1. Ernst Mayr, "The Concept of Finality," p. 112.

2. M. M. Kovalevskii, "Darvinizm v sotsiologii," p. 153.

3. J. B. Bury, "Darwinism and History," p. 535.

4. M. J. S. Hodge, "The Development," p. 57.

5. J. Monod, Chance, p. 24.

6. J. Royce, The Spirit, p. 286.

7. Charles Peirce, Selected Writings, p. 263.

8. W. Bateson, "Heredity and Variation," p. 85.

9. J. Royce, The Spirit, p. 287.

1. Herzen, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 12, p. 106.

2. Nestor Kotliarevskii, "Ocherki," p. 275.

3. I. I. Mechnikov, Akademicheskoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 14, p. 10.

4. A. P. Shchapov, Sochineniia, vol. 3, p. 111.

5. P. L. Lavrov, Zadachi pozitivizma, p. 5. For a perceptive analysis of the positivist basis of Lavrov's philosophy, see H.-G. Noetzel, Petr L. Lavrovs Vorstellungen, ch. 3.

6. N. Kareev, "P. L. Lavrov kak sotsiolog," pp. 94-95. For Lavrov's views on science as the foundation of philosophy, see P. L. Lavrov, Filosofiia i sotsiologiia, vol. 1, p. 621.

7. I. I. Mechnikov, Etiudy optimizma, p. 5; A. Vucinich, Social Thought, pp. 8, 115-16.

8. A. Stadlin, "Istorichcskaia teoriia," p. 258.

9. [E. Solov'ev] Andreevich, Opyt, p. 277. break

10. M. A. Antonovich, "Teoriia proiskhozhdeniia," p. 65. For a brief review of the early development of positivism in Russia, see S. P. Ranskii, Sotsiologiia, pp. 101-2.

11. A. P. Shchapov, Sotsial'no-pedagogicheskie usloviia, p. 268.

12. Ibid., p. 278; Claude Bernard, An Introduction, p. 68.

11. A. P. Shchapov, Sotsial'no-pedagogicheskie usloviia, p. 268.

12. Ibid., p. 278; Claude Bernard, An Introduction, p. 68.

13. Bernard, An Introduction, p. 38.

14. N. N. Strakhov, Filosofskie ocherki, p. 139. Strakhov's article on Bernard, presented in this collection, was originally published in 1867.

15. I. M. Kaufman, Russkie entsiklopedii, vol. 1, p. 30.

16. Vasetskii and Mikulinskii, eds., Izbrannye proizvedeniia, p. 117.

17. Mikulinskii and Iushkovich, eds., Razvitie estestvoznaniia, p. 233.

18. B. E. Raikov, Grigorii Efimovich Shchurovskii, pp. 23-36.

19. There is a vast literature on the Russian forerunners of Darwin. The most comprehensive study is Raikov, Russkie biologi-evoliutsionisty, 4 vols., which goes extensively into the early Darwinian period. For a brief and pertinent survey, see S. R. Mikulinskii and V. I. Nazarov, "Razvitie idei evoliutsii," pp. 274-83.

20. Charles Darwin, The Origin, p. 21.

21. Ibid., pp. 434-35.

20. Charles Darwin, The Origin, p. 21.

21. Ibid., pp. 434-35.

22. For biological data on Karl von Baer, see L. Ia. Bliakher, "Karl Maksimovich Ber." The Darwin—von Baer relations and von Baer's views on transformism are discussed in Timothy Lenoir, The Strategy of Life, chapter 6; Jane Oppenheimer, Essays, pp. 224-55; and B. E. Raikov, Karl Ber, pp. 393-412. For a thoughtful review of Raikov's book, see Jane Oppenheimer, "Review."

23. K. von Baer, "Ueber Papuas," p. 342; Georg Seidlitz, Darwin'sche Theorie, 1871, pp. 186-88.

24. For details, see Georg Seidlitz, Die Darwin'sche Theorie (1871), pp. 186-88.

25. L. Ia. Bliakher, "Karl Maksimovich Ber," p. 63.

26. I. I. Mechnikov, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, p. 73.

27. G. S. Vasetskii and S. R. Mikulinskii, eds., Izbrannye proizvedeniia, p. 214.

28. S. R. Mikulinskii, "Vzgliady K. M. Bera," pp. 358-60. Von Baer's early allegiance to a limited idea of organic evolution and to a "causal-historical orientation" in biology has been analyzed and documented in T. Lenoir, "Kant," pp. 100-12. This orientation, according to Lenoir, led von Baer to the discovery of the mammalian egg.

29. S. R. Mikulinskii, Razvitie, p. 403. For a brief description of Rul'e's pre-Darwinian evolutionism, see F. M. Scudo and M. Acanfora, "Darwin," pp. 736-38. For an excellent description of Rul'e's ties with Lamarckian tradition, see D. R. Weiner, "The Roots of 'Michurinism,'" pp. 245-48.

30. K. F. Rul'e, Izbrannye biologicheskie proizvedeniia, p. 242.

31. S. R. Mikulinskii, Razvitie, p. 405.

32. Borzenkov, Istoricheskii ocherk, p. 43. See also D. N. Anuchin, O liudiakh russkoi nauki, pp. 186-87.

33. D. N. Anuchin, O liudiakh russkoi nauki, p. 187.

34. A. N. Beketov, "Garmoniia," pp. 545-82. For comments, see S. L. Sobol', "Voznikovenie," pp. 45-47. break

35. For details on A. N. Beketov's life and work, see Beketov, A. N., "Avtobiografiia."

36. Protokoly VII S'ezda, vol. 1, p. 26.

37. I. I. Mechnikov, Akademicheskoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 14, p. 52.

38. Charles Lyell, "On the Occurrence of Works," p. 95; [N. N. Strakhov], "Poiavlenie cheloveka," pp. 5-6.

39. [Strakhov] "Poiavlenie cheloveka"; S. L. Sobol', "Iz istorii," vol. 14, p. 200.

40. S. L. Sobol', "Pervye soobshcheniia," pp. 130-35. See also N. N. Ipatova, "Vospriiatie sochinenii Ch. Darvina," pp. 130-31.

41. "Darvin i ego teoriia," no. 11, pp. 34-36.

42. For comment, see B. E. Raikov, "Iz istorii darvinizma," part 2, vol. 31, pp. 27-28.

43. "Darvin i ego teoriia," no. 11, pp. 31-32.

44. J. Schönemann, "Teoriia Darvina," p. 211.

45. Rachinskii, "Tsvety," p. 392.

46. M. A. Antonovich, "Teoriia proiskhozhdeniia."

47. B. V. Nikol'skii, Nikolai Nikolaevich Strakhov, pp. 22-24.

48. N. N. Strakhov, "Durnye priznaki," p. 170. See also G. M. Fridlender, Dostoevskii, pp. 218-22, and Realizm Dostoevskogo, pp. 157-62.

49. N. N. Strakhov, "Durnye priznaki," pp. 165-67.

50. N. N. Strakhov, O metode, pp. 178-82. (This book is a collection of essays published in various journals during the late 1850s and early 1860s.) See also Gerstein, Nikolai Strakhov, pp. 155-57.

51. P. A. Bibikov, Kriticheskie etiudy, p. 105.

52. Ibid., p. 118.

51. P. A. Bibikov, Kriticheskie etiudy, p. 105.

52. Ibid., p. 118.

53. For more details on the evolution of Strakhov's views, see B. V. Nikol'skii, Nikolai Nikolaevich Strakhov, pp. 24-39.

54. N. N. Strakhov, Iz istorii literaturnogo nigilizma, pp. 123-34.

55. N. N, Strakhov, Bor'ba, vol. 2, pp. 250-80.

56. K. A. Timiriazev, Kratkii ocherk .

57. K. A. Timiriazev, "Kniga Darvina," no. 12, p. 861.

58. Charles Darwin, The Origin, p. 478.

59. K. A. Timiriazev, "Kniga Darvina," no. 8, p. 880.

60. James A. Rogers, "Charles Darwin and Russian Scientists," pp. 382-83.

61. Darwin's name had been known in the Russian scientific literature since 1839 when the Agricultural Journal published a summary of his monograph on the formation of mold. In 1846 a summary of Darwin's paper on the origin of coral islands was published by the Mining Journal . (For details, see B. E. Raikov, "Iz istorii darvinizma," part 2, pp. 17-26.)

62. Francis Darwin, ed., The Life and Letters, vol. 2, p. 256.

63. While the publication of Darwin's work was delayed by the printer's work on the plates of illustrative material, the publishers of the Russian translation used the illustrations prepared for Brehm's The Life of Animals . Darwin had no objection to this move. (CCD no. 5562.)

64. J. Schönemann, "Charlz Darvin," p. 241.

65. "Teoriia Darvina i iazykoznanie," pp. 262-63.

66. [P. L. Lavrov], "Antropologi," pp. 31-41. break

67. Charles Darwin, The Origin, p. 444.

68. A. P. Shchapov, Sotsial'no-pedagogicheskie usioviia, p. 118.

69. Ibid., p. 256.

70. Ibid., p. 295.

68. A. P. Shchapov, Sotsial'no-pedagogicheskie usioviia, p. 118.

69. Ibid., p. 256.

70. Ibid., p. 295.

68. A. P. Shchapov, Sotsial'no-pedagogicheskie usioviia, p. 118.

69. Ibid., p. 256.

70. Ibid., p. 295.

71. I. P. Pavlov, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 6, p. 441. See also K. N. Davydov, "A. O. Kovalevskii kak chelovek," p. 333. For comments on Pisarev's general views on the place of science in modern society, see A Skabichevskii, Sochineniia, vol. 1, pp. 143-80, and Istoriia, pp. 97-107; A. Coquart, Dmitri Pisarev, pp. 333-41; E. Solov'ev, D. I. Pisarev, pp. 192-220; and V. A. Tsibenko, Mirovozzrenie, pp. 53-65.

72. D. I. Pisarev, Selected Philosophical, Social and Political Essays, p. 329.

73. Ibid., p. 340.

72. D. I. Pisarev, Selected Philosophical, Social and Political Essays, p. 329.

73. Ibid., p. 340.

74. Pisarev's citation is from Schleicher, Darwin's Theory and Linguistics (Pisarev, Selected Essays, p. 495.)

75. Ibid., p. 456.

74. Pisarev's citation is from Schleicher, Darwin's Theory and Linguistics (Pisarev, Selected Essays, p. 495.)

75. Ibid., p. 456.

76. Pisarev, Izbrannye filosofskie i obshchestvenno-politicheskie stat'i, pp. 292-94.

77. Strakhov, Filosofskie ocherki, pp. 188-200.

78. E. Rádl, The History of Biological Theories, pp. 88-89.

79. Russkoe slovo, 1864.

80. F. Kuznetsov, Publitsisty, pp. 193-94.

81. [Antonovich, M. A.], Postoronnyi saririk, "Literaturnye melochi," p. 163.

82. For additional information on Nozhin and Zaitsev, see James A. Rogers, "Darwinism, Scienrism, and Nihilism," pp. 18-23, and "Russia," pp. 258-60; Charles Moser, Antinihilism, pp. 34-35; A. E. Gaisinovich, "Biologshestidesiatnik," p. 388.

83. P. N. Tkachev, Izbrannye sochineniia, vol. 5, p. 300.

84. B. E. Raikov, "Iz istorii darvinizma," part 2, p. 60.

85. F. Brandt, "Zametki," p. 215.

86. K. S. Veselovskii, "Otchet: 1869," p. 16.

87. For details on these elections, see G. A. Kniazev, "Izbranie Ch. Darvina," pp. 117-20.

88. V. P. Alekseev, "Evoliutsionnaia ideia," p. 231.

89. James A. Rogers, "The Reception of Darwin's Origin, " p. 503.

90. Charles Darwin, The Origin, pp. 434-45.

91. For biographical information on A. O. Kovalevskii, see L. Ia. Bliakher, "Aleksandr Onufrievich Kovalevskii," pp. 157-72; K. N. Davydov, "A. O. Kovalevskii kak chelovek"; A. D. Nekrasov and N. M. Artemov, "Aleksandr Onufrievich Kovalevskii"; E. N. Mirzoian, "K voprosu o formirovanii evoliutsionnykh vzgliadov."

92. I. I. Mechnikov, Stranitsy, pp. 17-18.

93. L. Ia. Bliakher, Istoriia embriologii v Rossii (s serediny XIX do serediny XX veka), pp. 17-18.

94. For additional comments, see K. N. Davydov, "A. O. Kovalevskii kak chelovek," pp. 342-43. Francis M. Balfour stated in 1881 that "our knowledge of the development of Amphioxus is mainly due to Kovalevskii" (A Treatise, vol. 2, p. 1). break

95. A. O. Kovalevskii, Izbrannye raboty, pp. 41-78.

96. Ibid., p. 164.

95. A. O. Kovalevskii, Izbrannye raboty, pp. 41-78.

96. Ibid., p. 164.

97. Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man, pp. 175-76.

98. Ernst Haeckel, The Evolution of Man, vol. 1, pp. 441-42. E. Ray Lankester wrote in Nature in 1902: "Before Kowalevsky's work on the development of Amphioxus, carried out in 1864-65, and on Ascidia in 1866, zoologists were content to regard the cell-masses resulting from cell-divisions of the animal egg-cell as intricate heaps which no one could expect to analyze. Some way was made in the direction of their comprehension by the application to invertebrate embryos of the doctrine of cell-layers, but it was not until the avowed task of the embryologist became the definite tracing of the genesis of the cells of cell-layers one by one from pre-existing cells and finally from the first celldivision of the egg-cell that Kowalevsky's work bore its full fruit and thoroughgoing cellular embryology was established" ("Alexander Kowalevsky," p. 304).

99. V. V. Zaienskii, "O nauchnoi deiatel'nosti," pp. 653-54. See also V. M. Shimkevich, "Proiskhozhdenie pozvonochnykh," p. 616.

100. A. D. Nekrasov and N. M. Artemov, "Aleksandr Onufrievich Kovalevskii," p. 551.

101. Ibid., pp. 557-58.

100. A. D. Nekrasov and N. M. Artemov, "Aleksandr Onufrievich Kovalevskii," p. 551.

101. Ibid., pp. 557-58.

102. For details on Mechnikov's life and work, see G. K. Khrushchev, "Il'ia Il'ich Mechnikov"; V. A. Dogel' and A. E. Gaisinovich, "Osnovnye cherty tvorchestva I. I. Mechnikova"; A. E. Gaisinovich, "Velikii russkii biolog I. I. Mechnikov"; R. I. Belkin, "Tvorcheskaia razrabotka"; and Zalkind, Ilya Mechnikov .

103. S. Zalkind, Ilya Mechnikov, pp. 52-53.

104. I. I. Mechnikov, Izbrannye biologicheskie proizvedeniia, pp. 652-72. Mechnikov also criticized Fritz Müller's use of the biogenetic law as a proof of the Darwinian conception of evolution, rather than as a hypothesis in need of empirical testing and verification. (Mechnikov, "Sovremennoe sostoianie nauki," pp. 160-64.)

105. L. L. Gel'fenbein, Russkaia embriologiia, p. 82.

106. V. A. Dogel', "Embryologicheskie raboty A. O. Kovalevskogo," p. 210.

107. For details, see S. Zalkind, Ilya Mechnikov, pp. 47-49.

108. A. E. Gaisinovich, "Velikii russkii biolog," p. 14.

109. I. I. Mechnikov, "Sovremennoe sostoianie," p. 168.

110. N. M. Kulagin, "I. I. Mechnikov," p. 703.

111. "Protokoly," ZAN, 1867, vol. 11, pp. 76-77.

112. "Pervoe prisuzhdenie," p. 192.

113. L. Ia. Bliakher, Istoriia embriologii v Rossii (s serediny XIX do serediny XX veka), p. 23.

114. For details, see E. L. Rudnitskaia, "Pis'ma A. O. Kovalevskogo," pp. 202-3.

115. I. I. Mechnikov, Stranitsy, pp. 19-20.

116. N. D. Nozhin, "Nasha nauka," no. 1, p. 21. See also N. K. Davydov, "A. O. Kovalevskii kak chelovek," pp. 332-33; Viktor Chernov, "Gde kliuch?" p. 114.

117. Nozhin, "Nasha nauka," no. 7, p. 175.

118. Raikov, Russkie biotogi-evoliutsionisty, vol. 4, pp. 109-23. break

119. Raikov, "Iz istorii darvinizma," part 1, p. 4.

120. I. Krasovskii, "Noveishaia teoriia," p. 19.

121. K. Lindemann, "Eshche somneniia v teorii Darvina," p. 939.

122. Ibid., p. 946.

121. K. Lindemann, "Eshche somneniia v teorii Darvina," p. 939.

122. Ibid., p. 946.

123. Von Baer's embryological influence on Darwin's early work is analyzed in Jane Oppenheimer, Essays, pp. 248-55.

124. CCD, no. 2891. F. Darwin, ed., Life and Letters, vol. 2, p. 122: "I have stated the same ideas on the transformation of types or the origin of species as Mr. Darwin."

125. CCD, no. 2893.

126. K. von Baer, Reden, vol. 1, pp. 282-84. See also K. S. Veselovskii, "Otchet: 1861," p. 26.

127. V. P. Alekseev, "Evoliutsionnaia ideia," p. 221.

128. K. von Baer, "Mesto cheloveka v prirode."

1. CCD, no. 9251.

2. M. Vladislavlev, "Review," pp. 199-200.

3. P. M-v, "Razvitie vyrazitel'nosti," pp. 25-26.

4. N. P. Vagner, "Chuvstva," p. 317.

5. "G. Kavelin kak psikholog," p. 18.

6. A. S. Famintsyn, "Darvin i ego znachenie," pp. 132-33.

7. Borzenkov, Istoricheskii ocherk, pp. 13-25.

8. Ibid., pp. 36-37. See also [Borzenkov], "Chteniia," p. 125.

7. Borzenkov, Istoricheskii ocherk, pp. 13-25.

8. Ibid., pp. 36-37. See also [Borzenkov], "Chteniia," p. 125.

9. L. O., "Charlz Darvin," p. 112.

10. [Anuchin] D. "Nauchnoe obozrenie," pp. 17-18.

11. L. Ia. Bliakher, Istoriia embriologii v Rossii (s serediny XIX do sereiny XX veka), p. 20; S. Zalkind, Ilya Mechnikov, pp. 47-48.

12. L. Ia. Bliakher, Istoriia embriologii v Rossii (s serediny XIX veka do serediny XX veka), pp. 19-21, and "Aleksandr Onufricvich Kovalevskii," pp. 162-63.

13. A. O. Kovalevskii, Izbrannye raboty, p. 184.

14. Ibid., p. 210. See also Jane M. Oppenheimer, Essays, pp. 265-66.

13. A. O. Kovalevskii, Izbrannye raboty, p. 184.

14. Ibid., p. 210. See also Jane M. Oppenheimer, Essays, pp. 265-66.

15. L. Ia. Bliakher, Istoriia embriologii v Rossii (s serediny XIX do serediny XX veka), pp. 19-21.

16. K. von Baer, "Entwickelt sich die Larve . . .?"

17. For details on von Baer's criticism, see L. la. Bliakher, Istoriia embriologii v Rossii (s serediny XIX veka), ch. 2.

18. G. A. Kniazev and B. E. Raikov, eds., Pis'ma, p. 103.

19. V. A. Dogel', "Embriologicheskie raboty A. O. Kovalevskogo," p. 210.

20. V. M. Shimkevich, "A. O. Kovalevskii. (Nekrolog)," p. 114.

21. L. Ia. Bliakher, "Nauchnye sviazi," pp. 96-117.

22. Trudy III-go S'ezda, pp. 55-56.

23. Protokoly VII S'ezda, vol. 1, p. 26.

24. CCD, nos. 5443, 7326.

25. CCD, no. 7442. break

26. CCD, no. 7583.

27. For details on the phagocytic theory, see A. E. Gaisinovich, "100 let," pp. 12-22; and T. I. Ul'iankina, "I. I. Mechnikov," pp. 12-20.

28. I. I. Mechnikov, Izbrannye biologicheskie proizvedeniia, p. 24; A. Besredka, Histoire d'une idée, pp. 9—26.

29. Mechnikov, Akademicheskoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 9, p. 72.

30. As cited in Nekrasov and Artemov, "Aleksandr Onufrievich Kovalevskii," p. 595.

31. B. N. Mazurmovich, "Materialy," pp. 319-22.

32. P. A. Novikov, "Zoologiia," pp. 312-13.

33. For details on Zaienskii's election, see Iu. I. Polianskii et al., eds., Pis'ma A. O. Kovaievskogo, p. 285.

34. For details on V. O. Kovalevskii's life and work, see D. Todes, "V. O. Kovalevskii"; L. Sh. Davitashvili, V. O. Kovalevskii and "Biografiia"; A. A. Borisiak, V. O. Kovalevskii; D. N. Anuchin, "V. O. Kovalevskii (Nekrolog)." For Kovalevskii's place in the development of evolutionary paleontology, see Iu. Ia. Polianskii, "Osnovnye puti"; L. Sh. Davitashvili, Istoriia evoliutsionnoi paleontologii, pp. 74-122. Kovalevskii's scientific papers have been republished under the title The Complete Works of Vladimir Kovalevsky, edited by S. J. Gould.

35. Davitashvili, V. 0. Kovalevskii, pp. 152-54.

36. D. Anuchin, "Kovalevskii, Vladimir Onufrievich," BS-PU, vol. 1, p. 326.

37. Albert Gaudry, Les enchaînements, p. 44.

38. Davitashvili, "Vladimir Onufrievich Kovalevskii," LRN; geol., p. 25.

39. John M. Smith, The Theory of Evolution, p. 240.

40. D. M. S. Watson, "The Evidence," p. 48. See also George Gaylord Simpson, Horses, pp. 87-88.

41. Davitashvili, Istoriia evoliutsionnoi paleontologii, p. 108.

42. H. F. Osborn, The Age of Mammals, p. 6.

43. For details, see Davitashvili, V. 0. Kovalevskii, pp. 144-71.

44. CCD, no. 8914. The dedication reads in part: "It gives me great joy to dedicate this work to you, not because I consider my work particularly worthy of such a dedication, but because it gives me an opportunity to express my profound respect for you personally. From the very beginning of my scientific work you have been my best teacher and friend: you have paid full attention to my entire work, and during my prolonged stay in England, you have created favorable conditions for my research. Your intercession opened many collections and libraries for me which otherwise might have remained closed. Your name and your friendship were the best recommendations which opened all the doors for me." (V. 0. Kovalevskii, Sobranie nauchnykh trudov, vol. 3, p. 99.)

45. V. 0. Kovalevskii, Sobranie nauchnykh trudov, vol. 3, p. 99.

46. A. A. Borisiak, Izbrannye trudy, p. 256.

47. Daniel Todes, "V. 0. Kovalevskii," pp. 141-42.

48. Davitashvili, "Biografiia V. O. Kovalevskogo," p. 96.

49. K. von Baer, Reden, vol. 2, p. 371.

50. CCD, no. 12963.

51. D. N. Anuchin, "Vladimir Onufrievich Kovalevskii. (Nekrolog)." break

52. Davitashvili, "V. O. Kovalevskii, ego nauchnaia deiatel'nost'," pp. 306-7.

53. S. N. Nikitin, "Darvinizm," no. 9, pp. 233-34. See also I. Ia. Spasskii, "Razvitie," p. 33.

54. [Anuchin, D. N.], "Nauchnyi obzor: antropologiia," p. 171.

55. For relevant biographical data, see M. G. Levin, Ocherkt po istorii antropologii, pp. 106—37.

56. V. A. Alekseev, Osnovy darvinizma, p. 355.

57. For biographical data, see "Anuchin," MBS-AN, vol. 1, pp. 1-14.

58. [Anuchin, D. N.] "Nauchnyi obzor," p. 180.

59. K. S. Veselovskii, "Otchet: 1878," p. 20.

60. I. M. Sechenov, Selected Physiological and Psychological Works, p. 154.

61. Sechenov's views on Spencer's evolutionism are discussed in M. G. Iaroshevskii, Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov, pp. 317—21.

62. M. T. Ghiselin, The Triumph, p. 211.

63. For an analysis of Sechenov's "physicochemical orientation," see N. A. Grigor'ian, "O pervoi fiziologicheskoi shkole," pp. 144-45.

64. K. A. Timiriazev, "Istoricheskii metod," 1892, no. 10, p. 163.

65. [Borzenkov], "Chteniia," pp. 123-24.

66. Borzenkov, Istoricheskii ocherk, p. 43.

67. [Borzenkov], "Chteniia," p. 33.

68. V. Sergeevich, "Issledovanie," pp. 204-5.

69. I. I. Mechnikov, Akademicheskoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 4, pp. 155-327.

70. Mechnikov, "Bor'ba," p. 29.

71. Ibid., pp. 30-47.

70. Mechnikov, "Bor'ba," p. 29.

71. Ibid., pp. 30-47.

72. Mechnikov, "Antropologiia," pp. 191-95.

73. Mechnikov, Izbrannye biologicheskie proizvedeniia," pp. 210-11.

74. N. N. Banina, "O nauchnom mirovozzrenii," pp. 264-65.

75. K. F. Kessler, "O zakone," p. 136; Banina, "0 nauchnom mirovozzrenii," p. 265, and K. F. Kessler, pp. 127-29. See also A. F. Brandt, "Sozhitel'stvo," no. 6, pp. 98-100.

76. For more details on Borzenkov's work, see L. Ia. Bliakher, "I. A. Borzenkov."

77. K. A. Timiriazev, Zhizn' rastenii, 11th ed., pp. 313-14.

78. K. A. Timiriazev, Sochineniia, vol. 7, pp. 54—55.

79. Timiriazev, Sochineniia, vol. 7, p. 54.

80. Ibid., pp. 63-65.

81. Ibid., p. 64.

82. Ibid., p. 66.

83. Ibid., p. 66.

79. Timiriazev, Sochineniia, vol. 7, p. 54.

80. Ibid., pp. 63-65.

81. Ibid., p. 64.

82. Ibid., p. 66.

83. Ibid., p. 66.

79. Timiriazev, Sochineniia, vol. 7, p. 54.

80. Ibid., pp. 63-65.

81. Ibid., p. 64.

82. Ibid., p. 66.

83. Ibid., p. 66.

79. Timiriazev, Sochineniia, vol. 7, p. 54.

80. Ibid., pp. 63-65.

81. Ibid., p. 64.

82. Ibid., p. 66.

83. Ibid., p. 66.

79. Timiriazev, Sochineniia, vol. 7, p. 54.

80. Ibid., pp. 63-65.

81. Ibid., p. 64.

82. Ibid., p. 66.

83. Ibid., p. 66.

84. I. F. Shmal'gauzen, O rastitel'nykh pomesiakh, pp. 22, 25. See also A. E. Gaisinovich, "Pervoe izlozhenie," pp. 22-24.

85. For a brief biography of A. N. Beketov, see P. A. Baranov, "Andrei Nikolaevich Beketov," pp. 116-25. See also K. M. Zavadskii, Razvitie, pp. 156-60, 166-68.

86. For views on Beketov's interpretation of Darwin's theory, see P. A. Baranov, "A. N. Beketov," pp. 121-24. break

87. A. N. Beketov, "Bor'ba," p. 582.

88. Ibid., pp. 592-93.

89. Ibid., p. 593; A. de Candolle, Histoire, ch. 5. De Candolle's analysis of the role of natural selection in the scientific community is examined in Korf, "Teoriia Darvina."

87. A. N. Beketov, "Bor'ba," p. 582.

88. Ibid., pp. 592-93.

89. Ibid., p. 593; A. de Candolle, Histoire, ch. 5. De Candolle's analysis of the role of natural selection in the scientific community is examined in Korf, "Teoriia Darvina."

87. A. N. Beketov, "Bor'ba," p. 582.

88. Ibid., pp. 592-93.

89. Ibid., p. 593; A. de Candolle, Histoire, ch. 5. De Candolle's analysis of the role of natural selection in the scientific community is examined in Korf, "Teoriia Darvina."

90. A. N. Beketov, "Darvinizm," p. 92.

91. Ibid., p. 110.

92. Ibid., pp. 103-4.

90. A. N. Beketov, "Darvinizm," p. 92.

91. Ibid., p. 110.

92. Ibid., pp. 103-4.

90. A. N. Beketov, "Darvinizm," p. 92.

91. Ibid., p. 110.

92. Ibid., pp. 103-4.

93. For more details on Beketov's views on Darwin's theory, see P. A. Baranov, "Aleksei Nikolaevich Beketov," pp. 122-24.

94. For a comprehensive summary of Shmankevich's studies, see his "Zur Kenntniss des Einflusses." See also his "Über das Verhälmiss der Artemia salina." For contemporary reports on Shmankevich's studies, see [A. O. Kovalevskii] "Sitzungsberichte"; and Hoyer, "Protocolle." Kovalevskii and Hoyer summed up but did not comment on Shmankevich's work. For details on Shmankevich's ideas and their reception, see B. E. Raikov, "V. I. Shmankevich." Raikov's interpretation reflects a strong Lysenkoist bias. For a modern Soviet comment, see A. B. Georgievskii, "Osobennosti razvitiia," p. 55.

95. For more details, see Raikov, "V. I. Shmankevich," pp. 249-53.

96. William Bateson, Materials, pp. 96-101. See also August Weismann, The Evolution Theory, vol. 2, p. 272; and L. Plate, Selektionsprinzip, p. 167. For a more recent view, see Y. Conry, Introduction, pp. 307-9.

97. Dnevnik XI-go S'ezda, no. 5, pp. 198-99.

98. B. E. Raikov, "V. I. Shmankevich," p. 258.

99. D. R. Weiner, "Roots of 'Michurinism,'" pp. 259-60.

100. Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man, p. 5.

101. M. A. Menzbir, "Charlz Darvin i sovremennoe sostoianie evoliutsionnogo ucheniia," pp. 53-54.

102. Protokoly VII S'ezda, vol. 1, p. 26. See also N. A. Umov, "Po povodu sbornika," p. 1.

103. N. K. Mikhailovskii, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 4th ed., vol. 5, p. 626.

104. Ibid., p. 635.

103. N. K. Mikhailovskii, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 4th ed., vol. 5, p. 626.

104. Ibid., p. 635.

105. A. Ren'iar, "Nauka," no. 1, p. 334.

106. Ibid., p. 335.

105. A. Ren'iar, "Nauka," no. 1, p. 334.

106. Ibid., p. 335.

107. A. Ren'iar, "Nauka," no. 7, pp. 186-93.

108. L. Popov, "Charlz Robert Darvin," p. 102.

109. A. Moskvin, "Charlz Robert Darvin," p. 16.

110. Ibid., p. 11.

109. A. Moskvin, "Charlz Robert Darvin," p. 16.

110. Ibid., p. 11.

1. L. Ia. Bliakher, "Karl Maksimovich Ber," pp. 64-68.

2. Karl von Baer, "Entwickelt sich die Larve . . . ?" p. 33; B. E. Raikov, Karl Ber, p. 400; T. Lenoir, The Strategy of Life, pp. 257-61.

3. D. L. Hull, Darwin, pp. 416-27.

4. K. von Baer, Reden, vol. 2, pp. 235-480.

5. Jane M. Oppenheimer, Essays, pp. 231-32.

6. Charles Darwin, The Origin of Species, p . 21. break

7. Jane M. Oppenheimer, "An Embryological Enigma," p. 296.

8. K. von Baer, Reden, vol. 2, pp. 241-52.

9. For a brief discussion of these principles, see I. I. Mechnikov, Akademicheskoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 4, pp. 197-200.

10. K. von Baer, Reden, vol. 2, p. 269.

11. Mechnikov, Akademicheskoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 4, pp. 273-75.

12. Ibid., pp. 280-81.

11. Mechnikov, Akademicheskoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 4, pp. 273-75.

12. Ibid., pp. 280-81.

13. K. von Baer, Reden, vol. 2, pp. 422-23.

14. Ibid., p. 473.

13. K. von Baer, Reden, vol. 2, pp. 422-23.

14. Ibid., p. 473.

15. Raikov, Karl Ber, p. 412.

16. N. N. Strakhov, Bor'ba, vol. 2, p. 279.

17. As cited in L. la. Bliakher, "Karl Maksimovich Ber," p. 65.

18. Stephen Jay Gould, Ontogeny, p. 56. S. J. Holmes has expressed a different view: "The problem of evolution always remains for von Baer an open question. The evidence seemed to him sufficient to justify the view that species and even larger groups arise by transmutation. He appears to be finally convinced that he could not logically extend the doctrine to include whole classes such as birds and mammals. Denying creadonism, realizing that the generatio equivoca of higher organisms had no scientific value, and strongly impressed with the indications of genetic connection among the higher animals, he still argued over this or that difficulty which precluded him from giving the doctrine his unreserved support." (S. J. Holmes, "K. E. von Baer's Perplexities," p. 14.)

19. T. Lenoir, The Strategy of Life, pp. 270-75.

20. L. Ia. Bliakher, "Karl Maksimovich Ber," p. 71.

21. For details on Seidlitz's analysis of Darwin's ideas, see L. Ia. Bliakher, "Georg Zeidlits," pp. 26-58.

22. Georg Seidlitz, Die Darwin'sche Theorie, pp. 286-333.

23. Seidlitz, Beiträge, pp. 39-170.

24. Seidlitz, Beiträge, p. 170. For a critical survey of the views on adaptation, see Seidlitz, Beiträge, pp. 123—25.

25. L. Ia. Bliakher, Problema, p. 89.

26. Seidlitz, Die Darwin'sche Theorie, p. 66; L. la. Bliakher, "Georg Zeidlits," p. 36; A. B. Georgievskii, "Osobennosti razvitiia," p. 52.

27. Darwin, The Descent of Man, p. 528.

28. M. Pogodin, Prostaia rech', p. 105.

29. Ibid., pp. 80-81.

28. M. Pogodin, Prostaia rech', p. 105.

29. Ibid., pp. 80-81.

30. N. N., "O razbore Darvinovoi sistemy."

31. Pogodin, Prostaia rech', p. 447. In a carefully documented study, S. L. Sobol' identified A. P. Bogdanov, University of Moscow professor, as the author of comments on Pogodin's paper. Sobol' provides interesting comments on the ideological underpinnings of the conflict between academic liberals, who defended Darwin's theory, and the conservative leaders of anti-Darwinism. (For details, see S. L. Sobol', "Iz istorii," vol. 14, pp. 210-16.)

32. A. P. Shchapov, Sotsial'no-pedagogicheskie usioviia, pp. 118, 256, 261, 279.

33. N. N. Strakhov, Bor'ba, vol. 2, pp. 259-70.

34. B. L. Modzalevskii, ed., Perepiska, p. 162. break

35. N. N. Strakhov, Bor'ba, vol. 2, p. 266.

36. Ibid., pp. 2 52-54.

37. Ibid., p. 255.

38. Ibid., p. 259.

35. N. N. Strakhov, Bor'ba, vol. 2, p. 266.

36. Ibid., pp. 2 52-54.

37. Ibid., p. 255.

38. Ibid., p. 259.

35. N. N. Strakhov, Bor'ba, vol. 2, p. 266.

36. Ibid., pp. 2 52-54.

37. Ibid., p. 255.

38. Ibid., p. 259.

35. N. N. Strakhov, Bor'ba, vol. 2, p. 266.

36. Ibid., pp. 2 52-54.

37. Ibid., p. 255.

38. Ibid., p. 259.

39. For comment by a contemporary writer, see B. L. Modzalevskii, ed., Perepiska, pp. 53-54.

40. I. Tsion, "Proiskhozhdenie cheloveka," p. 12.

41. Ibid.

42. Ibid., pp. 13-14.

40. I. Tsion, "Proiskhozhdenie cheloveka," p. 12.

41. Ibid.

42. Ibid., pp. 13-14.

40. I. Tsion, "Proiskhozhdenie cheloveka," p. 12.

41. Ibid.

42. Ibid., pp. 13-14.

43. N. Sergievskii, "O bibleiskoi istorii," no. 2, p. 187.

44. A. P. Lebedev, "Uchenie Darvina," no. 8, p. 509.

45. L. R. Kharakhorkin, "Iz istorii," p. 144.

46. V. S. Solov'ev, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 1, p. 143.

47. Ibid.

48. Ibid., p. 192.

46. V. S. Solov'ev, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 1, p. 143.

47. Ibid.

48. Ibid., p. 192.

46. V. S. Solov'ev, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 1, p. 143.

47. Ibid.

48. Ibid., p. 192.

49. B. N. Chicherin, Nauka i religiia, pp. 492-93.

50. For critical comments, see N. N., "Religiia," pp. 220-21. Virchow's Munich speech has been analyzed in Kurt Bayertz, "Darwinism," pp. 299-303.

51. Hugh McLean, Nikolai Leskov, p. 218; F. Ia. Priima and N. I. Prutskov, eds., Istoriia, vol. 3, p. 297.

52. F. M. Dostoevsky, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 11, 6th ed., p. 164.

53. E. Hartmann, Wahrheit, p. 177.

54. [Flerovskii], Filosofiia, pp. 4-8.

55. Ibid., pp. 196-97.

56. Ibid., p. 153.

57. Ibid., p. 177.

58. Ibid., pp. 2-3.

54. [Flerovskii], Filosofiia, pp. 4-8.

55. Ibid., pp. 196-97.

56. Ibid., p. 153.

57. Ibid., p. 177.

58. Ibid., pp. 2-3.

54. [Flerovskii], Filosofiia, pp. 4-8.

55. Ibid., pp. 196-97.

56. Ibid., p. 153.

57. Ibid., p. 177.

58. Ibid., pp. 2-3.

54. [Flerovskii], Filosofiia, pp. 4-8.

55. Ibid., pp. 196-97.

56. Ibid., p. 153.

57. Ibid., p. 177.

58. Ibid., pp. 2-3.

54. [Flerovskii], Filosofiia, pp. 4-8.

55. Ibid., pp. 196-97.

56. Ibid., p. 153.

57. Ibid., p. 177.

58. Ibid., pp. 2-3.

59. N. K. Mikhailovskii, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 6, 2nd ed., pp. 278-79.

60. E. Hartmann, Wahrheit, p. 2.

61. F. A. Lange, Geschichte, vol. 2, pp. 216-20.

62. Ibid., p. 271.

63. Ibid., p. 294.

64. Ibid., p. 261.

61. F. A. Lange, Geschichte, vol. 2, pp. 216-20.

62. Ibid., p. 271.

63. Ibid., p. 294.

64. Ibid., p. 261.

61. F. A. Lange, Geschichte, vol. 2, pp. 216-20.

62. Ibid., p. 271.

63. Ibid., p. 294.

64. Ibid., p. 261.

61. F. A. Lange, Geschichte, vol. 2, pp. 216-20.

62. Ibid., p. 271.

63. Ibid., p. 294.

64. Ibid., p. 261.

1. P. Miliukov, "Universitety," pp. 796-97; P. Miliukov, C. Seignobos, and L. Eisenmann, History of Russia, vol. 3, pp. 136-47.

2. K. Leont'ev, Vostok, vol. 1, pp. 300-312.

3. Ibid., p. 311.

4. Ibid.

2. K. Leont'ev, Vostok, vol. 1, pp. 300-312.

3. Ibid., p. 311.

4. Ibid.

2. K. Leont'ev, Vostok, vol. 1, pp. 300-312.

3. Ibid., p. 311.

4. Ibid.

5. T. A. Lukina, ed., Kaspiiskaia ekspeditsiia, pp. 25-26.

6. P. A. Sorokin, Modern Historical and Social Philosophies, p. 52.

7. N. Ia. Danilevskii, Rossiia i Evropa .

8. F. M. Dostoevsky, Pis'ma, vol. 2, p. 181.

9. N. Ia. Danilevskii, Rossiia i Evropa, pp. 146-47. break

10. N. Ia. Danilevskii, Darvinizm, vol. 1, part 1, p. 25.

11. Ibid., p. 26.

10. N. Ia. Danilevskii, Darvinizm, vol. 1, part 1, p. 25.

11. Ibid., p. 26.

12. Danilevskii, Darvinizm, vol. 1, part 1, pp. 11, 24.

13. Ibid., part 2, p. 19.

14. Ibid., part 1, p. 511.

15. Ibid., part 2, p. 479.

16. Ibid., part 2, p. 462.

17. Ibid., part 1, p. 7.

18. Ibid., p. 8.

19. Ibid., p. 19.

12. Danilevskii, Darvinizm, vol. 1, part 1, pp. 11, 24.

13. Ibid., part 2, p. 19.

14. Ibid., part 1, p. 511.

15. Ibid., part 2, p. 479.

16. Ibid., part 2, p. 462.

17. Ibid., part 1, p. 7.

18. Ibid., p. 8.

19. Ibid., p. 19.

12. Danilevskii, Darvinizm, vol. 1, part 1, pp. 11, 24.

13. Ibid., part 2, p. 19.

14. Ibid., part 1, p. 511.

15. Ibid., part 2, p. 479.

16. Ibid., part 2, p. 462.

17. Ibid., part 1, p. 7.

18. Ibid., p. 8.

19. Ibid., p. 19.

12. Danilevskii, Darvinizm, vol. 1, part 1, pp. 11, 24.

13. Ibid., part 2, p. 19.

14. Ibid., part 1, p. 511.

15. Ibid., part 2, p. 479.

16. Ibid., part 2, p. 462.

17. Ibid., part 1, p. 7.

18. Ibid., p. 8.

19. Ibid., p. 19.

12. Danilevskii, Darvinizm, vol. 1, part 1, pp. 11, 24.

13. Ibid., part 2, p. 19.

14. Ibid., part 1, p. 511.

15. Ibid., part 2, p. 479.

16. Ibid., part 2, p. 462.

17. Ibid., part 1, p. 7.

18. Ibid., p. 8.

19. Ibid., p. 19.

12. Danilevskii, Darvinizm, vol. 1, part 1, pp. 11, 24.

13. Ibid., part 2, p. 19.

14. Ibid., part 1, p. 511.

15. Ibid., part 2, p. 479.

16. Ibid., part 2, p. 462.

17. Ibid., part 1, p. 7.

18. Ibid., p. 8.

19. Ibid., p. 19.

12. Danilevskii, Darvinizm, vol. 1, part 1, pp. 11, 24.

13. Ibid., part 2, p. 19.

14. Ibid., part 1, p. 511.

15. Ibid., part 2, p. 479.

16. Ibid., part 2, p. 462.

17. Ibid., part 1, p. 7.

18. Ibid., p. 8.

19. Ibid., p. 19.

12. Danilevskii, Darvinizm, vol. 1, part 1, pp. 11, 24.

13. Ibid., part 2, p. 19.

14. Ibid., part 1, p. 511.

15. Ibid., part 2, p. 479.

16. Ibid., part 2, p. 462.

17. Ibid., part 1, p. 7.

18. Ibid., p. 8.

19. Ibid., p. 19.

20. For comments on Darvinizm, see J. A. Rogers, "Russian Opposition," pp. 493-502. See also George L. Kline, "Darwinism," pp. 314-19.

21. P. la. Svetlov, "K voprose o darvinizme."

22. I. Chistovich, "Darvinizm," p. 136. For comments on other leading theological reviews of Danilevskii's Darvinizm, see George L. Kline, "Darwinism," pp. 315-16.

23. P. la. Svetlov, "K voprose o darvinizme," pp. 668-74.

24. Ibid., p. 673.

23. P. la. Svetlov, "K voprose o darvinizme," pp. 668-74.

24. Ibid., p. 673.

25. "Pravitel'stvennye rasporiazheniia," p. 49.

26. "Review of N. Ia. Danilevskii, Darvinizm," pp. 186-87.

27. [Popov, L. K.], El'pe, "Posmertnyi trud." See also B. E. Raikov, "Izistorii darvinizma," part 1, p. 21.

28. P. Semenov, "O trude Nikolaia lakovlevicha Danilevskogo," p. 785.

29. N. N. Strakhov, "Predislovie," p. 45.

30. N. N. Strakhov, Bor'ba, vol. 3, p. 342.

31. For comments on Strakhov's defense of Danilevskii, see Linda Gerstein, Nikolai Strakhov, pp. 159-62; George Kline, "Darwinism," pp. 316-17.

32. K. A. Timiriazev, Sochineniia, vol. 7, p. 325.

33. Ibid., p. 272.

32. K. A. Timiriazev, Sochineniia, vol. 7, p. 325.

33. Ibid., p. 272.

34. Strakhov, Bor'ba, vol. 2, p. 344.

35. Timiriazev, Sochineniia, vol. 7, pp. 409-10.

36. Strakhov, Bor'ba, vol. 2, pp. 407-8.

37. Timiriazev, Sochineniia, vol. 7, pp. 289—90.

38. B. V. Nikol'skii, Nikolai Nikolaevich Strakhov, pp. 26-35.

39. Strakhov, Bor'ba, vol. 2, p. 344.

40. Ibid., p. 465.

39. Strakhov, Bor'ba, vol. 2, p. 344.

40. Ibid., p. 465.

41. P. Mokievskii, "Lavrov kak filosof," p. 68.

42. N. A. Kholodkovskii, Biologicheskie ocherki, pp. 73-74.

43. Ibid., p. 92.

44. Ibid., pp. 86-87.

45. Ibid., p. 96.

46. Ibid., p. 115.

47. Ibid.

42. N. A. Kholodkovskii, Biologicheskie ocherki, pp. 73-74.

43. Ibid., p. 92.

44. Ibid., pp. 86-87.

45. Ibid., p. 96.

46. Ibid., p. 115.

47. Ibid.

42. N. A. Kholodkovskii, Biologicheskie ocherki, pp. 73-74.

43. Ibid., p. 92.

44. Ibid., pp. 86-87.

45. Ibid., p. 96.

46. Ibid., p. 115.

47. Ibid.

42. N. A. Kholodkovskii, Biologicheskie ocherki, pp. 73-74.

43. Ibid., p. 92.

44. Ibid., pp. 86-87.

45. Ibid., p. 96.

46. Ibid., p. 115.

47. Ibid.

42. N. A. Kholodkovskii, Biologicheskie ocherki, pp. 73-74.

43. Ibid., p. 92.

44. Ibid., pp. 86-87.

45. Ibid., p. 96.

46. Ibid., p. 115.

47. Ibid.

42. N. A. Kholodkovskii, Biologicheskie ocherki, pp. 73-74.

43. Ibid., p. 92.

44. Ibid., pp. 86-87.

45. Ibid., p. 96.

46. Ibid., p. 115.

47. Ibid.

48. A. S. Famintsyn, "N. Ia. Danilevskii," p. 643.

49. Ibid., p. 627.

50. Ibid., p. 624.

51. Ibid., p. 643.

48. A. S. Famintsyn, "N. Ia. Danilevskii," p. 643.

49. Ibid., p. 627.

50. Ibid., p. 624.

51. Ibid., p. 643.

48. A. S. Famintsyn, "N. Ia. Danilevskii," p. 643.

49. Ibid., p. 627.

50. Ibid., p. 624.

51. Ibid., p. 643.

48. A. S. Famintsyn, "N. Ia. Danilevskii," p. 643.

49. Ibid., p. 627.

50. Ibid., p. 624.

51. Ibid., p. 643.

52. Iu. A. Filipchenko, Evoliutsionnaia ideia, p. 111. break

53. A. Borozdin, "Danilevskii, Nikolai Iakovlevich," p. 68. For a more balanced interpretation, see R. E. MacMaster, Danilevsky, pp. 162-73.

54. For comments, see A. Borozdin, "Danilevskii," pp. 68-69; V. S. Solov'ev, "Danilevskii," p. 77; Famintsyn, "N. Ia. Danilevskii," p. 642.

55. L. S. Berg, geographer and author of Nomogenesis, was the first Russian scientist to recognize Danilevskii as a serious contributor to modern biological theory. (See L. S. Berg, Nomogenesis, pp. 36, 60, 149, 322, 336, 377-78.) However, Berg cited only Danilevskii's "positive" contributions.

56. V. S. Solov'ev, "Danilevskii," p. 77.

57. N. V. Shelgunov, Ocherki russkoi zhizni, p. 486.

58. See particularly V. V. Rozanov, "Vopros o proiskhozhdeniiu organizmov," "Teoriia Charlza Darvina," and "Smena mirovozzrenii," republished in Priroda i istoriia .

59. Rozanov, Priroda i istoriia, p. 155.

60. Ibid., p. 150.

59. Rozanov, Priroda i istoriia, p. 155.

60. Ibid., p. 150.

61. Rozanov, "Vopros," pp. 312-16. For comments on other theological reviews of Danilevskii's Darvinizm, see George Kline, "Darwinism," pp. 315-16.

62. P. F. Lesgaft, "Nasledstvennost'," no. 9, sect. 2, pp. 51-52, 57.

63. P. F. Lesgaft, "Nasledstvennost'," no. 9, sec. 2, pp. 59-60; no. 10, sec. 2, pp. 29, 42-43.

64. S. I. Korzhinskii, Chto takoe zhizn'?

65. Ibid., pp. 46-47.

64. S. I. Korzhinskii, Chto takoe zhizn'?

65. Ibid., pp. 46-47.

66. [Chernyshevskii, N. G.], Staryi Transformist, "Proiskhozhdenie," pp. 79-114.

67. Ibid., p. 79.

68. Ibid., p. 113.

69. Ibid., p. 106.

70. Ibid.

66. [Chernyshevskii, N. G.], Staryi Transformist, "Proiskhozhdenie," pp. 79-114.

67. Ibid., p. 79.

68. Ibid., p. 113.

69. Ibid., p. 106.

70. Ibid.

66. [Chernyshevskii, N. G.], Staryi Transformist, "Proiskhozhdenie," pp. 79-114.

67. Ibid., p. 79.

68. Ibid., p. 113.

69. Ibid., p. 106.

70. Ibid.

66. [Chernyshevskii, N. G.], Staryi Transformist, "Proiskhozhdenie," pp. 79-114.

67. Ibid., p. 79.

68. Ibid., p. 113.

69. Ibid., p. 106.

70. Ibid.

66. [Chernyshevskii, N. G.], Staryi Transformist, "Proiskhozhdenie," pp. 79-114.

67. Ibid., p. 79.

68. Ibid., p. 113.

69. Ibid., p. 106.

70. Ibid.

71. Naturalist', "Strannoe napadenie," pp. 233-35. For a modern comment, see V. F. Evgrafov et al., eds., Istoriia, vol. 3, pp. 52-54.

72. M. E-dt, "Darvin," p. 135.

73. See particularly Rozanov, O ponimanii . In order to show the firmness of his commitment to the search for a new philosophy, Rozanov recognized no intellectual predecessors and made almost no reference to other philosophers. He was interested primarily in making science a corollary to idealistic metaphysics.

74. K. A. Timiriazev, Sochineniia, vol. 7, p. 28.

75. George Kennan, "A Visit," p. 264.

76. L. N. Tolstoy o literature, p. 232.

1. A. de Quatrefages, Les émules, vol. 2, p. 288.

2. M. M. Filippov, "Darvinizm," no. 33, p. 1043.

3. N. M. Knipovich, "Lamarkizm," pp. 290-91.

4. "Review of Ch. Darvin, Proiskhozhdenie," pp. 36-37.

5. V. A. Varsonof'eva, Aleksei Petrovich Pavlov, p. 234.

6. V. A. Vagner, "Granitsy," no. 8-9, p. 88.

7. K. A. Timiriazev, "Faktory," p. 62. break

8. E. N. Mirzoian, Razvitie, pp. 96-116; A. Vucinich, Science in Russian Culture: 1861-1917, pp. 329-31, 406-9; V. L. Omelianskii, "Razvitie," pp. 128-29, 132-33.

9. A. A. Shcherbakova et al., Istoriia botaniki, p. 64.

10. I. A. Chemena, Darvinizm .

11. Ia. Kolubovskii, Filosofskii ezhegodnik: 1893, pp. 173-74.

12. Y. Conry, L'introduction, p. 312.

13. A. Giard, Controverses, pp. 135-37; Y. Conry, L'introduction, pp. 240-41.

14. Giard, Controverses, pp. 9-11.

15. Y. Delage and M. Goldsmith, Les théories, 1914, p. 252.

16. P. J. Bowler, The Eclipse, pp. 92-98.

17. L. Plate, Selektionsprinzip, p. 591. Plate gave credit to J. Nusbaum for introducing this label. (See J. Nusbaum, "Zur Beurteilung und Geschichte des Neolamarckismus," Biologische Zentralblatt, 1910, vol. 30, pp. 599-611.)

18. N. Iu. Zograf divided the neo-Lamarckians into "American" and "German" schools. The American school, headed by E. D. Cope, "operated strictly on scientific grounds and made very important contributions to the theory of evolution." The German neo-Lamarckians, by contrast, built less on Lamarck's science than on his natural philosophy, far removed from a solid scientific base. He considered A. Pauly and R. Francé the typical representatives of German neo-Lamarckism. (N. Iu. Zograf, "Noveishiia techeniia," pp. 184-85.)

19. A. N. Beketov, Geografiia rastenii, p. 5; A. N. Severtsov, Evoliutsiia i psikhika, p. 15.

20. A. R. Wallace, Darwinism, p. 428.

21. William Bateson, Materials, pp. 96-101.

22. V. M. Shimkevich, Biologicheskie osnovy, pp. 506-7.

23. V. Zalienskii, Osnovnye nachala, p. 109.

24. See particularly A. Pauly, Darwinismus und Lamarckismus, and R. Francé, Der heutige Stand .

25. L. Plate, Selektionsprinzip, pp. 592-93.

26. Y. Delage and M. Goldsmith, Les théories, 1914, pp. 279-80.

27. R. W. Burkhardt, Jr., "The Zoological Philosophy," pp. xxx-xxxii; L. J. Jordanova, Lamarck, pp. 102-6.

28. For a perceptive comment, see Kholodkovskii, Biologicheskie ocherki, 37-40.

29. R. Francé, Der heutige Stand, ch. 4; V. V. Lunkevich, "Staroe i novoe," no. 1, pp. 145-49.

30. R. Francé, Der heutige Stand, p. 117.

31. Ibid., pp. 8, 16.

30. R. Francé, Der heutige Stand, p. 117.

31. Ibid., pp. 8, 16.

32. V. A. Vagner, "Novye i starye puti," pp. 96-97.

33. V. V. Lunkevich, "Staroe i novoe," no. 1, pp. 150-51.

34. M. A. Menzbir, Vvedenie, p. 244.

35. M. M. Filippov, Filosofiia, vol. 2, ch. 9.

36. V. V. Lunkevich, "Staroe i novoe," no. 1, p. 136.

37. V. L. Komarov, "Vidoobrazovanie," p. 537.

38. M. M. Novikov, "Neolamarkizm," no. 6, p. 712. break

39. Kholodkovskii, Biologicheskie ocherki, p. 193.

40. K. A. Timiriazev, "Charlz Darvin," pp. 25-26; K. M. Zavadskii, Razvitie, p. 300.

41. K. A. Timiriazev, Sochineniia, vol. 6, pp. 288-89.

42. A. N. Beketov, Geografiia rastenii, p. 5.

43. Ibid., pp. 20-21.

42. A. N. Beketov, Geografiia rastenii, p. 5.

43. Ibid., pp. 20-21.

44. "Review of Lamark, Filosofiia, " pp. 847-48.

45. V. I. Taliev, "Darvinizm," pp. 174-75.

46. Ernst Mayr, "The Triumph," p. 1261.

47. E. Nordenskiöld, The History of Biology, p. 565; Peter J. Bowler, Evolution, pp. 237-39.

48. M. A. Menzbir, "Glavneishie predstaviteli: IV. Avgust Veismann," p. 39.

49. M. G., "Voprosy obshchei biologii," p. 169.

50. Ibid., p. 160.

49. M. G., "Voprosy obshchei biologii," p. 169.

50. Ibid., p. 160.

51. V. I. Taliev, "Biologicheskie idei," p. 274.

52. Kholodkovskii, Biologicheskie ocherki, pp. 195-96.

53. Actually, Wallace gave Weismann's theory a sympathetic airing but not an outright approval. See Wallace, Darwinism, pp. 437-39.

54. V. I. Taliev, "Biologicheskie idei," p. 275.

55. N. Iu. Zograf, "Noveishiia techeniia," p. 176.

56. M. S. Ganin, "Iadro kletki," no. 30, p. 937.

57. M. M. Filippov, "Eshche o Veismanne," p. 558.

58. For other comments, see V. L. Shimkevich, "Polemika," pp. 94-105.

59. V. A. Vagner, "Novye i starye puti," p. 97.

60. E. Hartmann, Das Problem des Lebens, p. 377.

61. George G. Simpson, The Meaning of Evolution, p. 247. For a brief survey of neovitalism in Germany, its real home, see Francé, Der heutige Stand, ch. 6.

62. V. B. Bekhterev, "Psikho-biologicheskie voprosy," no, 4, pp. 16-24.

63. A. Danilevskii, "Zhivoe veshchestvo," p. 290.

64. For a critical comment on this view, see M. Iu. Gol'dshtein, "O nereshennykh problemakh," no. 10, p. 33.

65. V. V. Lunkevich, Nereshennye problemy . p. 268.

66. A. Danilevskii, "Zhivoe veshchestvo," p. 336.

67. N. A. Kholodkovskii, Biologicheskie ocherki, pp. 172-73.

68. N. Vinogradov, "Biologicheskii mekhanizm," p. 416.

69. V. A. Fausek, ed., Sushchnost' zhizni .

70. Fausek, "Predislovie," pp. vii-viii.

71. V. V. Lunkevich, Nereshennye problemy, pp. 290-91.

72. M. A. Antonovich, Izbrannye filosofskie sochineniia, p. 316.

73. N. N. Strakhov, Bor'ba, vol. 3, p. 88.

74. A. V. Nemilov, "Analogii," pp. 47-48.

75. M. Fervorn, "Vitalizm," pp. 83-85.

76. N. K. Kol'tsov, "Review of Gans Drish, Vitalizm, " pp. 1530-31.

77. A. N. Severtsov, "Evoliutsiia i embriologiia," p. 271.

78. S. M. Luk'ianov, "O predelakh tsitologicheskogo issledovaniia," pp. 673-78.

79. B. P. Stroganov, "Akademik A. S. Famintsyn," p. 30. break

80. A. S. Famintsyn, "Darvin i ego znachenie."

81. A. S. Famintsyn, Obmen veshchestva, pp. ix-x.

82. V. V. Polevoi, "A. S. Famintsyn," p. 67.

83. Famintsyn, "Chto takoe lishainiki?" p. 281; L. N. Khakhina, "Kontseptsiia," pp. 180-81, "Teoreticheskie vzgliady," pp. 142-48, and "K istorii," pp. 63-68.

84. Khakhina, "Problema simbiogeneza," p. 424; K. M. Zavadskii, Razvitie, p. 173.

85. Famintsyn, "O psikhicheskoi zhizni" and "Blizhaishie zadachi."

86. Gustav Bunge, Lehrbuch, p. 5.

87. Bunge, Lehrbuch, p. 13. See also I. K. Brusilovskii, "Sovremennye teorii," no. 3, sec. 1, pp. 26-28.

88. For pertinent comments on Bunge's "vitalism," see M. Fervorn, "Vitalizm," pp. 78-80; N. Vinogradov, "Biologicheskii mekhanizm," pp. 425-26; E. Hartmann, Das Problem des Lebens, pp. 99-100; A. S. Famintsyn, "Sovremennoe estestvoznanie," no. 1, pp. 20-21; I. P. Borodin, "Protoplazma," pp. 20-21.

89. I. Tarkhanov, "Vitalizm," pp. 550-51.

90. Famintsyn, "Sovremennoe estestvoznanie," no.1, p. 23.

91. Ibid., no. 1, pp. 11-23.

92. Ibid., no. 6, p. 173.

93. Ibid., no. 3, p. 181.

90. Famintsyn, "Sovremennoe estestvoznanie," no.1, p. 23.

91. Ibid., no. 1, pp. 11-23.

92. Ibid., no. 6, p. 173.

93. Ibid., no. 3, p. 181.

90. Famintsyn, "Sovremennoe estestvoznanie," no.1, p. 23.

91. Ibid., no. 1, pp. 11-23.

92. Ibid., no. 6, p. 173.

93. Ibid., no. 3, p. 181.

90. Famintsyn, "Sovremennoe estestvoznanie," no.1, p. 23.

91. Ibid., no. 1, pp. 11-23.

92. Ibid., no. 6, p. 173.

93. Ibid., no. 3, p. 181.

94. Lunkevich, Nereshennye problemy, pp. 315-16.

95. N. K. Mikhailovskii, Polnoe sobranie sochmenii, vol. 2, 4th ed., p. 354.

96. For critical comment, see A. A. Bogdanov, "Obmen i tekhnika," p. 337; and M. M. Filippov, "Psikhologiia," pp. 2013-18. See also S. L. Frank, "Psikhologicheskoe napravlenie," pp. 62-63, 110.

97. B. G. Safronov, M. M. Kovalevskii, p. 65.

98. Aleksandr Vvedenskii, Filosofskie ocherki, pp. 39-40. Vvedenskii made his observations in 1898.

99. In building the psychological foundations of the evolutionary theory, Famintsyn took note of current changes in the methodological orientation of psychology. "Before our eyes a rapid and thorough metamorphosis is taking place; from an almost completely speculative discipline psychology is being transformed into an experimental science, breaking the last ties with metaphysics. The first decisive steps in this direction were made some twenty years ago. Wundt in Germany and Charcot in France have placed psychology on a new path—Charcot by his research on the role of hypnosis in curing hysteria, and Wundt by founding a center for work in experimental psychology." (Famintsyn, "Sovremennoe estestvoznanie," no. 4, p. 201.) For a critical comment, see N. Vinogradov, "Review of A. Famintsyn, Sovremennoe estestvoznanie," pp. 421-22. Sec also V. V. Lunkevich, "Interesnaia kniga."

100. Famintsyn's philosophical views are discussed in lu. A. Urmantsev, "Ob opytno-filosofskom mirovozzrenii." See also N. Vinogradov, "Review of A. Famintsyn, Sovremennoe estestvoznanie."

101. For a brief survey of Famintsyn's work on symbiogenesis, see L. N. Khakhina, "Eksperimental'nye istoki." break

102. Famintsyn, "Sovremennoe estestvoznanie," no. 6, p. 170.

103. The theoretical aspects of zoopsychology are discussed in V. A. Vagner, "Voprosy zoopsikhologii," Voprosy zoopsikhologii, and "Novye i starye puti."

104. V. A. Vagner, "Izuchenie dushevnoi zhizni," pp. 517-18.

105. For another assessment of Romanes's views, see M. M. Filippov, Filosofiia, vol. 2, pp. 1060, 1071-74.

106. G. J. Romanes, Mental Evolution, p. 160.

107. Darwin, The Descent of Man, p. 83.

108. V. A. Vagner, Biologicheskie osnovaniia .

109. For a perceptive analysis, see A. V. Petrovskii, Voprosy istorii, pp. 54-62.

110. V. A. Vagner, "Gorodskaia lastochka," p. 44.

111. For pertinent general assessments of Vagner's contributions to zoopsychology, see V. I. Strel'chenko, "V. A. Vagner"; K. E. Fabri, "V. A. Vagner"; and A. V. Petrovskii, Voprosy istorii, pp. 54—62.

112. M. T. Ghiselin, The Triumph, p. 187.

113. Richard W. Burkhardt, Jr., "Darwin," pp. 361-62.

114. V. A. Vagner, "Voprosy zoopsikhologii."

115. E. Haeckel, "Charles Darwin," p. 141.

116. Referring to Haeckel's Natural History of Creation, Darwin noted:"If this work had appeared before my eyes before my essay [on the descent of man] had been written I should probably never have completed it. Almost all the conclusions at which I have arrived I find confirmed by this naturalist, whose knowledge on many points is much fuller than mine" ( The Descent of Man, P. 19).

117. V. D. Vol'fson, "Sovremennaia biologiia," no. 3, p. 65.

118. I. Tsion, "Proiskhozhdenie."

119. [la. A. Borzenkov], "Chteniia," p. 142.

120. Ibid., p. 143.

119. [la. A. Borzenkov], "Chteniia," p. 142.

120. Ibid., p. 143.

121. For a typical comment, see A. Genkel', "Ernst Gekkel'," pp. 97-98.

122. N. M. Knipovich, "Gekkel'," p. 264.

123. N. N. Strakhov, Bor'ba, vol. 3, pp. 81-82.

124. Georg Uschmann, "Haeckel's Biological Materialism," p. 118.

125. E. Haeckel, "Gekkel'," p. 872.

126. CCD: no. 5840.

127. A. Genkel', "Ernst Gekkel'," p. 93.

128. M. A. Menzbir, "Glavneishie predstaviteli: III. Ernst Gekkel'," p. 5.

129. O. Kiulpe, "Sovremennaia filosofiia," p. 31.

130. 0. D. Khvol'son, Gegel' .

131. P. Kudriavtsev, Absolutism, p. 212.

132. V. I. Lenin, Materialism, p. 362.

133. A. Genkel', "Ernst Gekkel'," p. 90.

134. N. K. Kol'tsov, "Ernst Gekkel'," p. 206.

135. V. M. Shimkevich, "A. O. Kovalevskii. (Nekrolog)," p. 108.

136. V. L. Komarov, "Vidoobrazovanie," p. 527.

137. A. N. Severtsov, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 3, p. 13. break

1. K. A. Timiriazev, Nauka i demokratiia, p. 120.

2. Timiriazev, Sochineniia, vol. 8, p. 63. See also E. Broda, "Darwin and Boltzmann," p. 61.

3. Timiriazev, Sochineniia, vol. 5, pp. 32-33. See also V. L. Komarov, "Zhizn' i tvorchestvo," pp. 50-51.

4. Timiriazev, Sochineniia, vol. 8, p. 114.

5. Ibid., p. 125.

4. Timiriazev, Sochineniia, vol. 8, p. 114.

5. Ibid., p. 125.

6. Timiriazev, Sochineniia, vol. 5, pp. 168-69.

7. Ibid., vol. 6, p. 247. See also L. la. Bliakher, Problema nasledovaniia, pp. 27-28.

6. Timiriazev, Sochineniia, vol. 5, pp. 168-69.

7. Ibid., vol. 6, p. 247. See also L. la. Bliakher, Problema nasledovaniia, pp. 27-28.

8. Timiriazev, Sochineniia, vol. 6, p. 288.

9. Ibid., vol. 5, pp. 174-77.

8. Timiriazev, Sochineniia, vol. 6, p. 288.

9. Ibid., vol. 5, pp. 174-77.

10. N. A. Maksimov, "Ocherk," p. 31.

11. Timiriazev, Sochineniia, vol. 8, pp. 122-23.

12. Ibid., vol. 6, p. 263.

11. Timiriazev, Sochineniia, vol. 8, pp. 122-23.

12. Ibid., vol. 6, p. 263.

13. Timiriazev, "Charlz Darvin," in M. M. Kovalevskii et al., Pamiati, p. 34.

14. Timiriazev, Sochineniia, vol. 6, p. 264.

15. Ibid., p. 265.

14. Timiriazev, Sochineniia, vol. 6, p. 264.

15. Ibid., p. 265.

16. Timiriazev, "Charlz Darvin," in M. M. Kovalevskii et al., Pamiati, p. 34. For more details on Timiriazev's war on Mendelism, see A. E. Gaisinovich, "Contradictory Appraisal," pp. 257-74.

17. Timiriazev, Sochineniia, vol. 8, pp. 116-17.

18. M. Berthelot, Science et morale, p. 2; Timiriazev, Sochineniia, vol. 8, p. 306.

19. M. M. Filippov, "Darvinizm," no. 32, p. 993.

20. Ibid., p. 994. For a direct attack on Timiriazev's "materialistic" philosophy, see N. M. Solov'ev, Nauchnyi ateizm, pp. 68-93.

19. M. M. Filippov, "Darvinizm," no. 32, p. 993.

20. Ibid., p. 994. For a direct attack on Timiriazev's "materialistic" philosophy, see N. M. Solov'ev, Nauchnyi ateizm, pp. 68-93.

21. M. M. Filippov, "Darvinizm," no. 33, p. 1043.

22. Filippov's Lamarckian leanings are discussed in L. la. Bliakher, Problema nasledovaniia, pp. 44-45.

23. Timiriazev, Izbrannye sochineniia, vol. 3, pp. 478-79.

24. Timiriazev, Sochineniia, vol. 5, pp. 78-106.

25. Ibid., p. 31.

26. Ibid., p. 426.

24. Timiriazev, Sochineniia, vol. 5, pp. 78-106.

25. Ibid., p. 31.

26. Ibid., p. 426.

24. Timiriazev, Sochineniia, vol. 5, pp. 78-106.

25. Ibid., p. 31.

26. Ibid., p. 426.

27. Timiriazev, "Charlz Darvin," p. 36. For a description of Weldon's research, see V. L. Kellogg, Darwinism Today, pp. 157-62.

28. M. A. Menzbir, "Charlz Darvin i sovremennoe sostoianie evoliutsionnogo ucheniia," p. 66. For biographical data on Menzbir, see N. la. Rosina, Mikhail Aleksandrovich Menzbir ; L. S. Tsetlin, "Akademik M. A. Menzbir"; 1.1. Puzanov, "M. A. Menzbir kak zoogeograf"; S. 1. Ognev, "Mikhail Aleksandrovich Menzbir"; and B. S. Matveev, "Mikhail Aleksandrovich Menzbir."

29. Menzbir, "Korennoi vopros," pp. 112-15.

30. P. P. Sushkin, "K 60-letnemu iubileiu," p. 668. break

31. Menzbir, Vvedenie, ch. 10.

32. Menzbir, "Istoricheskii ocherk," no. 11, sec. 1, p. 83. For comments, see S. L. Sobol', "Bor'ba M. A. Menzbira," pp. 35-36.

33. Charles Darwin, The Variation, vol. 1, p. 9.

34. Menzbir, "Glavneishie predstaviteli: III. Ernst Gekkel'," pp. 4-5.

35. Menzbir, "Istoricheskii ocherk," no. 11, sec. 1, pp. 84-85.

36. Menzbir, "P. A. Kropotkin," pp. 102-5.

37. Menzbir, "Sovremennye zadachi," pp. 172-73.

38. Ibid., p. 172.

37. Menzbir, "Sovremennye zadachi," pp. 172-73.

38. Ibid., p. 172.

39. Menzbir, "Glavneishie predstaviteli: IV. Avgust Veismann," p. 55.

40. Menzbir, "Opyt teorii nasledstvennosti," p. 219.

41. Ibid., pp. 229-30.

40. Menzbir, "Opyt teorii nasledstvennosti," p. 219.

41. Ibid., pp. 229-30.

42. Menzbir, "Mnimyi krizis," p. 201.

43. Ibid., p. 198.

44. Ibid., p. 199.

45. Ibid., pp. 200-1.

42. Menzbir, "Mnimyi krizis," p. 201.

43. Ibid., p. 198.

44. Ibid., p. 199.

45. Ibid., pp. 200-1.

42. Menzbir, "Mnimyi krizis," p. 201.

43. Ibid., p. 198.

44. Ibid., p. 199.

45. Ibid., pp. 200-1.

42. Menzbir, "Mnimyi krizis," p. 201.

43. Ibid., p. 198.

44. Ibid., p. 199.

45. Ibid., pp. 200-1.

46. Menzbir, Za Darvina, p . 106.

47. Menzbir, "Ocherk uspekhov biologii," pp. 91-92.

48. Menzbir, "Istoricheskii ocherk," no. 11, sec. 1, pp. 94-95.

49. Menzbir, "Ocherk uspekhov biologii," p. 91.

50. Menzbir, "Evoliutsionnoe uchenie," p. 656.

51. Menzbir, "Istoricheskii ocherk," no. 10, sec. 1, p. 154.

52. N. Ia. Rosina, Mikhail Aleksandrovich Menzbir, p. 101.

53. Menzbir, "Glavneishie predstaviteli: I. Al'fred Uolles," pp. 65, 74-75.

54. Menzbir, "Glavneishie predstaviteli: II. G. D. Romanes," pp. 46-50.

55. For details on Severtsov's life and work, see L. B. Severtsova, Aleksei Nikolaevich Severtsov; B. S. Matveev, "Aleksei Nikotaevich Severtsov"; and B. S. Matveev and A. N. Druzhinin, "The Life and Work." See also E. A. Veselov, A. N. Severtsov .

56. L. F. Panteleev, Iz vospominanii proshlogo, vol. 1, p. 164.

57. As cited in R. L. Zolotnitskaia, "Nikolai Alekseevich Severtsov," p. 58.

58. N. A. Severtsov, Puteshestviia, p . 171.

59. Zolotnitskaia, "Nikolai Alekseevich Severtsov," p. 56.

60. L. B. Severtsova, Aleksei Nikolaevich Severtsov, ch. 8.

61. Matveev and Druzhinin, "The Life and Work," p. 51.

62. L. B. Severtsova, Aleksei Nikolaevich Severtsov, p. 256.

63. For a comprehensive and systematic study of Severtsov's contributions after the October Revolution, see Mark Adams, "Severtsov and Schmalhausen."

64. A. N. Severtsov, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 3, pp. 13-14.

65. For comments on the theory of phylembryogenesis, see S. J. Gould, Ontogeny, pp. 216—20.

66. L. Ia. Bliakher, Ocherk istorii morfologii zhivotnykh, pp. 160-61; E. N. Mirzoian, "Zakonomernosti," pp. 381-82.

67. A. N. Severtsov, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 3, p. 13.

68. E. A. Veselov, A. N. Severtsov, p. 187.

69. Zavadskii, Razvitie, p. 302. break

70. B. Rensch, Evolution, p. 241.

71. A. N. Severtsov, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 3, pp. 13-14; Matveev and Dnizhinin, "The Life and Work," p. 44.

72. A. N. Severtsov, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 3, pp. 341-42.

73. E. N. Mirzoian, "Istoriko-nauchnyi analiz," p. 141.

74. Sewertzoff, Morphologische Gesetzmässigkeiten, pp. 198ff; Ilse Jahn et al., eds., Geschichte der Biologie, p. 408; Matveev and Druzhinin, "The Life and Work," p. 48; E. N. Mirzoian, "Istoriko-nauchnyi analiz," p. 141.

75. A. N. Severtsov, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 3, p. 14.

76. Ernst Mayr, Populations, p. 362.

77. B. S. Matveev, "Aleksei Nikolaevich Severtsov," p. 336.

78. 1. 1. Shmial'gauzen, "Nauchnaia deiatel'nost," p. 61.

79. A. N. Severtsov, Sobranie sochmenii, vol. 3, p. 279; V. I. Polianskii and IV. I. Polianskii, eds., Istoriia evoliutsionnykh uchenii, pp. 306-7.

80. A. N. Severtsov, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 3, p. 322.

81. I. I. Shmal'gauzen, "Novoe v sovremennom darvinizme," p. 44.

82. B. S. Matveev, "Progress i regress," p. 72.

83. A. N. Severtsov, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 3, p. 326.

84. Stephen Jay Gould has given a brief description of the modern interpretation of cenogenesis:"Haeckel's definition of cenogenesis had been much broader, but de Beer restricts it to embryonic and larval adaptations that have no effect upon adult organization. Severtzov . . . had introduced this restriction by arguing (quite justly) that many of Haeckel's cenogeneses are primarily adaptations of the adult stage, even though they may affect early stages of ontogeny as well. He wanted to make a clear distinction between truly larval adaptations and phylogenetic elaborations of the adult that begin early in ontogeny. Sewertsov's restriction has spread via de Beer through almost all literature in English on the subject" (S. J. Gould, Ontogeny, p. 223).

85. For comments on the progressive role of "regression," see L. B. Severtsova, Aleksei Nikolaevich Severtsov, pp. 302-3.

86. A. N. Severtsov, Sobranie sochmenii, vol. 3, pp. 328-29. For an analytical comment, see L. Sh. Davitashvili, Uchenie, pp . 11-17. See also B. S. Matveev, "Progress i regress," p. 72.

87. A. N. Severtsov, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 3, p. 281.

88. Ibid., p. 276.

89. Ibid., pp. 317-19.

90. Ibid., p. 280.

87. A. N. Severtsov, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 3, p. 281.

88. Ibid., p. 276.

89. Ibid., pp. 317-19.

90. Ibid., p. 280.

87. A. N. Severtsov, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 3, p. 281.

88. Ibid., p. 276.

89. Ibid., pp. 317-19.

90. Ibid., p. 280.

87. A. N. Severtsov, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 3, p. 281.

88. Ibid., p. 276.

89. Ibid., pp. 317-19.

90. Ibid., p. 280.

91. For pertinent comments, see L. Ia. Bliakher, Problema nasledovaniia, pp . 156-62.

92. K. M. Zavadskii and E. I. Kolchinskii, Evoliutsiia evoliutsii, p. 137.

93. A. N. Severtsov, Sobranie sochmenii, vol. 3, p. 279.

94. Ibid., pp. 31-32.

95. Ibid., pp. 14-15.

93. A. N. Severtsov, Sobranie sochmenii, vol. 3, p. 279.

94. Ibid., pp. 31-32.

95. Ibid., pp. 14-15.

93. A. N. Severtsov, Sobranie sochmenii, vol. 3, p. 279.

94. Ibid., pp. 31-32.

95. Ibid., pp. 14-15.

96. See, for example, A. N. Severtsov, Evoliutsiia i psikhika, pp. 14-15.

97. A. N. Severtsov, Sobranie sochmenii, vol. 3, p. 16.

98. Ibid., p. 16-17.

99. Ibid., p. 17. break

97. A. N. Severtsov, Sobranie sochmenii, vol. 3, p. 16.

98. Ibid., p. 16-17.

99. Ibid., p. 17. break

97. A. N. Severtsov, Sobranie sochmenii, vol. 3, p. 16.

98. Ibid., p. 16-17.

99. Ibid., p. 17. break

100. Mark Adams, "Severtsov and Schmalhausen," p. 216. See also E. N. Mirzoian, "Printsip istorizma," p. 70, and "Istoriko-nauchnyi analiz," p. 143.

101. A. N. Severtsov, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 3, p. 523.

102. A. N. Severtsov, Morfologicheskie zakonomernosti, p. 76.

103. L. Ia. Bliakher, "A. N. Severtsov i neolamarkizm," p. 112.

104. A. N. Severtsov, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 3, p. 218.

105. N. V. Tsinger, "O zasoriaiushchikh posevy 1'na vidakh Camelina ." For comments, see N. Navashin, "Tsinger, Nikolai Vasil'evich," pp. 432-33; K. A. Timiriazev, "Otbor estestvennyi," pp. 721-41; I. I. Shmal'gauzen, Puti zakonomernosti, p. 15; V. L. Komarov, "Vidoobrazovanie," p. 539.

106. I. P. Pavlov, Dvadtsatiletnii opyt, pp. 14-15.

107. Ibid., p. 40.

106. I. P. Pavlov, Dvadtsatiletnii opyt, pp. 14-15.

107. Ibid., p. 40.

108. M. Kreps et al., eds., Neopublikovannye i maloizvestnye materialy, p. 24.

109. Pavlov, Dvadtsatiletnii opyt, p. 150.

110. Ibid., p. 207.

109. Pavlov, Dvadtsatiletnii opyt, p. 150.

110. Ibid., p. 207.

111. As cited in P. K. Anokhin, Izbrannye trudy, p. 126.

112. V. Polynin, Prorok, pp. 120-21; N. K. Kol'tsov, "Eksperimental'naia biologiia," pp. 40-41.

113. A. E. Gaisinovich, "The Origins," pp. 37-38.

114. W. H. Gantt, "Pavlov and Darwin," p. 236.

115. A. I. Bachinskii, "Zamechatel'nyi russkii uchenyi," p. 33.

116. N. Umov, "Po povodu sbomika," p. 5.

117. Umov, "Fiziko-mekhanicheskaia model'," pp. 689-90. See also N. K. Kol'tsov, "Organizatsiia kletki," pp. 211-12.

118. P. P. Lazarev, "Zakony fiziki," pp. 181-82.

119. M. M. Kovalevskii, Ocherki proiskhozhdeniia i razvitiia, p. 18.

120. M. M. Kovalevskii, "Darvinizm v sotsiologii," p. 153.

121. Ibid., p. 154.

120. M. M. Kovalevskii, "Darvinizm v sotsiologii," p. 153.

121. Ibid., p. 154.

122. P. G. Vinogradov, "O progresse," p. 282.

123. Ibid., p. 284.

122. P. G. Vinogradov, "O progresse," p. 282.

123. Ibid., p. 284.

124. John Dewey, The Influence of Darwin, pp. 8-19.

125. H. Höffding, A History, vol. 2, p. 436.

126. M. M. Filippov, Filosofiia, vol. 1, pp. x-xii.

127. Ibid., vol. 2, p. 837.

126. M. M. Filippov, Filosofiia, vol. 1, pp. x-xii.

127. Ibid., vol. 2, p. 837.

1. L. Plate, ed., Ultramontane Weltanschauung, p. 13.

2. S. S. Glagolev, "Novoe miroponimanie," pp. 37-41.

3. See particularly I. A. Chemena, Darvinizm; S. S. Glagolev, O proiskhozhdenii .

4. For comments on Glagolev's anti-Darwinism, see George L. Kline, "Darwinism," pp. 311-12.

5. Glagolev, O proiskhozhdenii, pp. 275-76.

6. See, for example, Glagolev, "Vzgliad Vasmanna." break

7. For comments on Wasmann's evolutionary ideas, see V. V. Lunkevich, "Staroe i novoe," no. 1, pp. 154-55.

8. Erich Wasmann, Die moderne Biologie, pp. 197-98.

9. Wasmann, Die moderne Biologie, p. 304.

10. Lunkevich, "Staroe i novoe," no. 1, pp. 154—55.

11. Glagolev, "Vzgliad Vasmanna," May, p. 1.

12. Glagolev, "Vzgliad Vasmanna," Oct., p. 264.

13. Glagolev, "Mendelizm," Dec., pp. 727-36. See also N. Rumiantsev, "Darvinizm," 1895, no. 1, p. 2.

14. Glagolev, "Mendelizm," Oct., p. 502.

15. Glagolev, "Mendelizm," Oct., p. 502.

16. P. N. Kapterev, "Teleologiia neolamarkistov," Jan., pp. 88-89.

17. Ibid., May, pp. 115-18.

18. Ibid., pp. 136-39.

16. P. N. Kapterev, "Teleologiia neolamarkistov," Jan., pp. 88-89.

17. Ibid., May, pp. 115-18.

18. Ibid., pp. 136-39.

16. P. N. Kapterev, "Teleologiia neolamarkistov," Jan., pp. 88-89.

17. Ibid., May, pp. 115-18.

18. Ibid., pp. 136-39.

19. See, for example, Kapterev, "Teleologiia," March, pp. 576-91.

20. Kapterev, "Teleologiia."

21. V. D. Kudriavtsev-Platonov, Sochineniia, vol. 3, part 1, pp. 181-201.

22. Ibid., part 3, p. 60.

23. Ibid., p. 62.

21. V. D. Kudriavtsev-Platonov, Sochineniia, vol. 3, part 1, pp. 181-201.

22. Ibid., part 3, p. 60.

23. Ibid., p. 62.

21. V. D. Kudriavtsev-Platonov, Sochineniia, vol. 3, part 1, pp. 181-201.

22. Ibid., part 3, p. 60.

23. Ibid., p. 62.

24. O. D. Khvol'son, "Pozitivnaia filosofiia," p. 57.

25. V. I. Vernadskii, Izbrannye trudy, p. 51. The rapidly spreading interest in the philosophical foundations of science was anticipated by V. V. Bobynin, an eminent historian of Russian mathematics, who stated in 1886 that "in the philosophy of science, science achieves a higher consciousness—a consciousness of itself; therefore, the philosophy of science may be defined as a self-consciousness of science" (V. V. Bobynin, Filosofskoe, nauchnoe i pedagogicheskoe znachenie, p. 5).

26. As cited in S. M. Luk'ianov, "O predelakh tsitologicheskogo issledovaniia," p. 678.

27. For comments on the relations between science, philosophy, and theology, see V. F. Era, "Priroda nauchnoi mysli," Jan., pp. 154-59.

28. B. S. Bychkovskii, Sovremennaia filosofiia, vol. 1, p. 30.

29. A. I. Bachinskii, "Pis'ma po filosofii: Pis'mo II," p. 97.

30. Bachinskii, "Pis'ma: II," pp. 107-8.

31. L. N. Tolstoy o literature, p. 557.

32. N. K. Mikhailovskii, "Literatura," 1898, no. 2, sec. 2, pp. 159-60.

33. B. A. Kistiakovskii, Sotsial'nye nauki, pp. 144-50.

34. S. N. Bulgakov, "Osnovnye problemy," pp. 43-46.

35. N. K. Kol'tsov, "Review of Novye idei," p. 123.

36. S. L. Frank, Filosofiia i zhizn', pp. 164-217.

37. Ibid., pp. 167-68.

38. Ibid., p. 209.

39. Ibid., p. 208.

36. S. L. Frank, Filosofiia i zhizn', pp. 164-217.

37. Ibid., pp. 167-68.

38. Ibid., p. 209.

39. Ibid., p. 208.

36. S. L. Frank, Filosofiia i zhizn', pp. 164-217.

37. Ibid., pp. 167-68.

38. Ibid., p. 209.

39. Ibid., p. 208.

36. S. L. Frank, Filosofiia i zhizn', pp. 164-217.

37. Ibid., pp. 167-68.

38. Ibid., p. 209.

39. Ibid., p. 208.

40. P. I. Novgorodtsev, Ob obshchestvennom ideale, vol. 1, p. 54.

41. Novgorodtsev, "Nravstvennyi idealizm," p. 279.

42. N. A. Berdiaev, Sub'ektivizm, p. 143.

43. Berdiaev, "Eticheskaia problema," pp. 103-4. break

44. L. Tolstoy, "Protivorechiia," pp. 293-95.

45. B. N. Chicherin, Polozhitel'naia filosofiia, Supplement, p. 3.

46. Chicherin, Polozhitel'naia filosofiia, p. 9.

47. Ibid., p. 17.

48. Ibid., p. 317.

46. Chicherin, Polozhitel'naia filosofiia, p. 9.

47. Ibid., p. 17.

48. Ibid., p. 317.

46. Chicherin, Polozhitel'naia filosofiia, p. 9.

47. Ibid., p. 17.

48. Ibid., p. 317.

49. S. Bulgakov, Ot marksizma k idealizmu, pp. 63-64.

50. N. M. Solov'ev, Nauchnyi ateizm, p. 87.

51. Aleksandr Vvedenskii, Filosofskie ocherki, p. 40.

52. R. E. Regel', "Selektsiia," p. 469; Iu. A. Filipchenko, Izmenchivost', pp. 53-54, 71-72.

53. A. A. Tikhomirov, Sud'ba darvinizma, p. iii.

54. Ibid., p. 57. See also his Osnovnoi vopros, pp. 74-75.

53. A. A. Tikhomirov, Sud'ba darvinizma, p. iii.

54. Ibid., p. 57. See also his Osnovnoi vopros, pp. 74-75.

55. Tikhomirov, "Nashe universitetskoe delo."

56. Tikhomirov, Samoobman v nauke .

57. Ibid., p. 7.

58. Ibid., p. 8. In Polozhenie cheloveka Tikhomirov concentrated on a bitter attack on I. I. Mechnikov's defense of the idea of the anthropoid origin of man, pp. 3-5, 46-51.

56. Tikhomirov, Samoobman v nauke .

57. Ibid., p. 7.

58. Ibid., p. 8. In Polozhenie cheloveka Tikhomirov concentrated on a bitter attack on I. I. Mechnikov's defense of the idea of the anthropoid origin of man, pp. 3-5, 46-51.

56. Tikhomirov, Samoobman v nauke .

57. Ibid., p. 7.

58. Ibid., p. 8. In Polozhenie cheloveka Tikhomirov concentrated on a bitter attack on I. I. Mechnikov's defense of the idea of the anthropoid origin of man, pp. 3-5, 46-51.

59. V. N. and I. I. Liubimenko, "Ivan Parfen'evich Borodin," p. 26.

60. S. I. Korzhinskii, "Geterogenezis i evoliutsiia," IIMN, pp. 262-64.

61. For a critical appraisal, see V. I. Taliev, "Biologicheskie idei," pp. 271-77.

62. R. Francé, Der heutige Stand, p. 123.

63. V. G. Alekseev, N. V. Bugaev, p. 27.

64. N. V. Bugaev, "Matematika," pp. 42-43.

65. V. G. Alekseev, Matematika, pp. 10-11; P. A. Nekrasov, Moskovskaia filosofsko-matematicheskaia shkola, pp. 59-66.

66. Ibid., p. 107.

65. V. G. Alekseev, Matematika, pp. 10-11; P. A. Nekrasov, Moskovskaia filosofsko-matematicheskaia shkola, pp. 59-66.

66. Ibid., p. 107.

67. A. I. Bachinskii, "Pis'ma: II," pp. 97-98.

68. Ibid., pp. 106-7.

67. A. I. Bachinskii, "Pis'ma: II," pp. 97-98.

68. Ibid., pp. 106-7.

69. P. A. Nekrasov, Moskovskaia filosofsko-matematicheskaia shkola, p. 157.

70. [V. G. Alekseev] W. Alexejeff, "N. W. Bugajev und die idealistische Probleme," p. 362. For a summary of Bugaev's general orientation, see N. F. Utkina, Pozitivizm, pp. 144-45.

71. L. M. Lopatin, "Filosofskoe mirovozzrenie," p. 192.

72. L. M. Lopatin, "K voprosu o matematicheskikh istinakh," p. 70.

73. P. Tikhomirov, "Matematicheskii proekt," p. 362.

74. Ibid.

73. P. Tikhomirov, "Matematicheskii proekt," p. 362.

74. Ibid.

75. Felix Klein, the noted student of nineteenth-century developments in mathematics, made the observation that "the difference between the discrete magnitude of arithmetic and the continuous magnitude of geometry has always had a prominent place in history and in philosophical speculation," but "in recent times, the discrete magnitude, as conceptually the simplest, has come into the foreground." (F. Klein, Elementary Mathematics, p. 266.)

76. I. F. Ognev, "Vitalizm," pp. 728-29.

77. Ibid., p. 729. break

76. I. F. Ognev, "Vitalizm," pp. 728-29.

77. Ibid., p. 729. break

78. I. F. Ognev, "Rech'," pp. 62-63.

79. V. Karpov, "Vitalizm," "Naturfilosofiia Aristotelia," and Osnovnye cherty .

80. Karpov, "Vitalizm," no. 3, p. 392.

81. Ibid., no. 4, p. 572.

82. Ibid., no. 4, p. 539.

83. Ibid., pp. 555-56.

80. Karpov, "Vitalizm," no. 3, p. 392.

81. Ibid., no. 4, p. 572.

82. Ibid., no. 4, p. 539.

83. Ibid., pp. 555-56.

80. Karpov, "Vitalizm," no. 3, p. 392.

81. Ibid., no. 4, p. 572.

82. Ibid., no. 4, p. 539.

83. Ibid., pp. 555-56.

80. Karpov, "Vitalizm," no. 3, p. 392.

81. Ibid., no. 4, p. 572.

82. Ibid., no. 4, p. 539.

83. Ibid., pp. 555-56.

84. Karpov, Osnovnye cherty, p. 63.

85. Karpov, "Vitalizm," no. 3, p. 392.

86. V. N. and I. I. Liubimenko, "Ivan Parfen'evich Borodin," pp. 26-27.

1. For biographical details, see E. N. Pavlovskii, "Nikolai Aleksandrovich Kholodkovskii," pp. 313-18.

2. N. A. Kholodkovskii, Biologicheskie ocherki, p. 158.

3. Ibid., p. 19.

2. N. A. Kholodkovskii, Biologicheskie ocherki, p. 158.

3. Ibid., p. 19.

4. E. N. Mirzoian, "Istoriko-nauchnyi analiz," pp. 125-27.

5. Kholodkovskii, Biologicheskie ocherki, p. 154.

6. Ibid., pp. 153-54; Mirzoian, "Istoriko-nauchnyi analiz," pp. 130-31.

5. Kholodkovskii, Biologicheskie ocherki, p. 154.

6. Ibid., pp. 153-54; Mirzoian, "Istoriko-nauchnyi analiz," pp. 130-31.

7. Kholodkovskii, Biologicheskie ocherki, pp. 220-21.

8. Ibid., p. 138.

9. Ibid., p. 134.

10. Ibid, p. 155.

11. Ibid., pp. 157-58, 190-93.

12. Ibid., pp. 172-73.

7. Kholodkovskii, Biologicheskie ocherki, pp. 220-21.

8. Ibid., p. 138.

9. Ibid., p. 134.

10. Ibid, p. 155.

11. Ibid., pp. 157-58, 190-93.

12. Ibid., pp. 172-73.

7. Kholodkovskii, Biologicheskie ocherki, pp. 220-21.

8. Ibid., p. 138.

9. Ibid., p. 134.

10. Ibid, p. 155.

11. Ibid., pp. 157-58, 190-93.

12. Ibid., pp. 172-73.

7. Kholodkovskii, Biologicheskie ocherki, pp. 220-21.

8. Ibid., p. 138.

9. Ibid., p. 134.

10. Ibid, p. 155.

11. Ibid., pp. 157-58, 190-93.

12. Ibid., pp. 172-73.

7. Kholodkovskii, Biologicheskie ocherki, pp. 220-21.

8. Ibid., p. 138.

9. Ibid., p. 134.

10. Ibid, p. 155.

11. Ibid., pp. 157-58, 190-93.

12. Ibid., pp. 172-73.

7. Kholodkovskii, Biologicheskie ocherki, pp. 220-21.

8. Ibid., p. 138.

9. Ibid., p. 134.

10. Ibid, p. 155.

11. Ibid., pp. 157-58, 190-93.

12. Ibid., pp. 172-73.

13. I. I. Mechnikov, "Zadachi," pp. 761-62.

14. Ibid., p. 763.

13. I. I. Mechnikov, "Zadachi," pp. 761-62.

14. Ibid., p. 763.

15. Mechnikov, O darvinizme, p. 129.

16. Elie Metchnikoff, Lectures, p. 16; A. E. Gaisinovich, "100 let," p. 16.

17. Mechnikov, Akademicheskoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 7, p. 169; Gaisinovich, "100 let," p. 20.

18. Mechnikov, Akademicheskoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 9, p. 72.

19. "Notes," Nature, p. 386.

20. Mechnikov, O darvinizme, p. 222.

21. Mechnikov, "Darvinizm i meditsina."

22. Mechnikov, Akademicheskoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 14, pp. 100-1.

23. E. Ray Lankester, "Elias Metchnikoff," p. 445.

24. Mechnikov, Sorok let iskaniia, p. 275.

25. Mechnikov, Akademicheskoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 4, p. 401.

26. Ibid., vol. 4, pp. 398-99.

27. Ibid., vol. 14, p. 102.

25. Mechnikov, Akademicheskoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 4, p. 401.

26. Ibid., vol. 4, pp. 398-99.

27. Ibid., vol. 14, p. 102.

25. Mechnikov, Akademicheskoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 4, p. 401.

26. Ibid., vol. 4, pp. 398-99.

27. Ibid., vol. 14, p. 102.

28. I. M. Poliakov, "Razrabotka," p. 456. For details on the evolution of Mechnikov's attitude toward Darwin's theory, see Gaisinovich, "Problems of Variation," pp. 104-8.

29. For biographical details, see K. M. Deriugin, "Biografiia," D. M. Fedotov, "Vydaiushchiisia russkii zoolog-darvinist," and Iu. I. Polianskii, "Vydaiushchiisia russkii morfolog-darvinist." break

30. V. Shimkevich, "Evoliutsionnaia ideia," p. 183.

31. Shimkevich, "Spenser i Veismann," no. 16, pp. 496—97.

32. Shimkevich, "Polemika," pp. 94-105.

33. Shimkevich, Biologicheskie osnovy, 3rd ed., pp. 308-11.

34. Ibid., pp. 446-47; K. M. Zavadskii, Razvitie, p. 276.

33. Shimkevich, Biologicheskie osnovy, 3rd ed., pp. 308-11.

34. Ibid., pp. 446-47; K. M. Zavadskii, Razvitie, p. 276.

35. N. Ia. Rosina, Mikhail Aleksandrovich Menzbir, p. 154.

36. V. L. Shimkevich, "Embrional'nye plasti," p. 49.

37. Shimkevich, "Polemika," pp. 101-2.

38. Shimkevich, "Evoliutsionnaia ideia," pp. 167-84.

39. T. A. Lukina, Boris Evgen'evich Raikov, p. 30.

40. For more details, see E. M. Lavrenko, "Pamiati," pp. 1334-35.

41. V. A. Taliev, "Biologicheskie idei," pp. 270-71.

42. Taliev, "Biologicheskie idei," p. 271.

43. Ibid., p. 278.

42. Taliev, "Biologicheskie idei," p. 271.

43. Ibid., p. 278.

44. For a general survey of Taliev's evolutionary ideas, see D. V. Lebedev, "Evoliutsionnye vzgliady."

45. Taliev, "O tselesoobraznosti."

46. Taliev, "Darvinizm," p. 174.

47. Taliev, Opyt, p. 6.

48. D. Ostrianin, Bor'ba, p. 144.

49. Taliev, Opyt, p. 259.

50. Ibid., p. 5.

49. Taliev, Opyt, p. 259.

50. Ibid., p. 5.

51. V. K., "Review," p. 1451.

52. V. L. Komarov, "Review," p. 218.

53. R. E. Regel', "K voprosu o vidoobrazovanii." See also K. M. Zavadskii, Vid, p. 95.

54. Regel', "K voprosu o vidoobrazovanii," p. 168.

55. V. M. Shimkevich, "Nasledstvennost'," pp. 353-62.

56. Major types of criticism directed at Darwin's theory at the end of the nineteenth century—before Hugo de Vries published his first study on mutations and Gregor Mendel's theory of heredity was rediscovered—are discussed in Vladimir Vagner, "Novye i starye puti." Vagner dealt exclusively with developments in the West. He devoted particular attention to the strengths and weaknesses of embryological studies of evolution, implications of the principle of "change in one direction" (Eimer), the role of "associations" as an evolutionary factor, and recent interpretations of the struggle for existence. He lamented the lack of effort at a synthesis of various theories that would give evolution a broader theoretical and experimental base. Embryology, he thought, cannot explain the "character of relations between freely associated animals," but the embryological and sociopsychological approaches can elucidate different aspects of a more general notion of evolution.

57. E. Shul'ts, "Irratsional'noe v biologii," pp. 788-92.

58. S. I. Korzhinskii, "Geterogenezis," IIAN . For an abbreviated version, see Korzhinskii, "Geterogenezis," ZAN . For a biographical sketch of Korzhinskii, see "Sergei Ivanovich Korzhinskii."

59. For a summary of Korzhinskii's theoretical propositions, see Iu. A. Filipchenko, Evoliutsionnaia ideia, pp. 161-63. See also G. D. Berdyshev and V. N. Splivinskii, Pervyi sibirskii professor, chs. 5 and 6; L. Plate, Selektionsprin - soft

zip pp. 169, 502; E. Delage and M. Goldsmith, Les théories, 1911, pp. 319-20; V. L. Kellogg, Darwinism Today, pp. 91-93.

60. M. A. Menzbir, "Mnimyi krizis," p. 201.

61. Hugo de Vries, Die Mutationslehre, vol. 1, p. 50.

62. Dobzhansky, Genetics and the Evolutionary Process, p. 42.

63. V. A. Vagner, ed., Novye idei: Nasledstvennost' .

64. Lunkevich, "Staroe i novoe," no. 6, p. 111; V. L. Komarov, "Vidoobrazovanie," p. 530.

65. O. V. Baranetskii, "Vydaiushchiisia iavleniia," p. 2.

66. Ibid., p. 62.

67. Ibid., p. 58.

65. O. V. Baranetskii, "Vydaiushchiisia iavleniia," p. 2.

66. Ibid., p. 62.

67. Ibid., p. 58.

65. O. V. Baranetskii, "Vydaiushchiisia iavleniia," p. 2.

66. Ibid., p. 62.

67. Ibid., p. 58.

68. A. S. Serebrovskii, "Sovremennoe sostoianie," pp. 1244-47.

69. Korzhinskii, "Geterogenezis," ZAN, p. 1.

70. I. P. Borodin, "Ocherki," no. 12, pp. 257-67.

71. Ibid., p. 268.

72. Ibid., p. 274.

70. I. P. Borodin, "Ocherki," no. 12, pp. 257-67.

71. Ibid., p. 268.

72. Ibid., p. 274.

70. I. P. Borodin, "Ocherki," no. 12, pp. 257-67.

71. Ibid., p. 268.

72. Ibid., p. 274.

73. Shimkevich, Biologicheskie osnovy, pp. 308-11.

74. T. H. Morgan, Experimental Zoology, p. 232.

75. For biographical data, see K. A. Fliaksberger, "Robert Eduardovich Regel'," pp. 3-15.

76. R. E. Regel', "Selektsiia," pp. 493-96.

77. Ibid., p. 511.

78. Ibid., p. 507. See also T. M. Aver'ianova, "Evoliutsonnye vzgliady," pp. 147-48.

76. R. E. Regel', "Selektsiia," pp. 493-96.

77. Ibid., p. 511.

78. Ibid., p. 507. See also T. M. Aver'ianova, "Evoliutsonnye vzgliady," pp. 147-48.

76. R. E. Regel', "Selektsiia," pp. 493-96.

77. Ibid., p. 511.

78. Ibid., p. 507. See also T. M. Aver'ianova, "Evoliutsonnye vzgliady," pp. 147-48.

79. P. Mishchenko, "Review," p. 63.

80. A review in Priroda noted that the translation of Punnett's book provided the first detailed discussion of Mendel's theory available in the Russian language. ("Review of Mendelizm by R. K. Punnet," pp. 389-91.)

81. S. S. Glagolev, "Mendelizm."

82. E. Baur, "Vvedenie."

83. N. I. Vavilov, "Immunity," p. 62.

84. See, particularly, R. E. Regel', "K voprosu o vidoobrazovanii."

85. E. A. Bogdanov, Mendelizm, p. 620.

86. Ibid., p. 622.

85. E. A. Bogdanov, Mendelizm, p. 620.

86. Ibid., p. 622.

87. N. K. Kol'tsov, "Review of E. A. Bogdanov, Mendelizm, " p. 1361; A. E. Gaisinovich, "Vospriiatie mendelizma," pp. 49-50.

88. Kol'tsov, "Review of E. A. Bogdanov, Mendelizm, " p. 1391.

89. In 1921 Kol'tsov played a major role in the founding of the Laboratory of Genetics at the Institute of Experimental Biology for the purpose of giving Darwinism a base in genetics. This research led to S. S. Chetverikov's pioneering contribution to population genetics, a solid step toward a synthetic theory of evolution. (For a detailed study of the early history of this laboratory and of Chetverikov's work, see V. V. Babkov, Moskovskaia shkola .)

90. Iu. A. Filipchenko, Izmenchivost', pp. 53-68.

91. Ibid., pp. 88-90.

90. Iu. A. Filipchenko, Izmenchivost', pp. 53-68.

91. Ibid., pp. 88-90.

92. Filipchenko, Nasledstrennost', p. 5.

93. Filipchenko, "Review," p. 281. break

94. Ibid.

93. Filipchenko, "Review," p. 281. break

94. Ibid.

95. Filipchenko, "Obzor . . . za 1915 god," pp. 731-34, and "Obzor . . za 1916 god," pp. 397-99.

96. D. Ivanovskii, "Eksperimental'nyi metod," p. 32.

97. Ibid., p. 39. S. L. Sobol', writing under the spell of Lysenkoism, claimed that Ivanovskii placed the primary emphasis on hereditary transmission of acquired characteristics, rather than on mutations. (Sobol', "Evoliutsionnye vozzreniia," p. 51.)

96. D. Ivanovskii, "Eksperimental'nyi metod," p. 32.

97. Ibid., p. 39. S. L. Sobol', writing under the spell of Lysenkoism, claimed that Ivanovskii placed the primary emphasis on hereditary transmission of acquired characteristics, rather than on mutations. (Sobol', "Evoliutsionnye vozzreniia," p. 51.)

98. G. Allen, Life Sciences, p. 57.

99. P. J. Bowler, Evolution, p. 292.

100. V. L. Kellogg, Darwinism Today, p. 5.

101. Hugo de Vries, "Variation," p. 84.

102. W. Bateson, "Heredity," p. 87.

103. M. V. Arnol'di, "Sovremennoe sostoianie," p. 40.

104. "Darvin," Bol'shaia entsiklopediia, vol. 8, p. 138.

105. Ibid., p. 133.

104. "Darvin," Bol'shaia entsiklopediia, vol. 8, p. 138.

105. Ibid., p. 133.

1. M. M. Kovalevskii et al., Pamiati Darvina .

2. I. I. Mechnikov, "Darvinizm i meditsina," p. 116.

3. K. A. Timiriazev, "Charlz Darvin," in M. M. Kovalevskii et al., Pamiati Darvina, p. 8.

4. Timiriazev, "Sezon," p. 367.

5. Ibid., p. 368.

4. Timiriazev, "Sezon," p. 367.

5. Ibid., p. 368.

6. Timiriazev, "Charlz Darvin," p. 38.

7. N. A. Umov, "Evoliutsiia," pp. 36-38.

8. D. N. Anuchin, "Stolerie."

9. "Chestvovanie pamiati," p. 92.

10. V. A. Vagner, "Vliianie Darvina," p. 8.

11. Ibid., p. 15.

10. V. A. Vagner, "Vliianie Darvina," p. 8.

11. Ibid., p. 15.

12. V. I. Taliev, "Darvinizm," pp. 174-75.

13. A. N. Severtsov, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 3, pp. 14-15.

14. Represented at the Cambridge celebration were also Moscow University (K. A. Timiriazev), St. Petersburg University (V. M. Shimkevich), and Iur'ev (Dorpat) University (A. I. Iarotskii and N. I. Kuznetsov). (A. Verner, "Iubilei," p. 92.)

15. K. V. Manoilenko and L. N. Khakhina, "Iz istorii," p. 311.

16. R. Gertvig, "Pamiati Darvina."

17. [E. Haeckel,] Ernst Gekkel', "Mirosozertsanie Darvina," p. 67.

18. R. Francé, "Darvin," p. 18.

19. Vestnik znaniia, 1909, no. 2, pp. 168-72, 209-50. (Darwin commemorative issue.)

20. V. Bitner, "Charlz Darvin," p. 171.

21. Jeffrey Brooks, When Russia Learned to Read, p. 334.

22. K. A. Timiriazev, "Kembridzh i Darvin," no. 11, p. 257.

23. Ibid., pp. 255-56.

22. K. A. Timiriazev, "Kembridzh i Darvin," no. 11, p. 257.

23. Ibid., pp. 255-56.

24. Timiriazev, Nauka, p. 113. break

25. A. Bers, "Darvinizm," p. 119.

26. Ibid., p. 116.

25. A. Bers, "Darvinizm," p. 119.

26. Ibid., p. 116.

27. S. S. Glagolev, "K voprosu o proiskhozhdenii," p. 452.

28. Glagolev, "K voprosu o proiskhozhdenii," p. 450.

29. V. I. Taliev, Chariz Darvin, p. 42; K. M. Zavadskii, Razvitie, pp. 303-4.

30. Zavadskii, Razvitie, p. 303.

31. S. L. Sobol', "Ob izdanii Charlza Darvina," p. 223.

32. K. A. Timiriazev, "Piatidesiatiletnii iubilei."

33. S. Chulok, "K iubileiu," no. 4, sec. 1, pp. 61—63.

34. V. V. Lunkevich, Osnovy zhizni, vol. 2, p. 526.

35. Ibid., p. 441.

34. V. V. Lunkevich, Osnovy zhizni, vol. 2, p. 526.

35. Ibid., p. 441.

36. Lunkevich, "Staroe i novoe," no. 6, p. 119.

37. I. lasinskii, "Darvin," p. 39.

38. V. A. Vagner, "Lamark," no. 8, pp. 14-18.

39. Lunkevich, "Staroe i novoe," no. 1, p. 144.

40. P. F. Lesgaft, "Pamiati Zhana Lamarka," p. 2. For biographical data, see L. Slonimskii, "Kniga o P. F. Lesgafte."

41. Timiriazev, "God itogov," no. 11, p. 325; N. lu. Zograf, "Noveishiia techeniia," p. 194.

42. la. P. Shchelkanovtsev, Kratkii kurs, ch. VIII.

43. Shchelkanovtsev, Kratkii kurs, p. 89.

44. K. M. Deriugin, "Proiskhozhdenie," p. 619.

45. V. L. Komarov, "Vidoobrazovanie," p. 525.

46. Ibid., p. 532.

45. V. L. Komarov, "Vidoobrazovanie," p. 525.

46. Ibid., p. 532.

47. N. M. Knipovich, "Vzaimootnoshenie organizmov," p. 416.

48. D. N. Anuchin, "Proiskhozhdenie cheloveka i ego iskopaemye predki," p. 704.

49. [Anuchin] D. A., "Proiskhozhdenie cheloveka," 1898, p. 380, and "Pitekantropos," p. 735.

50. Anuchin, "Proiskhozhdenie cheloveka i ego iskopaemye predki," pp. 771-84.

51. B. L. Astaurov and P. F. Rokitskii, Nikolai Konstantinovich Kol'tsov, ch. 1; V. Polynin, Prorok, ch. 3.

52. N. K. Kol'tsov, "Organizatsiia kletki," pp. 211-12.

53. M. M. Zavadovskii, "Osnovnye etapy," p. 54.

54. Kol'tsov, "Vzgliady Lotsi," p. 1253.

55. Ibid., p. 1264.

54. Kol'tsov, "Vzgliady Lotsi," p. 1253.

55. Ibid., p. 1264.

56. Komarov, "Vidoobrazovanie," p. 540.

1. N. K. Mikhailovskii, "Literatura," 1895, no. 1, sec. 2, p. 145.

2. N. D. Nozhin, "Nasha nauka," no. 7, p. 175.

3. For additional comments on Nozhin's influence on Mikhailovskii, see E. E. Kolosov, Ocherki, pp. 157-65.

4. S. N. luzhakov, "Sotsiologicheskaia doktrina," pp. 354—55.

5. For details, see James A. Rogers, "The Russian Populists' Response," continue

pp. 458-60; Kolosov, Ocherki, ch. 3; E. S. Vilenskaia. N. K. Mikhailovskii, ch. 2; S. P. Ranskii, Sotsiologiia, pp. 41-49; A. I. Krasnosel'skii, Mhovozzrenie, pp. 14-32.

6. Mikhailovskii, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 1, 5th ed., p. 459.

7. Ibid., p. 458.

6. Mikhailovskii, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 1, 5th ed., p. 459.

7. Ibid., p. 458.

8. Lunkevich, N. K. Mikhailovskii, pp. 48-49.

9. Mikhailovskii, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 1, 5th ed., p. 459.

10. Mikhailovskii, Sochineniia, vol. 1, pp. 37, 291.

11. Mikhailovskii, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 1, 5th ed., p. 150.

12. Ibid., p. 536.

11. Mikhailovskii, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 1, 5th ed., p. 150.

12. Ibid., p. 536.

13. Mikhailovskii, Sochineniia, vol. 1, pp. 914-15.

14. Mikhailovskii, Sochineniia, vol. 3, pp. 284—86.

15. For a general comment, see A. Walicki, A History of Russian Thought, pp. 222-25.

16. According to A. Walicki, "The Russian peasant, argued Mikhailovskii, lives a life that is primitive but full; he is economically self-sufficient, therefore independent, 'well-rounded' and 'whole'; he satisfies all his needs by his own work, making use of all his capacities, being a tiller and a fisherman, a shepherd, and an artist in one person. The absence of underdevelopment of 'complex cooperation' makes the Russian peasant mutually independent, while 'simple cooperation' (i.e., a cooperation in which men are involved as 'whole beings') unites them in a moral solidarity based upon mutual sympathy and understanding" (A. Walicki, Russian Social Thought, p. 29).

17. Mikhailovskii, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 1, 5th ed., p. 284.

18. Ivanov-Razumnik, Istoriia, vol. 2, p. 122.

19. P. L. Lavrov, Opyt istorii mysli, vol. 1, part 1, p. 121.

20. V. V. Bogatov, "P. L. Lavrov," p. 120.

21. Lavrov, Filosofiia, vol. 2, pp. 36, 300.

22. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 208.

21. Lavrov, Filosofiia, vol. 2, pp. 36, 300.

22. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 208.

23. For more details, see Bogatov, Filosofiia, pp. 97-99.

24. Lavrov, Zadachi pozitivizma, p. 17.

25. For a systematic and thorough study of Lavrov's theory of personality, see N. I. Kareev, Teoriia lichnosti .

26. Lavrov, Formula progressa, pp. 41—43.

27. Lavrov, Opyt istorii mysli, vol. 1, part 1, p. 197.

28. Ibid., part 2, p. 1427.

27. Lavrov, Opyt istorii mysli, vol. 1, part 1, p. 197.

28. Ibid., part 2, p. 1427.

29. Lavrov, Izbrannye sochineniia, vol. 2, pp. 101-2.

30. Lavrov, Formula progressa, pp. 16-17.

31. A. Walicki, The Controversy, p. 55.

32. This study makes up vol. 1, part 2, of Lavrov's Opyt istorii mysli . See particularly pp. 1426—51.

33. For a critical review of Lavrov's "history of thought" as a "philosophy of history" fastened to cultural evolutionism, see A.A. Gizetti, "P. L. Lavrov," pp. 292-354.

34. Lavrov, Opyt, vol. 1, part 1, pp. 202—3.

35. Ibid., p. 121.

34. Lavrov, Opyt, vol. 1, part 1, pp. 202—3.

35. Ibid., p. 121.

36. N. 1. Kareev, Vvedenie, ch. 14. break

37. Kareev, Istoriko-filosofskie i sotsiologicheskie etiudy, pp. 286—87.

38. Kareev, Vvedenie, p. 70.

39. For relevant comments, see Lavrov, Formula progressa, pp. 111-12.

40. Kareev, Vvedenie, pp. 72—74.

41. For Kareev's comments on Lavrov's views on solidarity, see Kareev, "Novyi istoriko-filosofskii trud," pp. 401-5.

42. M. A. Miller, Kropotkin, p. 255.

43. P. A. Kropotkin, Revolutionary Pamphlets, p. 192.

44. Kropotkin, Modern Science, p. 27.

45. Kropotkin, Mutual Aid, p. 9.

46. K. F. Kessler, "O zakone," pp. 128-36.

47. Kropotkin, Mutual Aid, p. 8. See also Y. Delage and M. Goldsmith, Les théories, 1911, p. 359.

48. Thomas H. Huxley, "The Struggle for Existence," pp. 329-41.

49. Greta Jones, Social Darwinism, p. 76.

50. M. M. Kovalevskii, "Darvinizm," pp. 136, 154.

51. N. Lebedev, "P. A. Kropotkin," pp. 98-99.

52. Miller, Kropotkin, p. 173.

53. Kropotkin, Modern Science, pp. 20—21.

54. Kropotkin, Ethics, pp. 325-26.

55. Ibid., p. 327.

56. Ibid., p. 48. For more details on this work, see James Hulse, Revolutionists, pp. 187-91.

54. Kropotkin, Ethics, pp. 325-26.

55. Ibid., p. 327.

56. Ibid., p. 48. For more details on this work, see James Hulse, Revolutionists, pp. 187-91.

54. Kropotkin, Ethics, pp. 325-26.

55. Ibid., p. 327.

56. Ibid., p. 48. For more details on this work, see James Hulse, Revolutionists, pp. 187-91.

57. Kropotkin, "The Morality of Nature," p. 407.

58. Ibid., p. 408.

59. Ibid., pp. 408-9.

60. Ibid., p. 418.

57. Kropotkin, "The Morality of Nature," p. 407.

58. Ibid., p. 408.

59. Ibid., pp. 408-9.

60. Ibid., p. 418.

57. Kropotkin, "The Morality of Nature," p. 407.

58. Ibid., p. 408.

59. Ibid., pp. 408-9.

60. Ibid., p. 418.

57. Kropotkin, "The Morality of Nature," p. 407.

58. Ibid., p. 408.

59. Ibid., pp. 408-9.

60. Ibid., p. 418.

61. Kropotkin, "The Direct Action," p. 427.

62. He referred to R. H. Francé, Der heutige Stand; and Adolph Wagner, Geschichte des Lamarckismus .

63. Kropotkin, "The Direct Action," p. 424.

64. Kropotkin, "Inherited Variation," p. 833.

65. Kropotkin, "The Direct Action," p. 427.

66. Lankester, "Heredity," p. 491.

67. L. Plate, Selektionsprinzip, p. 117.

68. T. Dobzhansky, Mankind Evolving, p. 123.

69. Ibid., p. 134.

68. T. Dobzhansky, Mankind Evolving, p. 123.

69. Ibid., p. 134.

70. Peter J. Bowler, Evolution, pp. 215-16, The Eclipse, p. 55, and Theories, pp. 211-12.

71. Bowler, The Eclipse, p. 56.

72. Y. Delage and M. Goldsmith, Les théories 1920. pp. 359-64.

73. Kropotkin, Ethics, p. 279.

74. M. M. Kovalevskii, Ocherki proiskhozhdeniia sem'i, pp. 18—21.

75. Charles Darwin, The Origin, p. 75; M. M. Kovalevskii, Ocherki, p. 20.

76. G. Nasmyth, Social Progress .

77. J. Novicow, La critique, p. 10.

78. J. Novicow, La critique, p. 11. break

79. Ibid., p. 389.

78. J. Novicow, La critique, p. 11. break

79. Ibid., p. 389.

80. G. V. Plekhanov, Izbrannye filosofskie proizvedeniia, vol. 2, p. 678.

81. Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 690-91.

80. G. V. Plekhanov, Izbrannye filosofskie proizvedeniia, vol. 2, p. 678.

81. Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 690-91.

82. Plekhanov, Filosofsko-literatumoe nasledie, vol. 3, p. 48.

83. Plekhanov, Izbrannye filosofskie proizvedeniia, vol. 1, p. 69.

84. Plekhanov, Unaddressed Letters, p. 19.

85. Plekhanov, Izbrannye filosofskie proizvedeniia, vol. 2, pp. 162—63.

86. Plekhanov, Essays, p. 172.

87. Ibid., p. 173.

86. Plekhanov, Essays, p. 172.

87. Ibid., p. 173.

88. Plekhanov, Fundamental Problems, pp. 46—47.

89. A. M. Deborin, Filosofiia i politika, p. 65.

90. Ibid., pp. 65-66.

89. A. M. Deborin, Filosofiia i politika, p. 65.

90. Ibid., pp. 65-66.

91. Plekhanov, Essays, pp. 208-13.

92. Ibid., p. 215.

91. Plekhanov, Essays, pp. 208-13.

92. Ibid., p. 215.

93. Plekhanov, Selected Philosophical Works, vol. 4, p. 156.

94. Ibid., p. 156.

95. Ibid., pp. 264-65.

96. Ibid., p. 266.

93. Plekhanov, Selected Philosophical Works, vol. 4, p. 156.

94. Ibid., p. 156.

95. Ibid., pp. 264-65.

96. Ibid., p. 266.

93. Plekhanov, Selected Philosophical Works, vol. 4, p. 156.

94. Ibid., p. 156.

95. Ibid., pp. 264-65.

96. Ibid., p. 266.

93. Plekhanov, Selected Philosophical Works, vol. 4, p. 156.

94. Ibid., p. 156.

95. Ibid., pp. 264-65.

96. Ibid., p. 266.

97. Plekhanov, Fundamental Problems, trans. Katzer, p. 80.

98. In an assessment of Morgan's anthropological theory, E. Terray states: "When Morgan thought diachronically, he thought in terms of evolution and used Darwinian language; when he thought synchronically he thought in terms of models and structures and his language prefigured that of Claude Lévi-Strauss. But when he overcame this ideological opposition between the diachronic and the synchronic, he set himself a worthwhile task and tried to think in terms of history." This stage in his thinking, according to Terray, brought Morgan close to Marxism. (E. Terray, Marxism, pp. 89—90.)

99. A Russian translation of Morgan's Ancient Society appeared in 1900.

100. Plekhanov, Izbrannye filosofskie proizvedeniia, vol. 1, p. 686.

101. F. Engels, The Origin of the Family, p. 16.

102. R., "Morgan, Lewis Henry," p. 835.

103. Plekhanov, Izbrannye filosofskie proizvedeniia, vol. 1, p. 496.

104. Terray, Marxism, pp. 23—25.

105. M. A. Antonovich, Izbrannye filosofskie sochineniia, p. 342.

106. N. K. Mikhailovskii, "Literatura," 1898, no. 2, sec. 2, p. 140.

107. Plekhanov, The Development, p. 254.

108. Ibid., p. 255.

107. Plekhanov, The Development, p. 254.

108. Ibid., p. 255.

109. Mikhailovskii, Literatumye vospominaniia, vol. 2, p. 415.

110. Ibid., p. 433.

109. Mikhailovskii, Literatumye vospominaniia, vol. 2, p. 415.

110. Ibid., p. 433.

111. R. Francé, Der heutige Stand, chs. 4-7.

112. Ibid., p. 84.

111. R. Francé, Der heutige Stand, chs. 4-7.

112. Ibid., p. 84.

113. See, for example, Francé, Der heutige Stand .

114. Plekhanov, Fundamental Problems, trans. Katzer, p. 45, and Izbrannye filosofskie proizvedeniia, vol. 5, p. 150; B. A. Chagin, G. V. Plekhanov, p. 167.

115. A. Walicki, A History, p. 424.

116. V. I. Lenin, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 1, p. 139.

117. Ibid., p. 149. break

118. Ibid., p. 146.

116. V. I. Lenin, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 1, p. 139.

117. Ibid., p. 149. break

118. Ibid., p. 146.

116. V. I. Lenin, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 1, p. 139.

117. Ibid., p. 149. break

118. Ibid., p. 146.

119. James A. Rogers, "Marxist and Russian Darwinism," pp. 207-8.

120. Lenin, Materialism and Empiric-Criticism, p. 340.

121. Plekhanov, The Development, pp. 217-18.

122. F. Bersenev, "Nechto o 'kriterii istiny'."

123. A. A. Bogdanov, Poznanie, p. 24.

124. Bogdanov, Iz psikhologii obshchestva, p. 55.

125. Ibid., p. 56.

124. Bogdanov, Iz psikhologii obshchestva, p. 55.

125. Ibid., p. 56.

126. [A. A. Bogdanov] N. Verner, "Filosofiia," p. 114.

127. A. A. Bogdanov, Poznanie, p. 25.

1. G. G. Simpson, Tempo and Mode, p. 103, and Horses, pp. 87-88.

2. [V. O. Kovalevskii], The Complete Works .

3. Richard Goldschmidt, The Material Basis, pp. 309-10; Simpson, This View of Life, p. 182.

4. N. Ia. Danilevskii, Darvinizm .

5. See particularly V. I. Shmankevich, "Zur Kenntniss des Einflusses der äusseren Lebensbedingungen."

6. Y. Delage and M. Goldsmith, Les théoriés, 1911, pp. 319-20.

7. V. V. Dokuchaev, Russkii chernozem, 2nd ed., pp. 510-11.

8. M. M. Kovalevskii, Sotsioiogiia, vol. 1, p. 81; vol. 2, ch. 1.

9. The first series of Priroda was published in 1873—77; the second series has been published without interruption since 1912. (See N. V. Uspenskaia, "'Priroda.'")

10. V. V. Lunkevich, "Staroe i novoe," 1910, no. 6, p. 111.

11. Ibid., no. 1, pp. 134-35.

10. V. V. Lunkevich, "Staroe i novoe," 1910, no. 6, p. 111.

11. Ibid., no. 1, pp. 134-35.

12. M. M. Filippov, Filosofiia, vol. 1, pp. x—xiii.

13. Ibid., vol. 2, p. 837.

12. M. M. Filippov, Filosofiia, vol. 1, pp. x—xiii.

13. Ibid., vol. 2, p. 837.

14. V. D. Kudriavtsev-Platonov, Sochineniia, vol. 3, part 3, p. 60.

15. See, for example, N. Sergievskii, "O bibleiskoi istorii tvoreniia"; and G. Malevanskii, "O dukhovnoi prirode cheloveka."

16. [Nikanor], "Pouchenie na novyi god," p. 40.

17. D. I. Pisarev, Izbrannye filosofskie i obshchestvenno-politicheskie stat'i, p. 293.

18. E. E. Kolosov, Ocherki, p. 136.

19. P. A. Kropotkin, Modern Science, pp. 25—26.

20. V. Evgen'ev-Maksimov and G. Tinzengauzen, Poslednie gody, p. 302.

21. J. Novicow, La critique, p. 3. For a critical comment, see B. Naccache, Marx, p. 85.

22. E. Metchnikoff, Lectures, p. 4.

23. A. N. Beketov, "Nravstvennost'," pp. 58-63.

24. L. N. Tolstoy, "Protivorechiia," pp. 293-94.

25. K. A. Timiriazev, Sochineniia, vol. 7, p. 252.

26. V. Fausek, "Bor'ba za sushchestvovanie."

27. V. Fausek, "Vid," p. 244. break

28. V. M. Shimkevich, "Transformizm," p. 722.

29. N. M. Knipovich, "Vzaimootnoshenie organizmov," p. 413.

30. A. N. Severtsov, Sochineniia, vol. 3, pp. 283—88.

31. Ibid., pp. 73-75.

30. A. N. Severtsov, Sochineniia, vol. 3, pp. 283—88.

31. Ibid., pp. 73-75.

32. N. V. Tsinger, "O zasoriaiushchikh posevy 1'na vidakh."

33. R. E. Regel', "Selektsiia," p. 507.

34. K. A. Timiriazev, "Charlz Darvin," in M. M. Kovalevskii et al., Pamiati Darvina, p. 22.

35. For a brief statement on "the characteristics of the evolutionary theory in Russia," see K. M. Zavadskii and M. T. Ermolenko, "Evoliutsionnaia teoriia," pp. 505—9. See also James A. Rogers, "Reception," "Russian Opposition," and "Charles Darwin and Russian Scientists"; and A. Vucinich, Science in Russian Culture, 1861-1917, ch. 9. break