1. As told to the author by Santiago Roel, Austin, Texas, 17 Aug 1988.

2. El Universal, 25 Mar 1938.

3. Raúl Prebisch, Towards a Dynamic Development Policy for Latin America (New York, 1963); André Gunder Frank, Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America: Historical Studies of Chile and Brazil (New York, 1969); E. Bradford Burns, The Poverty of Progress (New York, 1980); Fernando Henrique Cardoso and Enzo Faletto, Dependency and Development in Latin America, trans. Marjory Mattingly Urquidi (Berkeley, 1979); Emmanuel Wallerstein, ''The Rise and Future Demise of the World Capitalist System: Concepts for Comparative Analysis," Comparative Studies in Society and History 16 (1974): 387-415; Arghiri Emmanuel, Unequal Exchange: A Study of the Imperialism of Trade, trans. Brian Pearce (London, 1972); V.I. Lenin, "Imperialism, the Last Stage of Capitalism," in Imperialism, The State and Revolution (New York, 1926); Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1974); W.W. Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth, 2d ed. (Cambridge, Eng., 1971).

4. Octavio Paz, The Labyrinth of Solitude: Life and Thought in Mexico (New York, 1961), 20.

5. Barrington Moore, Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World (Boston, 1966), especially chap. 9.

1. John H. Coatsworth, "Obstacles to Economic Growth in Nineteenth-Century Mexico," American Historical Review 83 (1978): 81, 84; Laura Randall, A Comparative Economic History of Latin America, 1500-1914 (Ann Arbor, 1978), 1:162, 180; Christopher Armstrong and H.V. Nelles, "A Curious Capital Flow: Canadian Investment in Mexico, 1902-1910," Business History Review 58 (1984): 179-80; Daniel Cosío Villegas et al., Historia moderna de México, vol. 7, pt. 2 (Mexico City, 1965), 642, 1154; Esperanza Durán de Seade, "Mexico's Relations with the Powers During the Great War" (D.Phil. thesis, St. Antony's College, Oxford University, 1980), 7-11; Clifton B. Kroeber, Man, Land, and Water: Mexico's Farmlands Irrigation Policies, 1885-1911 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1983), 12; Stephen H. Haber, Industry and Underdevelopment: The Industrialization of Mexico, 1890-1940 (Stanford, 1989), 91-93, 100.

2. Richard Guenther to Dept. of State, 11 October 1890, U.S. Consular Despatches, Mexico City, no. 32, Record Group 59, National Archives, Washington, D.C.; and ibid., 1 December 1903, U.S. Consular Despatches, Tampico, no. 181, Record Group 59, National Archives. See also Cosío Villegas et al., Historia moderna de México, vol. 7, pt. 1 (Mexico City, 1965), 245, 517, 624, 628, 695; Chitraporn Tanratanakol, "Threats to Subsistence: Regional Economy and the 1869 Mezquital Peasant Rebellion in Mexico" (Ph.D. diss., Northern Illinois University, 1987), chap. 4.

3. Representative works include Randall, Comparative Economic History of Latin America; D.C.M. Platt, ed., Business Imperialism, 1840-1930: An Inquiry Based on British Experience in Latin America (Oxford, 1977); and Marshall C. Eakin, "Business Imperialism and British Enterprise in Brazil: The St. John d'el Rey Mining Company, Limited, 1830-1960," Hispanic American Historical Review 66 (1986): 697-742. Also see Mark Wasserman, "Enrique C. Creel: Business and Politics in Mexico, 1880-1930," Business History Review 59 (1985): 645-62; Armstrong and Nelles, "A Curious Capital Flow."

4. Sahagún, Historia de las cosas de Nueva España (c. 1569), tenth book, chap. 24, as quoted by Ezequiel Ordóñez, "El petróleo en México: bosquejo histórico," part 1, Revista Mexicana de Ingeniería y Arquetectura 10, no. 3 (15 March 1932): 135. Also see Gabriel Antonio Menendez, Doheny El Cruel: episodios de la sangrienta lucha por el petróleo mexicano (Mexico City, 1958), 17-19; Alexander von Humboldt, Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain (London, 1811), 4:38, 47; untitled memo in English, Aug 1938, Archivo de la Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores, Mexico City, L-E-555.

5. Quoted by Francisco Alonso González, Historia y petróleo. México: el problema del petróleo (Mexico City, 1972), 55. See also Mexico, Secretaría de Industria, Comercio y Trabajo, Documentos relacionados con la legislación petrolera mexicana (Mexico City, 1919), 36-37.

6. Alonso González, Historia y petróleo, 135; Ordóñez, "El petróleo de México," 143-44.

7. Quoted in José Domingo Lavín, Petróleo: pasado, presente y futuro de una industria mexicana (Mexico City, 1976), 23.

8. Prospectus of "The Boston and Mexican Oil Co." of Portland, Maine (Boston, 1882), Cleland, box 2.

9. E. DeGolyer, "History of the Petroleum Industry in Mexico," 11 Mar 1914, DeGolyer, file 5347; "The Petroleum Industry of Mexico," [c. 1920,] ibid., file 5220; Lavin, Petróleo: pasado, presente y futuro, 22, 25-26.

10. Menéndez, Doheny El Cruel, 17-19.

11. Paul H. Giddens, The Beginnings of the Petroleum Industry: Sources and Bibliography (Harrisburg, Pa., 1941), 5-9; Giddens, Early Days of Oil: A Pictorial History of the Beginnings of the Industry in Pennsylvania (Princeton, 1948), 10.

12. See Ralph W. Hidy and Muriel E. Hidy, Pioneering in Big Business, 1882-1911: History of the Standard Oil Company, New Jersey (New York, 1955), 49, 200, 259; Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977), 424; Daniel Yergin, The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and Power (New York, 1991), chap. 2.

13. On Pierce's early career, see Bruce Bringhurst, Antitrust and the Oil Monopoly: The Standard Oil Cases, 1890-1911 (Westport, Conn., 1979), 40-41; Frederick U. Adams, The Waters Pierce Case in Texas (St. Louis, 1908).

14. U.S. Supreme Court, Transcript of Record, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas, October term, 1908, no. 356 (Washington, D.C., 1909), 441.

15. Allen Nevins, John D. Rockefeller: The Heroic Age of American Enterprise (New York, 1940), 1:657-58; and Hidy and Hidy, Pioneering in Big Business, 49, 122.

16. At least, this was the charge of the Texas attorney general. See Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas, no. 1, 212 U.S. 86 and no. 2, 212 U.S. 112 (1898).

17. Waters-Pierce Oil Co. to A. Gilmer, 10 Mar 1894, Waters-Pierce Oil Co. Records, OHTOR, Box 3K10 F2.

18. "Interview with Mr. S.W. Smith of the Mexican Petroleum Company," 11 May 1918, interview no. 596, Doheny. The biographer of Rockefeller, Allan Nevins, finds price cutting morally reprehensible, but he claims that often Rockefeller had no control over the activities of his marketers like Pierce. Nevins, John D. Rockefeller, 2:92. Ida Tarbell was also appalled at the business practices of Waters-Pierce. Ida M. Tarbell, The History of the Standard Oil Company (1904; reprint, New York, 1950), 2:41-42, 46-47. For price cutting, see the testimony of several Brownsville merchants like Miguel Fernández in U.S. Supreme Court, Transcript of Record, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas, October term, 1898, no. 177, U.S. 28 (Washington, D.C., 1889).

19. Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas, 44 S.W. Rep 936 (1898); U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1898).

20. U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1908), 442.

21. Marquis James, The Texaco Story: The First Fifty Years, 1902-1952 (n.p., 1953), 6-8, 11-13, 21-22; Joseph A. Pratt, The Growth of a Refining Region (Greenwich, Conn., 1980), 34-35; Martin V. Melosi, Coping with Abundance: Energy and Environment in Industrial America (Philadelphia, 1985), 40-46;

Alfred A. Glasier to Am. consul, 10 Apr 1906, U. S. Consular Records, Tampico, Misc. Letters Rec'd, Record Group 84, National Archives.

22. Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas, no. 1, 103 S.W. Rep. 836 (1907); ibid., no. 2, 106 S.W. Rep. 918 (1907); U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1908), 20.

23. Salary Book A, 1 Jan 1887, Secy's Dept., SONJ; Hidy and Hidy, Pioneering in Big Business, 5.

24. Thomas C. Manning to Mariscal, 30 May 1887, Despatches from U.S. Ministers to Mexico, no. 144, Record Group 59, National Archives; Hidy and Hidy, Pioneering in Big Business, 514.

25. "Interview with Mr. S.W. Smith," 11 May 1918, Doheny; Mexican Herald, 1 Nov 1903; Alan Knight, The Mexican Revolution (Cambridge, Eng., 1986), 1:80.

26. U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1908), 466.

27. Ibid., 448, 506, 671; Hidy and Hidy, Pioneering in Big Business, 128, 258, 363. The California exports to Mexico began as early as 1878. See Gerald T. White, Formative Years in the Far West: A History of the Standard Oil Company of California and Predecessors Through 1919 (New York, 1962), 56, 97, 122, 145.

26. U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1908), 466.

27. Ibid., 448, 506, 671; Hidy and Hidy, Pioneering in Big Business, 128, 258, 363. The California exports to Mexico began as early as 1878. See Gerald T. White, Formative Years in the Far West: A History of the Standard Oil Company of California and Predecessors Through 1919 (New York, 1962), 56, 97, 122, 145.

28. "Interview with Mr. S.W. Smith," 11 May 1918, Doheny.

29. Six of the wagons were not operating at one point in 1902, awaiting spare parts from St. Louis. U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1908), 1108; U.S. Supreme Court, Transcript of Record, Standard Oil Company et al. v. U.S., October term, 1909, 221 U.S. 1 (Washington, D.C., 1910), 1095-96.

30. Calculated at 42 gallons to the barrel from 11,905,618 gallons of crude oil, lubricants, illuminants, naphthas, and 3,902 barrels of residual products and tar. See table 1; U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1908), 445; and Hidy and Hidy, Pioneering in Big Business, 528-29.

31. U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1908), 510.

32. Lord Cowdray to Sir Edmund Holden, 13 Aug 1912, Pearson, C44 F7; Bringhurst, Antitrust and the Oil Monopoly, 57; Hidy and Hidy, Pioneering in Big Business, 609, 633; and U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1908), 472. Two other Standard marketing companies, Iowa Standard and Consolidated, also made large profits. See White, Formative Years in the Far West, 193-94, 323.

33. U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1898); U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1908), 666-67, 874-75.

34. U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1908), 1095; and U.S. Supreme Court, Standard Oil Company et al. v. U.S. (1909), 667.

35. U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1908), 471, 666-67, 1105-6, 1115.

36. Ibid., 606.

35. U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1908), 471, 666-67, 1105-6, 1115.

36. Ibid., 606.

37. Cosío Villegas et al., Historia moderna de Mexico, vol. 7, pt. 1, 211.

38. Hidy and Hidy, Pioneering in Big Business, 514.

39. Ibid., 448-51; U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1908), 463, 465, 880-82, 897, 1089-90.

38. Hidy and Hidy, Pioneering in Big Business, 514.

39. Ibid., 448-51; U.S. Supreme Court, Waters-Pierce Oil Company v. Texas (1908), 463, 465, 880-82, 897, 1089-90.

40. Nevins, John D. Rockefeller, 1:659.

41. Ibid., 2:531-33, 571. See also testimony of William A. Morgan in U.S. Supreme Court, United States of America, petitioner, v. Standard Oil Company of New Jersey, et al., defendants (Washington, D.C., 1909), 3:1006-7.

40. Nevins, John D. Rockefeller, 1:659.

41. Ibid., 2:531-33, 571. See also testimony of William A. Morgan in U.S. Supreme Court, United States of America, petitioner, v. Standard Oil Company of New Jersey, et al., defendants (Washington, D.C., 1909), 3:1006-7.

42. "Interview with Mr. S.W. Smith," 11 May 1918, Doheny.

43. As quoted in Charles K. Smith to David E. Thompson, 27 Aug 1908, State Dept. Numerical and Minor Files, 15351/1-4, Record Group 59, National Archives.

44. The Mexican Herald, 3 Nov 1908, as quoted in State Dept. Numerical and Minor Files, 11770/13-15.

45. "Interview with Mr. S.W. Smith," 11 May 1918, Doheny.

46. As quoted in Ward Ritchie, The Dohenys of Los Angeles (Los Angeles, 1974), 15-16. Doheny in 1920 recreated the Los Angeles oil strike from the site of this first well, and repeated with raised arm what he said was his 1892 proclamation of a new day for the economy of Los Angeles. See William Rintoul, Spudding In: Recollections of Pioneer Days in the California Oil Fields (San Francisco, 1976), 83, 88.

47. White, Formative Years in the Far West, 152-53; Caspar Whitney, Charles Adelbert Canfield (New York: private printing, 1930), 110-11, 128, 140; Ritchie, The Dohenys of Los Angeles, 18-19; Edmund Burke to Doheny, 18 Nov 1900, AALA; Sign of the 76: The Fabulous Life and Times of the Union Oil Company of California (Los Angeles, 1976), 105-6.

48. Burke to Doheny, Washington, D.C., 18 Nov 1900, AALA; Whitney, Charles Adelbert Canfield, 129-30; Fritz L. Hoffman, "Edward L. Doheny and the Beginnings of Petroleum Development in Mexico," Mid-America 24 (April 1942): 97-98; and White, Formative Years in the Far West, 154, 198, 229, 234, 312, 351-52. Additional information about Doheny can be found in Gene Z. Hanrahan, The Bad Yankee — El Peligro Yankee: American Entrepreneurs and Financiers in Mexico, 2 vols. (Chapel Hill, 1985); Menéndez, Doheny El Cruel. The latter two books are rather critical.

49. "Report on Kern Co. Field to W.G. Nevin of Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe," n.p., n.d., AALA.

50. William E. McMahon, Two Strikes and Out (Garden City, 1939), 26-27.

51. Hanrahan, The Bad Yankee, 1:6; Clarence W. Barron, The Mexican Problem (Boston, 1917), 95; affidavit of E.L. Doheny, n.d., Cleland, box 2.

52. R.G. Cleland, interview with E.L. Doheny, 15 Jan 1918, interview no. 45, Doheny. Arguínzoniz lived in Ciudad del Maís in the state of San Luis Potosí. During the Revolution, he lived in exile in San Antonio, Texas.

53. Ibid.

52. R.G. Cleland, interview with E.L. Doheny, 15 Jan 1918, interview no. 45, Doheny. Arguínzoniz lived in Ciudad del Maís in the state of San Luis Potosí. During the Revolution, he lived in exile in San Antonio, Texas.

53. Ibid.

54. See Doheny's Senate testimony in U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 66th Congress, 1st sess. (Washington, D.C., 1920), 1:209-12.

55. Ibid., 1:212, 218-19, 225.

54. See Doheny's Senate testimony in U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 66th Congress, 1st sess. (Washington, D.C., 1920), 1:209-12.

55. Ibid., 1:212, 218-19, 225.

56. Walter Sharp to unnamed correspondent, 21 Sept 1901, in Walter Benona Sharp, "Letters, Excerpts from," OHTO, Box 33K11.

57. Interview with Doheny, 20 Apr 1918, Doheny.

58. Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:213-14, 227-29; Pan American Petroleum Corporation, Mexican Petroleum (New York, 1922).

59. Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:214, 241, 269. On drilling technology, see Mexican Oil Corporation, Ltd., Mexico Today: The Mexican Petroleum Industry (London, 1905), 13-15.

60. Barren, The Mexican Problem, 122.

61. Ordóñez, "El petróleo en México: bosquejo histórico," part 2, Revista Mexicano de Ingeniería y Arquetectura 10, no. 4 (15 Apr 1932): 154-61; McMahon, Two Strikes and Out, 29. Menéndez attributes greater Mexican participation than Ordóñez's report does. He states that Doheny would have given up had it not been for the financial backing of a Mexican banker, Gerardo Meade of San Luis Potosí. See Menéndez, Doheny El Cruel, 21-22. The story is repeated by James D. Cockcroft, who places the loan at fifty thousand pesos (twenty-five thousand dollars). Cockcroft, Intellectual Precursors of the Mexican Revolution, 1900-1913 (Austin, 1968), 24-25. The Stanford University geologist was Ralph Arnold. See his entry for 31 July 1911 in Field Books, 1911-1912, Trinidad & Mexico, Arnold, Box 129.

62. "Interview with Mr. H. Wylie," 15 May 1918, interview no. 597, Doheny.

63. Herbert G. Wylie to Charles E. Harwood, Ebano, 13 Jan 1903, AALA.

64. Body to Pearson, 28 June 1904, Pearson, A4; "R.G. Cleland, second interview with Mr. E.D. [ sic ] Doheny," 20 May 1918, Doheny; Hanrahan, The Bad Yankee, 1:3; F.B. McKercher to Doheny, 16 Dec 1902, AALA.

65. R.C. Kerens to Doheny, Chicago, 20 July 1902, AALA.

66. Wylie to Doheny, Ebano, 22 and 23 Jan 1902, AALA.

67. Cleland, interview with Doheny, 15 Jan 1918, interview no. 45, Doheny.

68. Martin R. Ansell, "Pouring Oil on Troubled Waters: Edward L. Doheny and the Mexican Revolution" (M.A. thesis, University of Oregon, 1985), 11; Harold Walker to Oscar D. Bennett, 28 Oct 1909, AALA; E.L. Doheny, "A Few Comments on the Report Submitted to You by Mr. R.A. on August 26, 1911," 7 Sept 1911, AALA.

69. E. Ordóñez to Doheny, 6 Oct 1902, AALA.

70. Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:214-16; President Díaz's message to Congress, The Mexican Herald, 2 Apr 1906, in David E. Thompson to sec. of state, 2 Apr 1906, State Dept. Numerical and Minor Files, 16.

71. Walker to Doheny, 28 Oct 1909, AALA.

72. Barron, The Mexican Problem, 62-63.

73. Fairchild & Gilmore to Doheny, 1 July 1902, AALA.

74. Wilbur Carr to C. Piquette Mitchel, Washington, 5 Mar 1909, State Dept. Numerical and Minor Files, 18125; República de México, "Resumen de la importación y de la exportación, 1908-09," FO, 368-308/35907.

75. C.H. Smith to Doheny, St. Louis, 30 Mar 1903, AALA.

76. Cleland, second interview with Doheny, 20 May 1918, Doheny; Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:225-26; Mexican Oil Corporation, Mexico Today, 19-21.

77. Mexican Petroleum Co., Los impuestos sobre la industria de petróleo (Mexico City, 1912), 1; Barron, The Mexican Problem, 131.

78. Cosío Villegas et al., Historia moderna de Mexico, vol. 7, pt. 1, 233-34, 520; Great Britain, Foreign Office, Consular Report for Mexico, 1902 (London, 1903), Tampico consul, no. 3285, 21; Consular Report for Mexico, 1904 (London, 1905), Tampico consul, no. 932, 11 Mar 1904; Consular Report for Mexico, 1906 (London, 1907) Tampico consul, no. 240, report dated 8 May 1906.

79. Cleland, second interview with Doheny, 20 May 1918, Doheny. After the government purchased the Mexican Central and merged it into the National Railways system, it continued to purchase fuel oil from Doheny.

80. Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:216; "E. Richards, counsel for H. Clay Pierce, Summary of Correspondence," J.B. Body to L., 22 Aug 1908 in "Summary of Correspondence: Negotiations with WPO Co.," Pearson, C44 F7; Reports, 6, 13 Apr 1907, Ramo de Hacienda, Fomento y Obras Públicas, Secretaría de Comunicacion y Obras Públicas, 1907-26, 2/226, Leg. 1, 1907, AGN.

81. Ordóñez to Doheny, 6 Oct 1902, AALA.

82. Martínez del Río to Doheny, 23 Oct 1902, AALA.

83. F.B. McKercher to Doheny, 5 June 1903, AALA.

84. Pan American Petroleum Corporation, Mexico Petroleum, 28-29.

85. Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:226-27, 299; Clarence A. Miller to R.W. Grant, 17 Dec 1910, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, Misc. Letters Rec'd.

86. See the correspondence relating to the dispute in despatches dating from 26 Nov to 8 Dec 1908, State Dept. Numerical and Minor Files, 1728.

87. Cleland, interview with Doheny, 15 Jan 1918, interview no. 45, Doheny.

88. Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:217; Pan American Petroleum Corporation, Mexico Petroleum, 26-27.

89. McKercher to Doheny, 16 Dec 1902, AALA.

90. Cleland, second interview with Doheny, 20 May 1918, Doheny. See also Ansell, "Pouring Oil on Troubled Waters," 33, 49.

91. Contract, 22 May 1908, Ramo de Hacienda, Fomento y Obras Públicas, Minas y Petróleo, 1916, C194, E23/324.6-452/2, AGN.

92. Ronald MacLeay to Foreign Office, Mexico, 18 Mar 1909, FO, 12924; Mexican Petroleum Co., Los impuestos sobre la industria de petróleo, 4.

93. Cleland, interview with Doheny, 15 Jan 1918, interview no. 45, Doheny.

94. C.M. Leonard to asst. sec. of state, 3 Sept 1908, State Dept. Numerical and Minor Files, 11770/5.

95. Doheny to Estelle Doheny, Buena Vista Station, 29 Dec 1906, AALA.

96. Ezequiel Ordóñez, "El petróleo en México," part 2, 193.

97. Doheny to Estelle Doheny, 1 May 1910, AALA; Pan American Petroleum Corporation, Mexico Petroleum, 31-32; Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 230-32, 242; Barron, The Mexican Problem, 38.

98. Sam T. Mallison, The Great Wildcatter (Charleston, W.V., 1953), 33-37.

99. Mexican Petroleum, The Oil Industry in Mexico, 35-38; Doheny to Wm. Salomon & Co., 7 Sept 1911, Arnold, box 201.

100. Ralph Arnold et al., The First Big Oil Hunt: Venezuela, 1911-1916 (New York, 1960), 63, 91.

101. Mallison, The Great Wildcatter, 238-41.

102. Mexican Petroleum, The Oil Industry in Mexico, 35; McMahon, Two Strikes and Out, 39.

103. Ordóñez, "El petróleo en México," part 2, 196-97.

104. Hanrahan, The Bad Yankee, 1:9; White, Formative Years in the Far West, 152.

105. The following information comes from J.A. Spender, Weetman Pearson: First Viscount Cowdray, 1856-1927 (London, 1930; reprint, New York, 1977); Desmond Young, Member for Mexico: A Biography of Weetman Pearson, First Viscount Cowdray (London, 1966); Robert Keith Middlemas, The Master Builders: Thomas Brassey, Sir John Aird, Lord Cowdray, Sir John Norton-Griffiths (London, 1963).

106. See especially Cathryn Thorup, "La competencia económica británica y norteamericana en México (1887-1910): El caso de Weetman Pearson," Historia Mexicana 31 (1982): 599-641.

107. Middlemas, The Master Builders, 171-72, 175, 180; President Díaz's message to congress, Diario Oficial, 28 Feb 1889, in Reinsen Whitehouse to sec. of state, 28 Feb 1889, Despatches from U.S. Ministers to Mexico, no. 268. Spender, Weetman Pearson, 286-90, lists the company's contracts from 1854 to 1926.

108. Middlemas, The Master Builders, 183.

109. Ryan to sec. of state, 7 Feb 1890, 4 March 1890, Despatches from U.S. Ministers to Mexico, nos. 239, 253.

110. Clayton to sec. of state, 18 Aug 1902, 26 November 1902, ibid., nos. 1532, 1634.

111. As quoted in Young, Member for Mexico, 107-8. On the Tehuantepec railway, see Middlemas, The Master Builders, 194-99; The Mexican Daily Record, 14 May 1906, in D.E. Thompson to sec. of state, 25 May 1906, Despatches from U.S. Ministers to Mexico, no. 69; Mexican Herald, 1 Dec 1902.

112. The Mexican Herald, 24 Jan 1907; Thompson to sec. of state, 5 Mar 1907, State Dept. Numerical and Minor Files, 1639/13.

113. As quoted in Spender, Weetman Pearson, 149-50.

114. B. to P., 29 May 1903, Body to Pearson, 23 June 1905, Pearson, "Memo for Mr. J.B. Body," 28 April 1908, Pearson, A4.

115. As quoted by E. DeGolyer, "Anthony Francis Lucas (1855-1921)," 1951, DeGolyer, file 1074.

116. Body to Pearson, 23 Aug 1904, Pearson to Body, 26 Jan 1906, B. to P., 29 May 1903, Body to Pearson, 29 May 1905, 23 June 1905, Pearson, "Memo for Mr. J.B. Body," 28 Apr 1908, Pearson, A4.

117. Bryan Cooper, ed., Latin American and Caribbean Oil Report (London, n.d. [c. 1980]), 136.

118. Purdy went on to become a director of Shell-Mex Petroleum, Ltd., the London holding company, in the 1920s. The Pipeline, 3:57 (1923): 51; Ryder to Body, 8 Apr 1906, Pearson, A4.

119. P. to B., 1 May 1906, B. to P., 21 Jan 1909, Pearson, A4; "History: The Mexico Eagle Oil Company, Limited," ibid., C43 F1.

120. "Memorandum by Lord Cowdray," 10 May 1915, Pearson, A3; P. to B., 6 Oct 1906, 3 Dec 1908, "Memo for Mr. Body," 21 Apr 1907, ibid., A4.

121. "History, The Mexican Eagle Oil Company, Limited," Pearson, C43 F1.

122. "Memorandum by Lord Cowdray," 10 May 1915, Pearson, A3.

123. B. to P., 19 Dec 1905, 8 Jan 1906, 22 Jan 1906, Pearson, A4; Middlemas, The Master Builders, 186, 220, 222.

124. B. to P., 9 Nov 1905, 30 July 1908, Pearson, A4; Thorup, "La competencia económica," 616.

125. "Contrato entre Secretaría de Fomento y la Compañía S. Pearson & Son, Ltd.," 12 May 1906, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/126, Record Group 59, National Archives; I.H. MacDonald to Major Cassius E. Gillette, 13 Oct 1916, Pearson, A4.

126. B. to P., 8 Jan 1906, Pearson, A4; Thorup, "La competencia económica," 622.

127. See the testimony in Revolutions in Mexico, Hearing before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Foreign Relations, U.S. Senate, 62d Congress, 2d sess. (Washington, 1913), 263-65.

128. Both Doheny and Pearson were impelled toward integration by the same incentives identified by Alfred Chandler as motivating U.S. firms to begin foreign operations. Pearson and Doheny wished "to reduce costs by exploiting the economies of throughput" and "to assure a constant flow of materials into processing and manufacturing plants on a precise schedule and to precise specifications." Alfred Chandler, Jr., "Technological and Organizational Underpinnings of Modern Industrial Enterprise: The Dynamics of Competitive Advantage," in Multinational Enterprise in Historical Perspective, ed. Alice Teichova, Maurice Lévy-Leboyer, and Helga Nussbaum (Cambridge, Eng., 1986), 52.

129. "Second Interview with Mr. Arthur C. Payne," 20 May 1918, Doheny.

130. Percy Norman Furber, I Took Chances: From Windjammers to Jets (Leicester, 1953), 129-30, 139-41. Apparently the Royal Dutch-Shell also rejected an offer to buy Furbero. See Gerretson, History of the Royal Dutch (Leiden, 1953), 4:264.

131. Anonymous, Daily Field Book, 1908, entry for 22 Feb, OHTOR, Box 3K10 F6.

132. Furber, I Took Chances, 125, 141-142; "Oil Fields of Mexico Co." The Joint Stock Companies' Journal, 14 Aug 1912, Shell International Petroleum Co. archives, London, press clippings.

133. "Anglo-Mexican Oilfields Limited" [log book], 1908-9, OHTO, box 3K10 F6; Furber, I Took Chances, 127-30, 140-45.

134. "Mexico Oil Fields: Some Well Logs," n.d., DeGolyer, file 5300; Guillermo de Landa y Escandón to Pearson, 8 June 1910, Pearson, A4.

135. See correspondence of A.J. Lespinasse to David E. Thompson, 6 Oct 1906 to 2 Oct 1908, State Dept. Numerical and Minor Files, 1854.

136. Body, "Notes for Sir Weetman," 15 May 1909, Pearson, "Memo for Mr. Body," 9 Mar 1909, Pearson, A4.

137. As quoted in Spender, Weetman Pearson, 155.

138. Merrill Griffith to asst. sec. of state, 15 Aug 1908, State Dept. Numerical and Minor Files, 14453/2.

139. Merrill Griffith to Thompson, 6 July 1908, ibid., 14453. Also see The Pipe Line 3, no. 63 (23 May 1923): 126; R.P. Brousson, "The Oil Industry of Mexico," Pearson, C43 F1.

140. Doheny, "A Few Comments on the Report Submitted to You by Mr. R.A. on August 26, 1911," 7 Sept 1911, Arnold; Merrill Griffith to asst. sec. of state, 8 Sept 1908, State Dept. Numerical and Minor Files, 14453/3; C. Reed, "History of S.P. & S's Interests in Mexico," Aug 1928, Pearson, C43 F1.

141. B. to P., 30 Nov 1907, "Aguila/Waters-Pierce Oil Co. Agreement," 15 May 1908, Pearson, C44 F7.

142. L. to G.W., 16 May 1908, Pearson, C44 F7.

143. P. to B., 23 Dec 1907, Cowdray, "History of the Fight with the Waters Pierce Oil Co.," Aug 1928, Cowdray, "Private Memo re negotiations with Mr. Clay Pierce," 8 Mar 1909, Pearson, C44 F7.

144. "Memo to Mr. W. re Agreement with C.P." 30 Jan 1908, L. to H.C. P, 8 Feb 1908, C. to H.J., 20 Oct 1909, and L. to Japp, 8 Nov 1909, Pearson, C44 F7.

145. From Cowdray's private papers, as quoted in Middlemas, The Master Builders, 216.

146. Ronald MacLeay to Sir Edmund Gray, 18 June 1909, FO, 368-309/25272; "History: The Mexican Eagle Oil Company, Ltd.," Pearson, C43 F1; Julian Barlow to asst. sec. of state, 31 Dec 1897, U.S. Consular Despatches, Mexico City, no. 65. Gerretson, History of the Royal Dutch, 4:260, claims that El Aguila incorporated in 1908.

147. Diario Oficial, 4 Feb 1904, 1 Apr 1904 in Clayton to sec. of state, 11 Apr 1904, Despatches from U.S. Ministers to Mexico, no. 2235.

148. As quoted in Gerretson, History of the Royal Dutch, 4:261; Pearson to Dr. M., 16 Apr 1909, "Summary of Correspondence: Negotiations with W.P.O. Co.," Pearson, C44 F7.

149. Thorup, "La competencia económica," 633; Ordóñez, "El Petróleo en México," part 1, 158; Revolutions in Mexico, 263-65.

150. Benjamin Ridgely, "A Great Oil Fight in Mexico," 18 July 1908, State Dept. Numerical and Minor Files, 11770/2-3.

151. "Extract from letter to Senor Guillermo Landa," 30 July 1909, Pearson, A4; Mexican Herald, 27 Mar 1909.

152. See contracts dated 26 Nov 1908, Pearson, C43 F2; The Mexican Herald, 23, 29 Oct 1908; document dated 18 Oct 1908, Ramo de Hacienda, Fomento y Obras Públicas, Secretaría de Comunicación y Obras Públicas, 82/118-1, AGN.

153. ''Extract from letter to Senor Guillermo Landa," 30 July 1909, Pearson, A4.

154. "Report of Secretary of Interior in Response to Senate Res. No. 53, Statement of Dr. C.W. Hayes respecting the Petroleum Fields of Mexico," 5 June 1909, DeGolyer, file 1591; Pearson, "General Memo for Mr. Body," 16 May 1909, Pearson, A4.

155. Lon Tinkle, Mr. De: A Biography of Everette Lee DeGolyer (Boston, 1970), 6-39; B. to P., 21 Jan 1909, Pearson, "Memo for Mr. Body," 24 Mar 1909, Pearson, A4.

156. Tinkle, Mr. De, 15.

157. For a detailed description of the scene at Potrero, see Tinkle, Mr. De, chap. 3; A. E. Chambers, "Potrero No. 4: A History of One of Mexico's Earliest and Largest Wells," Journal of the Institution of Petroleum Technologists 37, no. 9 (1923): 141-64.

158. See DeGolyer's notes dating from Dec 1910 to Jan 1911, DeGolyer, file 1439.

159. Chambers, "Potrero No. 4," 164.

160. Oil Weekly 59, no. 11 (28 Nov 1930): 26.

161. Comments of Robert Stirling in Chambers, "Potrero No. 4," 163-64.

162. Spender, Weetman Pearson, 157-58.

163. Pearson to Body, 8 June 1909, B. to C., 28 June 1911, Body to Cowdray, 10 May 1911, Pearson, A4; Young, Member for Mexico, 131.

164. México, Departamento de la Estádistico Nacional, Resumen del censo general de habitantes de 30 de noviembre de 1921 (Mexico City, 1928), 187-88, 190; México, Secretaría de Economía, Dirección General de Estadística, Estadísticas sociales del Porfiriato, 1877-1910 (Mexico City, 1956), 11; Carlos González Salas, "Sub-cultura laboral en Tampico (1877-1924)" (unpublished ms., 1988), 9-10; S. Lief Adleson G., "Historia social de los obreros industriales de Tampico, 1906-1919" (doctoral thesis, El Colegio de México, 1982), 4.

165. México, Secretaría de Fomento, Censo y division territorial del Estado de Tamaulipas verificados en 1900 (Mexico City, 1904).

166. Historically, Veracruz had always dominated Mexican foreign trade. In 1828, for example, 276 ships departed from Mexico, of which 110 departed from Veracruz, 69 from Tampico, 7 from Tuxpan, and 4 from Coatzalcoalcos. Inés Herrera Canales, Estadística del comercio exterior de México (1821-1875) (Mexico City, 1980), 237, 245-46, 262, 287-92.

167. H.S. Gilbert to Magill, 1 Oct 1902, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, Misc. Letters Rec'd; Salas, "Sub-cultura laboral en Tampico," 11; Cosío Villegas et al., Historia moderna de México, vol. 7, pt. 2, 95.

168. Cosío Villegas et al., Historia moderna de México, vol. 7, pt. 2, 10, 247, 520, 544; Adleson, "Historia social de los obreros," 14-15.

169. México, Secretaría de Fomento, Censo y division territorial del Estado de Vera Cruz verificados en 1900 (Mexico City, 1904); Censo de Tamaulipas (Mexico City, 1904).

170. Cosío Villegas et al., Historia moderna de México, vol. 7, pt. 2, 115-16, 135, 147.

171. México, Secretaría de Economía, Estadísticas sociales del Porfiriato, 41. For all of Mexico between 1877 and 1910, the number of haciendas grew from 5,869 to 8,431 and ranchos from 14,705 to 48,633.

172. See Frans J. Schryer, The Rancheros of Pisaflores: The History of a Peasant Bourgeoisie in Twentieth-Century Mexico (Toronto, 1980), 7.

173. W.E. Lucas to S.E. Magill, 31 Jan 1907, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, Misc. Letters Rec'd.

174. Ordóñez, "El petróleo en México," part 1, 159.

175. Powell Clayton to sec. of state, 27 May 1898, Despatches from U.S. Ministers to Mexico, no. 443.

176. Andrés Molina Enríquez, Los grandes problemas nacionales (1909) (Mexico City, 1978), 158-59.

177. México, Secretaría de Fomento, Censo de Vera Cruz and Censo de Tamaulipas.

178. Cosío Villegas et al., Historia moderna de México, vol. 7, part 2, 747.

179. Merrill Griffith to Thompson, 1 June 1908, State Dept. Numerical and Minor Files, 14054.

180. Thomas Ryan to sec. of state, 2 Jan 1890, Despatches from U.S. Ministers to Mexico, no. 197; Mexican Herald, 2 Apr 1904, in Clayton to sec. of state, 11 Apr 1904, Despatches from U.S. Ministers to Mexico, no. 2235.

181. A.J. Lespinasse to Loomis, 28 Apr 1905, U.S. Consular Despatches, Tuxpan, no. 52, Record Group 59, National Archives; Lespinasse to Robert Bacon, 7 Feb 1906, ibid., no. 62; Lespinasse to David J. Hill, 21 Aug 1902, 9 Mar 1904, 5 Jan 1903, 11 Mar 1903, 11 May 1904, ibid., nos. 9, 40, 19, 23, 44.

182. Lespinasse to Hill, 25 Feb, 20 Apr, 18 May 1904, ibid., nos. 38, 41, 46; Cosío Villegas et al., Historia moderna de México, vol. 7, part 2, 14, 545, 963.

183. Samuel E. McGill to Francis Loomis, 5 July 1904, Despatches from U.S. Ministers to Mexico, no. 201; Horace M. Reeve to Powell Clayton, 13 Oct 1904, ibid., no. 2486; McGill to Loomis, 18 Feb 1903, 31 Oct 1905, U.S. Consular Despatches, Tampico, nos. 159, 221; Magill to Herbert H.D. Pierce, 27 July 1903, ibid., no. 172; Mordelo L. Vincent, Jr., A Man Remembers (Chapel Hill, 1985), 9-12.

184. 28 June, 4 Aug 1906, U.S. Consular Despatches, Tampico, nos. 245, 251; John A. Nelson to Magill, 16 Apr 1906, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, Misc. Letters Rec'd.

185. H.H. Harder to Magill, 20 Feb 1906, William Hollis to Magill, 24 Apr 1905, ibid.

186. C.A. Miller to F.C. Tompkins, 14 June 1911, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, General Correspondence.

187. Neill E. Pressley to Mr. G.W. Sigler, 17 Sept 1907, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, Misc. Letters Rec'd.

188. 6 Dec 1903, U.S. Consular Despatches, Tuxpan, no. 35; Edwin R. Wells to Alvey A. Adee, 30 August 1901, 14 Nov 1902, ibid., nos. 5, 14; unnamed correspondent to Loomis, 5 Dec 1904, 2 May 1903, ibid., nos. 51, 25; 29 Sept 1903, ibid., no. 34.

189. Testimony of William A. Horton, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 2:1710. See ibid., 2:1036-37 and 1708-12 for additional information about the American farmers in Mexico.

190. "Labor Conditions on Banana Plantations near Tampico," 11 June 1918, interview no. 545, Doheny.

191. "Interview with Mr. S.W. Smith," 11 May 1918, ibid.

192. Jorge Basurto, El proletariado industrial en México (1850-1930) (Mexico City, 1975), 49.

193. Mexico, Departamento de la Estadística Nacional, Resumen del Censo General de Habitantes, 190; Viviane Brachet de Márquez, La población de los estados mexicanos en el siglo xix (1824-1895) (Mexico City, 1976), 95, 141. The population density of Veracruz increased from 6.99 persons per square kilometer to 15.69 between 1877 and 1910. México, Secretaría de Economía, Estadisticas sociales del Porfiriato, 68.

194. Ralph W. Hutchinson to Magill, 4 July 1903, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, Misc. Letters Rec'd.

195. Ralph W. Hutchinson to Magill, Pánuco, 25 Apr 1904, ibid.

196. W.W. Smith to Magill, 9 Apr 1906, ibid. The eastern region of San Luis Potosí gained a reputation for peasant revolts, and historians identify uprisings in 1849, 1856, 1879, 1882, 1905, and 1910. Cockcroft, Intellectual Precursors of the Mexican Revolution, 51-52.

197. S.E. Cross to Magill, San Luis Potosí, 18 Aug 1905, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, Misc. Letters Rec'd. For the "moral economy," see E.P. Thompson, "The Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Eighteenth Century," Past & Present 50 (1971): 76-136; and James Scott, The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Rebellion and Subsistence in Southeast Asia (New Haven, 1976).

198. Ordóñez, "El petróleo de México," part 1, 148.

199. [Affidavit of E.L. Doheny], n.d. [c. 1918], Cleland; Furber, I Took Chances, 125; "Second Interview with Mr. Arthur C. Payne," 20 May 1918, Doheny; Jesús Silva Herzog, El petróleo de México (Mexico City, 1940), 50.

200. [Affidavit of E.L. Doheny], Cleland.

201. "Interview with Mr. H. Wylie," 15 May 1918, Doheny.

202. Cleland, second interview with Doheny, 20 May 1918, ibid.

203. "Interview with Mr. H. Wylie," 15 May 1918, Doheny.

204. Ibid.

203. "Interview with Mr. H. Wylie," 15 May 1918, Doheny.

204. Ibid.

205. "Second Interview with Mr. Arthur C. Payne," 20 May 1918, Doheny; L.W. Prunty to American consul, 10 Sept, 11 Dec 1910, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, General Correspondence.

206. Doheny to Estelle Doheny, 29 Dec 1906, Pablo P. Juárez to Carlos E. Shillaber, 28 Aug 1907, Shillaber to Doheny, 12 Sept 1907, AALA.

207. "Interview with Mr. H. Wylie," 15 May 1918, Doheny.

208. Body to Pearson, 25 July 1902, Pearson to Body, 30 June 1905, Pearson, A4.

209. Julio Valdivieso Castillo, Historia del movimiento sindical petrolero en Minatitlán, Veracruz (Mexico City, 1963), 25; Silva Herzog, El petróleo de México, 50.

210. Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 219; anonymous, Daily Field Book, 1908, OHTOR, Box 3K10 F6; Adleson, "Historia social de los obrero," 76, 104.

211. Pearson Photographic Albums, p. 14, PR; Valdivieso Castillo, Historia del movimiento sindical petrolero, 21.

212. D.S. McAlister to U.S. consul, 18 Sept 1910, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, General Correspondence.

213. Body to Pearson, 4 July, 23 July 1910, Pearson, A4.

214. L.D. Archer to sec. of state, 30 Nov 1907, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, Misc. Letters Rec'd.

215. Wylie to Magill, 11 Oct 1906, ibid.; Diana Davids Olien, Oil Booms: Social Change in Five Texas Towns (Lincoln, 1982), 110; Pratt, Growth of a Refining Region, 155. Also see various interview typescripts in the Oral History of the Texas Oil Industry, University of Texas Barker History Center, Austin. The Americans established a similar hierarchical social system in the Panama Canal Zone, retaining native Panamanians and West Indians in the unskilled, low-paying, and unprivileged positions. European gang laborers, who frequently worked no more efficiently than the most seasoned West Indians, still received greater privileges. A Canal Zone policeman once commented on the social attitudes of New Englanders in Panama: "Any northerner can say `nigger' as glibly as a Carolinian, and growl if one of them steps on his shadow." David McCullough, The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870-1914 (New York, 1977), 475-77, 575-76.

216. Anonymous, Daily Field Book, 1908, entry for 19 Mar, OHTOR, Box 3K 10 F6.

217. For discussions of these issues, see Friedrich Katz, The Secret War in Mexico: Europe, the United States and the Mexican Revolution (Chicago, 1981), x; G.M. Joseph, Revolution from Without: Yucatán, Mexico, and the United States, 1880-1924 (Cambridge, Eng., 1982), xiv, 45, 82; Mark Wasserman, Capitalists, Caciques, and Revolution: The Native Elite and Foreign Enterprise in Chihuahua, Mexico, 1854-1911 (Chapel Hill, 1984), 6, 93-94, 173n; John Mason Hart, Revolutionary Mexico: The Coming and Process of Mexican Revolution (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1987), 87, 109; Steven Topik, "The Economic Role of the State in Liberal Regimes: Brazil and Mexico Compared, 1888-1910," in Guiding the Invisible Hand: Economic Liberalism and the State in Latin American History, ed. Joseph L. Love and Nils Jacobsen (New York, 1988), 117-44.

218. David W. Walker, Kinship, Business, and Politics: The Martínez del Río Family in Mexico, 1824-1867 (Austin, 1986), 23.

219. "Interview with Mr. S.W. Smith," 11 May 1918, Doheny.

220. Alexander Gerschenkron, Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective: A Book of Essays (Cambridge, Mass., 1962), 25, 28. There remains the question about whether the Díaz policies were conducive to economic growth or whether those policies increased the instability of the Mexican economy. For instance, Laura Randall criticizes Porfirian decision-makers for faulty economic policies that unbalanced agricultural production and provoked foreign exchange problems that eventually undermined the Mexican economic growth of

the Porfiriato. See Laura Randall, A Comparative Economic History of Latin America, 1:2, 190.

221. Cosío Villegas et al., Historia moderna de México, vol. 8, part 2 (Mexico City, 1972), 842.

222. Marvin D. Bernstein, The Mexican Mining Industry, 1890-1950: A Study of the Interaction of Politics, Economics, and Technology (Albany, 1964), 11, 18-19, 27-28.

223. Carleton Beals, Porfirio Diaz: Dictator of Mexico (Philadelphia, 1932), 328.

224. Detailed discussions of the various laws affecting the petroleum industry are found in Merrill Rippy, Oil and the Mexican Revolution (Leiden, 1972), 7-26; Antonio J. Bermúdez, The Mexican National Petroleum Industry: A Case Study in Nationalization (Stanford, 1963), 2-3.

225. Don M. Coerver, The Porfirian Interregnum: The Presidency of Manuel González of Mexico, 1880-1884 (Fort Worth, 1979), 64, 71-72.

226. José Yves Limantour, Apuntes sobre mi vida pública [1872-1911] (Mexico City, 1965), 91.

227. Furber, I Took Chances, 95-100.

228. Pearson to Dr. M., 16 Apr 1909, "Summary of Correspondence: Negotiations with W.P.O. Co.," Pearson, C44 F7.

229. Walker, Kinship, Business, and Politics, chap. 10; Cosío Villegas et al., Historia Moderna de México, vol. 8, part 2, 359, 371-72, 409. A Mexican historian suggests that Manuel Calero and Jorge Vera Estañol also served as legal advisors to Doheny. See Menéndez, Doheny El Cruel, 35.

230. Beals, Porfirio Diaz, 379; Cosío Villegas et al., Historia Moderna de México, vol. 8, part 2, 130, 169, 373, 387, 424.

231. Ibid., 363, 365, 400, 416, 596, 858.

230. Beals, Porfirio Diaz, 379; Cosío Villegas et al., Historia Moderna de México, vol. 8, part 2, 130, 169, 373, 387, 424.

231. Ibid., 363, 365, 400, 416, 596, 858.

232. Cowdray to Manuel Zamacona, New York, 26 Apr 1911, Pearson, A3 (this letter informed the Mexican government of Cowdray's interview); W.B. Hohler to Grey, 17 May 1911, FO, 371-1147/20781.

233. Cable, Doheny to W.H. Taft, New York City, 5 May 1911, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.00/1666.

234. H.C. Folger, Jr., "Standard Oil Company and Mexico," 4 Apr 1911, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.00/1796.

235. S.W. Finch to the Attorney General, 26 Apr 1911, ibid., 812.00/1503.

236. This report, sent by the special agent for El Paso, Texas, was forwarded by the attorney general to the sec. of state, 2 May 1911, ibid., 812.00/1593.

237. Report quoted verbatim in attorney general to sec. of state, 9 May 1911, ibid., 812.00/1679.

238. See C.R. Troxel to John D. Archbold, 13 Jan 1910; Archbold to Troxel, 14 Jan 1910; William H. Libby to attorney general, 11 May 1911; J.D. Archbold to P.C. Knox, 15 May 1911, ibid., 812.00/1796. Several historians of the Revolution also question the authenticity of the Standard Oil-Madero connection. See especially Knight, The Mexican Revolution, 1:184-87; Peter A.R. Calvert, The Mexican Revolution, 1910-1914: The Diplomatic Anglo-American

Conflict (Cambridge, Eng., 1968), 78-84. Madero's biographer points out that Standard Oil never received a thing from the Madero government. See Stanley R. Ross, Francisco I. Madero: Apostle of Mexican Democracy (New York, 1955), 142-43.

239. Calvert, The Mexican Revolution, 84. Stanley Ross lends credence to this view. Ross, Francisco I. Madero, 141-42.

240. J.B. Body to Cowdray, 20 May, Cowdray to Sebastian de Mier, 9 June 1911, Pearson, A3.

1. Mexico, El petróleo de México: Recopilación de documentos oficiales (Mexico City, 1940; reprint, Mexico City, 1963), 14; Francisco Martín Moreno, México negro: Una novela política (Mexico City, 1986).

2. Anglo Mexican Petroleum Products Co., Mexican Fuel Oil (London, 1914), 68-71, 77, 79; testimony of Doheny, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:236.

3. Mexican Fuel Oil, 17; document dated 17 Feb 1917, Carranza, carpeta 12601.

4. Mexican Fuel Oil, 80; Harold Walker, Memorandum, 22 Feb 1918, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/397.

5. Robert Adamson to Sen. William N. Calder, 2 Feb 1920, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/642; Mexican Fuel Oil, 132-33.

6. Harold F. Williamson et al., The American Petroleum Industry (Evanston, Ill., 1963), 2:115; B.W. Smith, "The Story of Royal Dutch/Shell Up to 1945," undated ms., Shell, 166.

7. Calvert, The Mexican Revolution, 173; Contract: The Admiralty and Anglo Mexican Petroleum Products Co., Ltd., 7 Jan 1914, Pearson, C49 F2; Cowdray to Thomas J. Ryder, 31 Aug 1914, Pearson, A3; Mexican Fuel Oil, 3-4. The view that the British navy depended upon Mexican oil for up to 75 percent of its fuel supplies is not corroborated elsewhere. Those (including oilmen) who wished to portray the Carranza government as hindering the Allied war effort propagated this erroneous assumption. See Leon Canova, "Memorandum," 18 Feb 1918, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/401.

8. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Public Lands, Leasing of Oil Lands, 65th Congress, 1st sess. (Washington, D.C., 1917), 125.

9. Mexican Fuel Oil, 62-63; "Mexican Eagle Oil Company, Ltd.," New York, 1921, DeGolyer, file 6142.

10. These contacts loomed large for El Aguila, for they gave Cowdray's Mexican company access to U.S. petroleum technology and equipment. Body, "Memo on Mr. Body's Departure," 1 Nov 1916, Pearson, A4; "New Notes from Mexican News Bureau," 26 July 1917, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/294.

11. "The Sulphur and Oxygen Compounds of Petroleum and the Synthesis of Asphaltenes," 1920, DeGolyer, file 5267; Williamson et al., The American Petroleum Industry, 2:267.

12. Dawson, "Tampico District Oil Report for March, 1920," State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/672; Williamson et al., The American Petroleum Industry, 2:29.

13. Lloyd Burlingham, "Prices of Fuel Oil Increased," Salina Cruz, 1 May 1920, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/681.

14. Ralph Arnold, "Appraisal of the Physical Properties of the Mexican Petroleum Co. Ltd. of Delaware," 26 Aug 1911, Arnold, Box 201; E.T. Dumble, "The Occurrence of Petroleum in Eastern Mexico as Contrasted with Those in Texas and Louisiana," American Institute of Mining Engineers, Bulletin, no. 104 (August 1915): 1627. The presence of water in the limestone supported the oil in large quantities in one level, whereas the oil sands of Texas held deposits of oil at various levels.

15. DeGolyer, "The Significance of Certain Mexican Oil Field Temperatures," n.d., DeGolyer, file 5141; W.E. Weather to E. DeGolyer, Wichita Falls, 8 July 1916, ibid., file 5262.

16. Testimony of Michael A. Spellacy, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:939-41; Body to Cowdray, 23 Aug 1912, Pearson, A4; W.F. Buckley to P. Merrill Griffith, 11 Aug 1909, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, General Correspondence.

17. Testimony of Spellacy, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:942. The opinion of López Portillo y Weber that the whole of the Huasteca had been an "Indian" region with no traditions of private property is inaccurate. He relates how lease agents lured "Indians" to Tampico's red light district and got them to sign oil leases while they reveled in a drunken stupor. I have not seen these stories corroborated elsewhere. José López Portillo y Weber, El petróleo de México: su importancia, sus problemas (Mexico City, 1975), 102-5.

18. Testimony of Britt, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:1007, 1009-10.

19. "Memorandum re. Aguila Company Leaseholds in Northern Mexico," [circa 1920], DeGolyer, file 5244.

20. "Minutes of Meeting Held in Tampico," 15 May 1917, DeGolyer, file 5166.

21. Testimony of C.H. Rathbone, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:546. This condition was also prevalent in U.S. booms, where the leasetakers had to be cautious, as one of their number said, for "many leases [were] given by phoney owners." W.L. Connelly, The Oil Business As I Saw It: Half a Century with Sinclair (Norman, 1954), 51.

22. "Minutes of Meeting Held in Tampico," 15 May 1917, DeGolyer, file 5166.

23. Testimony of Doheny, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:237; José Vázquez Schiaffino et al., Informes sobre la cuestión petrolera (Mexico City, 1919), appendix; testimony of Rathbone, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:545. One Mexican source estimated that the oil companies paid approximately 6.4 million pesos yearly in rent on 1.6 million hectares of leased land. Mexico, Secretaría de Industria, Comercio y Trabajo, Proyecto de la ley de petróleo de los

Estados Unidos Mexicanos (Mexico City, 1918), 33. Tal vez is Spanish for "perhaps" or "maybe."

24. "Minutes of Meeting Held in Tampico," 15 May 1917, DeGolyer, file 5166.

25. U.S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Commerce Reports (13 Sept 1920), 11-12.

26. "The Petroleum Industry in Mexico" (circa 1921), State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/882; Kenneth C. Phipps, "The Petroleum Industry of Mexico" (M.A. thesis, The University of Texas, 1922), 12. Also see V.R. Garfías, "The Oil Region of Northeastern Mexico," Economic Geology 10, no. 3 (1915): 195-224.

27. Hudson returned to Texas, invested his capital in an oil well in Wallaceville in 1916, and lost it all. See interview with W.M. Hudson, 16, 18 Sept 1952, OHTO, T79, T81.

28. "Matters Testified to by Clinton D. Martin," (circa 1932), Arnold, Box 131.

29. E.J. Nicklos, 8 July 1953, OHTO, T103, T104.

30. Ibid.

29. E.J. Nicklos, 8 July 1953, OHTO, T103, T104.

30. Ibid.

31. Hudson interview, 16 Sept 1952, OHTO, T79.

32. Ezequiel Ordóñez, "El petróleo en México," part 2, 194-95.

33. See "Mexican Oil Fields: Some Well Logs," DeGolyer, folder 5300.

34. Ralph Arnold, "Basis of Appraisal," (circa 1932), Arnold, Box 131.

35. Ibid.

34. Ralph Arnold, "Basis of Appraisal," (circa 1932), Arnold, Box 131.

35. Ibid.

36. "Matters Testified to by Clinton D. Martin," Arnold, Box 131.

37. Vincent, A Man Remembers, 20-22.

38. "The Petroleum Industry in Mexico," (circa 1921), State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/882.

39. W.A. Thompson, Jr., to sec. of state, 1 May 1914, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/67.

40. Ordóñez, "El petróleo en México," part 2, 197; Gerretson, History of the Royal Dutch, 4:259.

41. "The Petroleum Industry in Mexico," (circa 1921), State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/883. Also see U.S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Commerce Reports (13 Sept 1920), 1215; Phipps, "The Petroleum Industry of Mexico," 8; W.A. Thompson, Jr., to sec. of state, 1 May 1914, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/67.

42. "Minutes of a Meeting Held in Tampico," 15 May 1917, DeGolyer, file 5166.

43. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Commerce Reports (13 Sept 1920), 1214-15; "The Petroleum Industry in Mexico," (circa 1921), State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/882; Commerce Reports (13 Sept 1920), 1214.

44. J. Vázquez Schiaffino, "Mexico," Petroleum 7, no. 4 (Aug 1919), 106; "The Petroleum Industry in Mexico," (circa 1921), State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/882.

45. Ben C. Belt, "Survey of the Limantour Lands," 16 Nov 1913, DeGolyer, file 5395.

46. Cummins to Foreign Office, 30 May 1919, FO, 371-3830/95153; Charles H. Cunningham, "Investigations of Petroleum Conditions in Mexico," 6 May 1919, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/458; B.F. Yost, "Oil Prospecting in Sonora and Lower California," 14 Apr 1920, ibid., 812.6363/664; Fletcher to sec. of state, 10 July 1918, ibid., 812.6363/405.

47. Kyle Kinney to U.S. consul, 14 Nov 1919, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/610.

48. Gaylord March to sec. of state, 4, 10 May 1919, ibid., 812.6363/459, 812.6363/675; Lloyd Burlingham to sec. of state, 2 Feb, 10 Mar 1920, ibid., 812.6363/644, 812.6363/658.

49. U.S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Commerce Reports (13 Sept 1920), 1217; E. Dean Fuller, "The Oil Situation in Mexico in Relation to American Investments," 1916, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/255; Vázquez Schiaffino et al., Informes sobre la cuestión petrolera, appendix.

50. "List of British Oil Properties," 21 Nov 1916, FO, 371-2706/235235; J.E. Lucey to sec. of state, 11 May 1914, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/60.

51. A.L. Patterson to sec. of state, 8 Aug 1917, ibid., 812.6363/297; Chambers to Body, 3 June 1917, Pearson, A4; Edith T. Penrose, The Large International Firm in Developing Countries: The International Petroleum Industry (London, 1968), 117.

52. Clarence A. Miller to sec. of state, 29 Jan 1911, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/1; R.H. Rose to Brodix, 3 Sept 1917, Lansing to Sen. Morris Sheppard, 18 Sept 1917, ibid., 812.6363/304.

53. Mallison, The Great Wildcatter, 242.

54. Ibid., 251-52; 258-59.

53. Mallison, The Great Wildcatter, 242.

54. Ibid., 251-52; 258-59.

55. George F. Summerlin to sec. of state, 8 Jan 1921, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/791.

56. Williamson et al., The American Petroleum Industry, 2:262.

57. Jack Logan, "Mexico's Future Petroleum Possibility," Oil Weekly 59, no. 11 (28 Nov 1930): 26. Pan American Petroleum Corporation, Mexican Petroleum, 33. Ordóñez places its total production at more than 71 million bd. See Ordóñez, "El petróleo en México," part 2, 194.

58. Ralph Arnold to Salomon Bros., New York, 26 Aug 1911, "Appraisal of the Physical Properties," Arnold, Box 200.

59. "Digest of Deposition of William Green," [circa 1932], Arnold to Salomon Bros., 26 Aug 1911, Arnold, Box 200.

60. Also see Pan American Petroleum Corporation, Mexican Petroleum, 36-38. The date of the statement is not clear, but the book was published in 1922.

61. Ibid., 40-45.

60. Also see Pan American Petroleum Corporation, Mexican Petroleum, 36-38. The date of the statement is not clear, but the book was published in 1922.

61. Ibid., 40-45.

62. Ordóñez, "El petróleo en México," part 2, 202.

63. I.C. White, "Third Report," March 1916, DeGolyer, file 5300.

64. Ordóñez, "El petróleo en México," part 2, 202-4.

65. Body to Cowdray, 12 Feb 1916, Pearson, A4.

66. Ordóñez, "El petróleo en México," part 2, 204; Logan, "Mexico's Future Petroleum Possibility," 26.

67. "Digest of Deposition of William Green," 9 Dec 1932, Arnold, Box 200.

68. Arnold, "Appraisal of the Physical Properties," Arnold, Box 200; Doheny testimony, U.S. Senate, Committee on Public Lands, Leasing of Oil Lands.

69. Annual Report of the Mexican Petroleum Co. Ltd. of Delaware (n.p., 1917); Doheny testimony, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:233, 243; G.H. Hewitt to E. Paget Thurston, 31 Oct 1918, Pearson, A3.

70. Arnold, "Appraisal of the Physical Properties," Arnold, Box 20; Pan American Petroleum Corporation, Mexican Petroleum, 52; Barron, The Mexican Problem, 26; Doheny testimony, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:233.

71. Body to Cowdray, 18 Dec 1912, Pearson, A4.

72. Pan American Petroleum Corporation, Mexican Petroleum, 35.

73. See E.T. Brown to S.B. Brooks, 8 Mar 1913, and statements of C.L. Wallis, Doheny, and George C. Greer, "S.O. Suit: Relating to Federal Matter," n.p., n.d. [circa 1913], Law Library Archives, University of Texas at Austin; Hopkins testimony, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 2:2568-71. After the 1911 dissolution, however, Magnolia was a part of Standard Oil Company of New York (Socony), not Standard Oil Company of New Jersey (Jersey Standard). See James A. Clark and Michel T. Halbouty, Spindletop (New York, 1952), 181-82.

74. See Pan American Petroleum Corporation, Mexican Petroleum, 35, 111, 117, 123, 127-68, 180-82; Doheny testimony, U.S. Senate Hearing, Leasing of Oil Lands, 126-27; Barron, The Mexican Problem.

75. Documents dated 9 Sept 1916, 2, 19 Oct 1916, Ramo de Hacienda, Fomento y Obras Públicas, Minas y Petróleo, C194, esp. E23/324.6-452-/2, part 1, AGN.

76. Doheny testimony, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:249, Annual Report of the Mexican Petroleum Company of Delaware; Annual Report, Pan American Petroleum & Transport Co. (n.p., 1920).

77. Ordóñez, "El petróleo en México," part 2, 204; Pan American Petroleum Corporation, Mexican Petroleum, 33.

78. "Digest of Deposition of William Green," 9 Dec 1932, Arnold, Box 200.

79. López Portillo y Weber, El petróleo de México, 100.

80. Ibid., 99.

79. López Portillo y Weber, El petróleo de México, 100.

80. Ibid., 99.

81. Ordóñez, "El petróleo en México," part 2, 155-57. Although a teetotaler, Doheny is depicted by the novelist Francisco Martín Moreno as constantly drinking whiskey at the businessmen's club while he and other Yankee robber barons decided Mexico's fate. See Moreno, México negro.

82. Ordóñez, "El petróleo en México," part 2, 155-57.

83. U.S. Senate, Committee on Public Lands, Leasing of Oil Lands, 125-26.

84. Ibid., 176; James L. Bates, The Origins of Teapot Dome: Progressives, Parties, and Petroleum, 1909-1921 (Champaign-Urbana, 1962; reprint Westport, Conn., 1978), 12-13, 40-41, 119.

83. U.S. Senate, Committee on Public Lands, Leasing of Oil Lands, 125-26.

84. Ibid., 176; James L. Bates, The Origins of Teapot Dome: Progressives, Parties, and Petroleum, 1909-1921 (Champaign-Urbana, 1962; reprint Westport, Conn., 1978), 12-13, 40-41, 119.

85. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Commerce, Regulation of Ocean Freight Rates, Requisitioning of Vessels, and Increasing the Powers of the Shipping Board. 65th Congress, 2d sess. (Washington, D.C., 1918), 26-43.

86. Barron, The Mexican Problem, 12, 14.

87. Body to Cowdray, 17 Sept, 5 Oct 1912, 3 Aug 1916, Pearson, A4.

88. Body to Cowdray, 18 Dec 1912, Body, ''Memo on Mr. Body's Departure," 1 Nov 1916, Pearson, A4.

89. Body to Cowdray, 3, 30 Aug, 21 Sept 1912, Pearson, A4.

90. See General Reports of the Suit against the Mexican Eagle Petroleum Co., (Mexico, 1934-35); The Amatlán Suit (Mexican Eagle Oil Co., 1934), both found in Pearson, C44 F5.

91. Body to Cowdray, 23 Aug, 13 Sept, 14, 18 Dec 1912, Pearson, A4.

92. Body to Cowdray, 23 Dec 1915, 19 Dec 1916, Pearson, A3; Foreign Office to Spring-Rice, 14 Oct 1915, FO, 371-2403/151159.

93. Lord Reading to Foreign Office, Washington, D.C., 9 July 1918, FO, 371-3246/120387; "Memorandum of Agreement," 16 Dec 1918, Pearson, C43 F2. A similar dispute between El Aguila and Mexican Gulf over Lot 146, Amatlán, was settled nearly in the same manner. Gulf and El Aguila simply split the lot between them. A. Jacobsen to T.J. Ryder, 21 Feb 1920, DeGolyer, file 5145.

94. Body to Cowdray, 1 Apr 1913, Pearson, A4. This Waters-Pierce well at the Hacienda Santa Fe did not last.

95. See "Report on Accounts," 7 Feb 1917, Pearson, C-43, file 6; Body to Cowdray, 27 Jan 1916, Pearson, Box A-4.

96. Logan, "Mexico's Future Petroleum Possibilities," 26.

97. Chambers to Body, 27 May 1917, Pearson, A4; Boletín de Petróleo (Feb 1916), 137-38.

98. Body to Cowdray, 25 Oct, 30 Nov 1912; Cowdray to Thomas J. Ryder, 31 Aug 1914, Cowdray to Escandón, 11 Oct 1914, Pearson, A3.

99. Body to Cowdray, Tampico, 16 Feb, 1 Mar 1917, Pearson, A4.

100. A. Jacobsen to T.J. Ryder, 21 Feb 1920, DeGolyer, file 5120.

101. Paul F. Lambert and Kenny A. Franks, eds., Voices from the Oil Fields (Norman, 1984), 43.

102. See E. DeGolyer, "Reconnaissance Geological Examination of Hacienda San Felipe," 1912, DeGolyer, folders 5211, 5129.

103. Lambert and Franks, Voices from the Oil Fields, 43; DeGolyer to Hayes, n.d., Hayes to DeGolyer, 1914, T. Wayland Vaughn to DeGolyer, 25 Feb 1920, DeGolyer, folders 696, 5129.

104. Body to Cowdray, 4 May 1916, Pearson, A4.

105. Cowdray to Body, 13 May 1918, Pearson, A3; Anglo Mexican Petroleum Products Co., Mexican Fuel Oil, 9.

106. Cowdray to Directors of Aguila, 20 July 1914, Pearson, C45 F1; Furber, I Took Chances, 178-79.

107. Mexican Eagle Oil Co., Ltd. (New York, 1921) DeGolyer, folder 6142.

108. "Escritura complentaria [ sic ] a la de aportación otorgada por el Señor Lic. Don Luis Riba," 3 Feb 1913, Ramo de Hacienda, Fomento y Obras

Públicas, Minas y Petróleo, AGN; "Oil Fields of Mexico Co." The Joint Stock Companies' Journal, Aug 1912.

109. A. Jacobsen to T.J. Ryder, 2 Feb 1920, DeGolyer, folder 5120; "Estimate of Cost of a Barrel of Oil," [1916], Pearson, C45.

110. Body to Cowdray, 13 May 1913, Pearson, A4.

111. Body, "Memo on Mr. Body's Departure," 1 Nov 1916, Body to Cowdray, 22 Feb 1917, Pearson, A4; Mexican Fuel Oil, 11.

112. Cowdray to Body, 24 Mar 1916, Body to Cowdray, 4 May 1916, Body to Cowdray, 22 Feb 1917, Pearson, A4; Mexican Fuel Oil, 9.

113. Body to Cowdray, 10 Feb 1916, Pearson, A4.

114. Pearson Photographic Albums, Pearson, P/1.

115. Cowdray, "Refineries Programme," 31 Dec 1917, Cowdray to José Y. Limantour, 19 Jan 1916, Pearson, C45, F7, A4; Mexican Fuel Oil, 11.

116. Body to Cowdray, 8 Aug 1914, Pearson, A3; F.M. Davies to H.J. Seymour, London, 7 Dec 1920, FO, 371-4499/A8644.

117. Pearson, C48 F8, F9.

118. Mexican Fuel Oil, 13; C. Pearson, "Memo to Chief," 25 Nov 1915, Pearson, C48 Fl; Durán de Seade, "Mexico's Relations with the Powers During the Great War," 52.

119. Body, "Memorandum," 6 Sept 1915, Pearson, A3.

120. "Anglo Mexican's Proposal," 19 May 1916, "The Eagle Oil Transport Co., Ltd., Accounts, 1918," Pearson, C49 F2, F4.

121. Body to Cowdray, 17 Aug, 24 Oct 1912, Pearson, A4.

122. Letter to Ryder, 8 Nov 1912 in "Waters Pierce Oil Co. Competition," Ryder to Chief, 10 May 1913, Pearson, C44 F7.

123. "Ltr. from Ryder," 23 June 1918, Chief to Hugh Schere, 13 Mar 1913, Chief to Body, 13 Mar 1913, Chief to Ryder, 10 Feb 1914, Pearson, C44 F7.

124. Cowdray, "History of the Fight w/ the Waters Pierce Co.," August 1928, Pearson, C44 F7; Robert S. Israel, "Deposits of Fuel Oil," 4 Oct 1919, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-1695/6, Record Group 165, National Archives.

125. Body to Cowdray, 6 May 1913, Pearson, A4; Body to Ryder, 3 Nov 1914, Ryder to Chief, 19 Oct 1914; Letter from Ryder, 16 Oct 1912 in "Competition: Waters Pierce & Co.," Pearson, C44 F7.

126. Cowdray to Sir Edward Holden, Dunecht, 13 Aug 1912, Pearson, A4.

127. Cowdray to Harold, New York, 4 Aug 1911, Pearson, C44 F2.

128. See contract, 4 Apr 1912, Pearson, C43 F2.

129. H.W.M., "Memorandum: Standard Oil Company," 14 Oct 1914, Pearson, C49 F2.

130. Cowdray to Body, 22 Mar 1916, Body to Cowdray, 4 May 1916, Pearson, A4.

131. Cowdray to Holden, 13 Aug 1912, Hutchinson to Macdonald, 16 Feb 1914, Pearson, C44 F7, C49 F2.

132. Mexican Fuel Oil, 15-16; "Extracts from letter and statement to Sir Thomas Bowring," 1 Sept 1913, Pearson, C49 F2; "The Bowing Petroleum Co., Ltd.," May 1918, ibid., C43 F2; Contract, Aguila and Port of Pará, 1 Nov

1912, Cowdray, "Private Memorandum for Mr. Kindersley," 13 April 1916, ibid., C44 F9.

133. The gold peso equaled 24.5 pence or 49.75 cents. Statistics for 1921 represent the fiscal year. See "Summary of Balance Sheet for Years 1919 to 1926 Inclusive," n.d., Cowdray to Foreign Office, 3 Feb 1915, "Report on Accounts," 7 Feb 1917, Pearson, C43 F5, F6.

134. Cowdray to J.B. Body, 29 Dec 1916, Pearson, A4.

135. Cowdray, "Memorandum re. the Aguila Co.," 13 Jan 1919, Pearson, C44 F3.

136. "Mr. Corwin's Trip to Mexico — 1911, Reports," Production Dept., Transcontinental Petroleum Co., SONJ. I would like to acknowledge my gratitude to the late Henrietta M. Larson for allowing me to see materials she culled from the Jersey Standard archives. I understand the company has since destroyed the historical files for lack of storage space.

137. W.C. Teagle to Arthur Corwin, 11 Aug 1911, "Corwin's trip to Mexico — 1911," ibid. At the time, Arthur Corwin was general manager of South Penn, the only producing property in the United States still retained by Jersey Standard after the dissolution. Corwin to sec. of state, 10 May 1914, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/68.

138. Cowdray, "Private & Confidential Memo for Mr. Bedford," 28 Mar 1913, Cowdray, "Memo re. Interview with Mr. J.D. Archbold," n.d.; T.H. Bedford to Cowdray, 16 Apr 1913, Pearson, C44, F2.

139. J.J. Carter, "Reports on London & Pacific Properties and Lobitos," 22 Apr, 15 July 1913, Imperial Oil Co. archives, file 157.

140. John Archbold to Cowdray, New York, 17 Oct 1913, Pearson, C44 F2.

141. "Memo on Negotiations with Standard Oil New Jersey," Pearson, C44 F2; Durán de Seade, "Mexico's Relations with the Powers," 255, 257.

142. J.L. Hirth to Pearson & Son, Ltd., 29 Apr 1918, John Cadman to Foreign Office, 17 Dec 1917, Pearson, C44 F2.

143. "Memorandum to the Chief," 5 May 1915, Cowdray to Sir George Barnes, 6 Dec 1915, Cowdray, "Private Memorandum for Mr. Kindersley," 13 Apr 1916, Pearson, C52 F1, C44 F9.

144. Body to C. Reed, New York, 19 Jan 1917, C. Reed to Body, London, 8 Feb 1917, Pearson, A4; Middlemas, The Master Builders, 134-37.

145. Maurice de Bunsen, "Foreign Office Memorandum on British Oil Interests in Mexico," 26 Mar 1917, FO, 371-2964/203294; Foreign Office to Spring-Rice, 27 June 1917, ibid., 371-2964/128411; "Memo on Pearson's Oil Interests in Mexico," 1917, ibid., 371-2964/230821; Cowdray, "Brief Statement on the Importance of This Country Having Their Own Sources of Petroleum," 5 Dec 1918, Pearson, C44 F9.

146. C.G. Hyde to Treasury, 6 May 1918, Pearson, C44 F2.

147. Jean Meyer, "Los Estados Unidos y el petróleo mexicano: Estado de la cuestión," Historia Mexicana 18 (1968): 79-96; Enrique Mosconi, El petróleo argentino, 1922-1930, y la ruptura de los trusts petrolíferos inglés y norteamericano (Buenos Aires, 1936); Frank C. Hanighen, The Secret War (New York, 1934); Adelberto J. Pinelo, The Multinational Corporation as a Force in Latin American Politics: A Case Study of the International Petroleum Company in Peru (New

York, 1973). For a comprehensive treatment of the oil industry in Latin America, see George Philip, Oil and Politics in Latin America: Nationalist Movements and State Companies (Cambridge, Eng., 1982).

148. Rory Miller, "Small Business in the Peruvian Oil Industry: Lobitos Oilfields Limited Before 1934," Business History Review 56 (1982): 400-23; Carl E. Solberg, Oil and Nationalism in Argentina: A History (Stanford, 1979); Jonathan C. Brown, "Jersey Standard and the Politics of Latin American Oil Production, 1911-1930," in Latin American Oil Companies and the Politics of Energy, ed. John D. Wirth (Lincoln, 1985), 1-50.

149. Penrose, The Large International Firm, 46-47. Also see Mira Wilkins, "Multinational Oil Companies in South America in the 1920s: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru," Business History Review 48 (1974): 414-46; Chandler, "Technological and Organizational Underpinnings of Modern Industrial Multinational Enterprise," 30-54.

150. U.S. Supreme Court, Standard Oil Company et al. v. U.S. (1909), 221 U.S. 1, 1147-52; Bennett H. Wall and George S. Gibb, Teagle of Jersey Standard (New Orleans, 1974).

151. Sadler to S.B. Hunt, 5 Mar 1917, Directors' files, Sadler Papers, SONJ.

152. Ibid.

151. Sadler to S.B. Hunt, 5 Mar 1917, Directors' files, Sadler Papers, SONJ.

152. Ibid.

153. George Sweet Gibb and Evelyn H. Knowlton, The Resurgent Years, 1911-1927: History of the Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) (New York, 1956), 182, 198-99.

154. "Memorandums," 23 July 1920, 6 Aug 1920, Directors' files, Sadler Papers, SONJ.

155. Hidy and Hidy, Pioneering in Big Business, 404, 711-12; Nevins, John D. Rockefeller, 2:611-12; Bringhurst, Antitrust and the Oil Monopoly, 134. Beginning in 1907, the government prosecutors spent eighteen months collecting testimony of 444 witnesses. The final record extended to 14,495 printed pages in twenty-three volumes.

156. "Notes on Conversation with Mr. Burton W. Wilson," 27 Oct 1949. Courtesy of the late Henrietta M. Larson.

157. S.B. Hunt to Swain, 4, 23 Dec 1913, 15 Jan 1914, Swain to E. Arredondo, 7 May 1915, Esso Standard, Legal Dept., file 117, SONJ. Arredondo was the representative in the United States of the revolutionary leader and future Mexican president, Venustiano Carranza. C. O. Swain of Jersey's legal department met with Arredondo in 1915 to inform him of the company's business activities in Mexico. Arredondo to Swain, 8 May 1915, ibid.

158. "Notes on conversation with Mr. Burton W. Wilson," 27 Oct 1949.

159. Copy of 1912 testimony of Hopkins, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 2:2569-70.

160. Flanagan to Teagle, 8 July 1914, Imperial Oil Co. archives, Teagle Papers, Correspondence with Flanagan.

161. Flanagan to Teagle, 4 Dec 1914, ibid.

162. Flanagan, "Memo Relative to Moyutla hacienda," 6 July 1916, ibid.

163. Skoien & Smith to Flanagan, Tampico, 2 Jan 1915, ibid.; "Notes on conversation with Mr. Burton W. Wilson"; C. O. Swain to C.T. White, 26 March 1915, Esso Standard, Legal Dept., file 117, SONJ.

164. "List of Leases Protocolized in the name of John Kee," 19 Apr 1917, ibid.; Gibb and Knowlton, The Resurgent Years, 87. At least one of Kee's leases, Chinampa Lot 163, later became the subject of legal dispute by Mexican Gulf. See Mexican Gulf v. Transcontinental: Plaintiffs and Defendants Exhibition (n.p., n.d.), 6-7. The case was tried in U.S. District Court in New York in 1921-22.

165. Sadler to S.B. Hunt, 18 Feb 1918, Directors' Files, Sadler Papers, SONJ. Apparently in 1912 Teagle had had an opportunity to acquire Penn-Mex with its 160,000 acres of leases but failed to do so. Gibb and Knowlton, The Resurgent Years, 85.

166. Transcontinental Consolidated Oil Co., Ltd., no. 7, 24 Aug 1917, J.A. Brown to F.D. Asche, 23 June 1917, Production Dept., Contract Files, Transcontinental Petroleum Co., SONJ; Gibb and Knowlton, The Resurgent Years, 87.

167. Sadler to S.B. Hunt, 18 Feb 1918, Directors' Files, Sadler Papers, SONJ.

168. Sadler to Northrop Clarey, 26 Feb 1925, Production Dept., Sadler's Mexican Files, SONJ.

169. "Reports of Transcontinental, 1918-28," Controller's Dept., SONJ; "Reports on Mexico-General," Sadler to S.B. Hunt, 31 July 1918, Production Dept., Sadler's Mexican Files, SONJ; "News Notes from Mexican News Bureau," 26 July 1917, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/294; Vázquez Schiaffino et al., Informes sobre la cuestión petrolera, appendix.

170. Gibb and Knowlton, The Resurgent Years, 41.

171. J.A. Brown to A.F. Corwin, 27 Oct 1920, Production Dept., Sadler's Mexican files, SONJ; J.A. Brown to C.O. Swain, San Antonio, 3 Dec 1919, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/1603.

172. Gerretson, History of the Royal Dutch, 1:383-86; 3:55.

173. As quoted from 1920 annual report of the Royal Dutch Co. in U.S. Federal Trade Commission, Foreign Ownership in the Petroleum Industry (Washington, D.C., 1923), 12-13.

174. Gerretson, History of the Royal Dutch, 3:4, 4:268-72, 276, 278, 280; Jonathan C. Brown, "Why Foreign Oil Companies Shifted Their Production from Mexico to Venezuela during the 1920s," American Historical Review 90 (1985): 377.

175. Gerretson, History of the Royal Dutch, 4:251.

176. Anonymous note, 1914, note received, 20 Dec 1919, Tweede Afdeling, Archief van het Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken, B-Dossiers, Betreffende Consulaire en Handels-Aangelegenheden, 1871-1940, [1955], Inv. nos. 1686, 1681, AR; Gerretson, History of the Royal Dutch, 4:266-68; F.C. Gerretson, Geschiedenis de Koninklke Nederlandsche Petroleum Maatschnappij, vol. 5 (Baarn, Neth., 1973), 281, 306-7.

177. Gerretson, Geschiedenis, 308-10.

178. Ibid., 310, 321.

177. Gerretson, Geschiedenis, 308-10.

178. Ibid., 310, 321.

179. "Memoranda Interviews between Gulbenkian and L. Cowdray," 7 Oct 1918 to 2 Dec 1918, Pearson, C44 F3.

180. "Letter of Undertaking: S. Pearson & Son, Ltd., to the Royal Dutch Company and the `Shell' Transport and Trading Company, Ltd.," 26 Mar 1919, Pearson, C44 F3; U.S. Consul General to sec. of state, London, 10 Dec 1920,

State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/774; Gerretson, Geschiedenis, 317. Gulbenkian apparently earned a 20 percent profit for his brokerage in the sale. Cowdray, "Memo for Mr. Tanner: The R.D.-Shell Agreement," 21 Mar 1919, Pearson, C44 F3.

181. Smith, "The Story of Royal Dutch/Shell," 174.

182. Deterding to Cowdray, 25 Mar 1919, Pearson, C44 F3; J.M. Cadman to Lord Cowdray, 27 March 1919, ibid.; Cable, Foreign Office to Cummins, 29 Mar 1919, FO, 371-3827/44166; H.G. Hilton, "Memorandum," Washington, D.C., 21 Apr 1919, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/449.

183. Lord Cowdray, "Memorandum re. the Aguila Co.," 13 Jan 1919, Pearson, C44 F3; Gerretson, Geschiedenis, 317-19.

184. Federal Trade Commission, Foreign Ownership, 16-17, 132.

185. "Total Production of Potrero No. 4," 26 Feb 1920, DeGolyer, file 5300; James D. McLachlan, "Report upon the Situation in Mexico," 17 Dec 1918, FO, 371-3836/472.

186. Ralph Arnold, "Appraisal of the Physical Properties of the Mexican Petroleum Co. Ltd. of Delaware," 26 Aug 1911, Arnold, box 200; "Digest of Deposition of William Green," Los Angeles, 9 Dec 1932, ibid., box 201.

187. Mexican Eagle Oil Company, 2.

1. See especially John Womack, Jr., "The Mexican Revolution, 1910-1920," The Cambridge History of Latin America, vol. 5, ed. Leslie Bethel (Cambridge, Eng., 1984), 81-153; Hart, Revolutionary Mexico; Adolfo Gilly, La revolución interrumpida: México, 1910-1920, una guerra campesina por la tierra y el poder, 5th ed. (Mexico City, 1975).

2. See Steven Topik, The Political Economy of the Brazilian State, 1889-1930 (Austin, 1987); George Philip, Oil and Politics in Latin America; Solberg, Oil and Nationalism in Argentina; George M. Ingram, Expropriation of U.S. Property in South America (New York, 1974); Stephen J. Randall, The Diplomacy of Modernization: Colombian-American Relations, 1920-1940 (Toronto, 1977); John D. Wirth, The Politics of Brazilian Development, 1930-1954 (Stanford, 1970).

3. Anton Mohr, The Oil Wars (New York, 1926), 209.

4. Testimony of Manuel A. Estera, testimony of Sloan W. Emery, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:1362, 2:2222-23. See also John Kenneth Turner, Barbarous Mexico (Chicago, 1912; reprint Austin, 1969).

5. ["Al Pueblo Mexicano,"] n.p., n.d., in Marion Fletcher to State Dept., 12 Apr 1912, Chihuahua, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.00/3539; Phillip E. Holland to State Dept., Saltillo, 17 July 1912, as quoted in Gene Z. Hanrahan, ed., Counter-Revolution along the Border (Salisbury, N.C., 1983), 115-16; Michael C. Meyer, Mexican Rebel: Pascual Orozco and the American Revolution, 1910-1915 (Lincoln, 1978), 62, 64; Calvert, The Mexican Revolution, 106-7.

6. El Diario, 4 June 1912; "Memorandum by Lord Cowdray," 10 May 1915, Pearson, A3.

7. Testimony of Shelburne G. Hopkins, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 2:2524-35, 2550-61.

8. Albert B. Fall to Senator Bacon, 9 Apr 1913, Fall, box 72 F4.

9. Body to Cowdray, 27 May, Thomas J. Ryder to Cowdray, Mexico, 4 Nov 1911, Pearson, A3.

10. Body, "Memorandum," 29 Aug 1911, Pearson, A3.

11. B.C.P. to W.B., 3 Jan 1912, Body to Cowdray, 15 Apr, 22 Mar 1912, Pearson, C55 F29, A4.

12. Enrique Creel to James Bryce, 13 Mar, Body to Cowdray, 10 Apr 1912, Pearson, A3.

13. Body to Cowdray, 15 Apr, Cowdray to Body, 16 Apr 1912, Pearson, A4.

14. Body to Cowdray, 28 Nov 1912, Pearson, A4.

15. Body to Cowdray, 3 Jan, Cowdray to Body, 5 Feb 1913, Pearson, A4.

16. Testimony of Doheny, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:234.

17. Annual Report of the Mexican Petroleum Co., Ltd., of Delaware, n.p.; Knight, The Mexican Revolution, 1:447-48, 456, 465-66.

18. Body to Cowdray, 8 June 1912, 15 June 1912, 6 July, 11 July, 23 July, 23 Aug 1912, Pearson, A4.

19. Harold Walker, "Protest of Taxes," in Miller to State Dept., 18 July, 27 July 1912, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/6,/7.

20. Mexican Petroleum Company, Los impuestos sobre la industria de petróleo, 3-4; testimony of Doheny, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:233.

21. Testimony of William F. Buckley, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:831; Body to Cowdray, 30 Nov, 7 Dec 1912, Pearson, A4; Mexican Petroleum Company, Los impuestos sobre la industria de petróleo.

22. Body to Cowdray, 2 Feb 1914, Pearson, A3.

23. A.E. Chambers to J.B. Body, 8 Mar, Body to Cowdray, 11 Mar 1912, Pearson, A4; Francis Stronge to Sir Edward Grey, 20 Apr, 23 Apr 1912, FO, 371-1672/21531.

24. J.A. Sharp to Clarence A. Miller, 19 Apr, Miller to State Dept., 15 June, Miller to El Aguila, 25 May 1912, Miller to Matías Guerra, 6 May, Miller to Col. R. Guerra Martínez, 14 June 1912, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, General Correspondence.

25. Body to Cowdray, 22 Feb, 26 Feb, Cowdray to Body, 28 Mar 1913, Pearson, A4.

26. Body to Cowdray, 28 Feb, 1, 5 Mar, Frederick Adams to Cowdray, 28 July 1913, Pearson, A4, A3.

27. In his memoirs, British oilman Percy Furber says that early in 1914, he accompanied a group of executives from Jersey Standard, Texas, Gulf, Sinclair, and Mexican Eagle to the White House. But they found that their support for Huerta was useless because President Wilson harbored a visceral loathing for the man. See Furber, I Took Chances, 174-75.

28. Cowdray to F. Díaz, 3 Sept, E. Madero to Cowdray, 25 Oct, Cowdray to Sir Walter Langley, 11 Nov, Cowdray to Madero, 11 Nov 1913, Pearson, A3.

29. Body, "Confidential Memo to the Chief," 25 Feb, Huerta to Cowdray, 2 Feb, Body to Cowdray, 22 Oct 1914, Pearson, A3.

30. Michael C. Meyer, Huerta: A Political Portrait (Lincoln, 1972), 119, 181; Knight, Mexican Revolution, 2:129-33.

31. Body to Cowdray, 1 Apr, Cowdray to Limantour, 10 Apr 1913, Cowdray to Am Hub [?], 30 June 1915, Pearson, A3, A4; Calvert, The Mexican Revolution, 183-85, 231. Meyer, Huerta, 186-87, states that the commission was forty-one million pesos, or nearly four million pounds.

32. Meyer, Huerta, 184, Body to Cowdray, 9 Apr 1913, Pearson, A4; E.L. Doheny, "Memorandum of Facts Presented by the Huasteca Petroleum Co.," 5 Nov 1917, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-246/284.

33. Body to Cowdray, 22 Apr, 6 May 1913, Pearson, A4; Clarence A. Miller, "Report on Oil Taxation," Tampico, 2 July 1914, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/124.

34. Canada to State Dept., 28 June 1914, Miller to State Dept., 12 Nov, Bryan to U.S. consul, 21 Nov 1913, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/532, /14. The information about Huerta's oil nationalization plan is from Meyer, Huerta, 170-71, and El Imparcial, 26 Sept 1913.

35. Meyer, Huerta, 188.

36. Derived from "Summary of Press Attacks During 1913-1914," 3 Mar 1915, Pearson, A4.

37. Cowdray to editors, 12 Nov, 17 Nov 1913, Pearson, A3; Larry D. Hill, Emissaries to a Revolution: Woodrow Wilson's Executive Agents in Mexico (Baton Rouge, 1973), 102-3; Kenneth J. Grieb, The United States and Huerta (Lincoln, 1969), 132-34.

38. Cowdray to T.J. Ryder, 22 Nov, Body to Cowdray, 1 Dec, Cowdray, "Memo to Dr. Hayes and Mr. Ryder," 25 Nov 1913, Pearson, C44 F7, A4. One unconfirmed report from Villa's agents at the time states that a Pierce agent had contacted Pancho Villa in order to secure Tampico concessions. Cobb to State Dept., El Paso, 22 Aug 1914, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/129.

39. Doheny, "Memorandum of Facts," 5 Nov 1917, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-246/284.

40. T.J. Ryder to Cowdray, 24 Nov, Dr. Hayes to Cowdray, 25, 28 Nov 1913, Pearson, A3; James D. McLachlan, 17 Dec 1918, "Report upon the Situation in Mexico," FO, 371-3826/472; Calvert, The Mexican Revolution, 275, 282.

41. Canada to State, 3 June 1914, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/90; Doheny, "Memorandum of Facts," 5 Nov 1917, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-246/284; testimony of Doheny, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:276-77.

42. H.C. Pierce to State Dept., 2 Dec 1913, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/19; Garretson, Geschiedenis, 185-87.

43. Cowdray, "Interview and Exchange of Views with Am. Ambassador," 9 Jan, Cowdray to Clive Pearson, 13 Mar, Cowdray to Body, 14 Mar 1914, Pearson, A3; Miller to State Dept., 4 Dec 1913, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/21.

44. Covarrubias to Fabela, 15 May, Body to Cowdray, 27 May, Body to George Owens, 19 June, Luis Riba to Cowdray, 27 July 1914, Pearson, A3.

45. W.J. Payne to State Dept., 5, 7 Sept, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/133, /134; Silliman to State Dept., 14 Sept 1914, ibid., 812.6363/136.

46. Bevan to State, 7 Feb 1915, ibid., 812.6363/171.

47. Testimony of Doheny, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:178-79.

48. L. van der Wal, "Report," 19 July 1914, Tweede Afdeling, Archief van het Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken, B-Dossiers, 1686, AR.

49. Van Rappard to foreign minister, 28 Jan, J.H. Scheltema to W.L.F.C. Ridder van Rappard, 25 Mar, Scheltema to Foreign Office, 31 Mar 1914, Tweede Afdeling, Kabinetsarchief van het Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken, Betreffende Politieke Rapportage door Nederlandse Vertegenwoordigers in het Buitenland, 1871-1940, (1.05.18), 115(49), AR.

50. Cowdray to Capt. Hugh Watson, n.d., [circa 1913], Walter H. Page to Cowdray, 20 Nov 1913, Pearson, A3; Van Rappard to Foreign Office, 15 May 1914, Tweede Afdeling, Kabinetsarchief van het Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken, 115(49), AR.

51. Payne to State Dept., 29 Sept 1914, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/140.

52. Body, "Memo for Cpt. Arthur Murray relative to conditions in Mexico," 30 July 1913, Pearson, A3.

53. H.W. Wilson to Stronge, 22, 26 Feb 1913, FO, 371-1671/13165.

54. Fletcher to Navy, 22 Nov, 12, 13 Dec 1913, Daniels, file 536.

55. H.T. Mayo to Rear Admiral F.F. Fletcher, 28 Mar, 7 Apr 1914, Naval Records Collection, WE-5 (Mexico), Record Group 45, National Archives; R.A. Liske to State, Washington, D.C., 9 Apr 1914, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/103.

56. Fletcher to Navy, 11 Apr 1914, Daniels, file 536.

57. Daniels to Navy Radio Station, San Diego, 15 Apr 1914, Daniels, file 536; Robert E. Quirk, An Affair of Honor: Woodrow Wilson and the Occupation of Veracruz (Lexington, Ky., 1962), 19-26; Edith O'Shaughnessy, A Diplomat's Wife in Mexico (New York, 1916), 266.

58. As quoted in Quirk, Affair of Honor, 18.

59. Ibid., 46-48; 71-72.

58. As quoted in Quirk, Affair of Honor, 18.

59. Ibid., 46-48; 71-72.

60. Clarence A. Miller to Admiral Mayo, 3 May 1914, Naval Records Collection, WE-5.

61. Daniels to Fletcher, 21 Apr 1917, Daniels, file 536.

62. Badger to Navy, 21 Apr 1917, Edw. L. to Daniels, Washington, 24 Oct 1935, Daniels, files 536, 537; Quirk, Affair of Honor, 98-99; 151.

63. "Statement of Facts Given to the People of the United States by 372 Tampico Refugees aboard the S.S. Esperanza," 30 Apr 1914, Daniels, file 536.

64. Ibid.; testimony of Spellacy, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:945-47.

63. "Statement of Facts Given to the People of the United States by 372 Tampico Refugees aboard the S.S. Esperanza," 30 Apr 1914, Daniels, file 536.

64. Ibid.; testimony of Spellacy, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:945-47.

65. Badger to Navy, 9 May 1914, Daniels, file 536. Badger implied that the decision had not been his but that of Rear Adm. H.T. Mayo, who had been commanding the Dolphin, Des Moines, and Chester and five other vessels at Tampico.

66. Badger to Navy, 30 Apr 1914, Daniels, file 536; Anglo-Saxon Petroleum Co., Ltd., to Foreign Office, 16 May, 1 July 1914, FO, 371-2036/22392, /29872.

67. Navy Department, "Bulletin no. 125." 28 Apr 1914, Daniels, file 536; Van Rappard to Foreign Office, 6 May 1914, Tweede Afdeling, Kabinet-sarchief van het Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken, 115(49), AR.

68. E.J. Nicklos, 8 July 1953, OHTO, T104.

69. His claim was later transferred to the joint claims commission, which in 1925 awarded him a check for $165. But no one could find the claimant eleven years after his loss. G.H. Kelly to Navy, Shreveport, 26 Dec 1914, Thomas H. Bevan to State Dept., 17 Apr 1915, Henry W. Anderson to G.H. Kelly, 17 Mar 1925, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, 312.114 K29/1; N.A. Harris to State Dept., 17 Sept 1914, ibid. 312.114 H241.

70. J.F. Lucey to William J. Bryan, 19 Apr 1914, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.8363/34; Franklin D. Roosevelt to State Dept., 1 Mar 1915, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, 312.114 K29.

71. [Refugees] to President Wilson, 12 May 1914, Daniels, file 536; Chicago Tribune, 8 May 1914.

72. Testimony of Buckley, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:783.

73. Bryan to U.S. consul, 12, 20 May, Canada to State, 18 May 1914, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/55, /70a, /69; Cecil Spring-Rice to Robert Lansing, 29 May 1914, Tweede Afdeling, Archief van het Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken, B-Dossiers, 3060, AR.

74. Sir Edward Grey to R. de Marees van Swinderen, 21 July 1914, Tweede Afdeling, Archief van het Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken, B-Dossiers, 1686, AR; Cowdray to Spring-Rice, Pearson, A3; Cecil Spring-Rice to Grey, 25 May 1914, FO, 371-2037/24535; Spring-Rice to Bryan, 29 May 1914, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/96.

75. E.T. Duble to State Dept., 4 May 1914, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/44.

76. W.A. Thompson, Jr., to Bryan, 1 May 1914, Daniels, file 536.

77. Digest of Deposition of William Green, Arnold, box 200.

78. Boaz Long to Charles T. de Ganahl, 4 May, Canada to State Dept., 6 May, David T. Warden to U.S. consul, 26 May 1914, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/33,/51,/77.

79. Bryan to George C. Carothers, 28 Apr, J. Daniels to State Dept., 30 Apr, C. Carothers to State, 1 May 1914, ibid., /29a,/39g,/32.

80. Body to Cowdray, 11 May 1914, Pearson, A3.

81. Cowdray to U.S. Ambassador, 29 Apr, "Precis of Report of Mr. J.B. Body to Lord Cowdray," 23 Apr to 26 May, Cowdray to Spring-Rice, 5 May 1914, Pearson, A3.

82. Warden to State Dept., 25 May, Robert Lansing to Warden, 18 June, Frank Wilson to State Dept., 24 June 1914, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/77, /84, /114.

83. Lansing to J.L. de Saulles, 17 June, Canada to State Dept., 29, 30 June 1914, ibid., 812.6363/119.

84. Testimony of P.W. Warner, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:1038.

85. Testimony of Doheny, ibid., 1:239, 245; ''Digest of Deposition of William Green," Arnold, box 200; Linda B. Hall and Don M. Coerver, Revolution on the Border: The United States and Mexico, 1910-1920 (Albuquerque, 1988), 101.

86. Joaquín Meade, Historia de Valles: Monografía de la Huasteca Potosina (San Luis Potosí, 1970), 181.

87. F.A. Adams to Body, 2 Jan 1915, Pearson, A3.

88. Commanding Officer, USS Sacramento to Commanding Officer, USS Washington, 17 May 1915, Naval Records Collection, WE-5.

89. "Memorandum of Chester O. Swain," 25 May 1916, ibid.

90. Commanding Officer, USS Marietta to Commanding Officer, USS Kentucky, Tampico, 16 May 1916, ibid. None of the tension had dissipated when later that same month the military chief of Tuxpan closed the offices of all the lease-takers. Haff et al., to State Dept., 29 May 1916, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/234.

91. Body to Cowdray, 13 May 1916, Pearson, A3.

92. Hohler to Foreign Office, 18, 19 June, Spring-Rice to Grey, 9 June 1916, FO, 371-2701/117822, /118573, /118840.

93. Pulford to Hohler, 13 June 1916, FO, 371-2702/142126.

94. Dawson to State Dept., 23 June 1916, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/227; testimony of Levi Smith, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:300; Hewitt to Hohler, 20, 27 June 1916, FO, 371-2703/153433; Barron, The Mexican Problem, 132.

95. Hewitt to Hohler, 27 June 1916, FO, 371-2703/153433.

96. Hohler to Foreign Office, 30 June 1916, FO, 371-2702/127440; Foreign Office to Lord Cowdray, 30 Mar 1916, Pearson, A3; Ray C. Gerhardt, "Inglaterra y el petróleo mexicano durante la Primera Guerra Mundial," Historia Mexicana 25 (1975): 124.

97. "Precis of Confidential Memoranda by Mr. Body to the Chief, re. Am-Mex. Crisis," n.d. [1914], Body to Cowdray, 15 Nov 1916, Pearson, A3.

98. Furber, I Took Chances, 172; Cowdray to J.B. Body, 11 May 1911, Pearson, A3.

99. Cowdray to Body, 25 May 1911, Pearson, A3.

100. Body to Cowdray, 9 Apr, 10, 17 Aug, 24 Oct 1912, Pearson, A4.

101. Some of the Americans began to organize the foreign and native workers in defense of the oil wells. Speculation of American armed intervention also arose for the first time. "If America does intervene, the conditions in Mexico are going to be infinitely worse than they are," Cowdray speculated, "and I feel that it would necessitate our shutting down, perhaps not entirely, but very largely, our operations there." Cowdray to Herbert J. Carr, 9 Aug 1913, Pearson, A3.

102. Cowdray to Guillermo de Landa y Escandón, 14 Nov, Hayes to Chief, 5 Sept, Chief to Hayes, 24 Sept, A.E. Chambers to Cowdray, 16 Nov 1913, Pearson, A3; Garretson, Geschiedenis, 281-82.

103. Hall and Coerver, Revolution on the Border, 101-2; "Mexican Revolutionary Claims, 1918-1920," Production Dept., Transcontinental Petroleum Co., SONJ.

104. Mayo to Navy, 30 June 1914, Naval Records Collection, WE-5.

105. Green to George Paddleford, 1 Mar 1918, FO, 371-3243/A47338.

106. G.H. Hewitt to Hohler, 3 Aug 1916, FO, 371-2703/173269; testimony of Spellacy, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:945.

107. A.S. Gulston to Body, 12 July 1917, Pearson, A3.

108. Cowdray to Body, 13 May 1918, Pearson, A3; Cowdray to Foreign Office, 6 May 1918, FO, 371-3244/81898. An American report differed on the details. It said the rebels numbered four hundred, the number of carrancistas killed was twenty-five, and the amount taken from El Aguila was forty thousand pesos in currency and thirty thousand pesos in goods. D.W. Fowler, "Attack upon Minatitlán," 28 May 1918, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-481/1. Many also differ as to the date. Fowler says 7 May, but Cowdray had notified the Foreign Office of the event on 6 May. The biographer of Félix Díaz places the raid on 4 May. Peter V.N. Henderson, Félix Díaz, the Porfirians, and the Mexican Revolution (Lincoln, 1981), 139.

109. Green to Paddleford, 1 Mar 1918, FO, 371-3243/A47338.

110. Dr. Weston to Body, 19 May 1917, Pearson, A4; Green to Paddleford, 1 Mar 1918, FO, 371-3243/A47338; "Report on Political Situation," 23 Apr, in Cowdray to Foreign Office, 30 Apr 1919, FO, 371-2829/78566.

111. [Report,] 1916, p. 75, Pearson, C45; Vincent to State Dept., 19, 26 May 1916, Wilber J. Carr to James Linn Rodgers, 20 May 1916, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/231-33; Green to Paddleford, 1 Mar 1918, FO, 371-3243/A47338.

112. Testimony of Spellacy, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:949-50; T.E. King to J.J. Slayton, Tampico, 7 Nov 1915, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, 312.114 K581.

113. "Estimate of the Situation Covering Protection of Life and Property at Tampico, Mexico," 16 Oct 1916, Naval Records Collection, WE-5; Barron, The Mexican Problem, 132; Hewitt to Cummings, 14 Nov 1917, FO, 371-3241/5107.

114. Testimony of Amos Beaty, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:530-31; William Green to Herbert Wylie, 25 June 1918, Naval Records Collection, WE-5.

115. William Green to Herbert G. Wylie, 25 Aug 1918, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-164-40.

116. Ibid.; testimony of Beaty, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:529-30.

115. William Green to Herbert G. Wylie, 25 Aug 1918, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-164-40.

116. Ibid.; testimony of Beaty, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:529-30.

117. A.C. Bedford to Board Chairman, 7 Feb 1919, in Daniels, file 537.

118. Tampico Tribune, 23 Aug 1919; Beaty, appendix B, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:574.

119. Green to Herbert Wylie, 25 June 1918, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-164/11; O. W. Fowler, "Conditions in Tampico District, Mexico," 22 May 1918, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-580/1; interview of E.J. Nicklos, 8 July 1953, OHTO, T103.

120. Testimony of Britt, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:1011; "Descriptive Statement of Bandit Outrages and Hold-ups throughout the Tampico Oil Fields," n.d., FO, 371-3246/169532.

121. "Descriptive Statement of Bandit Outrages"; "Relations of the Oil Companies with the Mexican Authorities," interview 683, Doheny; testimony

of Williams, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:599; Sadler to S.B. Hunt, 31 July 1918, SONJ, Prod. Dept., Sadler's Old Mexican files.

122. Testimony of Harry C. Donoho, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 2:2132-38; "Report on Political Situation," 23 Apr 1919, FO, 371-3829/78566.

123. Green to Wylie, 25 Aug 1918, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-164-40.

124. "Relations of the Oil Companies with the Mexican Authorities," interview 683, Doheny.

125. Herrera to González, 4 Dec, González to Herrera, 9 Dec 1915, González, leg. 7, exp. 68, reel 33.

126. J.T. Burns to González, 5 Apr, González to Burns, 9 May 1916, González, leg. 2, exp. 64, reel 33.

127. Commanding Officer, USS Annapolis to Navy, 31 Aug 1917, Naval Records Collection, WE-5.

128. Buckley to Ira W. Williams, 18 Dec 1919, Fall, box 73 F35.

129. "Memorandum of Chester O. Swain," 25 May 1916, Naval Records Collection, WE-5.

130. Pastor Rouaix, Génesis de los artículos 27 y 123 de la constitución política de 1917, 2d ed. (Mexico City, 1959), 47.

131. Katz, The Secret War in Mexico, 139-41; Knight, The Mexican Revolution, 2: 413-14; Womack, "The Mexican Revolution," 94, 100, 107.

132. Spanish version in Boletín del petroleo 1, no. 1 (1916): 15; an English version in Fall, box 88 F11; synopsis in Bevan to State Dept., 14 Aug 1914, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/130.

133. "Decree of Gen. Aguilar" in Bevan to State Dept., 27 Aug 1914, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/132.

134. Mayo to Navy, 6 Sept 1914, Naval Records Collection, WE-5.

135. Order of Carranza, 15 Sept 1914, Ramo de Hacienda, Fomento y Obras Públicas, Minas y Petróleo, C48, AGN.

136. "Translation of Decree by V. Carranza," 7 Jan 1915, FO, 371-2396/ 13311; Canada to State Dept., 8 Jan 1914, Bevan to State Dept., 10 Jan 1915, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/146,/149.

137. Frederick R. Kellogg to State Dept., 13 Jan 1914, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/150; Hohler to Grey, 14 Jan, Cowdray to Sir Arthur Nicolson, 16 Jan 1915, FO, 371-2395/5673, /6427; "Chief Memorandum of Interview with Sir R. Paget," 15 Jan 1915, Pearson, A3; Everbusch to Dutch Ambassador, 18 Jan 1915, Tweede Afdeling, Archief van het Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken, B-Dossiers, 3060, AR.

138. "Mexico Political — Precis of Correspondence," 9 Jan to 6 Feb 1915, Vaughan to Body, 19 Jan 1915, Pearson, A3.

139. Cowdray to Limantour, 19 Jan, Cowdray to Foreign Office, 30 Jan, Pearson, A3; Bevan to State Dept., 22 Jan, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/160; J.S. Hutchinson to Hohler, 6 Feb 1915, FO, 371-2397/ 26990.

140. Bevan to State Dept., 25 Jan 1915, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/156.

141. Dawson to State Dept., 16 Mar 1916, ibid., 812.6363/227.

142. Spring-Rice, "Memorandum, 12 June 1915, ibid., 812.6363/196; Rouaix, "Decretos sobre el petroleo, expedidos por el Gobierno Constitucionalista," 15 Nov 1915, ibid., 812.6363/200.

143. El Dictamen, 16 Jan 1916, as translated in ibid., 812.6363/211.

144. Foreign Office to Hohler, 11 Feb 1916, FO, 371-2698/27641. James L. Rodgers to Aguilar, 11 Aug 1916, Archivo Histórico "Genaro Estrada" de la Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores, Mexico City, L-E-533; Bevan to State Dept., 25 Jan, Silliman to State Dept., 27 Jan, Parker to State Dept., 4 Nov 1916, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/205, /209, /251.

145. Joseph A. Vincent to State Dept., 7 Jan, John R. Silliman to State Dept., 18, 25 Jan, Vincent to State Dept., 8 Mar 1916. State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/218, /205, /206, /221.

146. Decree of Venustiano Carranza, 13 Apr 1917, in ibid., 812.6363/275.

147. López Portillo y Weber, El petróleo de México, 35.

148. Ibid., 35, 37-38.

147. López Portillo y Weber, El petróleo de México, 35.

148. Ibid., 35, 37-38.

149. Boletín del Petróleo 1, no. 1 (1916): 2.

150. Ibid., 1, no. 5 (1916): 408.

149. Boletín del Petróleo 1, no. 1 (1916): 2.

150. Ibid., 1, no. 5 (1916): 408.

151. Van H. Manning to Julius G. Lay, 5 Feb 1920, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/686.

152. Joaquín Santaella, "Intervención oficial," Boletín del Petróleo 1, no. 4 (1916): 328.

153. López Portillo y Weber, El petróleo de México, 75, 85, 93.

154. Ibid., 58-59, 128-130.

153. López Portillo y Weber, El petróleo de México, 75, 85, 93.

154. Ibid., 58-59, 128-130.

155. William Green to Herbert G. Wylie, 25 June 1918, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-164.

156. López Portillo y Weber, El petróleo de México, 25.

157. Manuel A. Chávez, 3 Aug 1917, Carranza, carpeta 115; Vincent to Lansing, 7 Jan 1916, "Petroleum Code as Submitted to Congress on Nov. 23, 1918," Summerlin to State Dept., 1 Oct 1919, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/218, /558, /568.

158. Bevan to State Dept., 18 Jan 1918, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/210; P.W. to A. Jacobsen, 26 Feb 1920, DeGolyer, file 5300.

159. Body to Cowdray, 19 Dec 1916, 22 Feb, 14 Apr, Chambers to Body, 3 June 1917, Pearson, A3, A4.

160. Green to Wylie, 25 June 1918, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-164.

161. On the Constitution and the constitutional convention, see Rouaix, Génesis de los artículos 27 y 123; E.V. Niemeyer, Jr., Revolution at Querétaro: The Mexican Constitutional Convention, 1916-1917 (Austin, 1974); Knight, The Mexican Revolution, 2:469-77; Charles C. Cumberland, Mexican Revolution: The Constitutionalist Years (Austin, 1972), 2:320-60; Douglas W. Richmond, Venustiano Carranza's Nationalist Struggle, 1893-1920 (Lincoln, 1983), 308-9; Frank Tannenbaum, The Mexican Agrarian Revolution (New York, 1929), 183-84, 189-203.

162. Rouaix, Génesis de los artículos 27 y 123, 47.

163. McMahon, Two Strikes and Out, 35. For other assessments of the colonial legal precedence of Article 27, see Rouaix, Génesis de los artículos 27 y 123,

38; Leslie Byrd Simpson, The Ejido: Mexico's Way Out (Chapel Hill, 1937), 64; Niemeyer, Revolution at Querétaro, 139. Given the strong historical precedence, perhaps Tannenbaum is too grandiose in calling Article 27 a "new theory of property, neither capitalistic nor socialistic." Frank Tannenbaum, Mexico: The Struggle for Peace and Bread (New York, 1950), 112.

164. Diario de los debates del Constituyente, 1916-1917 (Mexico City, 1960), 2:1083-84.

165. From Niemeyer, Revolution at Querétaro, 250-51, 256-57. Spanish version in Rouaix, Génesis de los artículos 27 y 123, 217-18.

166. H.N. Branch, "The Mexican Constitution of 1917," Supplement to the Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 71 (May 1917): 15-19.

167. Ibid., 7; McMahon, Two Strikes and Out, 35.

166. H.N. Branch, "The Mexican Constitution of 1917," Supplement to the Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 71 (May 1917): 15-19.

167. Ibid., 7; McMahon, Two Strikes and Out, 35.

168. Vázquez Schiaffino, "Mexico," 20.

169. Rouaix, Génesis de los artículos 27 y 123, 44.

170. Aguilar to Carranza, 2 July 1919, Archivo Histórico "Genaro Estrada" de la Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores, L-E-533.

171. Body to Cowdray, 17 Feb, F. Adams to Body, 1 June 1917, Pearson, A4.

172. Dutch Consul-General for Mexico, "Political and Economic Report on Mexico," Mar 1917, Tweede Afdeling, Archief van het Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken, B-Dossiers, 1686, AR; Garretson, Geschiedenis, 293-94.

173. Eugenio Méndez to Cándido Aguilar, 3 Oct 1917, Carranza, carpeta 13314.

174. Cowdray to Foreign Office, 24 Mar 1916, Pearson, A3; Decree of C. Aguilar, 14 Dec 1917, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/326.

175. Robert P. Hoover to State Dept., 3 May 1919, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/461.

176. Summerlin to State Dept., 20 Feb 1918, ibid., 812.6363/356.

177. Joaquín Santaella, "Informe del Jefe de la Comisión Técnica," 29 Jan 1918, "Proyecto de ley del petróleo," n.d., Carranza, carpeta 13653.

178. U.S. Senate, Senate Document 272, 66th Congress, 2d sess. (Washington, D.C., 1919), 15; Bermúdez, The Mexican National Petroleum Industry, 7-8.

179. Sadler to S.B. Hunt, 31 July 1918, SONJ, Prod. Dept., Sadler's Mexican Files.

180. Cowdray, "Memo for Mr. Stewart," 5 Mar, Body to Cowdray, 9 May 1918, Pearson, A3; Departamento del Petróleo, "Petróleo crudo producido por los pozos de las cías que operan en el país . . . ," n.d. (c. 1919), Carranza, carpeta 14683; Mexican Review 3 (7 October 1919): 12, 34.

181. Anon. to Aguilar, 15 Apr 1918, Carranza, carpeta 23731.

182. Matthew E. Hanna to sec. of state, 16 Apr 1918, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/668.

183. See testimony of Beaty, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:536-40; J. Jordan to Carranza, 21 June 1917, Carranza, carpeta 12992.

184. Walker to Long, 3 Apr 1919, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/438.

185. Polk to U.S. Embassy, 11 Apr, Summerlin to State Dept., 16 Apr, H.N. Branch to State Dept., 16 Apr 1919, Williams to Fletcher, 24 Apr 1919 ibid., 812.6363/444-45, /447, /450.

186. Polk to Fletcher, 16 Apr 1919, ibid., 812.6363/448; John N. Denny to A.J. Balfour, 23 Jan 1919, FO, 371-3826/13558.

187. Summerlin to State Dept., 2 June, Ernesto Garza Pérez to George T. Summerlin, 29 May 1919, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/463, /469.

188. Sir Cecil Spring-Rice to Grey, 23 Dec 1915, William J. Pulford to Spring-Rice, 11 Dec 1915, Cowdray to Foreign Office, 20 Jan 1916, FO 371-2697/3244, /5997, /12993; Body to Cowdray, 14 Apr 1917, Pearson, A4.

189. W.G. de Kanter to Foreign Office, 7 Apr 1917, Tweede Afdeling, Archief van het Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken, B-Dossiers, 1686, AR; Page to State Dept., 11 Nov, Cobb to State Dept., 8 Dec 1917, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/317, /323.

190. Francis B. Loomis to William A. Carr, 8 May, Walker to Long, 23 July 1919, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/ 494, /560.

191. Polk to U.S. Embassy, 9 Apr 1919, ibid., 812.6363/433.

192. Vázquez Schiaffino to War Dept., 16 May, Stephen V. Graham to Navy, 14 June 1919, ibid., 812.6363/476, /478; testimony of Williams, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:592-93.

193. Manuel Sánchez Ponton to Aguilar, 10 Jan 1919, Aguilar to A.M. González, 24 Jan 1919, Carranza, carpetas 14736, 14785.

194. Summerlin to State, 29 Jan, Summerlin to State Dept., 20 Aug 1919, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/426, /535.

195. Fletcher to State Dept., 20 July, Williams to State Dept., 28 Aug, Fletcher to State Dept., 18 Sept 1917, ibid., 812.6363/293, /300, /310.

196. See "Proyecto de ley del petróleo"; Swain to Fletcher, 18 Dec 1918, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/568.

197. "Memorandum on Conference," 12 Nov, James R. Garfield to Walker, 19 Dec 1918, ibid., 812.6363/415, /568.

198. Summerlin to State Dept., 6, 13 Aug, 16, 21, 29 Oct, 30 Dec, Fletcher to State, 8 Oct 1919, ibid., 812.6363/523, /525, /564, /573, /578, /617,/646.

199. Secretaría de Industria, Comercio y Trabajo, Legislación petrolera (Mexico City, 1922), 154; Summerlin to State Dept., 21 July 1919, León Salinas, "Circular número 9," 1 Aug 1919, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/ 486, /519.

200. C.O. Swain to State Dept., 25 Oct, Alvey Adee to Swain, 5 Nov 1919, Esso Standard, Legal Dept. file 117, SONJ; U.S. Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States (Washington, D.C., 1919), 2:605.

201. See, especially, testimony of Doheny, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:243.

202. F. Watriss to State Dept., 15 Nov, Sausing to U.S. Embassy, 18 Nov, Brown to Swain, 3 Dec 1919, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/581, /603.

203. Mayo to Navy, 2 Aug 1914, Naval Records Collection, WE-5.

204. Ryder, "Memorandum of Interview with Lic. Luis Cabrera," 21 Dec 1915, Pearson, A3.

205. W.F. Buckley et al. to Woodrow Wilson, 22 May, Body to Cowdray, 28 Nov 1916, ibid.

206. A.L. Beaty et al. to Association members, 16 Oct 1919, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/572.

207. Feb 1919, FO, 371-3831/105884.

208. Sen. Morris Sheppard to Lansing, 10 Dec 1919, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/597.

209. M.L. Requa to Polk, 12 Aug 1918, ibid., 812.6363/375.

210. Swain to Fletcher, 3 Dec 1919, ibid., 812.6363/603.

211. Oil and Gas Journal, 2 May 1919, 54-55; Williamson, The American Petroleum Industry, 2:300-301; Joseph P. Annin to Daniels, 13 Dec 1919, Daniels, file, 537.

212. Frederick Adams to Body, 10 June 1917, Pearson, A3; Alvey A. Adee to Albert B. Fall, 27 Oct 1919, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/532.

213. Body to T.B. Hohler, 5, 7, 14 July 1917, Pearson, A4; Franklin K. Lane to Doheny, 6 Jan 1917, Fall, box 108 F20.

214. E.L. Doheny, The Mexican Question: Its Relation to Our Industries, Our Merchant Marine, and Our Foreign Trade (Los Angeles, 1919).

215. Statement dated 7 May 1918, Cleland, box 2a; Mexican Consulate, San Francisco to Aguilar, 29 July 1918, Carranza, carpeta 13952; Frank William Peterson, "The Promise and Failure of the Doheny Research Foundation," typescript, 8 June 1965, Doheny.

216. Summerlin to State Dept., 25 Mar, Walker to Reynoso, 9 Apr, Walker to Long, 10 Apr 1919, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/435, /446.

217. Los Angeles Herald, 24 Jan 1919; "Los decretos mexicanos serán llevados a la Conferencia de Paz," 22 Jan 1919, Archivo Histórico "Genaro Estrada" de la Secretarí a de Relaciones Exteriores, L-E-533.

218. H.G.L. Hilton to Lord Curzon, 18 Apr, 1 May 1919, FO, 371-3828/65764.

219. See oil executives to Furnifold M. Simmons, 8 Dec, Simmons to Lansing, 10 Dec, C.W. Whitehead to Charles A. Culbertson, 30 Dec 1919, Culbertson to Lansing, 2 Jan 1920, Allison Mayfield to State, 5 Jan, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/598, /614, /621.

220. "Extracts from letter Received from our Washington Representative," 21 June 1917, Pearson, A3; David H. Stratton, "Albert B. Fall and the Teapot Dome Affair" (Ph.D. diss., University of Colorado, 1955), 52-53, 110. Also see chap. 7.

221. The details of their testimony have appeared throughout this book. Perhaps there was some substance to the fear of reprisals. Buckley believed that the carrancistas shut down one of his wells as a result of his testimony before the Fall committee. Buckley to F.J. Kearful, 30 Dec 1919, Fall, box 73 F35.

222. Doheny to Swain, 6 Feb 1920, Fall, box 106 Fla.

223. Statement of Kellogg, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 2:3278; testimony of Corbin, ibid., 1:1453; Williams to Polk, 19 Mar 1919, State Dept.

Decimal Files, 812.6363/432; Cowdray, "Memo: Interview and Exchange of Views with American Ambassador," 9 Jan 1914, Pearson, A3; Commanding Officer to Navy, 31 Aug 1917, Naval Records Collection, WE-5; Walker, "Memorandum of Conference," 8 Jan 1920, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/641; "Relations of the Oil Companies with the Mexican Authorities,'' n.d. [c. 1918], interview 683, Doheny; Swain to Fletcher, 9 Dec 1919, Swain, "Memorandum," 8 Jan 1920, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/641, /645; S. Casillas Cruz to Ernesto Garza Pérez, 25 July 1917, Archivo Histórico "Genaro Estrada" de la Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores, L-E-533.

224. Cowdray, "Memo: Interview and Exchange of Views with American Ambassador," 9 Jan 1914, Pearson, A3.

225. Bulletin of the National Association for the Protection of American Rights in Mexico 1, no. 5 (20 September 1919); C.H. Boynton to Fall, 18 Sept 1919, Fall, box 89 F11b; testimony of Williams, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:605.

226. Green to Wylie, 25 June 1918, Naval Records Collection, WE-5.

227. Testimony of Buckley, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:830.

228. Ibid.; Buckley to Fall, 5 Feb 1920, Fall, box 73 F35.

227. Testimony of Buckley, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:830.

228. Ibid.; Buckley to Fall, 5 Feb 1920, Fall, box 73 F35.

229. J.B. Yzaguirre to Carranza, 23 Dec 1918, Carranza, carpeta 128.

230. E. Hutchins to Sheppard, 25 Sept 1918, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/413.

231. El Universal, 5 Feb 1920; Excélsior, 5 Feb 1920; El Heraldo, 16 Oct 1920; Summerlin to State Dept., 17 Feb 1920, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/645.

232. R.E. Dodson to State Dept., 16 Jan 1915, ibid., 812.6363/155.

233. Commanding Officer, USS Annapolis to Navy, 31 Aug 1917, Naval Records Collection, WE-5.

234. Notes of R.S. on Cowdray to Maurice de Bunsen, 9 Oct 1915, FO, 371-2402/147780.

235. J.B. Body, "Memorandum," 20 Sept, Cowdray to Vincent Yorke, 19 Oct 1915, Pearson, A3; Ray C. Gerhardt, "Inglaterra y el petróleo mexicano," 132.

236. "Notes re. Mr. Body's Visit to Washington," 18 May, Body, "Memorandum to Lord Cowdray," 18 Sept 1917, Pearson, A4, A3; Minutes, 19 Nov 1917, FO, 371-2963/219811; Durán de Seade, "Mexico's Relations with the Powers," 216, 224, 233, 241.

237. Foreign Office to Thurstan, 27 Jan, Foreign Office to Spring-Rice, 21 Feb, Thurstan to Foreign Office, 17 Feb 1917, FO, 371-2958/19330,-2959/37114, /37714; Cowdray to Sir Maurice de Bunsen, 19 May 1917, Cowdray, "Memo for Mr. Steward," 5 Mar 1918, Pearson, A3.

238. Cowdray to Balfour, 7 Dec 1917, Cowdray to Sir Eric Drummond, 17 Jan, Vivian Smith et al. to Balfour, 29 Jan, Body to Cowdray, 9 May 1918, Pearson, A3.

239. RSS, "Minutes on Recognition of Carranza," 28 May 1919, FO, 371-2820/82356.

240. Aguilar to Carranza, 15 Aug 1919, Archivo Histórico "Genaro Estrada" de la Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores, L-E-533.

241. Cummings to Curzon, 20 Feb 1920, FO, 371-4491/A1811; Walker, "Memorandum of Conference," 8 Jan 1920, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/641.

242. George F. Summerlin to State Dept., 29 July, Walker to State Dept., 13 Dec, Williams to State Dept., 31 Dec 1919, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/509, /608, /613.

243. Ryder to Jacobsen, 7 Jan 1920, DeGolyer, file 5145.

244. Montes to Ryder, 3 Jan 1920, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/636.

245. Jacobsen to Ryder, 20 Jan 1920, DeGolyer, file 5145.

246. Cummins to Foreign Office, 12 Jan 1919, Ryder to Montes, 14 Jan 1920, FO, 371-4498/A132, /593; Walker to State Dept., 15 Jan, Oil Producers' Association to Carranza, 13 Jan 1920, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/624, /623; Carranza to Foreign Oil Producers, Summerlin to State Dept., 22 Jan 1920, ibid., 812.6363/628; Cummins to Foreign Office, 17, 22 Jan 1920, FO, 371-4498/A269.

247. López Portillo Y Weber, El petróleo de México, 133-34.

248. Corwin and J.A. Brown to S. Bunt, 10 Nov 1919, Esso Records, Legal Dept., file 117, SONJ.

249. F.M. Davies to Foreign Office, 8 Apr, John Dalton Venn to V. Carranza, 20 Apr, Cowdray to Curzon, 21 Apr 1920, FO, 371-4498/A2046, -4499/A2474; De Bataafsche Petroleum Maatschappy to Foreign Office, 26 Apr 1920, Tweede Afdeling, Archief van de Directie Economische Zaken van het Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken, 1919-41, 1800, AR.

1. "Memorandum re Revolutionary Activity," 10 Dec, H.W. Wilson to Hohler, 10 Dec, Pulford to Hohler, 21, 29 Dec, Peláez to El Aguila, El Aguila to Peláez, 27 Dec, S.A. Grahame to Hohler, 23 Dec 1914, FO, 371-2395/046919, /2445, 371-2396/9797, 371-2397/23925; Testimony of E.L. Doheny, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:284.

2. Heather Fowler Salamini, "Caciquismo and the Mexican Revolution: The Case of Manuel Peláez," paper presented at the 6th Conference of Mexican and United States Historians, 1981; Dennis J. O'Brien, "Petróleo e intervención: relaciones entre los Estados Unidos y México, 1917-1918," Historia Mexicana 27 (1977): 103-40; Durán de Seade, "México's Relations with the Powers,'' 283-301; Lorenzo Meyer, Mexico and the United States in the Oil Controversy, 1916-1942 (Austin, 1977), 48-51; Bermúdez, The Mexican National Petroleum Industry, 5; Silva Herzog, El petróleo de México, 17; Katz, The Secret War in Mexico, 463, 467, 487. For a typically uncomplimentary view of Peláez, see the introduction to a reedition of El petróleo de México: Recopilación de documentos oficiales (Mexico City, 1940; reprint, 1963), 14. Peter Linder provides a more balanced interpretation, emphasizing the complexity of the

relationship between Peláez and the oil industry, not that he was just a lackey. Peter S. Linder, "Every Region for Itself: The Manuel Peláez Movement, 1914-1923" (M.A. thesis, University of New Mexico, 1983), v.

3. El Universal, 19 Mar 1938; Lazaro Cardenas, Messages to the Mexican Nation on the Oil Question (Mexico City, 1938): 5-12.

4. Commanding Officer, USS Des Moines, "Notes Concerning Present Situation — Mexico East Coast," 12 Oct 1920, Naval Records Collection, WE-5.

5. Linder, "Every Region for Itself," 7, 15; Menéndez, Doheny El Cruel, 75-76; Fowler Salamini, "Caciquismo," 7.

6. Henderson, Félix Díaz, 56; Linder, "Every Region for Itself," 18-19.

7. Menéndez, Doheny El Cruel, 77-82; Linder, "Every Region for Itself," 20-25.

8. "Production of Petroleum in Mexico by Fields and Years," n.d., DeGolyer, file 5342; "Status of Rentals of the Aguila," 1 June 1917, ibid., file 5166; "Mexican Oilfields," 1916, Pearson, C46 F7.

9. Body to Cowdray, 4 Mar 1918, ibid., A3.

10. "Manifesto of General M. Peláez," 31 Dec 1917, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-164/9. Also see New York Times, 31 Dec 1917.

11. Doheny, "Memorandum of Facts Presented by the Huasteca Petroleum Co.," Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-246/284.

12. Ibid.; testimony of Spellacy, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:943-44; O. W. Fowler to Naval Intelligence, 12 Apr 1918, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/387.

11. Doheny, "Memorandum of Facts Presented by the Huasteca Petroleum Co.," Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-246/284.

12. Ibid.; testimony of Spellacy, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:943-44; O. W. Fowler to Naval Intelligence, 12 Apr 1918, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/387.

13. "Manifesto of General M. Pelaez," 31 Dec 1917, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-164/9; Cummins to Foreign Office, 14 Nov 1917, FO, 371-3241/47338.

14. Body to Foreign Office, 9 June, Vaughan to Pulford, 7 June, Robert W. Hillcoat, "Report on the Attack at Tuxpan," 6 June, Body to Foreign Office, 7 July 1915, FO, 371-75455/ 371-2400/80398, /89400, 371-2401/91337.

15. Body to J.W. Hutchinson, 7 June, Montes to Carranza, 11 June, 14 June 1915, Pearson, A3; Body to Foreign Office, 11, 22 June, FO, 371-2398/77362, 371-2400/83410.

16. Foreign Office to Hohler, 14 June, Body to Foreign Office, 24 July, "Report of Evidence," 8 July, "Evidence of Thomas Mallard, 13 July, Vaughan to Carranza, 19 July 1915, FO, 371-2398/75455, 371-2401/95423, /97550, 371-2402/114218/122438.

17. Vaughan to W.J. Pulford, 14 June, Body to Foreign Office, 14 July 1915, FO, 371-2401/92927, /95401, /95523.

18. Hewitt to Hohler, 18 Jan 1916, FO, 371-2699/45960; Body to Cowdray, 12 Feb 1916, Pearson, A4.

19. T.C. Vaughan to C. Aguilar, 16 Jan 1915, Pearson, A3.

20. Pulford to Hohler, 7 Jan 1915, Hohler to Grey, 26 Jan 1915, FO, 371-2396/18728, /23923.

21. Body to Cowdray, 24 Jan 1917, Pearson, A3; Hewitt to Cummins, 14 Nov 1917, FO, 371-3241/5107.

22. Cummins to Foreign Office, 14 Nov 1917, FO, 371-3241/47338.

23. P.M. Bennett to Body, 9 Feb 1916, Pearson, A3; Hewitt to Hohler, 7 Feb 1916, FO, 371-2699/53951.

24. Vaughan to Body, 23 Oct 1916, FO, 371-2706/238952.

25. Hewitt to Foreign Office, 7 Dec 1916, Pearson, A3; Hewitt to Foreign Office, 6 June, 17 Oct 1917, FO, 371-2962/158778, 371-3242/201251.

26. Spring-Rice to Foreign Office, 17 Feb, Hewitt to Hohler, 14 Feb 1916, Hewitt to Cummins, 23 Jan 1918, FO, 371-2698/31720, 371-2699/53951, -3242/41500; Commanding Officer, USS Annapolis to Naval Operations, 11 Nov 1917, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/319.

27. Hewitt to Foreign Office, 17 Oct 1917, Hewitt to Cummins, 23 Jan 1918, FO, 371-3242/20251, /41500; testimony of Buckley, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:840.

28. Unidentified to Carranza, 3 Oct 1917, Carranza, carpeta 13315; Hewitt to Foreign Office, 12 Sept 1917, FO, 371-2963/205098.

29. Hewitt to Thurstan, 7 Dec 1916, Hewitt to Foreign Office, 17 Oct 1917, FO, 371-2958/17254, 371-3242/201251; Thurstan to Foreign Office, 23 Dec 1916, Pearson, A3.

30. Hewitt to Hohler, 5 July, Hewitt to Cummins, 19 Aug 1917, FO, 371-2962/158778, 371-2963/205095.

31. Hewitt to Thurstan, Tuxpan, 10 Nov 1916, FO, 371-2706/262143.

32. Thurstan to Foreign Office, 27 Apr 1917, FO, 371-2706/86909.

33. Hewitt to Cummins, 12 Sept 1917, FO, 371-2963/205095.

34. Report of U.S. War College, Barclay to A.J. Balfour, 14 Feb 1918, FO, 371-3243/34422.

35. Testimony of Smith, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:303-4.

36. Hewitt to Hohler, 3 Aug 1916, FO, 371-2703/173269; "Strength of Rebel Forces in Mexico, 1919," Records of the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations, Office of Naval Intelligence, Naval Attaché Reports, 98-12099, Records Group 38, National Archives. For the personal identification between leader and follower in the Revolution, see John Reed, Insurgent Mexico (New York, 1969), 79.

37. Pulford to Hohler, 18 June 1917, FO, 371-2962/143982.

38. Ordóñez, "El petróleo en México," part 2, 226.

39. "Conditions in Mexico, 1919," MID, 98-12450, RG 165, NARS.

40. Hewitt to Hohler, 10, 14 Feb 1916, FO, 371-2699/53951; testimony of Spellacy, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:944; Clarence L. Hay, "Situation of Forces in Tampico Region," 15 June 1918, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-240; John Womack, Jr., Zapata and the Mexican Revolution (New York, 1968), 229-35; Raymond Th. J. Buve, "`Neither Carranza nor Zapata!': The Rise and Fall of a Peasant Movement that Tried to Challenge Both, Tlaxcala, 1910-19," in Riot, Rebellion, and Revolution: Rural Social Conflict in Mexico, ed. Friedrich Katz (Princeton, 1988), 338-75; Romana Falcón, "Charisma, Tradition, and Caciquismo: Revolution in San Luis Potosí," in Riot, Rebellion, and Revolution, 417-47.

41. "Translation of Proclamation of May 5th, 1917," Pearson, A3.

42. "Conditions in Mexico 1919," MID, 98/12450.

43. Cowdray to Landa y Escandón, 30 Mar 1916, Pearson, A3.

44. Pulford to Hohler, 18 June 1917, FO, 371-2962/143982.

45. Walker to Doheny, 4 Feb 1916, introduced by Doheny, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:280.

46. Document, n.d., introduced by Doheny, ibid., 1:281.

47. Hewitt to Cummins, 14 Nov 1917, FO, 371-3241/47338.

48. El Dictamen, 4 Aug 1921.

49. Testimony of Doheny, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:282-83.

50. J.A. Brown to Sadler, 29 Apr 1920, "Mexico, 1920," Production Dept., Sadler's Mexican files, SONJ.

51. Testimony of Levi Smith, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:196-97; H.E. Yarnell to USS Nashville, 26 Jan 1917, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/259.

52. Hewitt to Hohler, 10, 14 Feb 1916, FO, 371-2699/53951; Dawson to State Dept., 6 Mar, Walker to Doheny, 8 Mar 1918, Alvey A. Adee to James G. McDonald, 15 Aug 1919, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/357, /372, /508.

53. Martínez Herrera to Paddleford, 1 Feb 1916, document introduced by Doheny, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:281; "Memorandum of Facts Presented by the Huasteca Petroleum Co.," Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-246/284.

54. Body to Cowdray, 12 Feb 1916, Pearson, A4; Pulford to Hohler, 10 Feb 1916, Hohler to J. Acuna, 19 Feb 1916, FO, 371-2699/63825.

55. Testimony of Beaty, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:533.

56. Walker to George Marvin, 9 Sept 1917, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/312; Testimony of Doheny, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:289. The combined total of $30,000 is not specified in U.S. or Mexican currency.

57. Dawson to State Dept., 11 Mar 1918, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/357.

58. Fowler Salamini, "Caciquismo and the Mexico Revolution," 9. All figures used in the oil zone were in gold pesos, pegged at two per the American dollar, not in the troublesome Mexican peso or in Villa's Monclova script or Carranza's peso infalsificable. The oil zone, like Panama and other small Caribbean and Central American countries then and now, used American currency as the basic monetary unit.

59. Edgar L. Field to Intelligence Office, 20 Nov 1917, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 9700-608.

60. Peláez, "To the Mexican People," 31 Dec 1917, Pearson, A3.

61. Knight, The Mexican Revolution, 1:368-69; 2:56, 243-44.

62. "Manifesto of General M. Pelaez," 27 June 1918, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-164/9; Peláez, "To the Mexican People," 31 Dec 1917, Pearson, A3.

63. Hohler to Foreign Office, 29 June 1916, FO, 371-2701/125937; Commanding Officer, USS Marietta to Commanding Officer, USS Dixie, 17 July 1916, Naval Records Collection, WE-5; "Informe rendido a este Consulado," New York, 7 May 1918, Carranza, carpeta 13766; Field to Intelligence Office, 20 Nov 1917, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 9700-608.

64. [Peláez], Document Translation of 1918, Fall, box 91, file 33.

65. Cummins to Foreign Office, 19 Oct 1917, FO, 371-2963/201368.

66. "Translation of Proclamation of May 5th, 1917," Pearson, A3.

67. "Conference between General López de Lara and General Pelaez, 22 Oct 1918," Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-579.

68. Spring-Rice to Foreign Office, 4 Dec 1917, FO, 371-2964/231353; Body, "Memorandum to Lord Cowdray," 6 Dec 1917, Pearson, A3.

69. Robert E. Quirk, The Mexican Revolution, 1914-1915: The Convention of Aguascalientes (Bloomington, Ind., 1960), 40, 42, 232; Womack, Zapata and the Mexican Revolution, 217-18; Katz, The Secret War in Mexico, 139-45; Knight, The Mexican Revolution, 2:119-20.

70. Spring-Rice to Hohler, 3 May, Spring-Rice to Foreign Office, 4 May 1915, FO, 371-2399/53733.

71. Hewitt to Hohler, 14 Mar, Vaughn to Body, 23 Oct 1916, FO, 371-2700/81954, 371-2706/238952.

72. Hewitt to H.A. Cunard Cummins, 7 June 1917, FO, 371-2962/148210.

73. Hewitt to Cowdray, 14 June 1918, FO, 371-3245/128549; Henderson, Félix Díaz, 123-24, 134, 441.

74. Edgar L. Field to Intelligence Office, 20 Nov 1917, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 9700-608; Falcón, "Charisma, Tradition, and Caciquismo," 420, 438.

75. As quoted in C.H. Boynton to Fall, 23 Sept 1919, Fall, box 89, file 11b.

76. Womack, Zapata and the Mexican Revolution, 310, 325, 346-47.

77. R.S., "Internal Memo," 15 Nov 1916, FO, 371-2705/228882.

78. Barclay to Foreign Office, 9 Nov 1917, Thurstan, "Memorandum," 30 Apr 1918, FO, 371-2963/215442, 371-3244/82133; Body to Cowdray, 7 May, Cowdray to Body, 7 May 1917, Pearson, A4.

79. See correspondence in Foreign Office, 371-2700/95698. The Foreign Office had made such a request to pay bribes to protect British citizens from zapatistas if they returned to Mexico City again after the late 1914 occupation. They did not.

80. "Protection of Oil Fields in Mexico," 23 Nov 1916, Spring-Rice to A.J. Balfour, 1 Mar 1917, FO, 371-2706/237221, 371-2959/60106.

81. "Minutes, 12 Nov, Cummins to Foreign Office, 12 Dec 1917, Stewart to Maurice de Bunsen, 6 Apr 1918, FO, 371-2964/236485, 371-3243/63332.

82. Thurstan to Spring-Rice, 18 April, Thurstan to Foreign Office, 28 Apr 1917, FO, 371-2960/80733.

83. El Dictamen (Veracruz), 5 Aug 1915.

84. Body to Cowdray, 3 Mar 1916, Pearson, A3.

85. Foreign Office to Spring-Rice, 17 Apr, Thurstan to Foreign Office, 17 Apr, Naval Intelligence to Foreign Office, 10 Dec, Cummins to Foreign Office, 10 Dec 1917, FO, 371-2959/77834, /79679, 371-2964/234127, /234835; "Interview between Sir Maurice de Bunsen and Mr. Stewart," 11 July 1917, Pearson, A3.

86. Hohler, "Memorandum," 17 Feb, PCHS, "Memo to Lord Cowdray," 2 Mar, Spring-Rice to Foreign Office, 13 Mar, Cummins to Foreign Office, 7

Dec 1917, FO, 371-2959/60106, /52269, 371-2964/233404; Herbert J. Carr to Body, 2 Mar, Body to Carr, 5 Mar 1917, Pearson, A3.

87. Alex Flint to Foreign Office, 17 Mar 1918, J.E. Shuckburgh to Foreign Office, 22 July, R.S.S., [Minutes], 25 July 1919, FO, 371-3827/40183, 371-3831/106894.

88. Spring-Rice to State Dept., 18 Mar, Polk to Spring-Rice, 22 Mar, Polk to Byrd, 22 July 1916, Walker, "Memorandum," 12 Apr 1917, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/226, /228, /240, /296; Body to Cowdray, 28 Nov 1916, Pearson, A3; Hohler to Foreign Office, 25 Mar 1916, FO, 371-2699/56928.

89. Canova, "Memorandum," 14 Apr 1917, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/308.

90. Dawson to State Dept., 11 Aug 1916, ibid., 812.6363/245; Commanding Officer, USS Annapolis to Navy, 5 Jan 1918, Naval Records Collection, WE-5; Spring-Rice to A.J. Balfour, 17 Nov 1917, Hewitt to Thurstan, 8 Oct 1918, FO, 371-2964/244107, 371-2247/207236.

91. Naval Operations, "Occupation of Mexican Oil Fields — Tampico and Tuxpam [ sic ]," 22 Apr 1918, in Naval Records Collection, WE-5, Tampico — 1914 file; O'Brien, "Petróleo e intervención," 127-30.

92. Spring-Rice to Foreign Office, 21 Oct 1915, Alex Flint to Foreign Office, 17 Mar 1918, FO, 371-2403/154593, 371-3827/40183; Commanding Officer, USS Annapolis to Navy, 5 Jan 1918, Naval Records Collection, WE-5.

93. Fletcher to State Dept., 19 Apr 1918, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/384; Lord Reading to Foreign Office, 18 Mar 1919, FO, 371-3827/43604.

94. Alvey A. Adee to James G. McDonald, 9 Sept 1919, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/522.

95. Testimony of Doheny, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:286.

96. E.L. Doheny, "Memorandum of Facts," 5 Nov 1917, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-246/284.

97. Walker to Auchincloss, 28 July 1917, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-164/29; Walker to Lansing, 7 Aug, Walker to Gordon Auchincloss, 9 Sept 1917, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/303, /312.

98. Testimony of Doheny, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:286.

99. Testimonies of Inman and Buckley, ibid., 1:67, 839.

100. Testimony of Spellacy, ibid., 1:945; "Relations of the Oil Companies with the Mexican Authorities," [c. 1918], Doheny, interview no. 683.

101. Body to Cowdray, 1 Mar 1917, Pearson, A4; W.J. Pulford to Hohler, 23 Feb, A.N. "Minutes," 6 July 1916, FO, 371-2699/63825, 371-2700/ 109289.

102. Carl W. Ackerman, "Germany's Ally at Tampico," Saturday Evening Post, 13 Oct 1917. The title referred not to Peláez but to the International Workers of the World, then instigating strikes in Tampico.

103. Cummins to Foreign Office, 14 Nov 1917, FO, 371-3241/47338; Claude I. Dowson to State, 20 Nov 1917, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 9700-684.

104. Green to Wylie, 25 June 1918, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-164.

105. Hewitt to Cummins, 1 Nov 1917, FO, 371-3241/16046.

106. George E. Paddleford to E.L. Doheny, 12 Nov 1917, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 9700/556.

107. Hewitt to Foreign Office, 13 Feb 1918, FO, 371-3243/58867; Louis C. Richardson, Commanding Officer, USS Annapolis to Navy, 15 Jan 1917, Naval Records Collection, WE-5.

108. Louis C. Richardson, Commanding Officer, USS Annapolis to Navy, 18 Dec 1917, 1 Jan 1918, ibid.

109. Green to Wylie, 25 Feb 1918, FO, 371-3243/47338; Linder, "Every Region for Itself," 101-3.

110. Green to Wylie, 28 Feb 1918, FO, 371-3243/47338; Green to Paddleford, 1 Mar 1918, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/373. Also see Hall and Coerver, Revolution on the Border, 102.

111. Green to Paddleford, 1 Mar 1918, FO, 371-3243/47338.

112. Green to Wylie, 18 Mar 1918, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-164/4.

113. Ibid.

112. Green to Wylie, 18 Mar 1918, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-164/4.

113. Ibid.

114. Green to Wylie, 13 Sept 1918, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-164/41.

115. Green to Wylie, 18 Mar 1918, ibid., 10640-164/4.

116. Hay, "Situation of Forces in Tampico Region," 15 June 1918, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-240; Commanding Officer, Mexican Patrol, to Navy, 4 Nov 1917, Office of Naval Intelligence, "Conditions in Mexico, 1919," WE-5.

117. Hewitt to Cummins, 14 Nov 1917, FO, 371-3241/5107.

118. Hohler to Foreign Office, 27 Mar 1915, FO, 371-2406/61586.

119. Hay, "Situation of Forces in Tampico Region"; "Memo from H." 16 Jan 1919, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-240.

120. Office of Naval Intelligence, "Conditions in Mexico, 1919," WE-5.

121. Spring-Rice to Foreign Office, 4 Dec 1917, FO, 371-2964/231353.

122. Linder, "Every Region for Itself," 111-13.

123. Anon. to Carranza, 30 May 1918, Carranza, carpeta 13817; El Dictamen, 20 July 1919; Commanding Officer, USS Annapolis to Navy, 17 Nov 1917, A. A. Seraphic to Naval Intelligence, 22 Oct 1919, in Naval Attaché Reports, WE-5; "Gun-running, New Orleans to Mexico," n.d., Le Roy Lutes, "Mexican Activities in Ammo. Smuggling," 12 Mar 1920, Edmund A. Buchanan, "Arms and Ammo Smuggling from New Orleans to Mexico," 24, 27 Apr 1920, R.G. Skamp to J.M. Nye, 24 Oct 1918, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 9343-306/3, /5, /12, /14, 10640-1485.

124. Buchanan, 19 Apr 1920, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 9343-306/10, RG 165; "Mexico, Arms and Ammunition," n.d., [located in file dated 1918-1919], Naval Records Collection, WE-5; Menéndez, Doheny El Cruel, 89.

125. Hewitt to Thurstan, 5 Feb 1917, FO, 371-2959/60674.

126. Linder, "Every Region for Itself," 46; Cummins to Foreign Office, 14 Nov 1917, FO, 371-3241/47338; Russell C. Snyder, "Pelaez Activities," 19 Apr 1920, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-2003. Doheny, "Memorandum of Facts Presented by the Huastecan Petroleum Co.," Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-246/284.

127. Cowdray to Foreign Office, 23 Mar 1918, FO, 371-3243/53462; Commanding Officer, Mexican Patrol, to Navy, 4 Nov 1917, Naval Records Collection, WE-5; Hay, "Situation of Forces in Tampico Region."

128. Hewitt to Cummins, 1 Feb 1918, FO, 371-3243/58867; William Green to Paddleford, 2 Feb 1918, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/389.

129. Dawson to State Dept., 6 Sept 1917, ibid., 812.00/21272; Cummins to Foreign Office, 22 Sept, Foreign Office to Spring-Rice, 20 Oct, Spring-Rice to Foreign Office, 21 Oct, FO, 371-2963/184427, /201118, /202679; Linder, "Every Region for Itself," 76.

130. Cummins to Foreign Office, 7, 9 Nov, 9 Dec 1917, FO, 371-2963/213296, /233707.

131. Dawson to State Dept., 20 Nov 1917, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 9700-684; Foreign Office to Cowdray, 15 Nov 1917, Pearson, A3; Hewitt to Cummins, 23 Jan 1918, FO, 371-3242/41500; Linder, "Every Region for Itself," 73-81. Linder presents a detailed description of this and subsequent military campaigns in the oil zone.

132. Spring-Rice to Foreign Office, 6 Jan, Hewitt to Cummins, 8 Jan 1918, FO, 371-3241/3749, 371-3242/41473; Body, "Memorandum to the Chief," 8 Jan, Foreign Office to Lord Cowdray, 15 Jan 1918, Pearson, A3; Dawson to State Dept., 24 Jan 1918, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/332.

133. Hewitt to Pulford, 18 Jan 1918, FO, 371-3244/108160; Phillip O. Hanna to State Dept., 29 Jan 1918, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/336; Linder, "Every Region for Itself," 81-84; Durán de Seade, "Mexico's Relations with the Great Powers," 298.

134. Hewitt to H.A. Cunard Cummins, 13 Feb 1918, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/356; Cummins to Foreign Office, FO, 371-3242/32675.

135. Lord Reading to Foreign Office, 19 Feb, Cummins to Foreign Office, 20 Feb 1918, FO, 371-3241/31978, /33420; Doheny to State Dept., 17 Feb 1918, Walker to Auchincloss, 18 Feb, Dawson to State Dept., 19, 20 Feb, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/342, /345-46, /397.

136. Body to Cowdray, 24 Feb, Cowdray to De Bunsen, 28 Feb 1918, Pearson, A3.

137. Green to Wylie, 18 Mar 1918, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-164/4.

138. Cummins to Foreign Office, 20 Mar, 12 Apr 1918, FO, 371-3242/46189, 371-3243/66510; Linder, "Every Region for Itself," 84-87.

139. Lord Reading to Foreign Office, 11 Mar 1918, FO, 371-3242/46189.

140. O.W. Fowler to Naval Operations, 12 Apr 1918, letter to William J. Pulford, n.d., State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/387, /392; Cummins to Foreign Office, 19 Apr, Barclay to Foreign Office, 12 Apr, Hewitt to Cummins, 1 Apr 1918, FO, 371-3243/69928, /75698, 371-3244/82631.

141. Linder, "Every Region for Itself," 129-30.

142. Green to Wylie, 13 Sept 1918, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-164/41; Pulford to Hohler, 5 Sept, Barclay to Foreign Office, 5 Sept, Thurstan to Foreign Office, 7, 10 Sept, Hewitt to Thurstan, 9 Oct 1918, FO, 371-3246/174256, /153178, /153910, /154791, 371-3247/191661; Linder, "Every Region for Itself," 131-33.

143. Green to Wylie, 13 Sept 1918, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-164/41. Heather Fowler Salamini has suggested that López de Lara did not fight Peláez because he had received a bribe of ten thousand pesos by the oil companies. Fowler Salamini, "Caciquismo and the Mexican Revolution," 27. I have seen no evidence one way or the other.

144. "Conference between General de Lara and General Pelaez," 22 Oct 1918, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-579/2; Hewitt to Thurstan, 31 Oct 1918, Pearson, A3.

145. U.S. Military Intelligence, "Mexico," 10 Mar 1919, FO, 371-3828/51282; Linder, "Every Region for Itself," 135-37; Barclay to Foreign Office, 4 Apr 1919, FO, 371-3828/58627.

146. Minutes of RS, 27 Feb, Cummins to Foreign Office, 12 Mar, Pulford to Norman King, 14 Apr 1919, FO, 371-3827/40284, 371-3829/77275.

147. U.S. Consul to State Dept., 5 May 1920, in East Coast Situations, 1918-1921, Naval Records Collection, WE-5; Dawson to State Dept., 5 May 1920, Colby to U.S. Consul, 8 May 1920, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/673, /673; Linder, "Every Region for Itself," 156.

148. Sir. A. Geddes to Foreign Office, 10, 13 May, Pulford to Cummins, 11 May 1920, FO, 371-4492/A2980, /A3039, /A3486; Linder, "Every Region for Itself," 156-58; Dawson to State Dept., 8 May 1920, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.00/23896.

149. Reports of Sosthenes Behn, 16, 23 Jan 1920, ibid., 812.00/26462.

150. Ibid.; "Political Situation, General Discussion," 5 July 1920, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-2307/1.

149. Reports of Sosthenes Behn, 16, 23 Jan 1920, ibid., 812.00/26462.

150. Ibid.; "Political Situation, General Discussion," 5 July 1920, Military Intelligence Division, Correspondence, 10640-2307/1.

151. Dawson to Colby, 30 May, Colby to State Dept., 3 June 1920, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.00/24142; El Dictamen, 31 May 1920.

152. The fodder for these articles is found in the archives of President Obregón. See Fondo Presidentes Alvaro Obregón y Plutarcho Elías Calles, 101-P-6, AGN.

153. See especially Linder, "Every Region for Itself," chap. 6; Menéndez, Doheny El Cruel, 100-109; John W.F. Dulles, Yesterday in Mexico: A Chronicle of the Revolution, 1919-1936 (Austin, 1972), 110, 223.

1. W.J. Pulford to Hohler, Tampico, 13 June 1916, Pulford to King, 23 Aug 1919, FO, 371-2702/142126, 371-3833/134861.

2. Ramón Eduardo Ruiz, Labor and the Ambivalent Revolutionaries: Mexico, 1911-1923 (Baltimore, 1976), 2. See also Gilly, La revolución interrumpida; Arnaldo Córdoba, La ideología de la Revolución Mexicana: la formación del nuevo régimen (Mexico City, 1973); Hart, Revolutionary Mexico; Nora Hamilton, The Limits of State Autonomy: Post-Revolutionary Mexico (Princeton, 1982); Katz,

The Secret War in Mexico; Adolfo Gilly et al., Interpretaciones de la revolución mexicana, 10th ed. (Mexico City, 1987).

3. For example, see Moises González Navarro, Las huelgas textiles en el Porfiriato (Puebla, 1970); Rodney Anderson, Outcasts in Their Own Land: Mexican Industrial Workers, 1906-1911 (DeKalb, Ill., 1976); Lorena M. Parlee, "The Impact of United States Railroad Unions on Organized Labor and Government Policy in Mexico (1880-1911)," Hispanic American Historical Review 64 (1984): 443-75; Marcelo Rodea, Historia del movimiento obrero ferrocarrilero (Mexico City, 1944); Barry Carr, El movimiento obrero y la política en México, 1910-1929 (Mexico City, 1981); El Trabajo y los trabajadores en la historia de México, ed. Elsa Cecilia Frost, Michael C. Meyer, and Josefina Zoraida Vásquez (Mexico City and Tucson, 1979); Torcuato S. Di Tella, "The Dangerous Classes in Early Nineteenth-Century Mexico," Journal of Latin American Studies 5 (1973): 79-105; Carr, El movimiento obrero y la política en México; Jorge Basurto, El proletariado industrial en México, 25.

4. As Alan Knight observes, "Given half a chance, the organized working class opted for unionism and reformism (sometimes camouflaged under revolutionary rhetoric); only when it was brusquely and brutally denied the chance did it entertain risky thoughts of revolution. Historically, the workers have not been born revolutionaries, but have had revolutions thrust upon them." Knight, "The Working Class and the Mexican Revolution, c. 1900-1920," Journal of Latin American Studies 16 (May 1984): 71.

5. Claude I. Dawson, "Economic Changes Since the Beginning of the War," Tampico, 17 June 1918, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, 850.4. Adleson, "Historia social de los obreros," 4, indicates a population increase from 13,452 persons in 1910 to 40,192 in 1917. E.L. Doheny said the population rose from 8,000 in 1900 to 50,000 or 60,000 in 1919, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:236; Ordóñez placed the number of inhabitants at 9,000 in 1900 and more than 100,000 in 1922. Ordóñez, "El petróleo en México," part 2, 221. These figures lack precision because of the government's inability to carry out the scheduled census of 1920 because of political unrest.

6. "Estimate of the Situation Covering Protection of Life and Property at Tampico, Mexico," 16 Oct 1916, Naval Records Collection, WE-5.

7. Ordóñez, "El petróleo en México," part 2, 221.

8. Ibid., 223.

7. Ordóñez, "El petróleo en México," part 2, 221.

8. Ibid., 223.

9. Adleson, "Historia social de los obreros," 108, 126, 329, 345-48.

10. Dawson, "Economic Changes Since the Beginning of the War," 17 June 1918, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, 850.4.

11. Charles Bergquist suggests that those Latin American workers in the predominant export industries generated a new militancy and a new perspective because of their position at the nexus between the national (and so-called dependent) economy and the international market. The oil workers' militancy at Tampico, however, seems based on their traditions of resistance rather than on their knowledge of and opposition to international capitalism. Charles Bergquist, Labor in Latin America: Comparative Essays on Chile, Argentina, Venezuela, and Colombia (Stanford, 1984), 8, 376.

12. Adleson, "Historia social de los obreros," 144.

13. Nicklos, 8 July 1953, T103, OHTO; ''Potrero — Tuxpam 8" Pipe Line, Pump Stations — Labour" [c. 1916], Pearson, C45.

14. Adleson, "Historia social de los obreros," 146-49; 417, 420-23. Like many mine owners during the Porfiriato, Doheny claimed that the Mexicans themselves preferred tarea work. It permitted the mine workers to complete a job at times of their own choosing rather than at prescribed times. Perhaps laborers might accomplish two tareas in one day, so that they could take off the next day. Testimony of Doheny, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:234. Also see Bernstein, The Mexican Mining Industry, for mining labor during the Porfiriato.

15. Adleson, "Historia social de los obreros," 147.

16. Clarence A. Miller to Col. Martínez, 15 March 1912, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, Correspondence — Mexican Officials; Adleson, "Historia social de los obreros," 170, 172, 174.

17. Enrique S. Cerdán, 29 Jan 1920, Ramo de Trabajo, Departamento de Trabajo, 1911-1930, C224, E23, AGN; Adleson, "Historia social de los obreros," 188, 192-95.

18. Enrique S. Cerdán, 29 Jan 1920, Ramo de Trabajo, C224, E23. Skocpol notes that the function of labor was to reinforce the state during the time of postrevolutionary consolidation. See Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China (Cambridge, Eng., 1979), 112, 236.

19. "Interview with Mr. S.W. Smith of the Mexican Petroleum Company," 11 May 1918, interview no. 596, Doheny.

20. Interview no. 696, n.d. [circa 1918], Doheny. The observer can be accused of pro-American, pro-Huasteca, anti-British, anti-El Aguila biases, because the research foundation of E.L. Doheny paid the observer's expenses in Tampico.

21. E.J. Nicklos, 8 July 1953, OHTO, T-104.

22. Cowdray to Mr. Kemsley, 30 Apr 1915, FO, 371-2399/53060; Cowdray to J. B. Body, 29 Dec 1916, Pearson, A4.

23. Interview no. 401, Doheny.

24. El Dictámen, 23 May 1920; Silva Herzog, El petróleo de México, 50.

25. Interview no. 401, Doheny.

26. Ibid.; McMahon, Two Strikes and Out, 42.

25. Interview no. 401, Doheny.

26. Ibid.; McMahon, Two Strikes and Out, 42.

27. Enrique Cerdán, "Informe," 9 Jan 1920, Ramo de Trabajo, C224, E24.

28. "José Hernández, mutilado al prestar sus servicios en la Huasteca Petroleum Co.," 1919, Ramo de Trabajo, C170, E2.

29. "Interview with Mr. S.W. Smith," 11 May 1918, interview no. 596, Doheny.

30. Carl W. Ackerman, "Germany's Ally at Tampico," The Saturday Evening Post, 13 Oct 1917.

31. James D. McLachlan, "Report on Bolshevism in Mexico," 20 May 1919, FO, 371-3830/83812; Anon. to Fall, 24 Jan 1919, Fall, box 72, file 49.

32. W.M. Hanson to Fall, 17 Sept 1916, Anon. to Fall, 18 Oct 1918, 7 July 1919, Fall, box 84, file 2, box 72, box 49.

33. O.G. Lawson, 29 July 1952, OHTO, T31; E.J. Nicklos, 8 July 1953, ibid., T104.

34. "Aguila Co. 1916, Estimates Northern and Southern Fields Navigation Department and O.F.M.," Pearson, C45 F6; Office of Naval Operations, Planning Section, "Occupation of Mexican Oil Fields — Tampico and Tuxpam [ sic ]," 22 Apr 1918, in ''Mexico: Tampico — Firing on U.S. Naval Forces, 1914," Naval Records Collection, WE-5; Dawson to M.C. Hutchinson, 7 Mar 1919, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, 850.4.

35. "Data re. American Refugees from Mexico, 1913-1914," ibid.

36. Dawson to Earle W. Jopp, 16 Apr 1919, ibid.; Lambert and Franks, Voices from the Oil Fields, 44.

37. Nicklos, 8 July 1953, T103, OHTO; "Plan of Minatitlan Oil Refinery," 31 Oct 1922, Pearson, C46 F5.

38. Germán García Lozano, "Estadio descriptivo de la refinería de petróleo en Minatitlán, Ver.," Boletín del Petróleo 1, no. 3 (1916): 266-67.

39. Ibid.

38. Germán García Lozano, "Estadio descriptivo de la refinería de petróleo en Minatitlán, Ver.," Boletín del Petróleo 1, no. 3 (1916): 266-67.

39. Ibid.

40. O.G. Lawson, 29 July 1952, T31, OHTO; Lambert and Franks, Voices from the Oil Fields, 46.

41. Cowdray to Thomas J. Ryder, 31 Aug 1914, Pearson, A3.

42. Dawson to El Aguila, 13 Aug 1918, Dawson to George A. Chamberlain, 14 Aug 1918, Dawson to U.S. consul, Nuevo Laredo, 21 Aug 1918, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, 850.4/822; author's interview with Maier, Coral Gables, Florida, 30 Dec 1982. Maier later managed the Tropical Oil Company of Colombia.

43. López Portillo y Weber, El petróleo de México, 135-37; testimony of James J. Britt, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:995, 1002; Hall and Coerver, Revolution on the Border, 99.

44. Body to Cowdray, 16 Jan, 3 July 1917, Pearson, A4; Foreign Office to consular officers, Mexico, 12 July 1917, FO, 371-2962/138423; Cowdray to Body, 28 Apr 1914, Pearson, A3; Cowdray to Board of Trade, 10 Oct 1914, ibid.

45. Testimony of Spellacy, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:952-53; Green to Paddleford, 1 Mar 1918, FO, 371-3243/A47338.

46. Thomas J. Ryder to Colville Barclay, 26 Aug 1919, FO, 371-3833/134146; Wilson to Hohler, 24 Nov 1914, FO, 371-2397/23934.

47. "Potrero — Tuxpam 8" Pipe Line, Pump Stations — Labour," Pearson, C45.

48. Cowdray to Ryder, 31 Aug 1914, Pearson, A3.

49. Testimony of Dr. Bruce Baker Corbin, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:1459.

50. War Department to F.J. Collins, 20 Oct 1919, W. Milligan to Capt. George S. Frickes, 16 Dec 1918, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, 850.4.

51. Sadler to Dawson, 19 Feb 1919, ibid.

52. Silva Herzog, El petróleo de México, 50.

53. Some historians, like Roberto Korzeniewicz, place the labor process at the center of any interpretation of labor unrest. "Insofar as the position of different groups of workers in the labor market was itself shaped by the nature of the labor process and workplace relations, the transformation of these spheres constitutes an important analytical point of departure for explaining the central features of the emerging labor movement." Roberto P. Korze-

niewicz, "Labor Unrest in Argentina, 1887-1907," Latin American Research Review 24 (1989): 71.

54. Ordóñez, "El Petróleo en México," part 2, 223.

55. Testimony of Corbin, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:1459; "Pearson Photographic Albums," 1, 44; G.H. Coxon to R.D. Hutchinson, 21 Jan 1919, Pearson, P/1.

56. Interview no. 696, Doheny.

57. Miller to sec. of state, 25 May 1912, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/4.

58. Enrique S. Cerdán, "Informe," 9 Jan 1920, Ramo de Trabajo, C224, E24.

59. Ibid.

58. Enrique S. Cerdán, "Informe," 9 Jan 1920, Ramo de Trabajo, C224, E24.

59. Ibid.

60. Here the theoretical work of Harry Braverman can be taken too far by historians of early industrialization. The Braverman thesis implies that machinery reduces work to routine and separates work into specific tasks, such that technological advancement leads to a deskilling of the labor force. The application of the Braverman thesis to early Mexican industrial development, because of the importance of foreign skilled workers, does not seem reasonable. See Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital, 149; John Womack, Jr., "The Historiography of Mexican Labor," in Frost, Meyer, and Vásquez, El Trabajo y los trabajadores en la historia de México, 739-56; Adleson, "Historia social de los obreros," 405, 535.

61. "The Texas Company of Mexico" [circa 1918], Doheny, LJC-DS, file 3467.

62. Ibid. On the hierarchy of the Mexican working class, see Di Tella, "The Dangerous Classes in Early Nineteenth-Century Mexico," 79-105.

61. "The Texas Company of Mexico" [circa 1918], Doheny, LJC-DS, file 3467.

62. Ibid. On the hierarchy of the Mexican working class, see Di Tella, "The Dangerous Classes in Early Nineteenth-Century Mexico," 79-105.

63. "Estimated Monthly Expenditures and Receipts," 1 Jan to 30 June 1916, "Navigation Department," and ''Tampico and Minatitlán Refinery Estimates" [c. 1916], Pearson, C45 F4; "Schedule of wages," Mexican Petroleum Company, 31 May 1918, Doheny, files 3717-3718.

64. Ordóñez, "El petróleo de México," part 2, 224.

65. Adleson, "Historia social de los obreros," 161, 166.

66. Ordóñez, "El petróleo de México," part 2, 220. The practice of selling purloined water recalls the testimony of Carolina Maria de Jesús, who described how unscrupulous entrepreneurs of the favelas of São Paulo would tap into the public electricity system, without permission, and sell power to the residents. See Child of the Dark: The Diary of Carolina Maria de Jesus, tr. David St. Clair (New York, 1962), 35.

67. "Erection of Camp Buildings," [c. 1916], Pearson, C45.

68. Testimony of Doheny, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:234-35; Eberstadt Photo Collection, Box 3S1, Mexico Petroleum Co., c. 1913, Barker Texas History Center Photograph Collection, University of Texas at Austin.

69. "Se trasmite informe de la Agencia del Petróleo en Tuxpan, Ver.," 12 Jan 1920, Ramo de Trabajo, C114, E27.

70. "Estimate for 2,000 Foot Wells," [c. 1916], Pearson, C45.

71. Testimony of Doheny and Spellacy, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:234, 940, 942; "Standing Charges, Potrero Camp," [c. 1916], Pearson, C45 F6.

72. Wage data from "Standing Charges, Potrero Camp," "Estimate Monthly Expenditures and Receipts," "Southern Fields," "Aguila Co., 1916 — Estimating

Northern & Southern Fields Navigation Department and O.F.M." [c. 1916], Pearson, C45 F6.

73. Pérez Ruiz to Jefe, 18 Sept 1920, Ramo de Trabajo, C220 E6.

74. Testimony of Beaty, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:532-33; William Green to George E. Paddleford, 17 Feb 1918, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/389.

75. Body to Cowdray, 10 May 1911, Body to Cowdray, 3 Mar, Vaughn to Anglo-Mex, 4 Dec 1916, Pearson, A4; Pulford to Hohler, 18 June 1917, Green to Paddleford, 1 Mar 1918, FO, 371-2962/143982, -3243/A47338.

76. "Interview with Arthur Coyle Payne, General Manager, Oil Fields of Mexico Co.," interview no. 588, 13 May 1918, Doheny.

77. "Interview with Mr. H. Wylie," 15 May 1918, interview no. 597, Doheny.

78. Miller to Canada, Canada to sec. of state, 21 May 1914, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/72; testimony of Doheny, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:237; Canada to sec. of state, Bryan to Miller, 4 May, W.A. Thompson to Robert Lansing, 29 May 1914, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/42, /51a, /85; Silva Herzog, El petróleo de México, 83.

79. Testimony of Doheny, Investigation of Mexican Affairs, 1:234; Nicklos, 8 July 1953, OHTO, T103.

80. Interview no. 75, 26 July 1918, Doheny.

81. David Rock, "Lucha civil en la Argentina: La Semana Trágica de enero de 1919," Desarollo Económico 114 (1971-72), 165-215; Peter DeShazo, Urban Workers and Labor Unions in Chile, 1902-1927 (Madison, 1983); Ronaldo Munck, "Cyclers of Class Struggle and the Making of the Working Class in Argentina, 1890-1920," Journal of Latin American Studies 19 (1987): 19-39; Andrew Patrick Boeger, "Mexican Workers and Their Struggles, 1910-1918" (M.A. thesis, the University of Texas at Austin, 1989), 69-71.

82. "Potrero — Tuxpam 8" Pipe Line. Pump Stations — Labour" [c. 1916], Pearson, C45; "Programs 1916," Pearson, C45 F5.

83. Body to Chief, 22 Dec 1916, 20 Jan 1917, Pearson, A4.

84. Miller to sec. of state, 16 Nov 1911, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, 812.504.

85. Ruiz, Labor and the Ambivalent Revolutionaries, 5.

86. For the Mexican artisan, see Manuel Carrera Stampa, Los gremios mexicanos: La organización gremial en Nueva España, 1521-1861 (Mexico City, 1954); John E. Kicza, Colonial Entrepreneurs: Families and Business in Bourbon Mexico City (Albuquerque, 1983), 208-239; Frederick J. Shaw, "The Artisan in Mexico City (1824-1853)," in Frost, Meyer, and Vásquez, El Trabajo y los trabajadores en la historia de México, 399-418; Dorothy Tanck de Estrada, "La abolición de los gremios," in ibid., 311-31.

87. The debate about whether the Department of Labor succeeded in reducing strikes and deflecting labor militancy, as Ruiz asserts, is taken up throughout this chapter. See Ruiz, Labor and the Ambivalent Revolutionaries, 2, 31, 41, 57-58.

88. Knight, "The Working Class and the Mexican Revolution," 75; Adleson, "Historia social de los obreros," 209.

89. Ibid., 69-70; H.T. Mayo to sec. of navy, 2 Aug 1914, Naval Records Collection, WE-5.

88. Knight, "The Working Class and the Mexican Revolution," 75; Adleson, "Historia social de los obreros," 209.

89. Ibid., 69-70; H.T. Mayo to sec. of navy, 2 Aug 1914, Naval Records Collection, WE-5.

90. Sindicato de Empleados de Comercio, 3 Sept, Mexican Light and Power Company to González, 2 Dec, Sindicato de Artes Gráficos, 18 Dec 1915, Sindicatos de Empleados de la Compañía de Tranvíos, Luz y Fuerza de Puebla, 17 Jan 1916, Luis Pateño, "El Depto. Jurídico del Cuerp de Ejército de Oriente en 1915 . . . ," González, L13, E135, E136, L13, E306.

91. Valdivieso Castillo, Historia del movimiento sindical, 26; "News Notes from Mexican News Bureau, 9 Aug 1917, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/309; C. Aguila, "Declaraciones a la prensa con motivo del conflicto obrero," 8 Jan 1919, Carranza, carpeta 129.

92. Valdivieso Castillo, Historia del movimiento sindical, 27; Ciro R. de la Garza Treviño, La Revolución Mexicana en el Estado de Tamaulipas (Mexico City, 1975), 2:280, 284-85.

93. De la Garza Treviño, La Revolución Mexicana, 2:293-95.

94. Diario de los debates, 1:984, as quoted by Niemeyer, Revolution at Querétaro, 108. Zavala was engaging in hyperbole. The workers had done very little compared to the peasants. Knight, "The Working Class and the Mexican Revolution," 71.

95. Rouaix, Génesis de los artículos 27 y 123, 127-41; Linda B. Hall, Alvaro Obregón: Power and Revolution in Mexico, 1911-1920 (College Station, Tex., 1981), 178-79; Niemeyer, Revolution at Querétaro, chap. 4.

96. As quoted in Niemeyer, Revolution at Querétaro, Appendix C.

97. See especially Silvio Zavala and María Castelo, Fuentes para la historia del trabajo en Nueva España, 8 vols. (Mexico City, 1939-1945); Woodrow Borah, Justice by Insurance: The General Indian Court of Colonial Mexico and the Legal Aides of the Half-Real (Berkeley, 1983).

98. As quoted in Niemeyer, Revolution at Querétaro, Appendix C.

99. Hall, Alvaro Obregón, 100-101, 110-11; 140-41; Richmond, Venustiano Carranza's Nationalist Struggle, 73; Carr, El movimiento obrero y la política en México, 64-74; Barry Carr, "Organized Labour and the Mexican Revolution, 1915-1938," Oxford University Occasional Papers, No. 2 (1972), 4, 9.

100. Barry Carr, "The Casa del Obrero Mundial, Constitutionalism and the Pact of February 1915," in Frost, Meyer, and Vásquez, El Trabajo y los trabajadores en la historia de México, 603-32; John Mason Hart, Anarchism and the Mexican Working Class, 1860-1931 (Austin, 1978), 150; Ruiz, Labor and the Ambivalent Revolutionaries, 47, 54-57.

101. Hart, Anarchism and the Mexican Working Class, 155; Richmond, Venustiano Carranza's Nationalist Struggle, 125-26; Carr, "The Casa del Obrero Mundial," 628. Today home to Sanborn's Restaurant, the House of Tiles once belonged to the Conde de Regla, owner of the Real del Monte mines, which was the scene of Mexico's first labor strike in 1769.

102. Cerdán, 29 Jan 1920, Ramo de Trabajo, C224, E23.

103. Adleson, "Historia social de los obreros," 264, 352, 355, 358, 363, 430, 436, 439, 456, 458; De la Garza Treviño, La Revolución Mexicana, 2:233-34.

104. De la Garza Treviño, La Revolución Mexicana, 2:255-56.

105. Ricardo Treviño et al. to Carranza, Saltillo, 1 May 1919, Carranza, carpeta 15197; Adleson, "Historia social de los obreros," 435; Hart, Anarchism and the Mexican Working Class, 157-58.

106. This secret convention was not known until 1930, when Morones himself, under suspicion of having had Obregón assassinated two years before, divulged it. Hall, Alvaro Obregón, 217-18; Ruiz, Labor and the Ambivalent Revolutionaries, 59-61, 70.

107. Cerdán, 29 Jan 1920, Ramo de Trabajo C224, E23.

108. On the labor aristocracy, see Eric Hobsbawm, Workers: Worlds of Labor (New York, 1984), 185.

109. J.B. Body to Foreign Office, 22 Apr, 23 Apr 1915, FO, 371-2398/48597, /48598; Valdivieso Castillo, Historia del movimiento sindical, 25, 27.

110. C.O. Meyer to Thomas H. Bevan, 27 May 1915, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, 850.4/235.

111. Bevan to sec. of state, 20 July, 30 July 1915, ibid., 850.4/233-34; Bevan to sec. of state, 30 July, 3 Aug 1915, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.504/9.

112. J.C. Evans to Bevan, 14 June 1915, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, 850.4/242; Commanding Officer, USS Wheeling to Commanding Officer, USS Sacramento, 25 July 1915, Naval Records Collection, WE-5.

113. A. Araujo to foreign employees, 1 Aug 1915, "Mexico: Conditions in Tampico, 1915-1916," Naval Records Collection, WE-5.

114. Sindicato de Empleados de Comercio to González, 3 Sept 1915, Emilio A. Quiñones et al. to González, 3 Nov 1915, González to Rouaix, 13 Nov 1915, González, L13, E135.

115. Bevan to sec. of state, 1 Dec 1915, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, 850.4/243.

116. Body to Cowdray, 10 Feb 1916, Pearson, A4.

117. Dawson to sec. of state, 6 Apr 1916, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.504/46.

118. Commanding Officer USS Marietta to Commanding Officer, USS Kentucky, 3, 7, 8, 10 May 1916, "Mexico: Conditions in Tampico, 1915-1916," Naval Records Collection, WE-5.

119. W.F. Buckley, et al. to Woodrow Wilson, 22 May 1916, Pearson, A3; Commanding Officer, USS Marietta to Commanding Officer, USS Kentucky, 27 May 1916, Naval Records Collection, WE-5; Pulford to Hohler, 13 June 1916, FO, 371-2702/142126.

120. As quoted in De la Garza Treviño, La Revolución Mexicana, 2:238; Hohler to Foreign Office, 26 June 1916, FO, 371-2701/123687.

121. Gulston to Anglo-Mex, Body to Cowdray, 4 Dec 1916, Pearson, A4.

122. As quoted in De la Garza Treviño, La Revolución Mexicana, 2:240.

123. Ibid., 2:241.

122. As quoted in De la Garza Treviño, La Revolución Mexicana, 2:240.

123. Ibid., 2:241.

124. Body to Cowdray, 20 Jan, 24 Feb 1917, Pearson, A4.

125. Thurstan to Foreign Office, 24, 25 Apr 1917, Thurstan to Spring-Rice, 29 Apr 1917, FO, 371-2960/84125, /85616, /88278; Dawson to sec. of state, 23, 24 Apr 1917, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, 850.4.

126. Warren to H.C. Pierce, 30 Apr 1917, Naval Records Collection, WE-5.

127. Dawson to sec. of state, 16 Apr, 2 May 1917, Josephus Daniels to sec. of state, 2 May 1917, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.504/85, /89, /95; Claude I. Dawson to P. Symington, 28 Apr 1917, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, 850.4.

128. Warren to H.C. Pierce, 30 Apr, Naval Records Collection, WE-5; Warren to H.C. Pierce, 8 May 1917, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.504/97.

129. "Report on Conditions at Tampico," in Barclay to Lord Robert Cecil, 26 May, FO, 371-2961/116927; USS Tacoma to sec. of navy, 30 Apr 1917, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.504/91.

130. Cummins to Foreign Office, 30 May 1917, FO, 371-2961/108766; "Weekly News Summaries," in Body to C. Reed, 4 June, and F.M. Davies to C. Reed, 11 June 1917, Pearson, A4.

131. "Weekly News Summary," in Body to C. Reed, 25 June 1917, Pearson, A4; Canada to sec. of state, 30 June 1917, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.504/113.

132. McHenry to sec. of state, 18, 20 June 1917, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.504/107, /110; W.J. Stork to Dawson, 5 May, Dawson to sec. of state, 14 May 1917, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, 850.4.

133. Document signed by F. Gamallo and Ramón Parreño, 12 July 1917, and El Obrero Mundial al ciudadano, n.p., n.d., ibid.

134. F. Gamallo to Oficina Huasteca, 13 July 1917, Cortina to Huasteca et al., 13 July 1917, ibid.

135. "Declaración hecho por el Señor A.W. Turner," n.d., J.B. River, affidavit, 16 July 1917, ibid.; Dawson to sec. of state, 12, 16 July 1917, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.504/114, /117.

136. Frank C. Laurie to Dawson, 17 July 1917, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, 850.4.

137. E. Richards to Frank C. Polk, 24, 26 July 1917, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812. 504/116, /120; Pearson to Lord Solum Stuart, 27 July 1917, FO, 371-2962/149925.

138. Cummins to Foreign Office, 24, 27 July 1917, FO, 371-2962/146802, /147660.

139. C. Hamilton et al., to Dawson, 25 July 1917, Dawson to sec. of state, 25 July 1917, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, 850.4; Paddleford to Mex. Petrol. Co., 26 July 1917, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.504/121.

140. USS Annapolis to Opnav, 28 July 1917, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.504/124; Polk to sec. of state, 30 July, Dawson to sec. of state, 30 July; J.E. Trout to U.S. consul, 11 Sept 1917, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, 850.5; Cummins to Foreign Office, 29 July, 7 Aug, to Pearson & Sons, 1 Aug 1917, FO, 371-2962/149406, /155641.

141. G. Arriyaza et al. to Pierce Oil Co., n.d., Dawson to sec. of state, 25 Sept 1917, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, 850.4.

142. Commanding Officer, Mexican Patrol to Navy, 4 Nov 1917, Naval Records Collection, WE-5; Cummins to Foreign Office, 2, 5, 11 Oct 1917, FO, 371-2963/190753, /191742, /195778.

143. A. Salín ["Pierce Oil Accord"], 17 Nov 1917, Ramo de Trabajo, C169, E40.

144. Spring-Rice to Foreign Office, 19 Nov 1917, FO, 371-2964/220249; Edgar L. Field to Dept. Intell. Officer, 20 Nov 1917, Military Intelligence Division, 9700-608.

145. "Estimates 1st July to 31st December 1918," Pearson, C45 F1.

146. El Universal, 10 Aug 1918; "Separación de Obreros por varias Cías petroleras," Ramo de Trabajo, C126, E18; U.S. Military Intelligence Dept., "Mexico," 10 Mar 1919, FO, 371-3828/51282.

147. Dawson to sec. of state, 20 Mar 1918, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, 850.4; Cowdray to Foreign Office, 21 Mar 1918, FO, 371-3243/53461.

148. "Informes de Huelga declarada en la Cía Mexicana Petrolera `El Aguila,' Tamps., 1918," Ramo de Trabajo, C118, E7; Foreign Office to Cowdray, 29 Mar 1918, Pearson, A3.

149. "Informes de huelga en la Cía. Petrolera Transcontinental," 1919, Ramo de Trabajo, C169, E39.

150. Anonymous to Fall, 24 Jan 1919, Fall, box 72, file 49.

151. "Huelga de la negociación petrolera Pierce Oil Corporation," 1919, Ramo de Trabajo, C169, E40; El Excélsior, 24 Jan 1919; W.A. Ward to Dawson, 7 May 1919, U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, 850.4; De la Garza Treviño, La Revolución Mexicana, 2:282-83.

152. E. Pérez Arce, 2, 25 June, Pierce Oil Co. to F. Flores Santos, 21 June 1919, Ramo de Trabajo, C169, E40.

153. As quoted in Adleson, "Historia social de los obreros," 521.

154. W. Mealy to León Salinas, 22 July 1919, Ramo de Trabajo, C169, E40.

155. Stephen V. Graham to sec. of navy, 14 June 1919, State Dept. Decimal Files, 812.6363/478; Graham to sec. of navy, 19 June 1919, Naval Records Collection, WE-5; U.S. consul to sec. of state, n.d., U.S. Consular Records, Tampico, 850.4, W.J. Pulford to Norman King, 17 June 1919, FO, 371-3831/103005; De la Garza Treviño, La Revolución Mexicana, 2:282-83; Emilio Portes Gil, "15 Years in Mexican Politics," unpub. translated typescript, vol. 13, p. 3, Daniels. De la Garza Treviño dates the violence on 16 May 1919, whereas American naval and British consular sources at the time reported it to have been on 16 June. The most complete description of the strike is Adleson, "Historia social de los obreros," 513-24.

156. As quoted in Adleson, "Historia social de los obreros," 522.

157. "Tampico Huelga," 1920, Ramo de Trabajo, C213, E29; Enrique S. Cerdán, 29 Jan 1920, Ramo de Trabajo, C224, E23.

158. H.A. Ellis et al. to P.E. Calles, 17 Feb 1920, Ramo de Trabajo, C213, E30.

159. E.P. Thompson, "Time, Work-Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism," Past and Present 38 (1967): 56-97.

160. Valdivieso Castillo, Historia del movimiento sindical, 25.

161. "Interview with Mr. H. Wylie," 15 May 1918, interview no. 597, Doheny; Carr, "Organized Labor and the Mexican Revolution," 2.