December 1934, ARR.
19. Victor Serge, Memoirs of a Revolutionary, 1901-1941 , trans. Peter Sedgwick (London, 1963), 284-322; Herbert Lottman, The Left Bank: Writers, Artists, and Politics from the Popular Front to the Cold War (Boston, 1982), 92-96, 111, 48-53; Caute, Communism and the French Intellectuals , 110-111, 134-135, 241.
20. Serge, Memoirs , 316, 318-319; Frederick J. Harris, André Gide and Romain Rolland: Two Men Divided (New Brunswick, N.J., 1973), 150-152.
21. Letter from Rolland to Jean Guéhenno, 24 October 1934, JG-RR , 313-314.
22. Ibid., 314.
21. Letter from Rolland to Jean Guéhenno, 24 October 1934, JG-RR , 313-314.
22. Ibid., 314.
23. Romain Rolland, "Lettre de Romain Rolland à un ingénieur Américain," Regards , no. 62 (21 March 1935): 3.
24. Ibid.
25. Ibid.
23. Romain Rolland, "Lettre de Romain Rolland à un ingénieur Américain," Regards , no. 62 (21 March 1935): 3.
24. Ibid.
25. Ibid.
23. Romain Rolland, "Lettre de Romain Rolland à un ingénieur Américain," Regards , no. 62 (21 March 1935): 3.
24. Ibid.
25. Ibid.
26. See Paul Hollander, Political Pilgrims: Travels of Western Intellectuals to the Soviet Union, China, and Cuba, 1928-1978 (New York, 1981), 102-176; Sylvia R. Margulies, The Pilgrimage to Russia: The Soviet Union and the Treatment of Foreigners, 1924-1937 (Madison, Wis., 1968).
27. Romain Rolland, "Un Séjour chez Gorki" (journal extracts, June-July 1935), Europe , February-March 1960, 13-30.
28. Ibid., 19-23, 25, 29-30. Also see letter from Rolland to Madeleine Rolland, 26 June 1935, BV , 337-339.
27. Romain Rolland, "Un Séjour chez Gorki" (journal extracts, June-July 1935), Europe , February-March 1960, 13-30.
28. Ibid., 19-23, 25, 29-30. Also see letter from Rolland to Madeleine Rolland, 26 June 1935, BV , 337-339.
29. Romain Rolland, "Romain Rolland au moment de quitter l'U.R.S.S. proclame, dans une lettre à Staline, la nécessité de la défendre," L'Humanité , 22 July 1935, 1.
30. Romain Rolland, "Retour de Moscou," Commune , no. 26 (October 1935): 129.
31. Ibid., 130.
32. Ibid., 131-132.
33. Ibid., 132-133.
30. Romain Rolland, "Retour de Moscou," Commune , no. 26 (October 1935): 129.
31. Ibid., 130.
32. Ibid., 131-132.
33. Ibid., 132-133.
30. Romain Rolland, "Retour de Moscou," Commune , no. 26 (October 1935): 129.
31. Ibid., 130.
32. Ibid., 131-132.
33. Ibid., 132-133.
30. Romain Rolland, "Retour de Moscou," Commune , no. 26 (October 1935): 129.
31. Ibid., 130.
32. Ibid., 131-132.
33. Ibid., 132-133.
34. Romain Rolland, "Aux calomniateurs!" L'Humanité , 23 October 1935, 1.
35. Ibid., 1, 4.
36. Ibid., 4.
37. Romain Rolland, "L'Esprit européen," Nouvelles littéraires , no. 684 (23 November 1935): 6; for Benda's rejoinder, see "L'Esprit européen," ibid., no. 685 (30 November 1935): 6.
34. Romain Rolland, "Aux calomniateurs!" L'Humanité , 23 October 1935, 1.
35. Ibid., 1, 4.
36. Ibid., 4.
37. Romain Rolland, "L'Esprit européen," Nouvelles littéraires , no. 684 (23 November 1935): 6; for Benda's rejoinder, see "L'Esprit européen," ibid., no. 685 (30 November 1935): 6.
34. Romain Rolland, "Aux calomniateurs!" L'Humanité , 23 October 1935, 1.
35. Ibid., 1, 4.
36. Ibid., 4.
37. Romain Rolland, "L'Esprit européen," Nouvelles littéraires , no. 684 (23 November 1935): 6; for Benda's rejoinder, see "L'Esprit européen," ibid., no. 685 (30 November 1935): 6.
34. Romain Rolland, "Aux calomniateurs!" L'Humanité , 23 October 1935, 1.
35. Ibid., 1, 4.
36. Ibid., 4.
37. Romain Rolland, "L'Esprit européen," Nouvelles littéraires , no. 684 (23 November 1935): 6; for Benda's rejoinder, see "L'Esprit européen," ibid., no. 685 (30 November 1935): 6.
38. Rolland, "L'Esprit européen," 6.
39. Vladimir Pozner, "A la recherche d'une patrie humaine," Monde, no. 341 (20 June 1935): 8.
40. Nicolai Bukharin, "Salut à Romain Rolland," Commune, no. 24 (August 1935): 1431-1434. For a sample of communist reactions to Romain Rolland's Soviet trip, see two unsigned pieces, "Romain Rolland en U.R.S.S.," L'Humanité, 1 July 1935, 2; ''La Jeunesse soviétique rend visite à Romain Rolland," L'Humanité, 17 July 1935, 3. Also see René Blech, '' Quinze Ans de combat et Par la révolution, la paix, par Romain Rolland," Commune, no. 25 (September 1935): 94-98; Red Soldiers from Lake Tarkal region, "Lettre à Romain Rolland," Commune, no. 25 (September 1935): 122-123.
41. Marcel Martinet, "Réponse à Romain Rolland," Révolution prolétarienne, no. 195 (25 March 1935): 101-102; also published in Les Humbles, no. 5 (May 1935): 16-22.
42. Léon Trotsky, "Romain Rolland remplit sa mission," Les Humbles, no. 12 (December 1935): 3-8; translated as "Romain Rolland Executes an Assignment," in The Writings of Leon Trotsky, (1935-1938), ed. Naomi Allen and George Breitman (New York, 1970), 161-165. For other Trotskyist articles on Rolland and the Soviet Union, see Georges Henein, "Hommage aux inflexibles," Les Superbes, no. 5 (May 1936): 3-4; Maurice Parijanine, "Lettre ouverte à Romain Rolland de Maurice Parijanine," Les Humbles, no. 9-10 (September-October 1936): 80-82; Marcel Martinet, "Pour les soixante-dix ans de Romain Rolland," Révolution prolétarienne, no. 215 (25 January 1936): 21.
43. Romain Rolland, "A Léon Trotsky," Les Humbles, no. 5-6 (May-June 1934): 12.
44. Romain Rolland, "Introduction" (October 1935), Compagnons de route, 9-16.
45. Louis Aragon, "Une Entrevue avec Romain Rolland, l'ingénieur des âmes," Cahiers du bolchevisme, no. 5 (15 March 1936): 257-262; also in Commune, no. 3 (May 1936): 1138-1139.
46. Paul Langevin, "Paix d'abord," L'Humanité, 3 February 1936, 1-2; also in L'Université syndicaliste, February 1936; reprinted in Paul Langevin, La Pensée et l'action (Paris, 1964), 274-277; Jean-Richard Bloch, "Nouvelle Rencontre de la France et Romain Rolland," Commune, no. 29 (January 1936): 513-520; Louis Aragon, "Romain Rolland ou les trésors de l'expérience," Regards, no. 107 (30 January 1936): 3-4.
47. André Malraux, "Trois Discours" and "Réponse aux 64," Commune, no. 28 (December 1935): 411; his appeals were a response to a manifesto signed by 64 right-wing intellectuals ( Le Temps, 4 October 1935), including Charles Maurras, Henri Massis, Alphonse de Chateaubriant, and Drieu la Rochelle.
48. Romain Rolland, "Réponse à une enquête de Vendémaire sur 'le declin des idées de liberté et de progrès,'" Europe, 15 January 1936, 104-107.
49. Romain Rolland, "Voyage autour de ma chambre," L'Humanité, 26 January 1936, 1, 8.
50. See "Hommage à Romain Rolland pour son soixante-dixième anniversaire," L'Humanité, 26 January 1936, 8, with tributes from André Gide, Francis Jourdain, René Arcos, Marcel Prenant, Jules Romains, Victor Margueritte, Paul Rivet, Alain, Luc Durtain, Paul Nizan, Georges Friedmann
Andrée Viollis, Jean Cassou, André Chamson, Jean Guéhenno, Charles Vildrac, and Jean-Richard Bloch; "Hommage à Romain Rolland," Commune, no. 3 (March 1936): 789-801, with tributes from Maxim Gorky, Waldo Frank, Georgi Dimitrov, Stefan Zweig, T. G. Masaryk, E. Benès, Leonid Leonov, Van Min, and revolutionary students of the University of Lisbon. See Jean-Richard Bloch, Vendredi, 17 January 1936; Jean Guéhenno, Europe, 15 January 1936; Fernand Déprès, Regards, no. 4 (31 January 1936); and Waldo Frank, New Masses, no. 18 (21 January 1936): 19.
51. André Gide, Vendredi, 24 January 1936, later reprinted in Nouvelle Revue française, no. 47 (1 March 1936): 437-438.
52. See Marcel Cachin, "Romain Rolland," L'Humanité, 30 January 1936, 1-2; Marcel Cachin, "Magnifique Hommage du peuple de Paris à Romain Rolland," L'Humanité, 1 February 1936, 1; Marcel Cachin, "Avec Romain Rolland," L'Humanité, 2 February 1936, 1. Also see Francis Jourdain, "Le Rôle du mouvement international Amsterdam-Pleyel," Clarté, no. 4 (November 1936): 179-181.
53. Romain Rolland, "Pour un théâtre du peuple," Regards, no. 116 (2 April 1936): 3.
54. Romain Rolland, "La Grande Unité," Clarté, no. 1 (August 1936): 3-5.
55. Letter from Rolland to Léon Blum, 7 February 1936, ARR.
56. Letters from Rolland to Amédée Dunois, 14 February 1936; to Lucien Roth, 27 May 1936, ARR.
57. Letter from Rolland to André Chamson, 20 August 1936, ARR.
58. Romain Rolland, "A l'aide," Paix et liberté, no. 30 (1936): 4; Rolland, "Un Message de Romain Rolland," L'Humanité, 6 September 1936, 4, and 11 September 1936, 4; also in Clarté, no. 2 (September 1936): 67-69.
59. Romain Rolland, "Appel à tous les peuples au secours des victimes d'Espagne," L'Humanité, 22 November 1936, English trans. in International Solidarity with the Spanish Republic, 1936-1939 (Moscow, 1975), 138. For a splendid analysis of the brigades, see Robert A. Rosenstone, Crusade of the Left: The Lincoln Battalions in the Spanish Civil War (Lanham, Md., 1980).
60. Romain Rolland, "Au secours des victimes d'Espagne," Clarté, no. 5 (December 1936): 227; Rolland, cited in Dolores Ibarruri, They Shall Not Pass: The Autobiography of La Pasionaria (New York, 1976), 266.
61. Letter from Rolland to Blum, 3 October 1936, ARR. Blum never replied. For an account of Blum's dilemmas during this period, see Jean Lacouture, Léon Blum (Paris, 1977), 259-387.
62. Letters from Rolland to Jean-Richard Bloch, 10 October 1936; to Howard Dunham, 26 January 1937, ARR.
63. "La Culture en danger," Commune, no. 40 (December 1936): 424-426, signed by Romain Rolland, André Gide, Jean-Richard Bloch, André Chamson, Louis Aragon; also see "Déclaration des intellectuels républicains au sujet des événements d'Espagne," Commune, no. 40 (December 1936): 389-391, signed by Romain Rolland, Paul Langevin, Georges Politzer, André Gide, Paul Nizan, and Henri Lefebvre.
64. Romain Rolland, "Message to the International Congress of Anti-Fascist Writers in Valencia," cited in Ibarruri, They Shall Not Pass, 266-267.
65. Romain Rolland, "Message à la comité pour la défense de la culture espagnol," 7 November 1937, ARR; Rolland, "Frente popular," in France-
Espagne, no. 1 (1937); Rolland, "La France est-elle une mission?" Cahiers de la jeunesse, no. 12 (15 July 1938): 13-16; Rolland, "C'est pour nous que l'Espagne souffre et combat," L'Avant-garde, 20 January 1939, 1. Also see André Malraux, "Pour la collaboration des fronts populaires espagnol et français," in Agir dans la clarté, Publications du Comité mondial contre la guerre et le fascisme (Paris, 1936), 61.
66. Romain Rolland, "Adieu à Gorki," Europe, 15 July 1936, 289-290; also published in Regards, no. 128 (25 June 1936): 3. Also see Romain Rolland, "Mon Ami le plus cher," L'Humanité, 21 June 1936.
67. Frederick Brown, Theater and Revolution: The Culture of the French Stage (New York, 1980), 393-394; Henri Noguères, Front populaire (Paris, 1977), 26, 90. On the cultural politics of the French Popular Front, see Elizabeth G. Strebel, "French Social Cinema and the Popular Front," Journal of Contemporary History 12, no. 3 (July 1977): 499-519; Pascal Ory, "De 'Ciné-Liberté' à la Marseillaise," Mouvement social, no. 91 (April-June 1975): 153-175; Nicole Racine, "L'Association des Ecrivains et Artistes Révolutionnaires (AEAR)," Mouvement social, no. 54 (January-March 1966): 29-47.
68. See P. Gsell, "Romain Rolland et le théâtre du peuple," L'Humanité, 14 July 1936, 1-2; and reviews by J. Chabannes, Nouvelles littéraires, 18 July 1936, 8; P. Unik, Regards, 23 July 1936; and M. Savin, Nouvelle Revue française, no. 47 (1936): 396-399.
69. Romain Rolland, "Quatorze juillet 1789 et 1936," Europe, 15 July 1936, 293-297; also published in Regards, no. 130 (9 July 1936): 16-17; republished in Europe, no. 533-534 (September-October 1973): 113-116.
70. Ibid.
69. Romain Rolland, "Quatorze juillet 1789 et 1936," Europe, 15 July 1936, 293-297; also published in Regards, no. 130 (9 July 1936): 16-17; republished in Europe, no. 533-534 (September-October 1973): 113-116.
70. Ibid.
71. J. E. Flower, Writers and Politics in Modern France, 1909-1961 (London, 1977); Renee Winegarten, Writers and Revolution: The Fatal Lure of Action (New York, 1974), 274-291; Lewis A. Coser, Men of Ideas: A Sociological View (New York, 1965), 233-243. For a more balanced account, see Roger Shattuck, "Writers for the Defense of Culture," Partisan Review 51, no. 3 (1984): 393-416.
72. See W. H. Auden, "September 1, 1939," cited in Samuel Hynes, The Auden Generation: Literature and Politics in England in the 1930s (New York, 1977), 382; George Orwell, Homage to Catalonia (New York, 1952), 181, 46, 65, 145, 149, 159; Raymond Aron, The Opium of the Intellectuals, trans. Terence Kilmartin (New York, 1957), 265-324.
73. Letter from Rolland to Bloch, 15 February 1936, ARR.
11 The Politics of Uncritical Support
1. Daniel R. Brower, The New Jacobins: The French Communist Party and the Popular Front (Ithaca, N.Y., 1968); Fernando Claudin, The Communist Movement from Comintern to Cominform, trans. Brian Pearce (New York, 1975), 1:166-242; Jacques Fauvet, Histoire du parti communiste français (Paris, 1964), 1:152-268; Jacques Danos and Marcel Gibelin, Juin 1936, 2 vols. (Paris, 1952; reprint 1972); George Ross, Workers and Communists in France: From Popular Front to Eurocommunism (Berkeley, Calif., 1982), 1-11; Georges Lefranc, Histoire du front populaire (Paris, 1965); Daniel Guérin
Front populaire, révolution manquée (Paris, 1963; reprint 1970); Jean Gacon, "1934-1938: Le Front populaire en France comme mouvement populaire," Cahiers d'histoire de l'Institut Maurice Thorez, no. 5 (October-November 1973): 44-56; Annie Kriegel, "Front populaire," Mouvement social, no. 54 (January-March 1966).
2. Ronald Tiersky, French Communism, 1920-1972 (New York, 1974), 54-95; Michelle Perrot and Annie Kriegel, Le Socialisme français et le pouvoir (Paris, 1966); George Lichtheim, Marxism in Modern France (New York, 1966), 34-68; Nicole Racine and Louis Bodin, Le Parti communiste français pendant l'entre-deux-guerres (Paris, 1972), 205-262.
3. Letter from Rolland to Maurice Thorez, 12 July 1936, published as "Une Lettre de Romain Rolland," Cahiers du bolchevisme, no. 12-13 (25 July 1936): 879; Maurice Thorez, Fils du peuple (Paris, 1937).
4. Letters from Rolland to Sergei Dinamov, 1 October 1935, in Literaturna nasledstvo (Literary heritage) (Moscow, 1969), 324-325; to Alfred Kurella, 14 February 1936, ibid., 326; to Jean-Richard Bloch, 10 October 1936, ARR.
3. Letter from Rolland to Maurice Thorez, 12 July 1936, published as "Une Lettre de Romain Rolland," Cahiers du bolchevisme, no. 12-13 (25 July 1936): 879; Maurice Thorez, Fils du peuple (Paris, 1937).
4. Letters from Rolland to Sergei Dinamov, 1 October 1935, in Literaturna nasledstvo (Literary heritage) (Moscow, 1969), 324-325; to Alfred Kurella, 14 February 1936, ibid., 326; to Jean-Richard Bloch, 10 October 1936, ARR.
5. Letters from Rolland to Jean Guéhenno, 24 March 1936, 2 April 1936, 31 December 1936, JG-RR 373-374, 376, 378.
6. André Gide, Retour de l'U.R.S.S. (Paris, 1936); André Gide, "Avantpropos du Retour de l'U.R.S.S., " Vendredi, 6 November 1936; Claude Naville, André Gide et le communisme (Paris, 1936); Jean Guéhenno, "Lettre ouverte à André Gide," Vendredi, 17 December 1937; Jean Guéhenno, "Réponse à André Gide," Vendredi, 24 December 1937; Georges Friedmann, "Gide et l'U.R.S.S.," Europe, 15 January 1937, 5-29. For a full discussion, see Frederick J. Harris, André Gide and Romain Rolland: Two Men Divided (New Brunswick, N.J., 1973), 110-165.
7. Romain Rolland, "L'U.R.S.S. en a vu bien d'autres. Une Lettre de Romain Rolland à propos du livre d'André Gide," L'Humanité, 18 January 1937, 1; English trans. in Harris, André Gide and Romain Rolland, 154-155.
8. Rolland, "L'U.R.S.S. en a vu bien d'autres," 1.
9. Ibid.; also see letters from Rolland to Lucien Roth, 31 December 1936; to Georges Friedmann, 4 January 1937; conversation with Louis Aragon, 29 June 1937, ARR; letter from Rolland to Guéhenno, 29 December 1937, JG-RR 380-381.
8. Rolland, "L'U.R.S.S. en a vu bien d'autres," 1.
9. Ibid.; also see letters from Rolland to Lucien Roth, 31 December 1936; to Georges Friedmann, 4 January 1937; conversation with Louis Aragon, 29 June 1937, ARR; letter from Rolland to Guéhenno, 29 December 1937, JG-RR 380-381.
10. André Gide, Retouches à mon retour de l'U.R.S.S. (Paris, 1937; reprint 1978), 95, 146; also see André Gide, Littérature engagée (Paris, 1950).
11. Romain Rolland, "Romain Rolland, Largo Caballero, La Pasionaria saluent l'U.R.S.S., la grande patrie du socialisme," L'Humanité, 25 January 1937, 4.
12. Romain Rolland, "L'Adresse de Romain Rolland à la conference nationale du parti communiste," L'Humanité, 25 January 1937, 6.
13. Letters from Henri Guilbeaux to Rolland, 17 February 1936, 3 September 1936, 22 September 1936, ARR.
14. Henri Guilbeaux, La Fin des Soviets (Paris, 1937), 27-48.
15. Letter from Rolland to Guilbeaux, 4 May 1937, ARR; see Lucien Roth's review of Guilbeaux's La Fin des Soviets in Feuilles libres de la quinzaine, no. 40 (10 July 1937): 186; letter from Rolland to Roth, 18 September 1937, ARR.
16. Romain Rolland, "Brief an einen Australier," Die neue Weltbühne 33
no. 7 (11 February 1937): 219; Rolland, "La Grand Voix de Romain Rolland appelle à l'aide pour sauver de la hache Rembts et Stamm," L'Humanité , 12 June 1937, 3; Rolland, "Un Appel de Romain Rolland. Sauvez de la hache les otages allemands de la paix," L'Humanité , 11 October 1937, 3, also published in N. Marceau, Cinq Ans de dictature hitlérienne (Paris, 1938), 31-32.
17. Romain Rolland, "Romain Rolland salue de IXe Congrès du parti communiste français," L'Humanité , 25 December 1937, 1.
18. Georges Sadoul, "Maîtres de la culture. Compagnons de route par Romain Rolland," L'Humanité , 11 December 1937, 8.
19. I have followed accounts of the trials in Roy A. Medvedev, Let History Judge: The Origins and Consequences of Stalinism , trans. Colleen Taylor (New York, 1972), 152-239; Robert Conquest, The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties (New York, 1968); Isaac Deutscher, Stalin: A Political Biography (New York, 1967), 345-385, 414-460.
20. Letter from Rolland to Liliane Fearn, 14 October 1936, ARR; Romain Rolland had made a similar accusation about the role of revolutionary anarchists and Trotskyists in Spain; see letter to Bloch, 15 February 1936, ARR.
21. Letter from Rolland to Count Michel Karolyi, 12 February 1937, ARR; also see Le Procès du centre antisoviétique trotskiste (Paris, 1936). Letter from Rolland to Jean Courregelongue, 18 March 1937, ARR; in a journal extract dated 27 January 1937, Romain Rolland stated that he was unconvinced by Pierre Dominique's characterization of Stalin as un-Leninist, Bonapartist, imperialist, and militarist (ARR).
22. Letter from Rolland to Karolyi, 12 February 1937, ARR.
23. Ibid.
22. Letter from Rolland to Karolyi, 12 February 1937, ARR.
23. Ibid.
24. Letter from Rolland to Madeleine Rolland, 4 August 1937, BV , 353.
25. Letter from Rolland to Karolyi, 12 February 1937, ARR.
26. Letter from Rolland to Georgi Dimitrov, 29 December 1937, sent via Maurice Thorez, ARR.
27. Ibid; letter from Rolland to Thorez, 10 February 1938, ARR.
26. Letter from Rolland to Georgi Dimitrov, 29 December 1937, sent via Maurice Thorez, ARR.
27. Ibid; letter from Rolland to Thorez, 10 February 1938, ARR.
28. Letter from Hermann Hesse to Rolland, 3 March 1938, HH-RR , 163-164.
29. Letter from Rolland to Hesse, 5 March 1938, HH-RR , 165.
30. Letters from Rolland to Bloch, 3 March 1938; from Rolland to Friedmann, 7 March 1938, ARR.
31. Letter from Rolland to Courregelongue, 15 November 1937, ARR.
32. Letter from Rolland to Toshihiko Katayama, 8 December 1937, BV , 354-355.
33. Romain Rolland, "La Mission de la France dans le monde. Un Appel de Romain Rolland," L'Humanité , 31 March 1938, 1.
34. Letter from Rolland to Léon Moussinac, 27 April 1938, ARR.
35. Romain Rolland, "Télégramme à Daladier et à Chamberlain," in Jean Giono, "Précisions," Cahiers du contadour , no. 7 (November 1938): 4, dated early September 1938, and also signed by Paul Langevin and Francis Jourdain; reprinted in Jean Giono, Précisions (Paris, 1939), 8-9.
36. Alain, Jean Giono, Victor Margueritte, "Télégramme à Daladier et à Chamberlain," reprinted in Giono's Précisions , 9-10. Curiously, Romain Rolland, Alain, and Giono had together signed an antiwar protest: "Contre
la guerre, Romain Rolland au côté des instituteurs," L'Oeuvre , 1 October 1938, cited in Giono, Précisions , 6. In a letter written to Guillaume Boniface, 3 September 1937, Romain Rolland strongly objected to Giono's pacifism, seeing it as a "puerility unworthy of a literary man. Let him not imagine that their shepherd's crook will disarm the threatening and degrading fascisms" (ARR).
37. Romain Rolland, "La 'Paix' de Munich est une capitulation dégradante," L'Humanité , 14 October 1938, 1.
38. Letter from Rolland to Francis Vogarde, 23 September 1938, ARR; also see letter from Rolland to Naoum Aronson, 5 December 1938, BV 357-358.
39. Romain Rolland, "Deuil sur l'Europe," Europe , no. 49 (15 April 1939): 433-434; reprinted in Europe , no. 533-534 (September-October 1973): 169-170. Also see his address to the National Congress of the Amsterdam-Pleyel movement, 11-13 November 1938, published in L'Humanité , 13 November 1938. See also Romain Rolland, "Appel. Du 15 au 22 janvier semaine nationale de solidarité. Un Appel de Romain Rolland," L'Humanité , 14 January 1939, 3.
40. Letters from Rolland to Thorez, 28 November 1938, and 20 March 1939, ARR.
41. Romain Rolland, "Préface" (October 1938), Robespierre (Paris, 1939), 7; parts of Robespierre were published in Europe , February-March 1939, 145-162, 289-298; in International Literature , no. 7 (July 1939): 3-8; and in Commune (January-April 1939): 1-14, 506, 633.
42. Romain Rolland, "La Parole est à l'histoire" (1 January 1939), Robespierre , 312; also see "Félicitations de Romain Rolland après la création du Robespierre à la radio," L'Humanité , 16 August 1939; Rolland, "Préface," in N. Marceau, L'Allemagne et la Révolution française (Paris, 1939), 9-15.
43. Rolland, "Préface," Robespierre , 8.
44. Rolland, Robespierre , 286-287. On the influence of Rousseau on Robespierre, see Romain Rolland, "Jean-Jacques Rousseau," introduction to The Living Thoughts of Rousseau , ed. Romain Rolland (London, 1939), 1-2, 24.
45. Rolland, "La Parole est à l'histoire," 315-317; Rolland, Robespierre , 286.
46. Rolland, Robespierre , 63, 88.
47. Ibid., 180, 300, 258.
48. Ibid., 162; also see Rolland, "Préface," Robespierre , 8.
46. Rolland, Robespierre , 63, 88.
47. Ibid., 180, 300, 258.
48. Ibid., 162; also see Rolland, "Préface," Robespierre , 8.
46. Rolland, Robespierre , 63, 88.
47. Ibid., 180, 300, 258.
48. Ibid., 162; also see Rolland, "Préface," Robespierre , 8.
49. Walter Laqueur and George L. Mosse, eds., The Left-Wing Intellectuals Between the Wars, 1919-1939 (New York, 1966); also see Jürgen Rühle, Literature and Revolution: A Critical Study of the Writer and Communism in the Twentieth Century , trans. Jean Steinberg (London, 1969).
50. Richard Crossman, ed., The God That Failed (New York, 1950), 1-10; David Caute, The Fellow Travellers: A Postscript to the Enlightenment (New York, 1973), 250-266; Paul Hollander, Political Pilgrims: Travels of Western Intellectuals to the Soviet Union, China, and Cuba (New York, 1981), 70-176, 400-437; Irving Howe, "Intellectuals, Dissent, and Bureaucrats," Dissent , Summer 1984, 303-308.
51. Romain Rolland, "Nécessité de la révolution," Europe , 15 July 1939, 289-302.
52. Ibid.
53. Ibid.
51. Romain Rolland, "Nécessité de la révolution," Europe , 15 July 1939, 289-302.
52. Ibid.
53. Ibid.
51. Romain Rolland, "Nécessité de la révolution," Europe , 15 July 1939, 289-302.
52. Ibid.
53. Ibid.
54. Letter from Rolland to Jean Cassou, 30 August 1939, ARR.
55. Ibid.
56. Ibid.
57. Ibid.
54. Letter from Rolland to Jean Cassou, 30 August 1939, ARR.
55. Ibid.
56. Ibid.
57. Ibid.
54. Letter from Rolland to Jean Cassou, 30 August 1939, ARR.
55. Ibid.
56. Ibid.
57. Ibid.
54. Letter from Rolland to Jean Cassou, 30 August 1939, ARR.
55. Ibid.
56. Ibid.
57. Ibid.
58. Letter from Rolland to Friedmann, 19 September 1939, ARR.
59. Romain Rolland, "Lettre adressé par Romain Rolland au président Daladier" (3 September 1939), Le Temps , 19 September 1939.
60. Romain Rolland, "Adresse de Romain Rolland à la jeunesse française," L'Avant-garde , 20 January 1939, 1; letter from Rolland to Charles Baudouin, 15 September 1939, ARR; "Deux Heures avec Romain Rolland au pays de Colas Breugnon," L'Avant-garde , 16 June 1939, 1, 5.
61. Letters from Rolland to Clara Beerli, 29 January 1939; to Baudouin, 10 January 1940; to Georges Duhamel, 7 November 1939, ARR.
62. Letter from Rolland to Bloch, 20 November 1939, ARR.
CONCLUSION: PESSIMISM OF THE INTELLIGENCE, OPTIMISM OF THE WILL
1. Letter from Rolland to Helen F. Farrere, 3 June 1940, BV , 366. On the Vichy regime, see Robert O. Paxton, Vichy France: Old Guard and New Order (New York, 1972); Jean-Pierre Azéma, De Munich à la libération, 1938-1944 (Paris, 1979); Michael Marrus and Robert O. Paxton, Vichy France and the Jews (New York, 1982).
2. Letter from Rolland to Jean-Richard Bloch, 8 November 1944, BV 380. See also Marcel Doisy, Romain Rolland, 1866-1944 (Brussels, 1945), 87-91; William T. Starr, Romain Rolland: One Against All (The Hague, 1971), 245-248; D. A. Prater, European of Yesterday: A Biography of Stefan Zweig (London, 1972), 286-341.
3. Letters from Rolland to Farrere, 3 June 1940; to Bloch, 8 November 1944, BV , 366, 381; Marie Romain Rolland, "Préface," Lettres de Romain Rolland à un combattant de la Résistance (Paris, 1947), unpaginated.
4. Letter from Rolland to Jean Guéhenno, 2 January 1939, JG-RR , 386.
5. Romain Rolland, Beethoven. Les Grandes Epoques créatrices and La Neuvième Symphonie (Paris, 1943); Romain Rolland, Les Derniers Quatuors (Paris, 1943).
6. Romain Rolland, Péguy , 2 vols. (Paris, 1945). Letter from Rolland to Guéhenno, 31 December 1942, JG-RR , 400-401; letter from Rolland to Madeleine Rolland, 8 May 1943, BV , 375.
7. Marie Romain Rolland, "Préface"; Journal officiel , 21 February 1941.
8. Letter from Rolland to Guéhenno, 1 January 1941, JG-RR , 389.
9. See "Note biographique," in Lettres de Romain Rolland à un combattant de la Résistance (Paris, 1947); H. R. Kedward, Resistance in Vichy France (London, 1978).
10. Letter from Rolland to Eli Walach, 1 March 1940, in Lettres de Romain Rolland à un combattant de la Résistance . For a good discussion of the reaction of French intellectuals to the Resistance, see James D. Wilkinson, The Intellectual Resistance in Europe (Cambridge, Mass., 1981), 25-77.
11. Letters from Rolland to André George, 7 January 1942, BV , 370-371; to Guéhenno, 4 January 1942, JG-RR , 395-396.
12. Letter from Rolland to M. and Mme. R. Mercier, 7 December 1944, BV , 382.
13. Romain Rolland, "Message de Romain Rolland lu pour lui en son absence à la Sorbonne à une séance solennelle de commémoration des intellectuels victimes de l'occupation," 9 December 1944, first published as "France et Liberté," Nouvelles littéraires , 5 April 1945; cited in Doisy, Romain Rolland , 203-204. Also see "Un Message de Romain Rolland aux Lettres françaises ," in Lettres françaises , 16 September 1944, where he signed an appeal of the Comité National des Ecrivains.
14. See Doisy, Romain Rolland , 89-90.
15. See Lettres françaises , 6 January 1945; this episode is discussed in Otis Fellows and John Pappas, "Requiescant in Pace: Bergson, Péguy, Rolland," French-American Review 5, no. 2 (Fall 1982): 217-233.
16. Romain Rolland, "Le Testament de Romain Rolland," cited in Doisy, Romain Rolland , 205.