1. Eliade, Myth and Reality.

2. Freidenberg, Mif i literatura drevnosti, 353.

3. Eliot, The Waste Land, ll. 215-225.

4. Cf. Fabricius, The Unconscious and Mr. Eliot, 160.

5. Quoted in McFarlane, ''The Mind of Modernism," 90.

6. Ibid.

1. Aumont, "Crise dans la crise," 199.

2. Lagny, "Histoire et cinema," 74.

3. Lotman, "Neskol'ko myslei o tipologii kul'tur" (Some thoughts on the typology of cultures), 11.

4. Laplanche and Pontalis, "Fantasme des origines," 1833-1868.

5. Durgnat, Films and Feelings, 230; see also 229-235.

6. Cf. Cieutat, "Naissance d'une iconographie," 6-15; and Gubern, "Contribution à une lecture de l'iconographie griffithienne," 117-125.

7. Panofsky, "Style and Medium in Moving Pictures," 25.

8. Panofsky, Meaning in the Visual Arts, 31.

9. Hanson, "D. W. Griffith: Some Sources," 500; cf. also Montesanti, "Pastrone e Griffith," 8-17; and Belluccio " 'Cabiria' e 'Intolerance' tra il serio e il faceto," 53-57.

10. Cherchi Usai, Pastrone.

11. Brownlow, The Parade's Gone By, 53-54.

12. On this tradition, see Heckscher, "Bernini's Elephant and Obelisk," 65-96.

13. Collin de Plancy, Dictionnaire Infernal, 231; cf. also Panofsky, Idea, 248, on chastity; Physiologus: Frühchristlicher Tiersymbolik, 81; Muratova, Srednevekovyi bestiarii,

103, on the elephant cub as Christ; Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci, 173; Hibbard, Bernini, 213.

14. Hanson, "D. W. Griffith: Some Sources," 504.

15. On Boulanger and Martin, see Geiger, "Louis Boulanger," 11; and Thompson, " 'Le Feu du ciel,' " 255; for Hugo's poem, see Victor Hugo, Les Orientales, 20; for Martin and H. C. Selous, see Feaver, The Art of John Martin, 110-111.

16. Cf. Collin de Plancy, Dictionnaire Infernal, 86.

17. See L. Langlès, Monuments anciens et modernes de l'Hindoustan, 2: 147-170.

18. Baudelaire, "Le Voyage," 397.

19. Latini, "Livre du Trésor," 210.

20. Delevoy, Le Symbolisme, 124.

21. Shpet, Sochineniia, 396.

22. Foucault, Archeology of Knowledge, 25.

23. Ivanov, Ocherki po istorii semiotiki v SSSR, 251.

24. Ferdinand de Saussure, quoted in Starobinski, "La Poursuite de la preuve," in Les Mots sous les mots, 128.

25. Starobinski, Les Mots sous les mots, 17.

26. Ducrot and Todorov, Dictionnaire encyclopédique, 446.

27. Kristeva, Sémeiotikè, 255.

28. Ibid., 195.

29. Metz, Langage et cinéma, 76-79.

30. Maupassant, Chroniques, 234.

31. Ibid., 234-235.

32. Ibid., 237.

33. Sadoul, French Film, 38.

34. Brunius, En marge du cinéma français, 82.

35. Greene, "Artaud and Film"; and Abel, French Cinema, 478.

36. Artaud, Le Théatre et son double, 168.

37. Derrida, L'Écriture et la différence, 268.

38. Artaud, Le Théatre et son double, 162.

39. Williams, Figures of Desire, 21.

40. Hedges, Languages of Revolt; and Szymczyk-Kluszczynska, Antonin Artaud.

41. Artaud, Le Théatre et son double, 78.

42. Artaud, Héliogabàle ou l'anarchiste couronné, 130.

43. The Upanishads, 60, 176.

44. Chevalier and Gheerbrant, Dictionnaire des symboles, 277-278.

45. Richer, L'Alchimie du verbe de Rimbaud, 36-37.

46. Artaud, Oeuvres complètes, 3: 24-25.

47. "Nemaia kniga," Illustration 1.

48. Richer, L'Alchimie du verbe de Rimbaud, 50-51.

49. Ibid., 81.

50. Ibid., 128-129.

51. Williams, Figures of Desire, 22.

52. Artaud, Le Théatre et son double, 143.

53. Derrida, Writing and Difference, 237-238.

54. Pound, Ezra Pound: A Critical Anthology, 53; cf. also Maliavin, "Kitaiskie improvizatsii Paunda."

55. Eisenstein, The Cinematographic Principle and the Ideogram," in Film Form, 30.

56. Eisenstein, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 2:285.

57. Ulmer, Applied Grammatology, 271.

58. Derrida, Of Grammatology, 90.

59. Ropars-Wuilleumier, Le Texte divisé, 71.

60. Gasparov and Ruzina, "Vergilii i vergilianskie tsentony," 210.

61. A quote brings the past closer to us, as it were, but cannot make it part of the present. The present is in fact further distanced from us by quotation. This process can probably be described in spatial categories. Martin Heidegger has directed our attention to the fact that the cinema, while bringing objects close to us, does not make them near. "What is least remote from us in point of distance, by virtue of its picture or film or its sound on the radio, can remain far from us. What is incalculably far from us in point of distance can be near to us. Short distance is not itself nearness. Nor is great distance remoteness" (Heidegger, "The Thing," in Poetry, Language, Thought, 165). Heidegger believes that the nearness of a thing to the subject is defined by its "thingliness.'' In transforming a thing into a sign, the cinema naturally destroys its thingliness, and for this reason also undermines its nearness. A quotation, which is in essence a sign that refers to another text, only heightens the effect of distantiation. This is also why a quote constitutes itself theatrically as a stage, that is, something removed from the spectator. Hence the effect of rupturing the present in the system of representation.

62. Benjamin, Reflections, 271.

63. Krolop, "Dichtung und Satire," 668-669.

64. The fact is that the semanticization of the visual on screen is realized to a significant degree thanks to a shot's frame, which essentially imitates the function of a frame in painting or the footlights in theater. A film thus acquires meaning as a result of assimilating elements from the poetics of painting and theater. For the semantics of film, the stage that Eisenstein called mise-en-cadre is of fundamental importance (Eisenstein, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 2:334-376). S. Heath has described the process by which a film's initial meaning evolves from the standpoint of semiotics: "What is crucial is the conversion of seen into scene, the absolute holding of signifier on signified: the frame, composed, centered, narrated, is the point of that conversion" (Heath, "Narrative Space," 83). In this process, it is essential to note that the frame does not belong to the diegesis or the narrative aspect of the film. It belongs rather to the space of the viewer and is thus able to translate the narrative onto the plane of the reception, where semiosis occurs. Meyer Schapiro was one of the first to describe this problem in relation to painting: "The frame . . . belongs to the space of the viewer rather than to the illusory three-dimensional world of representation that is revealed in it and beyond it. The frame is a mechanism located between the world of the viewer and the representation, whose function is to induce and to focus" (Schapiro, "Nekotorye problemy semiotiki vizual'nogo iskusstva," 141). In this way, the quote, which often acquires the character of painting or the stage, merely introduces into the film in the guise of a material object something that is invisibly present in the film's every shot. This creates a doubling of the semiotic process, which gets stressed and materially manifested. The physical frame of the "quote" heightens its materiality, its exteriority to the actual body of the film (cf. Aumont, L'Oeil interminable, 110-115).

65. Bellour, "Le Texte introuvable," 40.

66. Barthes, "The Third Meaning," 65-66.

67. Jenny, "La Stratégie de la forme," 266.

68. Riffaterre, La Production du texte, 86.

69. Riffaterre, "Le Tissu du texte," 198.

70. Godard. Jean-Luc Godard par Jean-Luc Godard, 216-218.

71. Godard, Introduction à une véritable histoire du cinéma, 25.

72. Andrew, "Au Début de Souffle," 18.

73. Bordwell, The Films of Carl-Theodor Dreyer, 93-116.

74. Virgil, The Aeneid, 129.

75. Baudelaire, "La Mort des pauvres," in Les Fleurs du mal, 152.

76. Cocteau, Poésie 1916-1923.

77. Riffaterre, La Production du texte, 80-81.

78. Godard, Jean-Luc Godard par Jean-Luc Godard, 218.

79. Barthes, The Pleasure of the Text, 36.

80. Jenny, "La Stratégie de la forme," 262.

81. Riffaterre, "Sémiotique intertextuelle."

82. Kristeva, Sémiotikè, 255.

83. Ibid., 256-257.

84. Gide, Journal 1889-1939, 41.

85. Dällenbach, "Intertexte et autotexte," 284.

86. Lévi-Strauss, La Pensée sauvage, 36.

87. Foucault, The Order of Things, 16.

88. Lotman, "Tekst v tekste," 14.

89. Ivanov, "Fil'm v fil'me"; Metz, Essais sur la signification au cinéma, 1: 223-228.

90. Bonitzer, Peinture et cinéma, 93.

91. Kuntzel, "Le Travail du film, 2," 143.

92. Dante, Inferno, Canto XII, v. 73-75. The translation is Allen Mandelbaum's, Divine Comedy ofDante Alighieri, 109.

93. Bonitzer, Peinture et cinéma, 32.

94. Gunning, "De la fumerie d'opium au thèâtre de la moralité."

95. Biograph Bulletins, 1908-1912, 77.

96. Zola, Les Rougon-Macquart, 1:509.

97. Zola, Le Roman expérimental, 166.

98. Peirce, Philosophical Writings, 92.

99. Ibid., 99.

100. de Man, Allegories of Reading, 10.

101. Riffaterre, "Sémiotique intertextuelle," 135.

102. Bakhtin, Voprosy literatury i èstetiki, 172.

103. Cf. Bialostocki, "Man and Mirror in Painting."

104. Coleridge, Complete Poetical Works, 1:295.

105. Dickens, Mystery of Edwin Drood, 3-4.

106. Ibid., 65.

107. Du Maurier, Trilby, 379.

108. Joyce, Ulysses, 526.

109. Carroll, "Interpreting 'Citizen Kane,' " 53.

110. Cozarinsky, Borges in/and/on Film, 55-57.

111. Borges, "The Dream of Coleridge," in Other Inquisitions, 14-17.

1. Prawer, Caligari's Children, 138-163.

2. Drouzy, Dreyer né Nilsson, 256.

3. Ibid., 257-259.

4. Bloom, The Anxiety of Influence: A Map of Misreading; Poetry and Repression.

5. Bloom, Poetry and Repression, 27.

6. Ibid., 204.

7. Ibid., 10.

8. Jenny, "La Stratégie de la forme," 258.

9. Borges, Borges: A Reader, 243.

10. Geduld, Focus on D. W. Griffith, 56.

11. Griffith, "The Movies 100 Years from Now," 49-50.

12. Merritt, "Rescued from Perilous Nest," 6.

13. Ibid., 8.

14. Fell, Film and the Narrative Tradition, 12-36.

15. Altman, "Dickens, Griffith, and Film Theory Today," 323-324.

16. Merritt, "Rescued from Perilous Nest," 11.

17. Geduld, Focus on D. W. Griffith, 32, 33.

18. Merritt, "Rescued from Perilous Nest," 12.

19. Schickel, D. W. Griffith, 142.

20. Arvidson, When Movies Were Young, 130.

21. Goodman, Fifty-Year Decline and Fall of Hollywood, 11.

22. Giuliano and Keenan, "Browning without Words," 145-146.

23. Hogg, "Robert Browning and the Victorian Theatre," 8.

24. Biograph Bulletins, 1908-1912, 77.

25. Browning, Poetical Works, 359.

26. On this cycle of Browning's poems, see Klimenko, Tvorchestvo Roberta Brauninga, 99-116.

27. Browning, Poetical Works, 359.

28. Winn, Unsuspected Eloquence, 238-239.

29. Görres, "Aforizmy ob iskusstve" (Aphorisms on art), 86.

30. Pater, The Renaissance, 145.

31. Cf. Arnim, "O narodnykh pesniakh," 403; and Pater, The Renaissance, 150-151.

32. Browning, Poetical Works, 127.

33. Ibid., 144.

34. Wordsworth, The Prelude: Or Growth of a Poet's Mind, 103.

35. Whitman, Complete Poems, 399-400.

36. Arnold, The Poems ofMatthew Arnold, 337.

37. Browning, Poetical Works, 131.

38. For Browning's debt to Hugo, see Hogg, "Robert Browning and the Victorian Theatre," 65; for Diderot, see A. Symons, Introduction to the Study of Rob-

ert Browning, 49; Jennings, "A Suggested Source of the Jules-Phene Episode in 'Pippa Passes' "; and for Bulwer-Lytton, see Faverty, "Source of the Jules-Phene Episode."

39. Lytton, Bulwer's Plays, 20.

40. Browning, Poetical Works, 138.

41. Ibid., 142.

42. Griffith, "The Movies 100 Years from Now," 50.

43. Biograph Bulletins, l908-1912, 251.

44. Ibid., 73.

45. Lytton, Zanoni, 118.

46. Gunning, "D. W. Griffith and the Narrator-System," 596.

47. Pruitt, "I Film Biograph 1908-1910," 57.

48. Cf. Graham, Higgins, Mancini, and Vieira, D. W. Griffith and the Biograph Company, 179-180.

49. Gunning, "D. W. Griffith and the Narrator-System," 591.

50. Cincotti and Turconi, "I film, i dati, gli argomenti," 241; Brion, "Filmographie de D. W. Griffith," 169.

51. Schickel, D. W. Griffith, 209.

52. Brown, Adventures with D. W. Griffith, 31.

53. Cf. Hart, The Man Who Invented Hollywood.

54. Hislop and Richardson, Plays by J. H. Payne, xii.

55. Brown, Adventures with D. W. Griffith, 45.

56. Hislop and Richardson, Plays by J. H. Payne, 82-83.

57. A. Maier-Meintshel, "Vermeer Del'ftskii i Grigorii Teplov."

58. Griffith, "Le Théátre et le cinéma," 88.

59. Spitzer, "Explication de texte applied," 17-18.

60. Whitman, Complete Poems, 280.

61. Browning, "The Ring and the Book," in Poetical Works, 33.

62. Hansen, "Rätsel der Mütterlichkeit."

63. Arnold, The Poems of Matthew Arnold, 152.

64. Giuliano and Keenan, "Browning without Words," 149-152.

65. Bloom, "Visionary Cinema of Romantic Poetry," 39.

66. Bordwell, The Films of Carl-Theodor Dreyer, 34-36.

67. Gasparov, "Pervochtenie i perechtenie," 19.

68. Panofsky, "Style and Medium in Moving Pictures," 66.

69. Willey, The Seventeenth Century Background, 53.

1. Cf. Arvidson, When Movies Were Young, 66; Eisenstein, "Dickens, Griffith and Film Today," in Film Form, 195-255; and Eisenstein and Iutkevich, D. U. Griffit, 130.

2. Geduld, Focus on D. W. Griffith, 52.

3. Eisenstein, "Dickens, Griffith, and Film Today," 205. It is worth noting, however, that neither the published Russian version nor the original manuscript of Eisenstein's article (Sergei Eisenstein Archive, f. 1923, op. 2, ed. khr. 328, RGALI,

Moscow) contains this quote. It was most likely inserted (at Eisenstein's own request?) by the translator Jay Leyda.

4. Ramirez, El cine de Griffith, 15.

5. Hart, The Man Who Invented Hollywood, 67.

6. Schickel, D. W. Griffith, 70. The previous quote is also from Schickel, 41.

7. Arvidson, When Movies Were Young, 133.

8. Hart, The Man Who Invented Hollywood, 88.

9. Geduld, Focus on D. W. Griffith, 53.

10. Griffith, "Cinéma, miracle de la photographie moderne," 18.

11. Ibid., 21.

12. Walt Whitman, "Song of the Universal," Leaves of Grass, 286.

13. Locke, Essay Concerning Human Understanding, book 3, chapter a ("Of the Signification of Words"), 323-326, and chapter 9 ("Of the Imperfection of Words"), 385-397.

14. Gura, Wisdom of Words, 19-31.

15. See Kayser, "La Doctrine du langage naturel."

16. Miller, The Transcendentalists, 57.

17. Emerson, Complete Writings, 8-9.

18. Ibid., 245.

19. Irwin, American Hieroglyphics, 17, 20, 33.

20. Emerson, Complete Writings, 243-244.

21. Hart, The Man Who Invented Hollywood, 68.

22. Griffith, "L'Avenir du film a deux dollars," 23.

23. Emerson, Complete Writings, 9.

24. Griffith, "Le Cinéma et les bûchers," 21.

25. Emerson, Complete Writings, 244.

26. Emerson, Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson, 2:254.

27. Emerson, Complete Writings, 249.

28. Ibid., 232.

29. Poe, Works of Edgar Allan Poe, vol. 2, Tales, 318. J. Hagan, in "Cinema and the Romantic Tradition," 233-235, has pointed to the connections existing between Poe's story and cinema, as well as the theory of correspondences. Well before Hagan, the theme of the urban crowd, including its treatment in Poe's text, was linked to the appearance of cinema by Walter Benjamin in Charles Baudelaire: Lyic Poet, 54. Benjamin discovers two specific kinds of attitudes toward urban reality in nineteenth-century European culture that seem to me to be fundamental to cinema as well. The first is typified by Poe himself, when the narrator merges with the crowd and wanders in its midst, becoming a kind of moving eye—the eye of the flaneur. Benjamin traces the second attitude back to E. T. A. Hoffmann's "The Cousin's Corner Window, "where the mobile universe of the street is studied by the paralyzed hero from his window (ibid., 48-55). Hoffmann's hero observes the world through a pair of binoculars, from an elevated box in his own improvised theater. Benjamin rightly observes that he chooses a position that allows him to elevate reality to the level of art. As the development of early cinema and cinema theory shows (e. g., of. Macmahon below), this latter mode of "elevating" reality to art was initially dominant; hence the prolonged hegemony enjoyed by the metaphor of the cinema screen as a window onto the world.

30. Kauffman and Henstell, American Film Criticism, 93.

31. Lindsay, Art of the Moving Picture, 67.

32. Emerson, Complete Writings, 234. Emerson's critique of sculpture is linked to his sense of the evolution of language: "The art of sculpture is long ago perished to any real effect. It was originally a useful art, a mode of writing. . . . But it is the game of a rude and youthful people, and not the manly labor of a wise and spiritual nation. . . . I cannot hide from myself that there is a certain appearance of paltriness, as of toys and the trumpery of a theatre, in sculpture . . . I do not wonder that Newton, with an attention habitually engaged on the paths of planets and suns, should have wondered what the Earl of Pembroke found to admire in 'stone dolls.' . . . true art is never fixed, but always flowing."

33. Griffith, "Le Cinéma et les bûchers," 20.

34. Cf. Mancini, "La Teoria cinematografica di Hugo Munsterberg."

35. Lindsay, Letters, 133.

36. Varilä, "Swedenborgian Background of William James's Philosophy."

37. Emerson, Complete Writings, 231.

38. Münsterberg, The Film. 64,

39. Ibid., 74.

40. Lindsay, Letter's, 133.

41. Ibid., 158.

42. Ibid., 137.

43. Schickel. D. W. Griffith, 112.

44. Jacques Aumont, in his analysis of this episode in the 1911 film Enoch Arden ("Griffith, le cadre, la figure," 58-60), has noted that the diegetic heterogeneity of the spaces occupied by Annie Lee and Enoch Arden is at the same time undermined by their figurative proximity, which can be explained by the fact that both husband and wife were filmed at the same site by the seashore. This similarity in landscape unconsciously heightens the contradictory nature of the spatial codes at work, creating a powerful sense of closeness even where the places at stake are thematically situated thousands of kilometers from each other.

45. Tennyson, "Enoch Arden," in Poems of Tennyson, 2:638.

46. Tennyson, Poems of Tennyson, 2: 641.

47. See Hartlaub, Zauber des Spiegels, 22.

48. Quoted in Langen, "Zur Geschichte des Spiegelsymbols," 272.

49. De Quincey, Confessions of an English Opium-eater, 273. Cf. the vision of "spring-faced cherubs that did sleep / Like water lilies on that motionless deep," in the fragment by Thomas Hood, "The Sea of Death" (in Complete Poetical Works, 184). These visions of "celestial" faces in water in De Quincey and Hood clearly assume the notion of water as a mirror to the heavens. Cf. also the universal identification of the heavenly bodies with mirrors reflecting the eyes of the dead (see Roheim, Spiegelzauber, 232-251).

50. Baudelaire, Artificial Paradises, 123.

51. Ibid., 63-64.

52. Miller, The Transcendentalists, 386-387.

53. Thoreau, The Portable Thoreau, 22.

54. Thoreau, Works of Thoreau, 588.

55. Ibid., 593.

56. Cf. the notions prevalent in the philosophy of nature concerning water as a universal medium. Johann Wilhelm Ritter (1810), for example, wrote: "Water is the medium of hearing. . . . Water is a bridge linking all things possible in the world to us" (Ritter, Fragmente aus dem Nachlasse eines jungen Physikers, 195).

57. Whitman, Complete Prose Works, 88.

58. Ibid., 89.

59. Asselineau, Transcendentalist Constant in American Literature, 44.

60. Matthiessen, American Renaissance, 566-567.

61. Whitman, "On the Beach at Night Alone," in Leaves of Grass, 327.

62. De Quincey, Selected Writings, 884-885.

63. Villiers de l'Isle-Adam, Oeuvres Complètes, 3:193.

64. Ibid., 204.

65. Whitman, "Out of the Cradle Endlessly Rocking," in Leaves of Grass, 316.

66. Collins, The Uses of Observation, 107.

67. De Quincey, Collected Writings, 13:321, 346.

68. Ibid., 883.

69. Balzac, "L'Enfant maudit," in La Comedie humaine, 10:913-914.

70. Ibid., 914.

71. Kingsley, Poems, 67; Gandolfo, "The Sands of Dee: Analisi di un dramma marino di D. W. Griffith," 26-28.

72. De Quincey, Confessions of an English Opium-eater, 104.

73. Tommasino, "Griffith: Una catalisi trasgressiva," 175.

74. Fell, Film and the Narrative Tradition, 31.

75. Cf. Marie, "La Scène des fantasmes originaires."

76. Abel, "Point-of-view Shots," 75.

77. Gaudreault, Du littéraire au filmique.

78. Artaud, Oeuvres complètes, 3:82.

79. Strangely enough, Griffith's playful attitude toward the titles of texts has not provoked any surprise among his critics. R. M. Henderson, a Griffith specialist, in D. W. Griffith: His Life and Work, writes as if it were something natural: "Griffith had now decided to expand that film, no longer relying on the Charles Kingsley poem as a source, but following the original Tennyson poem and taking the original title Enoch Arden" (101).

80. Poe, Poetical Works, 99.

81. Ibid., 96.

82. Ibid., 106.

83. Whitman, "Out of the Cradle Endlessly Rocking," in Leaves of Grass, 316.

84. Ibid.

85. Ibid., 313.

86. Irwin, American Hieroglyphics.

87. The recent publication of Eisenstein's article "Po lichnomu voprosu" (Speaking personally) establishes beyond a doubt that Eisenstein knew Lindsay's book, which he refers to ( Iz tvorcheskogo naslediia S. M. Èizenshteina, 34). This fact raises the question of the link between Eisenstein's pictographic theory of cinema and Lindsay's hieroglyphic theory of cinema.

88. Yoder, Emerson and the Orphic Poet, 40.

89. Lindsay, Art of the Moving Picture, 23. The connection between hieroglyphics

and dreams had already been established in the eighteenth century by W. Warburton, who had written: "At that time all the Egyptians saw their gods as creators of a science of hieroglyphics. Nothing could thus be more natural than supposing that these same gods, whom they also believed responsible for creating dreams, employed the same language for dreams as for hieroglyphics" (Warburton, Essai sur les hiéroglyphes, 193). Warburton believed that Egyptian oneirocriticism (the interpretation of dreams) was based on the hieroglyphic system of writing.

90. Lindsay, Collected Poems, xxii.

91. Poe, Poetical Works, 81.

92. Poe, from "A Dream within a Dream," Poetical Works, 103.

93. Poe, Poetical Works, 104.

94. Phillips, Griffith: Titan of the Film Art, 109.

95. Lindsay, Art of the Moving Picture, 152.

96. Ibid.

97. Ibid., 202.

98. Ibid., 250.

99. Lindsay, Collected Poems, xxiv.

100. Swedenborg, Heaven and Its Wonders and Hell, 137.

101. Hudnut, Architecture and the Spirit of Man, 352.

102. Lindsay cited in Massa, Vachel Lindsay: Fieldworker for the American Dream, 33.

103. Schlesinger, Rise of the City, 436.

104. Lindsay, Letters, 302.

105. Lindsay, Art of the Moving Picture, 176, 177-178. We have already seen elsewhere the image of the crowd as sea, which appears on page 176.

106. Hart, The Man Who Invented Hollywood, 67.

107. Brown, Adventures with D. W. Griffith, 168, 172,

108. Lindsay, Art of the Moving Picture, 19. Later on Lindsay wrote a poem specifically devoted to this episode from Intolerance called "Darling Daughter of Babylon." The poem brings in all of Griffith's themes, such as Balthasar as the priest of love, the antagonism between Ishtar and Baal, and so forth.

109. Phillips, Griffith: Titan of the Film Art. 197.

110. Ramsaye, A Million and One Nights, 758-759. Michael Rogin has written a significant study of the feminine symbols in Intolerance. He points out that, to a great extent, the film is based on the opposition between Ishtar as the embodiment of fertility and eroticism, and Lillian Gish who rocks the cradle and whose image is derived from "classical and Christian representations" that "desexualize motherhood" (Rogin, 'The Great Mother Domesticated," 524). The notion of maternity without eros is precisely what allows Gish to be hieroglyphically coded as the overarching sign that originates the text. Rogin notes that the cradle is the place in which both films and children are raised (522).

111. Eisenstein, Izbrannye proivedeniia, 5:169.

112. Ibid., 159.

113. O'Dell, Griffith and the Rise of Hollywood, 42.

114. Brown, Adventures with D. W. Griffith, 166.

115. Whitman, "Out of the Cradle Endlessly Rocking," in Leaves of Grass, 310.

116. Brown, Adventures with D. W. Griffith, 166.

117. Hugo, Oeuves complètes, 2:498.

118. Hugo, "Fonction du poète," in Oeuvres complètes, 2:921.

119. Hugo, "Je lisais. Que lisais-je?" in Oeuvres complètes, 2:342-343.

120. Spitzer, "Explication de texte applied."

121. De Quincey, Confessions of an English Opium-eater, 193.

122. Baudelaire, Les Paradis artificiels, 105.

123. De Quincey, Collected Writings, 13:360.

124. Poe, Poetical Works, 97-99.

125. Hugo, La légende des siècles, part 5, "La Ville disparue," 64-66.

126. Balzac, "L'Enfant maudit," in La Comédie humaine, 10:915.

127. Nerval, Oeuvres, 870. The city as a metaphor for the ocean is a venerable folkloric motif. So, for example, the "City of Bronze" from the Thousand and One Nights has been viewed by some as a metaphor for the ocean: "In Arab philosophy there is a current that views the ocean as evil and a mortal threat. The simplest contact with it can kill, it smells of putrefaction, it designates the end of the world, the principle of darkness and the nether world. [Thus] the city on the far west, being on the ocean's [ Tekhoma ] edge, is the city of death: it bears the same traits as the ocean itself. And, like the nether world, it is full of treasures. . . . The story of the City of Bronze is, in essence, a myth of the ocean" (Gerhardt, Iskusstvo povestvovaniia, 179-180). On the underwater city in Russian and specifically St. Petersburg eschatalogy, see Iurii M. Lotman, "Simvolika Peterburga i problemy semiotiki goroda,"31-34.

128. Cros and Corbière, Oeuvres Complètes, 1:179.

129. Emerson, Complete Writings, 127.

130. Balzac, Seraphita, 157.

131. Gunning, "Note per una Comprensione dei film di Griffith," 21.

132. Münsterberg, The Film, 74.

133. Bowser, "Griffith e la struttura circolare in alcuni film Biograph."

134. Lotman, Analiz poèticheskogo teksta, 68.

135. Bloom, The Anxiety of Influence, 43.

136. Doane, The Desire to Desire, 5.

137. Hansen, "The Hieroglyph and the Whore," 369.

138. Fenollosa, The Chinese Written Character as a Medium for Poetry, 12, 17. Fenollosa formulated his theory of the ideogram in 1908, but his book The Chinese Written Character as a Medium for Poetry was published by Ezra Pound in 1919. I have consciously not insisted on any possible resemblances between Griffith's films and Pound's poetry, since (as Ronald Bush has pointed out in The Genesis of Ezra Pound's "Cantos," 10-11) Pound's move toward a poetics of the ideogram dates only to 1927; before this date, Pound in fact used the term dismissively (as in his 1921 review of a volume of poetry by Cocteau). In the early thirties, Pound retrospectively claimed to have experimented with ideogrammatic poetry as far back as 1913 (in ABC of Reading ).It is worth noting, however, that Vachel Lindsay ( Art of the Moving Picture, 267-269) with characteristic perspicacity pointed to the proximity of imagism to the cinema back in 1915, urging the imagist poets to move consciously toward the cinema as a form.

139. Jakobson, Essais de linguistique générale, 63.

1. Cf. Tsiv'ian, "Kistorii idei intellektual'nogo kino," 1988.

2. Malevich, "Pis'ma k M. V. Matiushinu," 180.

3. Lyotard, Le Postmoderne expliqué aux enfants, 26-27.

4. Nakov, "De la peinture sans référant verbal," 50, 48.

5. Ibid., 50.

6. Léger, "Présentation du 'Ballet mécanique,'" 64-65.

7. Léger, Fonctions de la peinture, 138-139.

8. Ibid., 140.

9. Léger, "Moskva, Èizenshteinu," 86.

10. Léger, Fonctions de la peinture, 165.

11. Cf. Iampolski, "Problema vzaimodeistviia iskusstv i neosushchestvlennyi mul'tfil'm Fernana Lezhe "Charli-kubist.'"

12. Lawder, Cubist Cinema, 79-97.

13. Cendrars, Oeuvres complètes, 13:93.

14. Cendrars, Blaise Cendrars, 543-546.

15. Vanoye, "Le Cinéma de Cendrars."

16. Lawder, Cubist Cinema, 89.

17. Ibid., 89-90.

18. Parrot, Blaise Cendrars, 46.

19. Ibid., 46.

20. Pound, Ezra Pound and the Visual Arts, 175. This text, the only significant statement Pound ever made about the cinema, is very interesting. Several of its formulations betray points in common with Léger's article "A Critical Essay on the Plastic Significance of Abel Gance's La Roue." In any case, Gance's film is interpreted by Pound as a plastic experiment in film.

21. The composer George Antheil has asserted that the idea of Ballet mécanique is his, and that it was Pound who got Dudley Murphy involved in the film; Murphy, in turn, joined forces with Léger (see Lawder, Cubist Cinema, 117). Léger acknowledged that the multiplication of the object in the prism was suggested to him by Murphy and Pound (Lawder, Cubist Cinema, 137; Léger, "Présentation du 'Ballet mécanique,'" 64). This idea, in fact, originated not with Pound but with Alvin Langdon Coburn, the leading theoretician of the movement known as vorticism, whose photos are remarkably similar to certain frames in Ballet mécanique.

22. Charansol, 40 ans de cinema, 76.

23. Gance, "Blaise Cendrars et le cinema," 171.

24. Gance, "Témoignage d'Abel Gance," xx.

25. Sadoul, "Fernand Léger ou la cinéplastique," 74.

26. Cendrars, Oeuvres complètes, 13:188.

27. Epstein, Ecrits sur le cinéma, 1:55.

28. Ibid., 47-48, 55.

29. Cendrars, Oeuvres complètes, 13: 95-96.

30. In 1950, Cendrars recalled the ballet Relâche by Erik Satie: "I wrote the libretto for old Satie. Francis Picabia ripped off my idea for the plot and the cinematic interlude of Entr'acte, thanks to which René Clair was able to make his debut as a director. Picabia had taken advantage of my departure for Brazil" (ibid., 148).

31. Quoted in Sadoul, Histoire générale du cinéma, 5:146.

32. Hamp, Le Rail, 121.

33. I quote a typical section from Arroy's book, which is a unique phenomenon in the history of film criticism: ''His face emits a warm glow, the gleaming spirituality and dull transparency of glasswork. In vain I strive to remember all the rosettes I have seen, I cannot remember which rosette emitted such a glow from its center. But I know that I will soon see this devouring flame in the heart of the great rose of that cathedral of light which he is now building, completely alone, in the anguished joy of a superhuman labor of birth. And I know too that the Gothic sun which will transform this wheel fitted with crystal rods into laughter and tears of light cannot wound the souls with love more dangerously than they are already being devoured by this dull fever, that singes the face which preserves forever its age of twenty years under its silver hair" (Arroy, En tournant "Napoleon" avec Abel Gance, 6; emphasis added). Gance himself liked to play the saint, typically portraying Christ in one of his films, and then handing out photographs of himself dressed for the part with a crown of thorns on his head. One copy was given to Sergei Eisenstein. Gance's favorite theme was the church of the future, a cinematic "church of light."

34. Ibid., 12-13.

35. Epstein, Ecrits sur le cinéma, 1:175. Gance transformed the wheel as an instrument of torture (breaking on the wheel) into his personal insignia. He had special letterhead paper made with bloody illustrations of victims being broken as a rather pretentious decorative motif for the margins. Cf. Gance's letters to I. Mozzhukhin in the Russian State Archives for Literature and Art (RGALI), Moscow, F. 2632, op. 1, ed. khr. 170.

36. Icart, "A la découverte de 'La Roue,'" 186.

37. Brownlow, The Parade's Gone By, 600

38. Danis died on April 9, 1921 (see ibid., 623).

39. Cf. Dan Yack's reply: "I created a company for her, the Mireille Film Society. That's a nice April's Fool's Day surprise, don't you think? Think of it, nowadays you can create a company just to please a woman" (Cendrars, Oeuvres complètes, 13:173). As an assistant, Cendrars must have constantly been a witness to Gance's arbitrary whims, as the latter arranged the entire shooting schedule and even the conception of the film according to the needs of his lover.

40. I should also like to advance the suggestion that there are reminiscences of La Roue in Ivan Goll's poetry. Published in 1951 shortly after Goll's death on March 13, 1950, the cycle "Magic Circles" clearly indicates Goll's immersion in mystical culture, including the Kabbalah. It is also worth noting that Léger was to provide the text's illustrations. The cycle opens with a text that is devoted to the symbol of the circle: "Caught in the circle of my star / Turning with the wheel that spins in my heart / And the millstone of the universe that grinds the seeds of time." There then follows a fragment that can be read as the intertextual contamination of scenes from two films, Gance's La Roue and Cocteau's Orphé e (1949). In the first case, I am thinking of the scene in which Eli perishes by falling into a ravine in the mountains; in the second—the moment where the angel Heurtebise penetrates beyond the looking glass through the mirror-water (this scene, in turn, is a response to an analogous episode from Cocteau's earlier Sang du poète (1931). Here are the

lines from Goll: "Who is the personage who runs on the edge of the wheel / Who climbs the mountain while falling to the bottom of his grave? / Neither he nor I expect a reply / The wind of the astral vault severs our memory / I try all the wornout keys in order to break the circle / I throw the letters of the alphabet like anchors in the oblivion. . . . And if I attempt the angel-like leap into the mirror / A thousand new circles run to the edge of the world" (Goll, Ivan Goll, 172-173).

41. Cendrars, Oeuvres complètes, 4:96.

42. Ibid., 77. Bozon-Scalzitti's comment can be found in "Blaise Cendrars et le symbolisme," 57.

43. Cendrars, Oeuvres complètes, 6:51.

44. Cendrars, "Origine de l'idée de 'Perpetuum mobile,'" 207-208.

45. Cendrars, Oeuvres complètes, 4:207.

46. Ibid., 214.

47. Ibid., 218.

48. Ibid., 211.

49. Gance, "Témoignage d'Abel Gance,"xxi.

50. Cendrars, Moravagine, 196-197.

51. Cendrars also connects cinema with demotic writing in A B C du cinéma (1917-1921), where the evolution of the cosmos is metaphorically rendered as the evolution of the different forms of writing ( Oeuvres complètes, 6:22).

52. Cendrars, Moravagine, 231-234.

53. Golding, Cubism: A History and an Analysis, 173.

54. See Chefdor, "Blaise Cendrars et le simultanéisme."

55. Cendrars, Inédits secrets, 386.

56. Delaunay, Du cubisme à l'art abstrait, 115.

57. One exception is the 1905 painting Landscape with Disc, in which Michel Hoog sees "the circle as a formal element and a cosmic symbol" ( Delaunay, 25). I am inclined to think that Hoog is here reading into the painting a meaning that could not have been intended at the time of its making.

58. Jaffé, "Symbolism in the Visual Arts," 247.

59. Damase and Delaunay, Sonia Delaunay: Rythmes et couleurs, 83.

60. Jean-Claude Lovey has observed: "Into his notion of simultaneism Cendrars introduces an extremely fecund principle: the principle of contrast as productive of depth" ( Situation de Blaise Cendrars, 236). I would suggest that Cendrars did not invent this principle—which by and large was of a painterly and technical nature and was probably invented by Delaunay—but can be credited for giving it a mythic currency.

61. Cendrars, Inédits secrets, 385.

62. Ibid., 386.

63. Delaunay, Du cubisme à l'art abstrait, 76.

64. Cendrars, Oeuvres complètes, 14:303.

65. Schmalenbach, Fernand Léger, 98.

66. Sarane Alexandrian ( Marcel Duchamp, 33) has pointed to the connection between Duchamp's Bicycle Wheel and Delaunay's Newtonian disks. Duchamp is also probably hinting at another of Delaunay's favorite motifs, the "Big Wheel," an attraction located next to the Eiffel Tower and depicted by Delaunay in his famous painting L'Équipe de Cardiff (1912-1913), as well as in other works that are less well

known. The "Big Wheel" was also celebrated many times by French poets of Cendrars's milieu.

67. Cendrars, "Fernand Léger," 215.

68. Cendrars, Du monde entier, 104-105.

69. Francastel, L'lmage, la vision et l'imaginaire, 196.

70. Delaunay, Du cubisme ô l'art abstrait, 209.

71. Goll, "Das Kinodram," 224.

72. Soupault, "Enfin Cendrars vint . . . ou tel qu'en lui-même enfin," 86.

73. Epstein, Edits sur le cinéma, 1:35.

74. Quoted in Buhler, Blais Cendrars, 80.

75. Cendrars, Oeuvres complètes, 4:191.

76. Ibid., 14:296.

77. Somewhat later this motif would resurface in the screenplay for Gance's film Les Altantes (1918), where, judging by the surviving plans for the film, the representation of the apocalypse was to take up a great deal of space (see Cendrars, In-édits secrets, 410-412). Les Altantes was never made. But much later Gance did make the film La Fin du monde (1931), which, although quite remote from Cendrars's ideas, is in fact a variation on themes that originated with the writer Camille Flammarion, who exerted a great influence on both Cendrars's and Gance's myth of the apocalypse.

78. Cendrars, Oeuvres complètes, 2:21.

79. Ibid., 28.

80. Ibid., 29.

81. Ibid., 30.

82. Cendrars, Bourlinguer, 234.

83. Survage, "Le Rythme coloré."

84. Cendrars, Oeuvres completes. 6:49-51; emphasis added.

85. Leroy, "Cendrars, le futurisme et la fin du monde."

86. Gance, L'Art cinématographique, 2:93.

87. Epstein, Ecrits sur le cinéma, 1:42, 48-49.

88. Ballet suédois 1920-1925, 29.

89. Descargues, Fernand Léger, 67-68.

90. Cendrars, Oeuvres complètes, 2:14.

91. Cendrars, Moravagine, 36.

92. Cendrars, Oeuvres complètes, 2:111. A similar erotic description of Rougha's cinematic dance can also be found in the epilogue (sections 829-840), 2:128.

93. Léger, "Moskva, Èizenshteinu," 141.

94. Léger, Fonctions de la peinture, 153.

95. See Sitney, "Image and Title in Avant-Garde Cinema," 102-105.

96. Michelson, '"Anemic Cinema': Reflections on an Emblematic Work," 69.

97. Cendrars, Moravagine, 225.

98. Cendrars, Bourlinguer, 349.

99. Gourmont, "The Dissociation of Ideas," 28.

100. Ibid., 26.

101. Gourmont, Physique de l'amour, 69.

102. Cendrars, Bourlinguer, 356-358.

103. Cendrars, Moravagine, 63-65.

104. Ibid., 66.

105. Cendrars, A B Cdu cinéma, in Oeuvres complètes, 6:21. Cendrars's numerology here has a clearly mystical import. The text continues as follows: "A numeral. As in the Middle Ages the rhinoceros is Christ; the bear is the devil, the jasper—liveliness, the chrysoprase—pure humility. 6 and 9." Cendrars's symbolism is clearly fantastic (e.g., the purely personal association of Christ with a rhinoceros). This poetic Pythagoreanism is probably connected to Cendrars's love for astrology. Nonetheless, a numerical or rhythmic yoking together of the stars with all living things through a principle of a cyclic sexual energy was a notion pursued by other artists as well. There is a curiously similar numerological myth of astral eroticism in the writings of Freud's friend Wilhelm Fliess, particularly in his chief work, The Rhythm of Life (1906). But there is no evidence that Cendrars knew Fliess's work.

106. Cendrars, "Pompon," in Oeuvres complètes, 15:1317.

107. Cendrars, Moravagine, 351.

108. Ibid., 351-352.

109. Miller's famous works Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn were written under Moricand's influence. Miller also dedicated A Devil in Paradise to Moricand, a book that throws some light on Moricand's life. It is curious that in this work Miller named Cendrars's L'Eubage as one of the most important books on mysticism that he had studied ( A Devil in Paradise, 23). It is also possible that Moricand introduced Cendrars to the teachings of Jakob Boehme, who, in turn, would have influenced Gance's rendering of the symbol of the wheel via Cendrars. In any case, Boehme is one of the authors Moricand passed on to Miller (cf. Martin, Always Merry and Bright, 318).

110. Cendrars, Oeuvres complètes, 2:43.

111. Cendrars, L'Eubage, 56; emphasis added.

112. Ibid., 57.

113. Ibid., 59-60.

114. Léger, Fonctions de la peinture, 164.

115. Schmalenbach, Fernand Léger, 116.

116. Cendrars, Oeuvres complètes, 15:136.

117. Ibid., 135.

118. Derouet, "Léger et le cinëma," 132-138.

1. Virmaux, Les Surréalistes et le cinéma, 73.

2. Desnos, Cinéma, 157.

3. Ibid., 165.

4. Breton, Les Manifestes du surréalisme, 73.

5. Buñuel, "Notes on the Making of 'Un Chien andalou,'" 29-30.

6. In one case the prologue has been understood as the description of infantile sexuality, whereby the eye is a symbol of the female sexual organ and the razor of the male (see Durgnat, Luis Buñuel, 23-24). Elsewhere the prologue has been seen as an embodiment of various castration complexes and phantasms (see Marie, "Le Rasoir et la lune," 196-197). Marie, however, does ground his reading in a surrealist

intertext by linking the prologue to Georges Bataille's Histoire de I'oeil, which was written not long after and not without the influence of Buñuel.

7. Williams, "Prologue to 'Un Chien andalou,'" 30-31.

8. Buñuel, My Last Sigh, 103.

9. Bataille, Oeuvres complètes, 1:211.

10. Dali, Catalogue de la rétrospective, 48.

11. Aranda, Buñuel: A Critical Biography, 67.

12. Ibid., 59. Immediately before commencing work on Un Chien andalou, Buñuel would claim in La Gazeta Literaria that the close-up shot was invented in literature by Ramón Gómez de la Serna long before Griffith, who may well have borrowed it from the latter (Buñuel, "O fotogenichnom plane," 119).

13. Drummond, "Textual Space in 'Un Chien andalou,'" 60.

14. Gómez de la Serna, Movieland, 61-62.

15. Ibid., 61.

16. Ibid., 62.

17. Ibid., 63.

18. Ibid., 64.

19. Ibid., 104.

20. Riffaterre, La Production du texte, 223.

21. Ibid., 249.

22. Ibid.

23. Desnos, Cinéma, 22-24.

24. Ibid., 28.

25. Derouet, "Léger et le cinéma," 142.

26. Virmaux, Les Surréalistes et le cinéma, 221-227.

27. Kyrou, Buñuel: An Introduction, 135.

28. Breton and Soupault, Les Champs magnetiqués, 116, 76.

29. Breton, Nadja, 61.

30. Breton and Soupault, Les Champs magnétiques, 42.

31. Arp, Jours effeuillés, 31.

32. Buñuel, "Buñuel par Buñuel," 63-64.

33. Cf. Boczkowska, Tryumf Luny i Wenus, 38-39.

34. Artaud, Oeuvres complètes, 1:141.

35. Éluard, Poèmes, 105.

36. Breton and Soupault, Les Champs magnétiques, 71.

37. Tzara, L'Homme approximatif, 27; Virmaux, Les Surréalistes et le cinéma, 223.

38. Soupault, Poèmes et poésies, 140.

39. Breton, Le Revolver à cheveux blancs, 111.

40. This motif migrates to other French films as well, although no longer in the form of a visualized trope but rather as an element of the plot (the assimilation of a trope into the plot is characteristic of the period in which the avant-garde disintegrates). In Vigo's L'Atalante (1934), a severed hand preserved in spirits is kept as a curiosity by an old eccentric seaman. In Maurice Toumeur's La Main du Diable (1943), a severed arm in a casket serves as the Devil's talisman that leads to the death of the hero. Here are further examples from Soupault: "You probably have to cut them [the hands] off in order to stop loving them" ( Poèmes et poésies, 135). Elsewhere the poet sees "clouds and birds (naturally), stars and arms" (ibid.,

136) . Here the subtext actualizes the motif of the starfish, which resembles a hand.

41. Roudaut, "Un geste, un regard," 836-838.

42. Breton and Soupault, Les Champs magnétiques, 117.

43. "To my side there abruptly appears a man who changes into a woman, and then into an old man. At that moment there appears another old man, who changes into a baby and then into a woman" (Soupault, Poèmes et poésies, 136). Linda Williams has rightly called these primitive metaphors typologically "Mèliésian" ( Figures of Desire, 5). "Mèliésian" metaphor might be termed one of the founding elements of avant-garde cinema even in its most diverse orientations (cf. Sergei Eisenstein's film Glumov's Diary [1923], which is constructed entirely on such devices). The profusion of metamorphoses in Entr'acte has allowed Marc Bertran (somewhat baselessly) to collapse the distinction between surrealist cinema and the film by Clair and Picabia. Bertran considers metamorphosis to be the principal feature of surrealist film ("Image cinématographique et image surréaliste'').

44. Breton wrote of Péret that at the basis of his works lies a "generalized principle of mutation, metamorphosis" ( Anthologie de l'humour noir, 385). Cf. also Matthews, Benjamin Péret, 87, 113.

45. Péret, Mort aux vaches et au champ d'honneur, 40, 76, 56-57.

46. Matthews, Benjamin Péret, 47.

47. Dali, Catalogue de la rétrospective, 68.

48. The erotic function of marine animals has a subterranean presence throughout surrealist writing. Sometimes it surfaces in a more obvious way: "I then noticed that a jellyfish had lodged between my legs, resulting in a voluptuousness so incommensurable that in a moment there was nothing more that I could desire" (Péret, Mort aux vaches et au champ d'honneur, 24).

49. Breteque, "'A l'échelle animale': Notes pour un Bestiaire," 64.

50. Péret, Mort aux vaches et au champ d'honneur, 118. The film theater is showing a film on the "different ways to tame snails." The sea also appears extensively in the "scientific" films of Jean Painlevé, which the surrealists held in high esteem: La Daphnie (1928), La Pieuve (1928), Les Oursins (1928), Le Bernard-l'Ermite (1930), Les Crevettes (1930), and so forth. Also important in this regard are Eric Satie's Les Embrionis désechés, with its fictitious crustaceans, and Breton and Soupault's Les Champs magnétiques, sections of which are written as if by a mollusk.

51. Breton, Arcane 17, 90. Cf. also Eigeldinger, Poésie et metamorphose, 207-208.

52. Kyrou, Buñuel: An Introduction, 136.

53. Aranda, Buñuel: A Critical Biography, 270.

54. Buñuel, Mon dernier soupir, 125.

55. Breton, Le Revolver à cheveux blancs, 57.

56. Péret, Mort aux vaches et au champ d'honneur, 47-48.

57. Breton, Poèmes, 50-51.

58. Artaud, Héliogabale ou l'anarchiste couronné, 139.

59. Breton and Soupault, Les Champs magnétiques, 106.

60. Kyrou, Buñuel: An Introduction, 243.

61. Descargues, Fernand Léger, 64.

62. Painter, Marcel Proust 1904-1922, 398.

63. Proust, La Prisonnière, 222-223.

64. Montesquiou, Diptyque de Flandre. Triptyque de France, 13.

65. Ibid., 19.

66. Castelnau, Belle époque, 232.

67. Painter, Marcel Proust 1871-1903, 179.

68. Solomon-Godeau, "The Legs of the Countess," 296.

69. Painter, Marcel Proust l871-1903, 177.

70. Balakian, Literary Origins of Surrealism, 17.

71. Quoted in ibid., 18.

70. Balakian, Literary Origins of Surrealism, 17.

71. Quoted in ibid., 18.

72. Dali, Catalogue de la rétrospective, 202.

73. Ibid., 352-353.

74. Buchole, L'Évolution poétique de Robert Desnos, 46.

75. Eliade, Images et symboles, 164: "Oysters, seashells, snails, pearls, are connected both to cosmologies of the sea and to sexual symbolism. They all effectively partake of the sacred powers that are concentrated in the Waters, in the Moon, in Woman; they are, for various reasons, emblems of the latter forces: there is a resemblance between the seashell and the genital organs of a woman, a relationship that links oysters, water and the moon; there is also a gynecological and embryological symbolism in the pearl that is formed in a shell. The belief in the magical virtues of the oysters and the shell is found the world over, from prehistory to modern times." (For a detailed investigation of the connection between the pearl and rites of burial and death, cf. Eliade, ibid., 178-190.)

76. Eliot, The Waste Land, lines 48, 124; pp. 71, 75.

77. Desnos, "A présent," in Anthologie des poètes de la N.R.F., 145.

78. Buñuel, "Buñuel par Buñuel," 65.

79. Cf. Damisch, Théorie du (nuage), 54-55. Of The Triumph of Virtue Damisch writes that "after the space of analogies the painting opens up the space of metamorphoses from which art derives its nourishment and origin: the painting has only to profit from an 'invention' by finding inspiration in the constantly changing forms of the clouds" (55). Interestingly, Proust also found Mantegna's clouds to be of particular symbolic importance (cf. Chevrier and Legars, "L'Atelier Elstir," 46-47).

80. For a review of this literature, see Drummond, "Textual Space in 'Un Chien andalou,'" 73-82.

81. Ibid., 78-80.

82. Delluc, Charlot, 31; emphasis added.

83. Dali, Catalogue de la rétrospective, 56.

84. Bataille, Oeuvres complètes, 1:211.

85. Dali, Catalogue de la rétrospective, 48.

86. Buñuel, Mon dernier soupir, 70.

87. Apollinaire, Oeuvres complètes, 1:80.

88. Ibid., 90.

89. Hugo, "Montfaucon," in La Légende des siècles, 114.

90. Hugo, Les Châtiments, 287.

91. Baudelaire, "Une charogne," in Les Fleurs du mal, 34-35.

92. Cf. Matthews, Benjamin Péret, 144-146.

93. Buñuel, "Interview by J. de la Colina and T. Perez-Turrent," 12.

94. Soupault, Vingt mille et un jours, 70.

95. Matthews, Benjamin Péret, 144; emphasis added.

96. Péret, "Jeanne d'Arc," in Oeuvres complètes, 1:145; emphasis added.

97. Ibid., 258; emphasis added. Cf. Apollinaire's statement in L'Enchanteur pourrissant that "the Pope's shit" should be counted as one of the world's "great rarities" (40).

98. Péret, Oeuvres complètes, 1:246, 280; emphasis added.

99. Ibid., 262; emphasis added.

100. Ibid., 238.

101. Cf. Freidenberg: "Jesus on the ass is in fact himself a repetition of the ass, which is already a divinity, although one more ancient than Christ himself" ( Mif i literatura drevnosti, 502). The two donkeys in Un Chien andalou may well also be a biblical reference: "And the disciples went, and did as Jesus commanded them, And brought the ass, and the colt, and put on them their clothes, and they sit him thereon" (Matt. 21:6-7).

102. Aranda, Buñuel: A Critical Biography, 258. Many years later, Buñuel recalled Péret's passage about blind men and bologna sausage: "Péret writes: 'Is it really not true that mortadella is made by the blind?' Damn! What extraordinary precision! I know of course that blind people don't make bologna, but they do make it. You see them making it" (Buñuel, "Interview by J. de la Colina and T. Perez-Turrent,"7).

103. Dali, Catalogue de la rétrospective, 48.

104. Bataille, L'Expérience intérieure, 31.

105. Dali, Catalogue de la rétrospective, 58.

106. Aranda, Buñuel: A Critical Biography, 27.

107. Dali, "L'Âne pourri," 11. The notion of simulacrum is highly polyvalent; it can mean representation, phantom, vision, invention, analogy, or semblance. In 1925, the word appeared in the title of a collection of poetry by Michel Leiris. Leiris's Simulacreis one of the most obscure surrealist texts; appearing before Dali, it does, however, prefigure some aspects of his theory of "multiple representation." Leiris, for example, writes of the "desert of annihilated comparison" ( Mots sans mémoire, 15; cf. Dali's privileged field of simile—the desert, the beach). Leiris also speaks of the "monotonous pulp of forms" (ibid., 16) and metamorphoses (ibid., 19). The question of Leiris's possible influence on Dali is yet to be studied.

108. Artaud, Oeuvres complètes, 1:126.

109. Ibid., 288.

110. Dali, Catalogue de la rétrospective, 145.

111. Quoted in ibid., 52.

110. Dali, Catalogue de la rétrospective, 145.

111. Quoted in ibid., 52.

112. Éluard, Poèmes, 92.

113. Dali, Secret Life of Salvador Dali, a 13.

114. Apollinaire, L'Enchantewr pourrissant, 90. The juxtaposition of piano keys and teeth is self-evident enough for it to appear elsewhere, for example, in the work of the Russian writer Ol'ga Forsch: "The yellowish teeth without saliva were like the keys of a toy piano" ("Sumasshedshii Korabl'," 272).

115. Gómez de la Serna, "L'Enteirement du Stradivarius," 163. The comparison of coffin and piano also appears often in Joyce's Ulysses. Typically, Joyce, sensitive as always to formal metamorphoses, also plays with the metaphor of keyboard as teeth.

116. Bataille, Oeuvres complètes, 1:217.

117. Ibid., 230.

118. Breton and Soupault, Les Champs magnétiques, 32.

1. Toddes, "Posleslovie"; Sèpman, "Tynianov-stsenarist," 74-76.

2. Iutkevich, O kinoiskusstve, 42.

3. Sèpman, "Tynianov-stsenarist," 76.

4. Zorkaia, "Tynianov i kino," 292.

5. Kozintsev, Sobranie sochinenii, 2:28.

6. Garin, "Obogashchenie literatury."

7. One such indication is the sorry episode of a public defamation of Tynianov at Belgoskino studios, which apparently led to Tynianov's definitive break with the cinema. The scriptwriter B. L. Brodianskii qualified Lieutenant Kizhe as the "rearguard action of formalism's remaining forces." Tynianov, present at the meeting at Belgoskino concerning the issue, protested in strong terms against such provocative declarations: "'Rearguard actions' no longer represent a threat to your firm, and its scriptwriters have every reason not to be concerned. I will trouble them no longer with my presence. . . .' And [Tynianov] left before the meeting ended" (see A-va, "Skromnitsy iz Belgoskino").

8. Tynianov [Yury Tynyanov], Lieutenant Kizhe, from Lieutenant Kijé, 43; emphasis added. All quotations from the story Lieutenant Kizhe refer to this edition, with the spelling of Russian proper nouns occasionally altered to conform with the transliteration system used throughout this book: this most notably affects the title and name of the hero Kizhe, which Ginsburg styles as Kijé. Wherever the English translation reads "Nants," the name Kizhe has also been restored, except in the central episode in which the name is first coined (see the quote corresponding to note 22) and where the pun involved in the name subsequently needs greater clarity in English (translator's note).

9. Ibid., 47; emphasis added.

10. Ibid., 49.

11. On The Sandunov Baths, see Stepanov, "Zamysly i plany," 239.

12. Tynianov, Lieutenant Kijé, 331.

13. Levinton, "Istochniki i podteksty romana 'Smert' Vazir-Mukhtara'," 7.

14. Ibid., 6.

15. Shklovskii, "Gorod nashei iunosti," 28.

16. Lotman and Tsiv'ian, "SVD: Zhanr melodramy i istoriia."

17. Tynianov, Problema stikhotvornogo iazyka, 80.

18. Ibid.

19. Ibid., 95.

20. Ibid., 116.

21. Shklovskii, Gamburgskii schet (1914-1933), 469.

22. Tynianov, Lieutenant Kijé, 9.

23. Tynianov, Poruchik Kizhe, shot 139a.

24. Tynianov, Poètika, 27, comments on the function of letters such as the now

obsolete V (the izhitsa ) in the epigrams of Pushkin, where it denotes an individual, becoming his "parodic designation." It is possible that the izhitsa may be connected as a parodic sign with the phonic value of the name Kizhe. Cf. also Georgii Levinton, "Istochniki i podteksty romana 'Smert' Vazir-Mukhtara'," 14, who points to an explicit thematization of the izhitsa in Pushkin.

25. Eikhenbaum, O proze, 313.

26. Tynianov, Podporuchik Kizhe [1927].

27. Tynianov, Poètika, 336.

28. Ibid., 338-339.

29. Shklovskii, "O poèzii i zaumnom iazyke," in Gamburgskii schet (1914-1933), 52.

30. Tynianov, Problema stikhotvornogo iazyka, 94.

31. Tynianov, Kiukhlia, 143.

32. Ibid., 131.

33. Jakobson, Raboly po poètike, 313.

34. Iakubinskii, Izbrannye raboty, 169.

35. Eikhenbaum, "Problemy kinostilistiki," 17. Cf. also my article on trans-sense in the film theory of the OPOIAZ critics: Iampolski, "'Smyslovaia veshch' v kinoteorii OPOIAZa."

36. Jakobson, Raboty po poètike, 313.

37. Tynianov, Lieutenant Kijé, 24; emphasis added. I have retranslated the two italicized words from the Russian in place of Mirra Ginsburg's version (translator's note).

38. Ibid., 25.

39. Ibid., 33, with one phrase retranslated.

40. On the realization of principles proper to poetry in Tynianov's prose, see Boris Eikhenbaum, O proze, 405, who notes the wavering indicators of meaning that are mobilized by Tynianov in his novel The Death of the Vazir-Mtikhtar.

41. Tynianov, Poruchik Kizhe.

42. Ibid., shot 298.

43. Instead of emphasizing perspective for the purpose of creating a subjective camera vision, one can also do the reverse: destroy perspective through the use of masking, out-of-focus images, and so forth. This device was characteristic of early cinema, but it demanded a specific psychological motivation that would have been out of the question in the case of Kizhe: for example, a heroine's tears might motivate a blurring of vision, or intoxication might justify a jerky camera movement.

44. Tynianov, Poruchik Kizhe.

45. Tynianov, Lieutenant Kijé, 35.

46. Hoffmann, "Klein Zaches genannt Zinnober," 1:238.

47. Ibid., 240.

48. Ibid., 235.

49. Tynianov, Poruchik Kizhe.

50. Hoffmann, "Klein Zaches genannt Zinnober," 1:168.

51. Ibid., 238.

52. Ibid., 232.

53. Tynianov, Poruchik Kizhe, shots 650, 586; Hoffmann, "Klein Zaches gennant Zinnober," 234.

54. Hoffmann, "Klein Zaches genannt Zinnober," 241-242. There is also an analogous moment in Tynianov's novel Smert' vazir-Mukhtara, in which Griboedov, lying sick in bed, sees the image of his father: "He began to approach the bed in which Griboedov lay gazing at him, and the small, white, wonderful hand of his father became visible. His father moved the blanket and looked at the sheets. "Strange, where's Alexander?' he said, and walked away from the bed. And Griboedov began to weep and shout with a thin voice; he knew that he did not exist" (257-258).

55. Tynianov, Poruchik Kizhe.

56. Hoffmann, "Klein Zaches genannt Zinnober," 348-249.

57. Tynianov, Lieutanant Kijé, 50.

58. Hoffmann, "Klein Zaches genannt Zinnober," 245; Tynianov, Lieutenant Kijé, 51.

59. Hoffmann, "Klein Zaches genannt Zinnober," 250.

60. Ibid., 247.

61. Ibid.

62. Tynianov, Poètika, 314.

63. Ibid.

64. Lotman and Tsiv'ian, "SVD: Zhanr melodramy i istoriia," 47.

65. Tsiv'ian, "'Paleogrammy v fil'me 'Shinel,'" 26.

66. Tynianov, Poètika, 26.

67. Ibid., 345.

68. Ibid., 343.

69. Ibid., 313.

70. Ibid., 316.

71. Ibid., 212.

72. The film adaptation of The Overcoat contains a direct reference to the future film version of Lieutenant Kizhe. Bashmachkin is made to leave a note, which ends with the following words: "The Titled Counsellor Akakii Akakievich Bashmachkin subsequent to his death is no longer listed. A. Bashmachkin." This note is clearly an anticipatory declaration concerning what will become the Siniukhaev subplot in the story Kizhe. So we can say that Kizhe comes directly out of Tynianov's screenplay for Gogol's The Overcoat.

73. Vinogradov, Izbrannye trudy, 5.

74. "In theatrical or dramatic parody an actor performs in place of the hero" (Tynianov, Poètika, 302).

75. Ibid., 303-308.

76. Ibid., 206.

77. Prokof'ev, "Prostranstvo v zhivopisi Dega," 116.

78. Tynianov, Kiukhlia, 388.

79. Tynianov, Poruchik Kizhe; emphasis added.

80. Ibid.; emphasis added.

81. Cf. Toddes, "Posleslovie," 183-186.

82. Tynianov, Poruchik Kizhe.

83. Ibid.

84. Ibid., shots 353, 621.

85. Tynianov, Lieutenant Kijé, 13.

86. Ibid., 23.

87. The Gogolian subtext is also present in the motif of smells, present both in Kizhe and in Gogol's "The Nose": In Tynianov's story (ibid., 20, 47), we find: "Paul Petrovich was in the habit of sniffing people"; "'If I could crawl into the snuffbox,' thought the Emperor, snuffing the tobacco." In these scenes Paul behaves exactly like the Gogolian nose-become-person: "Lieutenant Sinukhaev x188; distinguished people by smell" (45). The screenplay repeatedly returns to the idea of Pahlen's snuffbox as a threat to the emperor, and Paul is said to have discerned Pahlen's pro-English sentiments by smell, and so on.

88. Tynianov, Poruchik Kizhe, shot 202.

89. Tynianov, Poruchik Kizhe.

90. Gogol, "The Nose," 188.

91. Gogol, "The Nevsky Prospect," in Tales from Gogol, 147.

92. Tynianov, Kiukhlia, 334.

93. Tynianov, Lieutenant Kijé, 117.

94. Tynianov, Kiukhlia, 376.

95. Tynianov, Lieutenant Kijé, 63-64.

96. Tynianov, Poruchik Kizhe, shot 188.

97. Tynianov, Poruchik Kizhe.

98. Ibid., shots 499-508.

99. Ibid., shot 256.

100. Barthes, L'Obvie et l'obtus, 282.

101. These scenes may contain parodic subtextual references to Pushkin's celebrated Bronze Horseman. The following section, for example, contains a grotesque echo of Pushkin's description of the flood: "316. Paul looks. Suddenly his face assumes a defiant expression, and he quickly rides to the gates of the castle. 317. The dwarf runs after him. A little stream runs down the head of the statue and falls on his collar. He huddles up. Caption: 'Great-grandfather.' The dwarf says: 'Your great-grandfather is crying'" (Tynianov, Poruchik Kizhe).

102. Ibid., 258.

103. Tynianov, Kiukhlia, 196.

1. See Iu. Tynianov, Pushkin i ego sovremenniki, 209. The article "Bezymennaia liubov" was first published in Literatunyi sovremennik 5-6 (1939).

2. Eikhenbaum, O proze, 383.

3. Shub, Zhizn' moia-kinematograf, 167-168.

4. Eisenstein, "Pis'mo Tynianovu," 179.

5. Eisenstein, "Psikhologiia kompozitsii," 281.

6. Ibid., 280.

7. Eisenstein, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 3: 496-497.

8. Eisenstein, "Psikhologiia kompozitsii," 276.

9. Ibid., 278. The phrase "dissect music like a corpse" is Pushkin's, from Mozart and Salieri (1830) (translator's note).

10. Eisenstein, "Nachahmung als Beherrschung," 34.

11. Ibid., 36.

12. Ibid.

13. Benjamin, Essais II: 1935-1940, 33.

14. Durkheim, Les Formes elmuntauvs de la vie religieuse, 179; Eisenstein's emphasis.

15. Lang, Custom and Myth, 303.

16. Levy-Bruhl, How Natives Think, 140.

17. Lindsay, Short History of Culture, 49.

18. Eisenstein, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 1:484.

19. Eisenstein, archival material from RGALI (Moscow), f. 1923, op. 2, ed. khr. 239.

20. Ibid.

21. Eisenstein, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 2:241.

22. Ibid., 351, 342.

23. Eisenstein, "Chet-nechet: Razdvoenie edinogo," 235.

24. Panofsky, Idea, 233.

25. Ibid., 80.

26. Ibid., 82.

27. Ibid., 103.

28. Ibid., 107-108.

29. Eisenstein, "Organichnost' i obraznost'," in Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 4:652.

30. Ibid., 653.

31. Ibid., 662-663.

32. Eisenstein, RGALI, f. 1923, op. 2, ed. khr. 239.

33. Ibid.

34. Souriau, La Correspondance des Arts, 226.

35. Adorno and Eisler, Komposition für den Film, 205.

36. Ibid. As authoritative a figure as Pierre Boulez confirms the position of Adorno and Eisler in 1989: "The interest of a melodic line does not lie in permitting a transcription that is visually more or less beautiful. Inversely, an admirable curve translated into musical notes might generate the most banal kind of melodic line. And the eye is incapable of appreciating from a curve the finesse of intervals, the way some of them return, their relations with the harmony, that is to say, everything that gives a melodic line its value. We need other criteria here, and there are dimensions here that cannot be represented visually, to which no sketch can do justice" ( Le Pays fertile, 53).

37. Quoted in Kleiman and Nesteva, "Vydaiushchiisia khudozhnik-gumanist," 72.

38. Eisenstein, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 2:252-253.

39. Eisenstein, Iz tvorcheskogo naslediia S. M. Éizenshteina, 72.

40. Eisenstein, RGALI, f. 1923, op. 1, ed. khr. 1041.

41. Ibid., ed. khr. 239.

42. Eisenstein, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 2:386-387.

43. Worringer, Abstraktion und Einfuhlung, 22. Eisenstein quotes Worringer in his work "In Search of a Father" ("Poiski ottsa," RGALI, f. 1923, op. 2, ed. khr. 234). Eisenstein's search for abstraction proceeds in a way that closely follows the line of abstract thinking in the aesthetics of Riegel, Hilderbrand, and Wölfflin, through to Klee and Kandinsky.

44. Eisenstein, RGALI, f. 1923, op. 2, ed. khr. 239.

45. Ibid.

46. Levy-Bruhl, How Natives Think, 139.

47. Eisenstein, "O detektive," 142-144.

48. Eisenstein, RGALI, f. 1923, op. 2, ed. khr. 239.

49. Eisenstein, "O detektive," 144.

50. Eisenstein, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 1:177.

51. Ibid., 3:374.

52. Ibid.,

53. Ibid., 375.

54. Ibid., 376.

55. Ibid., 1:507.

56. Ibid., 509.

57. Ibid.

58. Ibid., 1:433.

59. Ibid., 441.

60. Breton, "The Automatic Message," 108.

61. Ibid., 108-109.

62. Sophocles, Antigone, ll. 1001-1015 (p. 105).

63. Cf. Rudnitskii, Russkoe razhisserskoe iskusstvo 1898-1907, 67.

64. Kozlov, "Gipoteza o nevyskazannom posviashchenii."

65. Apollodorus, Gods and Heroes ofthe Greeks, 147.

66. Eisenstein, RGALI, f. 1923, op. 2, ed. khr. 233. Eisenstein acknowledges that Swedenborg, "like all mystics, possesses a certain knowledge" (ibid.). Swedenborg's great error for Eisenstein lies in having too objective ( veshchestvennoe ) an understanding of the image or, to put it more metaphorically, in failing to "switch off" his diurnal vision. In mysticism, Eisenstein feels, "the seedling of sensation [oshchushcheniia] grows and develops not into cognition (in our sense of the term), but into a metaphysical ideogram: an image of concepts conceived as objects." Thus Eisenstein can guardedly acknowledge his bond with mysticism while claiming to provide the corrective of a higher level of abstraction.

67. Eisenstein, RGALI, f. 1923, op. 2, ed. khr. 233.

68. Worringer, Abstraktion und Einfühlung, 23.

69. Eisenstein, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 4:125. Cf. also Eisenstein, "O detektive," 148: "Step by step a shift occurs in the reader toward reading phenomena according to the image of objects and the representations that accompany their form or appearance, rather than according to their content or designation, that is, a reorientation toward so-called 'physiognomic'—purely sensory—perception."

70. Eisenstein, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 3:375.

71. Wölfflin, Renaissance und Barock, 86.

72. Eisenstein, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 3:204.

73. Ibid., 2:285.

74. Eisenstein, RGALI, f. 1923, op. 1, ed. khr. 236.

75. Eisenstein, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 3:225-226.

76. Ibid., 2:354, 389, 389-390.

77. Eisenstein, "Psikhologiia kompozitsii," 279.

78. Ibid., 280.

79. Baudelaire, "Salon de 1859," in Curiosités esthétiques: L'Art romantique, 391-392.

80. Baudelaire, Les Fleurs du mal, 109.

81. Besant, Thought-Forms.

82. Voloshin, Liki tvorchestva, 211.

83. Cf. ibid., 316: "Under the hills next to these valleys one can discern the contours of bloated ribs; long trunks expose spinal columns concealed below them; flat and predatory-looking skulls rise out of the sea." Voloshin also payed homage to evolutionary theory by dividing art history into three periods (ibid., 216): (1) the arbitrary symbolism of the sign, (2) strict realism, and (3) generalized stylization. This schema in essence coincides with those advanced by Worringer and Eisenstein.

82. Voloshin, Liki tvorchestva, 211.

83. Cf. ibid., 316: "Under the hills next to these valleys one can discern the contours of bloated ribs; long trunks expose spinal columns concealed below them; flat and predatory-looking skulls rise out of the sea." Voloshin also payed homage to evolutionary theory by dividing art history into three periods (ibid., 216): (1) the arbitrary symbolism of the sign, (2) strict realism, and (3) generalized stylization. This schema in essence coincides with those advanced by Worringer and Eisenstein.

84. Belyi, Petersburg, 168.

85. Eisenstein, Izrannye proizvedeniia, 4:660-661.

86. Ibid., 125-126.

87. Klee, Théorie de l'art moderne, 11.

88. Ibid., 44-45.

89. Eisenstein, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 1:300.

90. Ibid., 267.

91. Ibid., 2:350.

92. Ibid., 351. In this quote Eisenstein also uses the English word bones, which he translates as "kostiak" (translator's note).

93. Ibid., 1:506.

94. Eisenstein, RGALI, f. 1923. op. 2, ed. khr. 233.

95. Ibid.

96. Eisenstein, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 1:211.

97. Eisenstein, RGALI, f. 1923, op. 2, ed. khr. 1082.

98. There is a similar account of bodily release in Belyi's Petersburg: "As if a bandage had fallen off all sensations . . . as if you were being torn to pieces, pulled in opposite directions, in the front your heart is being ripped out, and your own spine is being ripped out of your back like a stick from a wattle fence. . . . My body was prickling all over, and I could distinctly feel the prickling—at a distance of about seven inches from my body! Just think! I was turned inside out. . . . Beside yourself is completely bodily, physiological" (180-181).

99. Eisenstein, RGALI, f. 1923, op. 2, ed. khr. 1082.

100. Riffaterre, "Sémiotique intertextuelle," 132.

101. Eisenstein, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 1:296.

102. Rodenbach, Bruges-la-morte, 46.

103. Benjamin, Paris, capitate du XIXe siècle, 436.

1. Krauss, "Originality as Repetition," 36.

2. Fried, "Antiquity Now," 92.

3. Pleynet, Lautrémont par lui-meme, 90.

4. Metz, Le Stgnifiant imaginaire, 274.

5. Ibid., 337-338.

6. Cf. J. Dubois, F. Edeline, J. M. Klinkenberg, P. Minguet, F. Pire, and H. Trinon, Rhetorique générale par le groupe u, 183.

7. Shklovskii, Kak my pishem, 185-186.

8. Yates, Art of Memory, 96.

9. Ibid., 349.

10. Ibid., 79.

11. Benjamin, Allegorien kultureller Erfahrung, 130.