1. Laura Bergquist, "What Women Really Meant to JFK," Redbook , November 1973, 53.

2. New York Times , 26 February 1945.

3. Leila J. Rupp, "The Survival of American Feminism: The Women's Movement in the Post-War Period," in Reshaping America: Society and Institutions, 1945-1960 , ed. Robert H. Bremner and Gary W. Reichard (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1982), 33-65.

4. Martha Weinman Lear, "The Second Feminist Wave," New York Times Magazine , 10 March 1968, 25, 50.

5. Abbott L. Ferriss, Indicators of Trends in the Status of American Women (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1971), 85-86, 99, 104; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1975 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1975), 346-347; William Chafe, The American Woman: Her Changing Social, Economic, and Political Roles, 1920-1970 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972), 181, 218-219. For a full examination of this phenomenon, see Valerie Kincade Oppenheimer, The Female Labor Force in the United States: Demographic and Economic Factors Governing Its Growth and Changing Composition (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1971).

6. The scholarly discussion over the explanation for the emergence of an energetic feminist movement in the latter part of the sixties has engaged both historians and political scientists. The two most important works on the roots of the women's movement have been Jo Freeman's The Politics of Women's Liberation (New York: Mckay, 1975) and Sara Evans's Personal Politics: The Roots of Women's Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement and the New Left (New York: Knopf, 1979). Freeman, in her excellent and original study of the relationship of social conditions, social movements, and policy, described the origin of the two main branches—one reformist, one radical—of the women's movement in the sixties, their convergence, and the impact of the movement on policy. Evans details the genesis of women's liberation among radical women in the civil rights movement. Leila Rupp and Verta Taylor, in a recently published work, Survival in the Doldrums: The American Women's Rights Movement, 1945 to the 1960s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), trace the feminist impulse during the 1950s; they denominate the period before the modern grassroots feminist movement as the "elite-sustained" phase of the women's movement. In particular, they explore the dynamics of feminism within the National Woman's party, the chief proponent of the Equal Rights Amendment during this period.

Chafe, The American Woman , provides the best overview of women's experiences for the period between suffrage and the new feminist movement. Other helpful works include Ethel Klein, Gender Politics: From Consciousness to Mass Politics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984); Ellen Hole and Judith Levine, Rebirth of Feminism (New York: Quadrangle Books, 1971); Judith Sealander, As Minority Becomes Majority: Federal Reaction to the Phenomenon of Women in the Workforce, 1920-1963 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1983); and Nacy E. McGlen and Karen O'Connor, Women's Rights: The Struggle for Equality in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (New York: Praeger, 1983).

Susan M. Hartmann, The Home Front and Beyond: American Women in the 1940s (Boston: Twayne, 1982); Leila Rupp, Mobilizing Women for War: German and American Propaganda, 1939-1945 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1978); D'Ann Campbell, Women at War with America: Private Lives in a Patriotic Era (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984); Eleanor Straub, "Government Policy Toward Civilian Women During World War II" (Ph.D. diss., Emory University, 1973); Karen Anderson, Wartime Woman (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1981); and Maureen Honey, Creating Rosie the Riveter: Class, Gender, and Propaganda During World War II (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984), discuss the experience of American women on the homefront and the impact of World War II on their lives.

The Torch Is Passed: The Kennedy Brothers and American Liberalism (New York: Atheneum, 1984), by David Burner and Thomas West, is an especially insightful volume on the impact of the liberalism of the Kennedy administration. Herbert Parmet's Jack: The Struggles of John F. Kennedy (New York: Dial Press, 1980) and JFK: The Presidency of John F. Kennedy (New York: Dial Press, 1983) and James MacGregor Burns's John Kennedy: A Political Profile (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1961) help the reader understand the evolution of Kennedy's politics. William H. Chafe, The Unfinished Journey: America Since World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), is a useful survey of the postwar period and one of the few that looks at the development of the women's movement or at events from the perspective of women's experience. Virtually none of the books on the Kennedy, Eisenhower, and Truman administrations considers policy concerning women.

1. For a fuller discussion on the experiences of women during and immediately after World War II, see William Chafe, The American Woman: Her Social, Economic, and Political Roles, 1920-1970 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972); Susan M. Hartmann, The Home Front and Beyond: American Women in the 1940s (Boston: Twayne, 1982); Leila Rupp, Mobilizing Women for War: German and American Propaganda, 1939-1945 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1978); D'Ann Campbell, Women at War with America: Private Lives in a Patriotic Era (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984); Eleanor Straub, "Government Policy Toward Civilian Women During World War II" (Ph.D. diss., Emory University, 1973); Karen Anderson, Wartime Women (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1981); and Maureen Honey, Creating Rosie the Riveter: Class, Gender, and Propaganda During World War II (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984).

2. It is worth noting that federal funding for childcare was grossly inadequate and that the National War Labor Board did not enforce its equal pay ruling with any enthusiasm. The measures were designed to support the manufacture of military goods, not the advancement of women (Straub, "Government Policy Toward Civilian Women," 22, 181-194, 240-250).

3. Honey, Creating Rosie the Riveter , 7 (quote), 78-80, 117-123, 211-214.

4. Hartmann, Home Front , 86; Valerie Oppenheimer, The Female Labor Force in the United States: Demographic and Economic Factors Governing Its Growth and Changing Composition (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1976), 8; Chafe, American Woman , chaps. 6 and 7.

5. Honey, Creating Rosie the Riveter , 6-7, 54, 76, 79, 97-113, 124, 167-172, 177, 181. See also Rupp, Mobilizing Women for War.

6. A poll taken by the United Automobile, Aircraft, and Agricultural Implements Workers of America--Congress of Industrial Organizations indicated that 85 percent of UAW women members planned to continue working after the war; Women's Bureau studies found that almost 80 percent of women working in the Detroit area and in Erie County, New York, hoped to keep their jobs ( CIO News , 30 July 1945, 10, clipping, in folder "S. 1178," box H1, Wayne Morse papers, University of Oregon).

7. Straub, "Government Policy Toward Civilian Women," 307-331; Chafe, American Woman , chap. 8.

8. Frieda Miller, "What's Ahead for Women Workers," Women's Bureau press release, 6 January 1946, in folder "Press Releases," box "Women's Bureau Statements and Press Releases; Correspondence,'' Frieda Miller papers, SL.

9. Chafe, American Woman , 175-186; U.S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, Employment of Women in the Early Postwar Period , bulletin no. 211, 8 October 1946, 2; U.S. Department of Labor, Annual Report of the Secretary of Labor for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1945, 6.

10. Lois Scharf, To Work and to Wed: Female Employment, Feminism and the Great Depression (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980), 140-149.

11. Hartmann, Home Front , 6-7.

12. Susan Hartmann, "Prescriptions for Penelope: Literature on Women's Obligations to Returning World War II Veterans," Women's Studies 5 (1978): 223-239.

13. Donald R. Makosky, "The Portrayal of Women in Wide-Circulation Magazine Short Stories, 1905-1955" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1966), 97; Hartmann, Home Front, 164-165, 181.

14. "Statement by the president," 17 October 1945, file 63, box 145, President's Personal File, HSTL.

15. J. Stanley Lemons, The Woman Citizen: Social Feminism in the 1920s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1975), 25-30; U.S. Congress, Senate, Labor Bureau Report on Condition of Women and Child Wage-Earners in the United States, S. Doc. 645 (19 pts.), 61st Cong., 2d sess., 1910; Judith Sealander, As Minority Becomes Majority: Federal Reaction to the Phenomenon of Women in the Workforce (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1983), chap. 3.

16. This is much the same group that William O'Neill has called "social feminists" (O'Neill, Everyone was Brave: The Rise and Fall of Feminism in America [Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1969]).

17. Susan D. Becker, "An Intellectual History of the National Woman's Party, 1920-1941" (Ph.D. diss., Case Western Reserve University, 1975), iii, 11, 166-169; Leila Rupp and Verta Taylor, Survival in the Doldrums: The American Women's Rights Movement, 1945 to the 1960s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 183, 349 (typescript MS).

18. Rupp and Taylor, Survival in the Doldrums, 171, 180, 188 (typescript MS); Nancy F. Cott, "Feminist Politics in the 1920s: The National Woman's Party," Journal of American History 71 (June 1984): 43-68; Leila J. Rupp, "The Women's Community in the National Woman's Party, 1945 to the 1960s," Signs 10 (Summer 1985): 718.

19. Scharf, To Work and to Wed, 134.

20. "Notes on proposed so-called 'Equal Rights Amendment' (for women) to the Constitution," by Constance Daniel, attached to Elizabeth Christman to Mary McLeod Bethune, 25 October 1944, folder 349, box 23, series 5, NCNW papers; Women's Joint Legislative Committee, minutes of meeting, 28 February 1946, folder 4, and "Report of the Convenor," 1943, folder 2, Katharine Norris papers, SL; Leila J. Rupp, "American Feminism in the Postwar Period," in Reshaping America: Society and Institutions, 1945-1960, ed. Robert H. Bremner and Gary W. Reichard (Columbus: Ohio University Press, 1982), 33-65.

21. Rupp and Taylor, Survival in the Doldrums, 383-404 (typescript MS).

22. William H. Chafe, The Unfinished Journey: America Since World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 17-22.

23. Chafe, American Woman, 129.

24. Sealander, As Minority Becomes Majority, 1.

25. Rupp and Taylor, Survival in the Doldrums, 73-83 (typescript MS).

26. Becker, "National Woman's Party," chap. 7.

27. New York Times, 7 October 1938.

28. The four senators who opposed the amendment in the Senate committee were Tom Connally (D-Tex.), Abe Murdock (D-Utah), Pat McCarran (D-Nev.), and John Danaher (R-Conn.), a political combination of no particular significance. "Pro: Should Congress Approve the Proposed Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution?" Congressional Digest 22, no. 4 (April 1943): 107-110; Loretta J. Blahna, "The Rhetoric of the Equal Rights Amendment," (Ph.D. diss., University of Kansas, 1973), 53; Equal Rights, January-March 1949, 7; Thomas C. Pardo (ed.), The National Woman's Party Papers, 1913-1974: A Guide to the Microfilm Edition (Sanford, N.C.: Microfilm Corporation of America, 1979), 116-119; Mary Anderson to Dean Acheson, 8 June 1943, in folder "ERA, 1938-1943," box 1, Dean Acheson papers, HSTL; New York Times, 12 May 1942, 7 January 1943, 22 January 1943, 13 April 1943, 25 May 1943, 6 October 1943, 8 October 1943, 25 October 1943; Chafe, American Woman, 187-188.

29. Pardo, National Woman's Party Papers, 113-115.

30. Mary Anderson, Woman at Work: The Autobiography of Mary Anderson as Told to Mary Winslow (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1951).

31. Douglas B. Maggs to Mary Anderson, 29 June 1943, in folder "Bills, Equal Rights Amendment, S.J. Res. 25," box 89, RG 174 (Perkins), NA.

32. Frieda Miller to Frances Perkins, 23 September 1944, in ibid.

33. Frieda S. Miller, biographical notes, August 1956, SC 1104, WSHS; Frieda S. Miller to Frances Perkins, 23 September 1944, in folder "Bills, Equal Rights Amendment, S.J. Res. 25," box 89, RG 174 (Perkins), NA.

34. Eleanor Roosevelt to Rose Schneiderman, 11 February 1944, and Eleanor Roosevelt to Frances Perkins, 11 February 1944, folder 51, Mary Anderson papers, SL; Sara L. Buchanan to Frieda Miller and Miss Plunkett, 20 November 1945, in folder "Women's Bureau, U.N. Subcommittee on the status of Women," box "Committees--WB," Frieda Miller papers, SL.

35. Mabel Griswold, "Homemaker's Program--WHA, The Equal Rights Amendment," 22 June 1946, folder 2-6, NWP papers, WSHS.

36. New York Times, 27 June 1940.

37. New York Times, 7 May 1944, 27 June 1944, 19 July 1944, 21 July 1944; Pardo, National Woman's Party Papers, 120-125; Democratic National Committee, Office of Women's Activities, History of Women at Democratic National Conventions, in folder "Papers re: the 1964 Democratic National Convention," box 21, Margaret Price papers, BHL; 1940 Democratic Party Platform, in folder "ERA 1960-61," box "Women," Esther Peterson papers, SL; Frances Perkins to Dorothy McAllister, 8 July 1944, and L. Metcalfe Walling to Theodore Green, 14 July 1944, in folder "Bills, Equal Rights Amendments, S.J. Res. 25," box 89, RG 174 (Perkins), NA; ''Memorandum Concerning the Two Major Political Parties and the Equal Rights Amendment,'' reel 103, NWP papers (microfilm ed.); Chafe, American Woman, 187-188; Alice Paul, "Conversations with Alice Paul: Woman Suffrage and the Equal Rights Amendment," an oral history conducted 1972-1973 by Amelia R. Fry, Regional Oral History Office, The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley, 1976, p. 516. Courtesy of The Bancroft Library.

38. Labor organizations included the AFL, the CIO, the Amalgamated Clothing Workers, the International Ladies Garment Workers Union, and the United Electrical Radio and Machine Workers of America (National Committee to Defeat the UnEqual Rights Amendment, 28 September 1944, folder 21, box 3, Hattie Smith papers, SL).

39. National Committee for the Defeat of the UnEqual Rights Amendment, memorandum, 20 June 1945, folder 7, box 12, Helen Gahagan Douglas papers, Albert Archives, University of Oklahoma; National Committee for the Defeat of the UnEqual Rights Amendment, memorandum, 29 June 1945, folder 20, box 3, Hattie Smith papers, SL; New York Times, 19 November 1944.

40. Rupp and Taylor, Survival in the Doldrums, 398 (typescript MS).

41. The seven minority members included six Democrats and one Republican. Representative Louis Ludlow (D-Ind.) introduced the ERA as H.J. Res. 1 ( Equal Rights, January-March 1949, 6-7; Pardo, National Woman's Party Papers, 128; New York Times, 17 July 1945). The majority report was written by Fadjo Cravens (D-Ark.).

42. New York Times, 29 September 1945; Pardo, National Woman's Party Papers, 129-130; Mary Anderson to Maud Park, 2 October 1945, folder 60, Mary Anderson papers, SL.

43. "Alice W." to William Hassett, 22 March 1947, file 120-A, WHCF, HSTL. Franklin Roosevelt had never openly committed himself on this issue, although Alice Paul claimed that the death of FDR eliminated the "greatest opposition" (Edwin M. Watson, secretary to the president, to Sen. William Langer, 9 September 1943, file 120-A, WHOF, FDRL; Alice Paul oral history, p. 511).

44. David Niles to William Hassett, 1 February 1946, and Matthew J. Connelly to Dorothy McAllister, 18 February 1946, file 120-A, WHCF, HSTL. Truman ultimately did change his mind on the ERA. In 1963 he wrote to Emma Guffey Miller, in response to a letter from her, that he did not favor too many constitutional amendments and that the goals of ERA advocates could be achieved by legislation (Harry Truman to Emma Guffey Miller, 17 May 1963, reel 108, NWP papers [microfilm ed.]).

45. Ella M. Sherwin to Each Member of the 79th Congress, 9 May 1946, folder 7, box 12, Helen Gahagan Douglas papers, Albert Archives, University of Oklahoma.

46. U.S. Congress, Senate, Letter to the Senate, S.J. Res. 61, 79th Cong., 2d sess., 18 July 1946, Congressional Record 42: 9401; Blahna, "Rhetoric of the Equal Rights Amendment," 64-65.

47. "Republican Record on Equal Rights Amendment," and "Democratic Record on the Equal Rights Amendment," June 1948, folder 2-8, NWP papers, WSHS; Equal Rights, July-August 1946, 1-2.

48. Carl Hayden to Pauline Brown, 29 July 1946, and Carl Hayden to Warda Hulsey, 4 August 1946, folder 5, box 119, Carl Hayden papers, Arizona State University.

49. National Committee for the Defeat of the UnEqual Rights Amendment, newsletter, 31 July 1946, folder 20, box 3, Hattie Smith papers, SL.

50. New York Times, 20 July 1946.

1. New York Herald Tribune, 20 July 1946, clipping, folder 2-8, NWP papers, WSHS.

2. Equal Rights, January-March 1949, 7; New York Times, 10 January 1947.

3. William Chafe, The American Woman: Her Changing Social, Economic, and Political Roles, 1920-1970 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972), 202-216.

4. Susan M. Hartmann, The Home Front and Beyond: American Women in the 1940s (Boston: Twayne, 1982), 181; Ethel Klein, Gender Politics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984), 71.

5. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, pt. 1 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1975), 64.

6. Hartmann, Home Front, 93.

7. Ibid., ch. 6; Historical Statistics, 385.

8. Chafe, American Woman, 202-216.

9. Status Bill sponsor James Wadsworth strongly opposed the ERA, partially because it might require women to serve in the military. "It may seem absurd," he wrote to one constituent, "but it would not be beyond the bounds of possibility that some young woman in the future would demand admission to West Point or Annapolis" (Wadsworth to Mrs. Vernon Howe, 1 February 1949, in folder ''Equal Rights Amendment, January 31, 1949-February 22, 1950" box 24, James W. Wadsworth papers, LC.

10. Memorandum, 8 January 1947, and Peter Seitz (form letter), 10 February 1947, in folder "1947," ERA files, WBOF; Mary Anderson to Hattie Smith, 14 March 1947, folder 21, box 3, Hattie Smith papers, SL.

11. "Supporting Comment on Proposed Joint Resolution on the Status of Women," 21 January 1947, folder 21, box 3, Hattie Smith papers, SL.

12. Memorandum, 10 February 1947, folder 9, box 44, Helen Gahagan Douglas papers, Albert Archives, University of Oklahoma.

13. Memorandum, 10 February 1947, folder 9, box 44, Helen Gahagan Douglas papers, Albert Archives, University of Oklahoma; Memorandum, 19 February 1947, folder 21, box 3, Hattie Smith papers, SL.

14. Memorandum, 10 February 1947, folder 9, box 44, Helen Gahagan Douglas papers, Albert Archives, University of Oklahoma.

15. Blanch Freedman, Executive Secretary, New York Women's Trade Union League, as sent to National Women's Trade Union League, 24 January 1947, attached to Rose Schneiderman to Malvina Thompson, 3 February 1947, in folder "Harry S. Truman, 1945-1948," box 3765, Eleanor Roosevelt papers, FDRL.

16. Minutes of meeting, 9 September 1947, in folder "Women's Bureau Labor Advisory Committee, 1950-53," box "Committees—Women's Bureau," Frieda Miller papers, SL.

17. Independent Woman, March 1947, 88 (quote from BPW); "Brief Memorandum in Opposition to the Taft-Wadsworth Bill, (Commonly called the Biological Status Bill)," folder 1-2, NWP papers, WSHS (quote from NWP); New York Times, 18 February 1947; "Highlights of the Women's Status Bill, 16 April 1947," in folder "1947," ERA files, WBOF.

18. "Statement in regard to Women's Status Bill, H.R. 2007 and S.J. Res. 67--80th Congress," 15 June 1947, in folder "1947," ERA files, WBOF (quote beginning "to break the deadlock . . ."); New York Herald Tribune, 7 April 1947; "Statement by Mrs. Eleanor Roosevelt regarding Bill on the Status of Women," 14 February 1946, and Washington Post , 25 February 1947, clipping, in folder ''1947," ERA files, WBOF; ''Brief for Action," League of Women Voters publication 91, 1 April 1947, in folder "General Correspondence, 1947," subject file, India Edwards papers, HSTL; New York Times, 18 February 1947.

19. The National Women's Trade Union League received information that the House committee had reported it favorably in return for "some large party contributions from 'rich ladies'" (NWTUL, legislative report, 16 August 1948, reel 10, NWTUL papers, LC). Anita Pollitzer to Members of the National Council and Others Particularly Concerned, 5 April 1948, and Anita Pollitzer to Members of the National Council and Others Concerned with the Equality Campaign, 13 April 1948, folder 1-2, NWP papers, WSHS: "JD" [i.e., J. E. Dempsey, Administrative Assistant to the Secretary] to "Judge" [i.e., Secretary L. B. Schwellenbach], 19 April 1948, in folder "Bills—Misc.," RG 174 (Schwellenbach), NA; Thomas C. Pardo (ed.), The National Woman's Party Papers, 1913-1974: A Guide to the Microfilm Edition (Sanford, N.C.: Microfilm Corporation of America, 1979), 147-150.

In the Senate committee, Republican senators Wiley, Langer, Ferguson, Donnell, and Cooper and Democratic senators McGrath and Fulbright voted in favor; Democratic senator James Eastland voted no. Washington Post, clipping, 1 May 1948, in folder "Equal Rights for Women, 1939-49," box 601, Robert A. Taft papers, LC; Louise Young to Friends of the NCSW, 6 July 1948, folder 21, box 3, Hattie Smith papers, SL; "1948 Republican Party Platform for ERA, a report to members by Anita Pollitzer, National Chairman [NWP]," [June 1948], and Emma guffey Miller to Sally Butler, President, BPW, 6 July 1948, and "Memorandum Concerning the Two Major Political Parties and the Equal Rights Amendment," reel 103, NWP papers (microfilm ed.); Equal Rights, May-August 1948, 1-3.

20. New York Herald Tribune, 12 January 1949; "Housewives for Truman: A Program Designed to Bring in the Vote," in folder "Housewives for Truman," box 2, subject file, India Edwards papers, HSTL; Press release R-145, 9 February 1948, in folder "Women Voters," box 105, DNC papers, LBJL.

21. New York Times, 10 April 1949; Minutes of meeting, National Committee on the Status of Women, 5 April 1949 and 4 August 1949, in subject file "Equal Rights Amendment," SL; Olya Margolin to Elizabeth Magee, 23 November 1948, in folder "ERA, NCSW, 1947-48," box C6, NCL papers, LC; Anita Pollitzer to State Chairmen and Members of the Outgoing National Council, 31 May 1949, folder 1-3, NWP papers, WSHS; Pardo, National Woman's Party Papers, 152.

22. J. Stanley Lemons, The Woman Citizen: Social Feminism in the 1920s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1975), 186-191.

23. Douglas B. Maggs, Solicitor of Labor, to Mary Anderson, 17 January 1944, folder 13, box 92, Helen Gahagan Douglas papers, Albert Archives, University of Oklahoma; Douglas B. Maggs to Mrs. Thomas F. (Dorothy) McAllister, 2 June 1945, folder 55, Mary Anderson papers, SL; National Committee for the Defeat of the UnEqual Rights Amendment, "To the member organizations and individuals on the National Committee," 20 June 1945, and Margaret F. Stone to Mary McLeod Bethune, 27 January 1945, folder 351, box 23, series 5, NCNW papers.

24. U.S. Congress, Senate, 81st Cong., 2d sess., 23, 24, 25 January 1950, Congressional Record 96: 738-744, 758-762, 809-813, 861, 873.

25. Ibid., 25 January 1950, 861-873 (Hayden quotation, p. 868; Pepper, 869); New York Times, 26 January 1950. Thirty-six Democrats and fifteen Republicans voted in favor of the Hayden amendment, and thirteen Democrats and eighteen Republicans against. All nineteen votes against the ERA with the rider were Democrats. All absent senators were announced in favor of the ERA.

26. Alice Paul, oral history, pp. 518-530.

27. New York Times, 27 January 1950. See also Independent Woman, March 1950, 85-86, for the response of the BPW to the Hayden amendment—that it "nullif[ied] and [made] ridiculous the whole procedure."

28. U.S. Congress, House, 81st Cong., 2d sess., 7 March 1950, Congressional Record 96: A2053-54; Alice Paul to Agnes Wells, 7 June 1950, folder 1-4, NWP papers, WSHS; U.S. Congress, House, 81st Cong., 2d sess., 6 March 1950, Congressional Record 96: 2855; National Committee on the Status of Women, Minutes, 3 February 1950, in folder "ERA, NCSW, 1949-50," box C6, NCL papers, LC; Pardo, National Woman's Party Papers, 158; New York Times, 26 May 1951.

29. "My Day," 25 May 1951, box 3153, Eleanor Roosevelt papers, FDRL; "My Day," 7 June 1951, from Washington Daily News (typescript copy), in folder ''1950's,'' ERA files, WBOF; Harry S. Truman to Gertrude Dixon Enfield, 17 April 1952, file 120-A, WHCF, HSTL. The Senate Judiciary Committee reported the ERA favorably on May 21, 1951, by a seven-to-two vote, but the full Senate did not take the amendment up.

30. William Chafe, The Unfinished Journey: America Since World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 154-157.

31. Alonzo Hamby, Liberalism and Its Challengers (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 119-125, 137-138, chap. 3; Chafe, Unfinished Journey, 112-127, 138-139, 144; Eugenia Kaledin, Mothers and More: American Women in the 1950s (Boston: Twayne, 1984), 11.

32. U.S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, "Biographical Sketch of Alice K. Leopold, director, Women's Bureau, U.S. Department of Labor," 11 December 1953, and U.S Department of Labor, "Biographical Sketch: Alice K. Leopold," n.d., folder 1, box 1, Alice K. Leopold papers, SL.

33. Mabel Griswold, the party's executive secretary, wrote to a comrade: "One piece of good news is that Mrs. Leopold, Director of the Women's Bureau, has withdrawn the Bureau's opposition to the Amendment. . . . Next best thing to outright support which may come some time" (Mabel Griswold to "Elda," 30 March 1954, folder 2-1, NWP papers, WSHS). Alice Paul to Mrs. George Ramey, 1 March 1954, Alice K. Leopold to Mabel Griswold, 10 March 1954, folder 2-1, NWP papers, WSHS; Equal Rights, October 1954 (typescript), folder 92-7, Katherine P. Ellickson papers, ALUA.

34. Martin P. Durkin to Chauncy W. Reed, 27 July 1953, in folder "H.J.R. 55," box 42, Katharine St. George papers, Cornell University. See bill files (S.J.R. 49), Committee on the Judiciary, Records of the U.S. Senate, RG 46, NA; New York Times, 2 July 1953. See, for example, Carl Hayden to Jacob Potofsky, 19 May 1953, and Jacob Potofsky to Carl Hayden, 22 May 1953, folder 8, box 457, Carl Hayden papers, Arizona State University; New York Times, 17 July 1953; Pardo, National Woman's Party Papers, 159.

35. Alice A. Morrison to Winifred Helmes, 23 February 1955, in folder "1950's," ERA files, WBOF; John Mitchell to Irma Piepho, 3 March 1955, in folder "Correspondence, 1955," box 5, WJCC papers; Katharine St. George to Alice Paul, 3 February 1956, James P. Mitchell to Katharine St. George, 27 February 1956, and Alice K. Leopold to Katharine St. George, 6 March 1956, in folder ''H.J.R. 55," box 42, Katharine St. George papers, Cornell University.

36. Briefing, in folder "Press conference, April 25, 1956," box 4, Press Conference Series, Anne Whitman files, DDEL; Gerald D. Morgan to Nina B. Price, 10 December 1955, in folder "Equal Rights Amendment," folder 136-A, box 1059, WHGF, DDEL; Secretary of Labor to Gerald D. Morgan, 9 February 1956, in folder "Equal Pay 1956," box 134, RG 174 (Mitchell), NA.

37. White House, press release, 25 October 1956, reel 103, NWP papers (microfilm ed.).

38. Handwritten notes on meeting #258, 4 February 1957, and notes on meeting of 22 April 1957, in folder "1957--Secretary's Policy Committee—chronological—meetings 258-277," box 75, James P. Mitchell papers, DDEL; Washington Post, 17 January 1957.

39. Gerald D. Morgan to Nina Horton Avery, 27 December 1957, folder 136-A, box 1059, WHOF, DDEL.

40. Hickory [ N.C. ] Daily Record, editorial, 24 August 1957, reprinted in the Congressional Record, 27 August 1957, A7087-7088, clipping in folder 136-A, box 1059, WHGF, DDEL.

41. AFL-CIO, memorandum on Objections to Proposed Equal Rights Amendment, and Andrew Biemiller to All Members of the 86th Congress, 11 February 1959, folder 92-8, Katherine P. Ellickson papers, ALUA; Andrew Biemiller to John F. Kennedy, 15 February 1957, in folder "Equal Rights Amendment, October 3, 1951 to February 15, 1957," Legislative Assistant's Background Files, Prepresidential papers, JFKL.

42. Hyman H. Bookbinder to Boris Shishkin, 6 November 1957, folder 3, box 17, Legislative Reference Files, Meany Archives.

43. Hyman H. Bookbinder to Helen O'Donnell, 7 January 1958, folder 4, Box 17, Legislative Reference Files, Meany Archives.

44. Tom Harris to Andrew Biemiller, 19 January 1960, folder 7, and Patrick Malin to Biemiller, 4 January 1960 (with attachments), folder 7, box 17, Legislative Reference Files, Meany Archives.

45. Jacob Clayman to Legislative Representatives of IUD Affiliated Unions, 14 June 1960, in folder "ERA 1960-61," box "Women," Esther Peterson papers, SL; Andrew Biemiller to Carl Hayden, 12 June 1959, folder 6, box 17, Legislative Reference Files, Meany Archives; Pardo, National Woman's Party Papers, 161.

1. Alonzo Hamby, Liberalism and Its Challengers (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), chap. 2.

2. Susan M. Hartmann, The Home Front and Beyond: American Women in the 1940s (Boston: Twayne, 1982), 7-8.

3. National Committee for the Defeat of the UnEqual Rights Amendment, memorandum, 10 May 1945, folder 351, and Dorothy McAllister to Member Organizations, 15 December 1945, folder 352, box 23, series 5, NCNW papers.

4. Louise Stitt to Elizabeth Magee, 19 May 1945, in folder "Equal Pay--National Legislation, 1945," box C4, NCL papers, LC; New York Times, 22 June 1945; John Earner, "Equal Pay for Equal Work: Federal Legislative Activity, 1945 to 1962," pp. 1, 23, Legislative Reference Service, Library of Congress, in folder "Labor--Equal Pay for Equal Work,'' box 15, Maurine Neuberger papers, University of Oregon; U.S. Congress, Senate, S. Rept. 1576 to accompany S. 1178, 79th Cong., 2d sess., 21 June 1946; U.S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, "Analysis of Proposed Federal 'Wage Discrimination Act of 1945,'" folder 54, Mary Anderson papers, SL; National Committee for the Defeat of the UnEqual Rights Amendment, memorandum, 10 May 1945, folder 351, and Dorothy McAllister to Member Organization, 14 December 1945, folder 352, box 23, series 5, NCNW papers; Sen. Claude Pepper, diary, 22, 23 May, 20 June 1945 (in Pepper's possession).

5. Press release, 21 June 1945, folder 55, Mary Anderson papers, SL.

6. New York Herald Tribune, 27 June 1945; Marguerite J. Fisher, "Equal Pay for Equal Work Legislation," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 2 (October 1948): 50-51; New York Times, 18 July 1945; U.S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, "Differentials in Pay for Women," November 1945, box 189, RG 174 (Schwellenbach), NA.

7. Frieda Miller, memorandum, 4 July 1945, folder 55, Mary Anderson papers, SL.

8. Nathan E. Cowan to Mary Anderson, 13 July 1945, folder 55, Mary Anderson papers, SL.

9. Nora Stanton Barney to Claude Pepper, 26 June 1945, in folder "S. 1178," Records of the U.S. Senate, RG 46, NA.

10. NCL press release, 30 July 1945, in folder "Equal Pay--National Legislation--1945-48," box C4, NCL papers, LC; Dorothy McAllister to Member Organizations, 15 December 1945, in folder "Equal Rights Amendment—National Committee to Defeat Unequal Rights Amend.—Publications," box C6, NCL papers, LC.

11. Report of Equal Pay Meeting, 10 September 1945, folder 58, Mary Anderson papers, SL.

12. "A Summary of Hearings by the Subcommittee on Labor on the Equal Pay Bill (S. 1178) on October 29th, 30th and 31st (1945)," in folder "S. 1178," box H1, Wayne Morse papers, University of Oregon; New York Times, 30, 31 October 1945.

13. U.S. Congress, Senate, S. Rept. 1576 to accompany S. 1178, 79th Cong., 2d sess., 21 June 1946.

14. U.S. Congress, Senate, 79th Cong., 2d sess., 31 July 1946, Congressional Record, 92: 10547-10548.

15. Elizabeth Christman to Members of the Executive Board, 7 March 1947, reel 9, NWTUL papers, LC.

16. Dorothy McAllister to Elizabeth Magee, July 1946, in folder "Equal Pay--National Legislation—1946-56," box C4, NCL papers, LC; Minutes of meetings, 11 October 1948 and 1 March 1948, box 8, WJCC papers, LC; Press release, 2 July 1947, in folder "S. 706," box H6, Wayne Morse papers, University of Oregon; Independent Woman, April 1948, 117-118; "Statements in opposition to proposed federal equal pay legislation," 28 May 1956, in folder "Equal Pay 1956," box 7, WBOF; Earner, ''Equal Pay for Equal Work," 2, 3, 24, 25; J. W. Grove, testimony before the Wage and Hour Subcommittee of the House Education and Labor Committee, 13 February 1948, folder 54, box 16, Legislative Reference Files, Meany Archives.

17. Wayne Morse to Mrs. O. D. Cook, 27 August 1951, in folder "S. 1374," box H9, Wayne Morse papers, University of Oregon; John F. Kennedy to Mary T. Norton, 6 June 1951, in folder "Equal Pay for Equal Work," box 3, Prepresidential papers, JFKL.

18. [William C. Hushing] to George Riley, 24 April 1951, folder 54, box 16, Legislative Reference Files, Meany Archives.

19. "Equal Pay Conference under the Auspices of the Women's Bureau, U.S. Department of Labor," report by Mildred Palmer, Executive Secretary, National Woman's Party, reel 98, NWP papers (microfilm ed.), U.S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, Report of the National Conference on Equal Pay (31 March and 1 April, 1952), bulletin no. 243, 29 August 1952.

20. Meany quoted in Alice A. Morrison to Elizabeth S. Magee, 24 December 1953, in folder "Equal Pay—National Legislation--1946-56," box C4, NCL papers, LC.

21. National Committee for Equal Pay, newsletter, 16 March 1953, in folder: "1954 Equal Pay," box 48, RG 174 (Mitchell), NA.

22. Alice Paul to Mabel E. Griswold, 19 October 1954, folder 2-2, NWP papers, WSHS.

23. Secretary of Labor to Frances Bolton, 18 February 1954, in folder "1954—Congressional—B," box 64, RG 174 (Mitchell), NA; Arthur Larson to Frances Bolton, 27 May 1954, in folder "1954--Equal Pay," box 48, RG 174 (Mitchell), NA; U.S. Congress, House, 83rd Cong., 2d sess., 19 July 1954, Congressional Record 100: 10951-10953.

24. U.S. Congress, House, 84th Cong., 1st sess., 13 January 1955, Congressional Record 101: 285; "Preliminary Report on the Legislative Program of the Department of Labor for 1955," in folder "1954 Secretary's Policy Committee—Material from the Secretary's Notebook (2)," box 70, James P. Mitchell papers, DDEL; Stuart Rothman to the Secretary of Labor, 28 February 1955, in folder "1955 Equal Pay," box 113, James P. Mitchell papers, DDEL; Millard Cass to John J. Gilhooley, 5 May 1955, in folder: 1955--Congressional--B," box 106, RG 174 (Mitchell), NA; ''Summary of Action," Secretary's Policy Committee, meeting no. 121, 26 May 1955, in folder "1955—Secretary's Policy Committee--chronological (meetings 106-122),'' box 72, James P. Mitchell papers, DDEL.

25. National Manpower Council, Womanpower: A Statement by the National Manpower Council with Chapters by the Council Staff (New York: Columbia University Press, 1957).

26. George H. Gallup, The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion, 1935-1971 (New York: Random House, 1972), 1:322.

27. "Equal Pay--Administration Support 1956-January 1961," 24 January 1961, in folder "Equal Pay—1961," Box 7, WBOF; Alice K. Leopold to Secretary of Labor, 6 January 1956 (plus attachments), in folder "1956—Equal Pay," box 134, RG 174 (Mitchell), NA; "State of the Union Message, comments by Cabinet members, 2 December 1955," in folder "State of the Union January 1956 (3)," box 15, Anne Whitman file, speech series, DDEL.

28. Secretary of Labor to William Schnitzler, Secretary-Treasurer, AFL-CIO, 17 January 1957, and William Schnitzler to Secretary of Labor, 27 December 1956, in folder "1957—Equal Pay," box 193, RG 174 (Mitchell), NA; George D. Riley to Edith Nourse Rogers, 1 February 1957, and George D. Riley to James Roosevelt, 1 February 1957, folder 92-9, Katherine P. Ellickson papers, ALUA; George D. Riley to Wayne Morse, 1 February 1957, in folder "S. 1807," box H26, Wayne Morse papers, University of Oregon; "Files (for the record)," Alice A. Morrison, 4 January 1957, in folder "Equal Pay 4, National Equal Pay Committee," box 1096, RG 86, NA; Alice A. Morrison to Alice K. Leopold, 4 January 1957, in folder "Equal Pay 3, Federal Legislative Proposals," box 1096, RG 86, NA; National Committee for Equal Pay, newsletter, February 1957, folder 17, box 2, Hattie Smith papers, SL; James T. O'Connell, Acting Secretary of Labor to Lister Hill, 1 August 1957, in folder "Equal Pay, 1957," WBOF; U.S. Congress, Senate, S. 1807, 85th Cong., 1st sess., 4 April 1957, Congressional Record 103: 5091-5092; Earner, "Equal Pay for Equal Work," 11-13.

29. Stuart Rothman to Secretary of Labor, 30 January 1956, in folder "1956—National Legislation D/L Legislative Program," box 180, James P. Mitchell papers, DDEL; Notes on Secretary's Policy Committee meetings nos. 205 (10 February 1956), 206 (20 February 1956), 216 (4 April 1956), 228 (17 May 1956), 236 (12 June 1956), 249 (30 July 1956), in folder: "1956—Secretary's Policy Committee—chronological (meetings 197-213)," Box 75, James P. Mitchell papers, DDEL; Alice K. Leopold to Secretary of Labor, 28 September 1956, in folder: "1956 Equal Pay," box 134, RG 174 (Mitchell), NA.

30. President's Commission on the Status of Women, Committee on Civil and Political Rights, transcript of the meeting of 28 May 1962, Washington, D. C., pp. 13-14, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); "Material on Equal Pay for Equal Work prepared by the U.S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, January 1956," in folder: "Equal Pay 1956," box 7, WBOF; Margaret Mealey to James P. Mitchell, 19 September 1956, attached to James P. Mitchell to Margaret Mealey, 6 October 1956, in folder "1956—Equal Pay," box 134, RG 174 (Mitchell), NA; Telephone interview with Alice A. Morrison, 11 February 1981 (Alexandria, Va.); Alice K. Leopold to Irma Piepho, 30 April 1957, in folder ''Equal Pay 4, National Equal Pay Committee," box 1096, RG 86, NA; Alice K. Leopold to Edith Green, 3 July 1957, in folder "Equal Pay,'' box 1096, RG 86, NA.

1. Karen Keesling and Suzanne Cavanagh, "Women Presidential Appointees Serving or Having Served in Full-Time Positions Requiring Senate Confirmation, 1912-1977," Congressional Research Service Report 78-73 G, 23 March 1978, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. "Significant Senate-confirmed posts" excludes local comptrollers and collectors of customs. If these appointments are added to the figures, Hoover appointed seven women to Senate-confirmed posts during his tenure, and Roosevelt twenty-eight.

2. Independent Woman , March 1947, 82.

3. Eleanor Roosevelt to Robert Hannegan, 3 June 1945, box 3756, Eleanor Roosevelt papers, FDRL; "A Summary Statement of the Conference on How Women May Share in the Post-War Policy Making," 14 June 1944, in folder "Meeting, heads of Women's Organizations," box 113, Eleanor Roosevelt papers, FDRL.

The National Council of Negro Women was particularly interested in submitting the names of black women, noting that "to date several American women have been appointed as U.S. Delegates to important international committees and conferences, but none of them were Negro women" (Mary McLeod Bethune to "Dear Council Member and Friend," [21 July 1944], folder 449, box 30, series 5, NCNW papers).

4. Mrs. Charles W. Tillett to Matthew J. Connelly, 3 July 1945, file 120, box 534, WHOF, HSTL.

5. Keesling and Cavanagh, "Women Presidential Appointees."

6. Transcript, India Edwards Oral History Interview, 16 January 1969, pp. 82-83, HSTL. Cabell Phillips, a historian of the Truman Presidency, has observed that Truman had to rely heavily on recommendations for appointments because he lacked a "broad acquaintance among the nation's elite" (Phillips, The Truman Presidency: The History of a Triumphant Succession [New York: Macmillan, 1966], (144).

7. Democratic National Committee, press release, 7 October 1953, in folder "Louchheim, Mrs. Katie," box 149, DNC papers, LBJL. I am indebted to James Sundquist for his recollections of India Edwards.

8. India Edwards, Pulling No Punches: Memoirs of a Woman in Politics (New York: Putnam, 1977), 173.

9. Keesling and Cavanagh, "Women Presidential Appointees." See G. Calvin MacKenzie, The Politics of Presidential Appointments (New York: Free Press, 1981), 12-14, for a discussion of the importance Truman attached to loyalty.

10. Harry S. Truman, Memoirs (New York: Doubleday, 1955), 1:161; Stephen Hess, Organizing the Presidency (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1976), chap. 3; Transcript, Clayton Fritchey Oral History Interview, 1 July 1960, pp. 42-43, HSTL; Edwards, Pulling No Punches , 144ff.; Katie Louchheim, By the Political Sea (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1970), 270; Cornelius P. Cotter and Bernard Hennessy, Politics Without Power: The National Party Committees (New York: Atherton Press, 1964), 82, 84; MacKenzie, Politics of Presidential Appointments , 11-15.

11. New York Herald Tribune , 20 November 1949, clipping, in folder "Women Voters," box 105, DNC papers, LBJL; Edwards, Pulling No Punches , 177, 186-187.

12. India Edwards to Harry S. Truman, 14 October 1949, in folder "General Correspondence, 1949," India Edwards papers, HSTL.

13. Diary of Eben A. Ayers, 14 September 1945, HSTL, (quoted in part in Robert J. Donovan, Conflict and Crisis: The Presidency of Harry S. Truman, 1945-1948 (New York: Norton, 1977), 27.

14. Transcript, India Edwards Oral History Interview, 16 January 1969, pp. 84-85, HSTL.

15. Harry Truman to India Edwards, 6 October 1949, in folder "General Correspondence, 1949," box 2, India Edwards papers, HSTL.

16. Martin Binkin and Shirley J. Bach, Women and the Military (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1977), 11-12; Department of Defense, press release, 11 August 1951, in folder "Press releases, DNC," box 3, India Edwards papers, HSTL; Mae Sue Talley, Highlights of the DACOWITS: 25 Years of Service to the Department of Defense (Washington, D.C.: Department of Defense, 1976), 1-3; Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services, minutes, 25th Anniversary Meeting, 14-18 November 1976, Washington, D.C., "DACOWITS, 1951-1976," D7.

17. George H. Gallup, The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion, 1935-1971 (New York: Random House, 1972), vol. 1: 1935-1948 , pp. 322, 548-549, 659, vol. 2: 1949-1958 , pp. 837, 861; Edwin Coover, "Status and Role Change Among Women in the United States, 1940-1970: A Quantitative Approach" (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1973), chap. 6.

18. Keesling and Cavanagh, "Women Presidential Appointees," 25-31; President's Commission on the Status of Women, transcript of the meeting of 2 October 1962, Washington, D.C., pp. 252-253, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); New York Times , 28 September 1952; "Women Listed in Government Organization Manual in Appointive Positions," in folder "Political Executives--United States," FE papers, PCSW.

19. E. Stevenson to Dr. Rosamonde Ramsay Boyd, 30 August 1952, in folder "Presidential Campaign 1952," box 2, India Edwards papers, HSTL.

20. American Association of University Women, statement, 18 September 1952, Portland statement, 7 October 1952, and Katherine Howard to "Co-worker," 24 October 1952, all attached to Katherine Howard to General Eisenhower, Governor Adams, Mr. Hauge, 29 October 1952, in folder "Letter to Women Leaders from Katherine Howard, October 24, 1952," box 6, Stephen Benedict papers, DDEL; "Campaign Statements of Dwight D. Eisenhower: A Reference Index," 277-281, DDEL.

21. Mrs. Charles W. Weis, Jr., to Hugh Scott, 11 January 1953, in folder "1936 (Women, 1952-53)," box 1058, WHGF, DDEL.

22. "Republican 'balance sheet' (as of December 1952)," Max Rabb to Governor Adams, 3 January 1953, in folder "109-A-1 1952-53(1)," box 476, DDEL; Independent Woman , January 1953, 7, March, 1953, cover. Hobby resigned in July, 1955.

23. MacKenzie, Politics of Presidential Appointments , 14-21.

24. Wes Roberts to Governor Adams, 4 March 1953, in folder "136 (women 1952-53)," box 1058, WHGF, DDEL.

25. Bertha Adkins entered political life after a career in college administration. Following a tenure as dean at Western Maryland College and Bradford Junior College, she became Republican National Committeewoman for the State of Maryland in 1948. In March 1950 the committee chose her to assume the post of executive director of the Women's Division of the RNC, and in January 1953 she was promoted to the post of assistant chairman of the committee and director of the programs for women's activities. Republican National Committee, "Miss Bertha S. Adkins," September 1956, biography file, SL; Transcript, Bertha Adkins Oral History Interview (Columbia University Oral History Project), 18 December 1967, pp. 1-5.

26. Republican National Committee, press release, 30 July 1953, in folder "General Correspondence, 1953-54," box 2, India Edwards papers, HSTL.

27. Washington [D.C.] Post and Times Herald , 30 May 1956, clipping, in folder "Louchheim, Mrs. Katie," box 149, DNC papers, LBJL.

28. Newsweek , 9 May 1955, 30-32, clipping, in folder "Women, General," box 105, DNC papers, LBJL.

29. White House, press release, 25 October 1956, reel 103, NWP papers (microfilm ed.); Independent Woman , October 1956, 3, 4, 34; Transcript, Bertha Adkins Oral History Interview, (Columbia University Oral History Project), 18 December 1967, pp. 46, 50.

30. Wheaton herself found out only that morning. Transcript, Anne Wheaton Oral History Interview, (Columbia University Oral History Project), 31 January 1968; New York Times , 4 April 1957; Washington [D.C.] Post and Times Herald , 4 April 1957, WBOF.

31. Republican National Committee, press release, 16 August 1958, in folder "109-A-1 Women 1958," box 477, WHGF, DDEL.

32. Keesling and Cavanagh, "Women Presidential Appointees," 28-36; "Women Listed in Government Organization Manual in Appointive Positions," in folder "Political Executives—United States," FE papers, PCSW; Republican National Committee, bulletin, 16 July 1961, in folder ''Top women in government,'' Esther Peterson papers (in Peterson's possession); "Analysis of appointments of top women," n.d. [August, 1962], in folder "White House, 1962-63," box "Political (Dem. Campaigns)," Esther Peterson papers, SL.

33. Elsie L. George, "The Women Appointees of the Roosevelt and Truman Administrations: A Study of Their Impact and Effectiveness" (Ph.D. diss., American University, 1972), 297.

34. Mary Anderson, Woman at Work: The Autobiography of Mary Anderson as told to Mary N. Winslow (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1951), 183-184.

1. Herbert Parmet, JFK: The Presidency of John F. Kennedy (New York: Dial Press, 1983); David Burner and Thomas West, The Torch Is Passed: The Kennedy Brothers and American Liberalism (New York: Atheneum, 1984), chap. 3, 153-154, 186.

For discussions of America in the postwar period, see William Chafe, The Unfinished Journey: America Since World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); William E. Leuchtenburg, A Troubled Feast: American Society Since 1945 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1982); James Gilbert, Another Chance: Postwar America, 1945-1968 (New York: Knopf, 1981); and David Burner, Robert D. Marcus, and Thomas R. West, A Giant's Strength: American in the 1960s (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1971).

2. Richard H. Pells, The Liberal Mind in a Conservative Age: American Intellectuals in the 1940s and 1950s (New York: Harper & Row, 1985), 381, 395-399.

3. Pells, The Liberal Mind, 398.

4. New York Times, 19 March 1961.

5. Parmet, JFK, 37, 84-85, 353; Burner and West, The Torch Is Passed, 151; Allen J. Matusow, The Unraveling of America: A History of Liberalism in the 1960s (New York: Harper & Row, 1984), chap. 1; Alonzo Hamby, Liberalism and Its Challengers (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), chaps. 4 and 5; Charles Morris, A Time of Passion: America, 1960-1980 (New York: Harper & Row, 1984), 2-5; Gilbert, Another Chance, chap. 8.

6. Burner and West, The Torch Is Passed, 4, 154 (quote), 186, 191.

7. Ibid., 48-50, 58, 152; James MacGregor Burns, John Kennedy: A Political Profile (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1961), 96; William E. Leuchtenburg, In the Shadow of FDR: From Harry Truman to Ronald Reagan (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1983), 76-77, 95.

8. Chafe, Unfinished Journey, 207-216; Burner and West, The Torch Is Passed, 161-180; Parmet, JFK, chap. 11; Harvard Sitkoff, The Struggle for Black Equality, 1954-1980 (New York: Hill & Wang, 1981).

9. Burner and West, The Torch Is Passed, 158-161, 180, 188-190; Chafe, Unfinished Journey, 215-217.

10. A great deal has been written concerning the personal attitudes of John Kennedy toward women. Many writers contend persuasively that he indulged in numerous sexual liaisons outside of marriage, in inappropriate settings, leaving himself vulnerable to blackmail from FBI director J. Edgar Hoover and criminal figures. It is nonetheless my opinion that John Kennedy's public policy decisions concerning women sprang from his assessment of the social, economic, and political aspects of the situation, rather than from his personal views of women as sexual objects.

11. Theodore Sorensen, Kennedy (New York: Harper & Row, 1965), 121, 136; Herbert Parmet, Jack: The Struggles of John F. Kennedy (New York: Dial Press, 1980), 159, 253; U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Commerce, The Speeches of Senator John F. Kennedy: Presidential Campaign of 1960, S. Rept. 994, pt. 1, 87th Cong., 1st sess., p. 959.

12. Emma Guffey Miller to Lyndon Baines Johnson, 20 March 1968, in folder "Miller, Emma," name file, WHCF, LBJL; India Edwards to John F. Kennedy, 15 October 1960, in folder "Office of Women's Activities, DNC," box 2, India Edwards papers, LBJL; India Edwards to Harry Truman, 22 May 1960, in folder "Truman, Harry S., correspondence with,'' box 3, India Edwards papers, HSTL; Transcript, India Edwards Oral History Interview, 4 February 1969, pp. 17-25, LBJL; Transcript, Myer Feldman Oral History Interview, 10 April 1966, JFKL; Parmet, Jack, 462-464.

13. The Governor to Adelaide Hart et al., 21 June 1960, in folder "Correspondence, May-July, 1960," box 4, Margaret Price papers, BHL; Transcript, Myer Feldman Oral History Interview, 27 March 1966, p. 225, JFKL.

14. "Memorandum from Margaret Price," 28 July 1960, in folder "Correspondence, May-July 1960," box 4, Margaret Price papers, BHL.

15. Margaret Price to Kenneth O'Donnell, 18 August 1960, in folder "Correspondence, August 1963," box 5, and Margaret Price to Robert F. Kennedy, 27 September 1960, in folder "Correspondence, August-September 1960," box 4, Margaret Price papers, BHL; Senate, Speeches of Senator John F. Kennedy .

16. Letterhead, Committee of Labor Women, folder 90-22, Katherine P. Ellickson papers, ALUA; "Members of Women's Committee for New Frontiers," flyleaf of "Kennedy—60—New Frontiers: Report of the Women's Committee for New Frontiers," in folder "DNC campaign materials, reports, corr. 1960," box C10, Katie S. Louchheim papers, LC.

17. Senate, Speeches of Senator John F. Kennedy, 663, 689, 901, 1241-1249; U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Commerce, The Speeches of Vice President Richard M. Nixon: Presidential Campaign of 1960, S. Rept. 994, p. 2, 87th Cong., 1st sess., 1961, pp. 116-117, 319-320; Statement by the Vice-President on the Equal Rights Amendment, 2 September 1960, reel 106, NWP papers (microfilm ed.).

18. Margaret Price to John F. Kennedy, 8 December 1960, in folder "Women--role in government," box 1072, Prepresidential papers, JFKL.

19. Karen Keesling and Suzanne Cavanagh, "Women Presidential Appointees Serving or Having Served in Full-Time Positions Requiring Senate Confirmation, 1912-1977," Congressional Research Service Report 78-73 G, 23 March 1978, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., pp. 36-38; Jim F. Heath points out that Kennedy ignored several of the transition reports ( Decade of Disillusionment: The Kennedy-Johnson Years [Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1975], 51).

20. New York Post, 20 December 1960, clipping, in folder "1960," box 1, India Edwards papers, LBJL.

21. Emma Guffey Miller to John F. Kennedy, 21 February 1961, folder PL9, box 696, WHCF, JFKL; Emma Guffey Miller to Victoria Gilbert, 21 February 1961, 24 March 1961, reel 106, NWP papers (microfilm ed.); Lawrence F. O'Brien to Emma Guffey Miller, 28 February 1961, folder HU3, box 374, WHCF, JFKL.

22. New York Post, 7 March 1961, clipping, in folder "Office of Women's Activities, DNC," box 2, India Edwards papers, LBJL.

23. Democratic National Committee, Office of Women's Activities, "Women Appointments, the Kennedy Administration as of November 1, 1961," in folder "DNC Office of Women's Activities, Reports of Director, 1955-1961," box C12, Katie S. Louchheim papers, LC.

24. Genevieve Blatt to Emma Guffey Miller, 5 December 1961, folder 68, box 4, Emma Guffey Miller papers, SL.

25. Clayton Fritchey to John F. Kennedy, 22 July 1963, folder HU3, box 374, JFKL.

26. Emanuel Celler to John F. Kennedy, 21 September 1961, and Lawrence O'Brien to Emanuel Celler, 20 September 1961, folder HU3, Box 374, JFKL.

27. Keesling and Cavanagh, "Women Presidential Appointees." Oveta Culp Hobby served as secretary of health, education, and welfare from 1953 to 1955, and Frances Perkins held the position of secretary of labor from 1933 to 1945. President's Commission on the Status of Women, transcript of the meeting of 2 October, 1962, pp. 252-253, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); Democratic National Committee, "Women Appointees of the Kennedy Administration as of February 19, 1963," uncatalogued papers of Esther Peterson, SL.

28. Keesling and Cavanagh, "Women Presidential Appointees."

29. India Edwards, Pulling No Punches: Memoirs of a Woman in Politics (New York: Putnam, 1977), 231-232, 252.

30. Emma Guffey Miller to Katie Louchheim, 26 January 1963, in folder "Department of State Letters of Congratulations, M-Z, 1962," box C17, Katie S. Louchheim papers, LC.

31. Sorensen, Kennedy, 124-125, 251-257; G. Calvin MacKenzie, The Politics of Presidential Appointments (New York: Free Press, 1981), xvii, 23-33. Myer Feldman, a Kennedy aide, has asserted that Margaret Price and President Kennedy "enjoyed an excellent relationship," but her influence with regard to women remains obscure (Myer Feldman to Cynthia E. Harrison, 3 October 1979). Note also that by the time Price took over as vice-chairman of the DNC, the Women's Division had been abolished as a separate entity.

32. Kennedy did not, however, neglect appointments of blacks nearly so much as of women (Carl Brauer, John F. Kennedy and the Second Reconstruction [New York: Columbia University Press, 1977], 68-70).

33. MacKenzie, Politics of Presidential Appointments, 23-33, 84, 198.

34. Telephone interview with Dan Fenn, Jr., 15 May 1981 (Boston, Mass.).

35. MacKenzie, Politics of Presidential Appointments, 255-259.

36. Dan Fenn to Ralph Dungan, 31 July 1962, in file Office of Education(?), Ralph Dungan papers(?). This item is on display at the Kennedy Library in Boston, Massachusetts.

37. Telephone interview with Dan Fenn, Jr., 14 May 1981 (Boston, Mass.).

38. Interviews with Esther Peterson, 4 October 1974 (telephone), 27 February 1978, 10 June 1978 (Washington, D.C.); Interview with Edith Green, 18 December 1978 (Portland, Oreg.); Interview with Maurine Neuberger, 15 December 1978, (Portland, Oreg.). For testimony that Kennedy did not take women seriously, see transcript, Mary McGrory interview, 4 August 1964, p. 48, JFKL; and Laura Bergquist, "What Women Really Meant to JFK," Redbook, November 1973, 54.

39. Bill Lawrence, Six Presidents, Too Many Wars (New York: Saturday Review Press, 1972), 227-228.

40. Sorensen, Kennedy, 124-125; India Edwards to John F. Kennedy, 8 April 1962, in folder "Office of Women's Activities, DNC," box 2, India Edwards papers, LBJL; Edwards, Pulling No Punches, 252; Katie S. Louchheim, By the Political Sea (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1970), 135; Kenneth O'Donnell to India Edwards, 10 April 1962, in untitled folder [1960 clipping material and correspondence], box 1, India Edwards papers, LBJL; New York Times, 23 May 1962, clipping, in folder "Newspaper clips, 1962," box 10, Margaret Price papers, BHL.

41. Mackenzie, Politics of Presidential Appointments, 84, 196-197, 209; Burns, John Kennedy, 233-236, 266.

42. Frieda S. Miller to Mr. Moran, 17 August 1945, in folder "Women's Bureau," box 420, RG 174 (Schwellenbach), NA.

43. Judith Sealander, As Minority Becomes Majority: Federal Reaction to the Phenomenon of Women in the Workforce (Westport, Conn.; Greenwood Press, 1983).

44. Sylvia Beyer to Frieda Miller, 18 February 1947, in folder "FSM at ILO," box "Women's Bureau Statements and Press Releases, Correspondence," Frieda Miller papers, SL; "Meeting of the Labor Advisory Committee,'' 9 January 1947, in folder "Labor Advisory Committee, January 1947," box 943, RG 86, NA; "Meeting of the Labor Advisory Committee,'' 3 February 1947, in folder "Women's Bureau, Labor Advisory Committee, 1950-53," box "Committees, Women's Bureau," Frieda Miller papers, SL; "Meeting of the Labor Advisory Committee," 3 October 1947, in folder "Labor Advisory Committee, October 3, 1947," box 943, RG 86, NA; Frieda S. Miller, biographical notes, August 1956, SC 1104, WSHS; Barbara Sicherman and Carol Hurd Green (eds.), Notable American Women: The Modern Period (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1980), 478-479.

45. Department of Labor, press release, 11 December 1952, in folder "1953, Women's Bureau," box 9, RG 174 (Mitchell), NA.

46. Selma Borchardt to James P. Mitchell, 30 June 1954, and "Hearings before the Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives, March 1954, Women's Bureau," folder 92-6, Katherine P. Ellickson papers, ALUA; Department of Labor press release, 30 September 1954, folder 3, and General Order no. 80, January 1955, folder 4, Alice K. Leopold papers, SL (General Order no. 80 officially established Leopold's position); New York Times, 30 September 1954; Telephone interview with Alice A. Morrison, 11 February 1981 (Alexandria, Va).

47. "John F. Kennedy, Voting Record on Measures of Interest to Labor," and William Green to John F. Kennedy, 22 August 1952, folder 37, Box 29, Legislative Reference Files, Meany Archives.

48. Parmet, Jack, 184-186; Burns, John Kennedy, 76-79.

49. Parmet, Jack, 388-393, 423-433; Burns, John Kennedy, 224-229; Hyman Bookbinder to Andrew Biemiller, 11 September 1959, folder 39, and George Meany to John F. Kennedy, 31 August 1960, folder 40, box 29, Legislative Reference Files, Meany Archives; Washington Post, 10 July 1960.

50. Transcript, Myer Feldman Oral History Interview, 6 August 1966, p. 379, 21 September 1968, pp. 19, 38, 45, 23, January 1966, p. 36, JFKL; Theodore Sorensen, Decision-Making in the White House (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963), 77; Tom Wicker, JFK and LBJ (New York: Morrow, 1968), 139; David Halberstam, The Best and the Brightest (New York: Random House, 1972), 71; AFL-CIO Executive Council, minutes, August 1962, folder 12, box 11, Executive Council Reference Files, William F. Schnitzler papers, Meany Archives; Telephone interview with Arthur Goldberg, 17 September 1985 (Washington, D.C.).

51. Mrs. Esther Peterson, biography, April 1964, in packet "Secretary of Labor Conference for Labor Editors," Esther Peterson papers (in Peterson's possession); National Business Woman, March 1961, 5; Esther Peterson interview with Kathy Kraft, 17 May 1975, SL; Transcript, Esther Peterson Oral History Interview, 1978, pp. 19-21, SL and University of Michigan; Interview with Esther Peterson, 4 October 1974 and 27 February 1978 (Washington, D.C.); Sorensen, Kennedy, 123-124; Draft transcript, Esther Peterson interview, 18 May 1966, pp. 1-3, JFKL; Draft transcript, Esther Peterson Oral History Interview, 22 January 1970, p. 16, JFKL; Transcript, Myer Feldman Oral History Interview, 23 January 1966, p. 36, JFKL; Parmet, Jack, 186, 422-423, 496-498, Ashtabula [Ohio] Star-Beacon, 9 June 1961, and Tucson [Ariz.] Star, 7 June 1961, clippings in folder "labor's influence, news clippings," Boston Record, 15 February 1961, clipping, in folder ''U.S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, Appointment, news clippings re: JFK appointees," box "NWCCR, Appointments to Women's Bureau, Assistant Secretary of Labor," Esther Peterson papers, SL; Sorensen, Kennedy, 53.

52. Sorensen, Kennedy, 277; Draft transcript, Esther Peterson interview, 18 May 1966, pp. 22-61, JFKL; [Esther Peterson] to Advance Teams, n.d., in folder "1960 correspondence with Labor," box "Political (Dem. Campaigns)," Esther Peterson papers, SL; Esther Peterson to Senator Kennedy et al., 23 September 1960, in folder "Peterson, Esther," box 202, DNC papers, JFKL.

53. Mary Anderson et al. to John F. Kennedy, 2 December 1960, in folder "Lists of Supporters," box "NWCCR, Appointments to Women's Bureau, Assistant Secretary of Labor," Esther Peterson papers, SL.

54. Mrs. Paul Douglas to John F. Kennedy, 13 December 1960, in folder "Appointments: government," box 1066, Prepresidential papers, JFKL; Elizabeth A. Magee to Louise Stitt, 8 December 1960, Esther Peterson papers, Giant Foods (Landover, Md.); Draft transcript, Esther Peterson interview, 18 May 1966, pp. 61-62, 22 January 1970, pp. 24, 27, JFKL; Esther Peterson to John F. Kennedy, 17 August 1961, in folder "John F. Kennedy, 1960-61," box "Political (Dem. Campaigns)," Esther Peterson papers, SL; Washington Post, 27 March 1961, clippings, Esther Peterson papers, Giant Foods (Landover, Md.); Arthur Goldberg to Pierre Salinger, 21 April 1961, in folder ''1961 White House, President, April," box 24, RG 174 (Goldberg), NA; John F. Kennedy to the President of the Senate and the Speaker of the House, 4 May 1961, folder LE/FG 150-LE/215, box 473, WHCF, JFKL; Statement of Assistant Secretary of Labor George C. Lodge before the Education Subcommittee of the House Committee on Education and Labor on H.R. 6822, 15 May 1961, in folder ''Assistant Secretary of Labor, 1961," box "NWCCR, Appointments to Women's Bureau, Assistant Secretary of Labor," Esther Peterson papers, SL; U.S. Congress, House, 87th Cong., 1st sess., 9 August 1961, Congressional Record 107: 15258-15264; U.S. Department of Labor, press release, 17 August 1961, Esther Peterson papers, Giant Foods (Landover, Md.).

55. Mrs. Esther Peterson, biography, April 1964, in packet "Secretary of Labor Conference for Labor Editors," Esther Peterson papers (in Peterson's possession).

56. Emma Guffey Miller to Katie Louchheim, 26 January 1962, in folder "Department of State, Letters of Congratulations, M-Z, 1962," box C17, Katie S. Louchheim papers, LC.

57. Economist, 11 August 1962, clipping, in folder "Edith Green, legislation, equal pay," box 62-12, Edith Green papers, OHS.

58. John W. Leslie to Pierre Salinger, 24 August 1962, folder FG 737, box 206, WHCF, JFKL.

1. Valerie Kincade Oppenheimer, The Female Labor Force in the United States: Demographic and Economic Factors Governing Its Growth and Changing Composition (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1976), 6, 11, 14, 21, 159-162, 167-168; Deborah S. Kligler, "The Effects of the Employment of Married Women on Husband and Wife Roles: A Study in Culture Change" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1954), 2, 3; Karen Anderson, Wartime Women (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1981), 175.

2. Wall Street Journal, 30 October 1963, clipping, in folder "Women, General," box 105, DNC papers, LBJL.

3. Kligler, "Effects of Employment"; Morris J. Levitt, "Political Attitudes of American Women: A Study of Work and Education on Their Political Role" (Ph.D. diss., University of Maryland, 1965); U.S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, "Background Facts on Women Workers in the United States," January 1962, Document VI-39, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.).

4. James P. Mitchell to Sam Rayburn, 13 January 1961, in folder "1960, National legislation, Department of Labor Draft Bills (1)," box 183, James P. Mitchell papers, DDEL; Frances A. Ambursen to Mrs. Morrison, 1 February 1961, Alice A. Morrison to Mrs. Peterson, 24 February 1961, Esther Peterson to Arthur Goldberg, 28 February 1961, and Alice A. Morrison to Esther Peterson, 28 February 1961, reel 59, DOL papers, JFKL.

5. Arthur Goldberg to Mr. Donahue, 13 March 1961, folder WA-3, box 92, RG 174 (Goldberg), NA; Alice A. Morrison to General Files, 9 March 1961, in folder "Equal Pay," box 1196, RG 86, NA.

6. "Meeting in Esther Peterson's office on equal pay bill Thursday, March 2, 1961, 2:00 P.M.," folder 92-11, Katherine P. Ellickson papers, ALUA; Esther Peterson to George P. Riley, 8 March 1961, in folder "Equal Pay," box 1196, RG 86, NA.

7. J. A. Beirne to Arthur Goldberg, 15 February 1961, reel 59, DOL papers, JFKL.

8. Arthur Goldberg to J. A. Beirne, 4 March 1961, folder WA-3, box 92, RG 174 (Goldberg), NA. See, for example, Esther Peterson to Margaret Mealey, 16 March 1961, in folder "Equal Pay," box 1196, RG 86, NA; Esther Peterson to Lois Frazier, 17 March 1961, Esther Peterson to Robert Simmons, 17 March 1961, draft letter to state labor departments, 16 March 1961, Esther Peterson to John Livingston, 21 March 1961, and Esther Peterson to Emily Chervenik, 4 April 1961, reel 59, DOL papers, JFKL.

9. Telephone interview with Morag M. Simchak, 14 August 1974 (Washington, D.C.); Interviews with Pearl Spindler and Sandra Bollhoefer, 15, 16, 17 July 1974 (Washington, D.C.); Bernice Sandler to the Editor, Washington Post, 24 September 1978; Interview with Esther Peterson, 27 February 1978 (Washington, D.C.).

10. John P. Earner, "Equal Pay for Equal Work: Federal Legislative Activity, 1945 to 1962," pp. 12-13, Legislative Reference Service, Library of Congress, in folder "Labor-Equal Pay for Equal Work," box 15, Maurine Neuberger papers, University of Oregon; Mary T. Norton to John F. Kennedy, 10 May 1951, and John F. Kennedy to Mary T. Norton, 6 June 1951, in folder "Equal Pay for Equal Work," box 3, Prepresidential papers, JFKL; "Deficiencies in Labor record of Senator Kennedy," 8 November 1960, in folder "1960 Political (November-December),'' box 193, James P. Mitchell papers, DDEL; "Legislative Items Recommended by the President,'' 22 January 1962, in folder "Papers of the Democratic National Committee, 1960-1962," box 20, Margaret Price papers, BHL.

Journalist Nancy Dickerson claimed that John Kennedy "thought it ridiculous" to pay women the same wages as men and refused to hire her on his staff for that reason (Dickerson, Among Those Present: A Reporter's View of Twenty-five Years in Washington [New York: Random House, 1976], 19, 63).

11. George Riley to Esther Peterson, 22 March 1961, Esther Peterson to George Riley, 28 March 1961, and "Meeting of the National Committee on Equal Pay and the Women's Bureau," 6 April 1961, reel 59, DOL papers, JFKL.

12. "Bill W." to "Arthur," 4 May 1961, attached to Secretary of Labor to David Bell, 14 July 1961, folder LL-2-1, box 75, RG 174 (Goldberg), NA.

13. Esther Peterson to George Riley, 27 July 1961, folder 8, box 17, Legislative Reference Files, Meany Archives.

14. Administration bills were H.R. 8898, introduced 24 August 1961, and S. 2494, 30 August 1961; Dorothy A. Carroll to Esther Peterson, 18 August 1961, in folder "Equal Pay," box 1196, RG 86, NA; U.S. Congress, Senate, 87th Cong., 1st sess., 30 August 1961, Congressional Record 107: 17574-17576.

15. Washington Star, 13 February 1962, clipping, folder 91-5, Katherine P. Ellickson papers, ALUA; the President's Commission on the Status of Women, transcript of the meeting of 13 February 1962, Washington, D.C., p. 109, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.).

16. Washington Star, 13 February 1962, clipping, folder 91-5, Katherine P. Ellickson papers, ALUA.

17. Laura H. Dale to Alice Morrison, 19 July 1961, in folder "Equal Pay," box 1196, RG 86, NA.

18. Interview with Esther Peterson, 17 June 1980, (Washington, D.C.); Alice A. Morrison to Esther Peterson, 9 March 1962, reel 59, DOL papers, JFKL; Alice A. Morrison to Esther Peterson, 30 January 1962, in folder "Equal Pay," box 1220, RG 86, NA; "Equal Pay Clauses in Union Contracts, 1956" and addendum, uncatalogued papers of Esther Peterson, SL.

19. Leila Rupp and Verta Taylor, Survival in the Doldrums: The American Women's Rights Movement, 1945 to the 1960s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 175.

20. U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Education and Labor, Equal Pay for Equal Work, Hearings Before the Selected Subcommittee on Labor of the Committee on Education and Labor H.R. 10266 . . . , Part 1: Hearings Held in Washington, D.C., Part 2: Hearings Held in N.Y., N.Y., 87th Cong., 2d sess., 1962; President's Commission on the Status of Women, Committee on Civil and Political Rights, transcript of the meeting of 28 May 1962, Washington, D.C., pp. 13-19, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); New York Times , 28 April 1962.

21. U.S. Congress, House, 87th Cong., 2d sess., 14 June 1962, Congressional Record 108: 10501.

22. U.S. Congress, House, 87th Cong., 2d sess., 25 July 1962, Congressional Record 108: 14767-14771; Alice K. Leopold to Irma Piepho, 30 April 1957, in folder "Equal Pay 4, National Equal Pay Committee," box 1096, RG 86, NA.

23. New York Times, 26 July 1961; U.S. Congress, House, 87th Cong., 2d sess., 25 July 1962, Congressional Record 108: 14747-14782. Neither this vote nor any other on equal pay legislation was recorded. No one discussed the prospect of comparing jobs unlike in character for the purposes of determining wage rates.

24. Wall Street Journal, 10 August 1962; U.S. Congress, Senate, 87th Cong., 2d sess., 11 August 1962, Congressional Record 108: 16245; Eleanor Roosevelt, column "By Eleanor Roosevelt," 27 July 1962, file 3163, Eleanor Roosevelt papers, FDRL.

25. "Here's the Issue," 17 September 1962, Esther Peterson papers (in Peterson's possession).

26. Theron J. Rice to Patrick McNamara, 24 August 1962, in folder "S. 2494," box H43, Wayne Morse papers, University of Oregon; President's Commission on the Status of Women, Committee on Civil and Political Rights, transcript of the meeting of 24 August 1962, Washington, D.C., pp. 25-27, and President's Commission on the Status of Women, transcript of the meeting of 2 October 1962, Washington, D.C., pp. 321-322, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); "Notes for Equal Pay Meeting," 18 September 1962, in folder ''Equal Pay Act, 1962" box ''Women," Esther Peterson papers, SL; U.S. Congress, Senate, 87th Cong., 2d sess., 3 October 1962, Congressional Record 108: 22081-22085; Earner, "Equal Pay for Equal Work," 26.

27. Earner, "Equal Pay for Equal Work," 26; Beatrice McConnell to June Cedarleaf, 12 October 1962, and Patrick McNamara to Esther Peterson, 16 October 1962, reel 59, DOL papers, JFKL; Esther Peterson to Patrick McNamara, 5 November 1962, in folder "Congress, June-December 1962," box "Political (Dem. Campaigns)," Esther Peterson papers, SL; "Congress to Get Bills on Equal Treatment for Women,'' Congressional Quarterly, 28 December 1962, 2298-2299, clipping, Esther Peterson papers (in Peterson's possession); "Equal Pay Act of 1962,'' in folder "Papers of the Democratic National Committee, 1960-1962," box 20, Margaret Price papers, BHL.

28. Esther Peterson to Charles Donahue et al., 13 November 1962, Memorandum, 15 November 1962, "Meeting in Mrs. Peterson's office, November 15, 1962 on Equal Pay Proposals for 1963," 15 November 1962, and "Major Differences Between Equal Pay Bill H.R. 11677 as it passed the House and the Department of Labor's 1963 Proposal," 13 December 1962, folder 1-30, Morag Simchak papers, ALUA.

29. William B. Cannon to Legislative Liaison Officer, 3 January 1963, Norman J. Simler to the Council, 4 January 1963, and Walter Heller to William B. Cannon, 7 January 1963, reel 41, Walter Heller papers, JFKL.

30. "Memorandum for the Files--Council of Economic Advisers position on Equal Pay Bill--Esther Peterson, 8 January 1963," in floder "Equal Pay 1963," Peterson papers (in Peterson's possession); Walter Heller to Esther Peterson, 10 January 1963, reel 59, DOL papers, JFKL.

31. Norman J. Simler to the Council, 4 February 1963, reel 41, Walter Heller papers, JFKL.

32. Walter Heller to Kermit Gordon, 7 February 1963, reel 41, Walter Heller papers, JFKL.

33. Esther Peterson to W. Willard Wirtz, 13 February 1963, in folder "Equal Pay," Esther Peterson papers (in Peterson's possession).

34. Sorensen said later that Heller headed the most influential Council of Economic Advisers in history (Theodore Sorensen, Kennedy, [New York: Harper & Row, 1965], 265, 395). Administration bills were H.R. 3861, introduced 18 February 1963, and S. 910, 25 February 1963; U.S. Department of Labor press release, 14 February 1963, in folder "Equal Pay Clippings and Reference," box 63-5, Edith Green papers, OHS; "Administration Equal Pay Bill Is Taken to Senate, House Leaders," typed from Daily Labor Report, 14 February 1963, in folder "Equal Pay Act, 1963, bills," box "Women," Esther Peterson papers, SL.

35. U.S. Congress, House, 88th Cong., 1st sess., 21 February 1963, Congressional Record 109: 2714; "Equal pay bills in the 88th Congress," 26 February 1963, folder 1-32, Morag Simchak papers, ALUA; "Statement by the AFL-CIO Executive Council," 23 February 1963, in folder ''Equal Pay,'' box 1238, RG 86, NA; Morag Simchak to Esther Peterson, 26 February 1963, in brown envelope, Esther Peterson papers (in Peterson's possession); Edith Green to Katherine P. Ellickson, 2 August [1976], folder 90-31, Katherine P. Ellickson papers, ALUA.

36. "Chamber Attacks Equal Pay Bill," typed from Daily Labor Report, 28 February 1963, in folder "Equal Pay," Esther Peterson papers (in Peterson's possession).

37. "Questions raised at a meeting with the Committee on Labor Relations of the Glass Container Manufacturers Institute relative to the Equal Pay Bill," 27 February 1963, in folder "Equal Pay Bill," Esther Peterson papers (in Peterson's possession).

38. Charles Goodell to author, 29 August 1974; "Thumb Nail--H.R. 5110," n.d., in folder "Equal Pay Act 1963 bills" box "Women," Esther Peterson papers, SL; Charles Goodell to William Belknap, n.d., in folder "Amend Fair Labor Standards Act . . . ," box 31, Charles Goodell papers, Rare Books and Manuscripts Division, NYPL, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations.

39. "Outline of Mrs. Peterson's equal pay testimony," folder 1-32, Morag Simchak papers, ALUA; Esther Peterson, briefing book, Esther Peterson papers (in Peterson's possession); U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, Equal Pay Act of 1963, Hearings Before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, Senate, on S. 882 and S. 910, 88th Cong., 1st sess., 1963.

40. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, Equal Pay Act of 1963, Hearings Before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, Senate, on S. 882 and S. 910, 88th Cong., 1st sess., 1963; "Main objections to equal pay bill of 1963 made by witnesses at hearings--March 25 and 26," reel 43, DOL papers, JFKL.

41. Morag Simchak to Esther Peterson, 2 April 1963, in folder "Equal Pay, 11 June 1964, plans for conference," Esther Peterson papers (in Peterson's possession); Memorandum for the record, 18 April 1963, uncatalogued papers of Esther Peterson, SL.

42. Frank Thompson to Esther Peterson, 8 April 1963, and Morag Simchak to Esther Peterson, 18 April 1963, reel 59, DOL papers, JFKL; Thomas J. Rice to Wayne Morse, 1 May 1963, in folder "S. 1409," box H-49, Wayne Morse papers, University of Oregon; Untitled memorandum, 9 May 1963, folder 1-34, Morag Simchak papers, ALUA; U.S. Congress, Senate, 88th Cong., 1st sess., 17 May 1963, Congressional Record 109: 8916; U.S. Congress, House Committee on Education and Labor, Legislative History of the Equal Pay Act of 1963 , Pub. L. 88-38, 88th Congress, H.R. 6060 and S. 1409, Committee Print, 88th Cong., 1st sess., December 1963.

43. Esther Peterson to Edna M. Johnson, 9 May 1963, in folder "Equal Pay," box 1238, RG 86, NA.

44. Esther Peterson to David Lasser, 22 April 1963, reel 59, DOL papers, JFKL.

45. Andrew J. Biemiller to Dear Congressman, 22 May 1963, in folder "88th Cong., Education and Labor--Labor," box 43, Martha Griffiths papers, BHL.

46. U.S. Congress, Senate, 88th Cong., 1st sess., 28 May 1963, Congressional Record 109: 9192-9218.

47. Ibid., 9761-9762.

48. Washington Post , 11 June 1963, clipping, folder 1-26, Morag Simchak papers, ALUA; White House, press release, 10 June 1963, in folder "Press releases January 1961-November 1967," box 9, Margaret Price papers, BHL; List of invitees, in folder "Equal Pay White House," and Esther Peterson to Lawrence O'Brien, 31 May 1963, in folder "Equal Pay bill," Esther Peterson papers (in Peterson's possession). Text of Equal Pay Act can be found in Appendix 1.

49. Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, as amended, 29 U.S.C. sec. 206, subsec. d (1964); Patrick Tanabe, "Views of Women's Work in Public Policy in the United States: Social Security and Equal Pay Legislation, 1935-1967" (Ph.D. diss., Bryn Mawr College, 1973), 68-69.

50. Caroline Davis to Esther Peterson, n.d., reel 59, DOL papers, JFKL. See also remarks of Margaret Hickey, President's Commission on the Status of Women, transcript of the meeting of 27 May 1963, Washington, D.C., p. 16, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); Telephone interview with Alice A. Morrison, 11 March 1981 (Alexandria, Va).

51. Jo Freeman, The Politics of Women's Liberation (New York: McKay, 1975), 177. Judith Hole and Ellen Levine assert that "some activists consider the Equal Pay Act the only law dealing with sex discrimination that is anywhere near properly enforced" (Hole and Levine, Rebirth of Feminism [New York: Quadrangle Books, 1971], 29).

1. Esther Peterson Recorded Interview by Ronald J. Grele, 18 May 1966, p. 23, Recorded Interview by Ann M. Campbell, 20 January 1970, pp. 55-57, JFKL; Oral History Program; Interview with Esther Peterson, 10 June 1978 (Washington, D.C.); Eva vB. Hansl to Edith Green, 6 January 1961, in folder "Working Widows," box 61-11, Edith Green papers, OHS; Eva vB. Hansl et al. to John F. Kennedy, 20 January 1961, in folder "PCSW background 1961," box "PCSW #1," Esther Peterson papers, SL; Transcript, Katherine P. Ellickson Oral History Interview, 15 December 1974, p. 27, ALUA; Katherine P. Ellickson, ''The President's Commission on the Status of Women: Its Formation, Functioning, and Contribution," January 1976, ALUA; Telephone interview with Arthur Goldberg, 17 September 1985 (Washington, D.C.).

2. Kathryn McHale to Harry S. Truman, 10 May 1948 (summarized by William D. Hassett), file 120, box 534, HSTL.

3. Arthur M. Hill to the President, 29 June 1948, file 120, box 534, HSTL.

4. Althea Hottel to the President, 15 September 1950, file 120, box 534, HSTL.

5. National Manpower Council, Womanpower: A Statement by the National Manpower Council with Chapters by the Council Staff (New York: Columbia University Press, 1957), 6.

6. Alice K. Leopold to the Undersecretary, 15 April 1957, and "Summary of Comments by Miss Leopold and Mrs. Wickens on Recommendation Contained in the National Manpower Council's Report on Womanpower" (draft), 17 April 1957, in folder "Women," box 5, RG 174 (Cass), NA; Labor Advisory Committee, minutes of meeting, 13 November 1953, in folder "1-1-8-1 work materials for Advisory Committee," box 942, RG 86, NA.

7. Secretary of Labor to the Undersecretary, 29 March 1957, in folder "1957 Women's Bureau, General," box 193, RG 174 (Mitchell), NA; Aryness Joy Wickens to the Undersecretary, 29 March 1957 [n.b., there are two memos with this date, both of which are cited].

8. Eva vB. Hansl to Edith Green, 6 January 1961, in folder "Working Widows," box 61-11, Edith Green papers, OHS; Eva vB. Hansl et al. to John F. Kennedy, 20 January 1961, in folder "PCSW background 1961," box "PCSW #1," Esther Peterson papers, SL; Telephone interview with Arthur Goldberg, 17 September 1985 (Washington, D.C.); Transcript, Caroline Ware Oral History Interview, 27, 28, 29 January 1982, pp. 138ff., SL; Dollie Robinson to Esther Peterson, 31 March 1961, in folder "PCSW, Background 1951," box "PCSW #1,'' Esther Peterson papers, SL.

9. Washington Post , 13 February 1962.

10. Notes on meeting concerning plans for the President's Commission on the Status of Women, 20 December 1961, folder 91-17, Katherine P. Ellickson papers, ALUA; Current Status (bulletin of the PCSW), November 1962, PCSW papers (Washington, D. C.); Katherine Ellickson, "Mrs. Eleanor Roosevelt's Contribution to the Status of Women, 1962," Ellickson file, Eleanor Roosevelt papers, FDRL; Herbert Parmet, JFK: The Presidency of John F. Kennedy (New York: Dial Press, 1983), 35-36; William E. Leuchtenburg, In the Shadow of FDR: From Harry Truman to Ronald Reagan (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1983), 71-81, 88-89, 92-96, 100-103.

11. Frances Ambursen to Esther Peterson, 6 September 1961, in folder "PCSW members," box "PCSW #1," Esther Peterson papers, SL; Esther Peterson, Recorded Interview by Ann M. Campbell, 20 January 1970, pp. 57-60, JFKL Oral History Program.

12. President's Commission on the Status of Women, American Women , (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1963), 85; Marguerite Rawalt, A History of the National Federation of Business and Professional Women's Clubs, Inc. , vol. 2: 1944-1960 (Washington, D.C.: NFBPWC, 1969), p. 4; Susan Becker, "An Intellectual History of the National Woman's Party, 1920-1941," (Ph.D. diss., Case Western Reserve University, 1975), 251-252. For a discussion of the way in which administrations control presidential commissions by the selection of members, see Thomas R. Wolanin, Presidential Advisory Commissions: Truman to Nixon (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1975), 75-81. The complete list of commission participants can be found in Appendix 3.

13. Executive Order 10980, 14 December 1961, 3 C.F.R. (1959-1963), 500-501 (text in Appendix 2).

14. Goldberg to John F. Kennedy, 13 December 1961, and White House, press release, 14 December 1961, in black looseleaf notebook, box 4644, Eleanor Roosevelt papers, FDRL.

15. Esther Peterson to Myer Feldman, 12 March 1963, in folder "Final Report Materials, Hilton," PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.).

16. U.S. President, Public Papers of the President of the United States (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Federal Register , National Archives and Records Service, 1961-), John F. Kennedy, 12 February 1962, item 43.

17. Transcript, "Prospects of Mankind #10" (23 May 1962), in folder "Mrs. Roosevelt--Prospects of Mankind," and President's Commission on the Status of Women, Committee on New and Expanded Services, transcript of the meeting of 24 January, 1963 Washington, D.C., PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); Telephone interview with Esther Peterson, 4 October 1974 (Washington, D.C.); Washington Post , 13 February 1962; Esther Peterson to Myer Feldman, 12 March 1963, in folder "Final Report Materials, Hilton," PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); Arthur Goldberg to Timothy J. Reardon, 18 January 1962, in folder "1962 Commission PCSW (Jan.-March)," box 29, RG 174 (Goldberg), NA; Interview with Catherine East, 6 July 1978 (Arlington, Va.); President's Commission on the Status of Women, minutes of the fourth meeting, 1-2 October, 1962, in folder "PCSW report meeting, December 15, 1962," Peterson papers (in Peterson's possession).

18. "Proposed guidelines on subcommittees," PCSW Doc. 11, 8 February 1962, in folder "Commission meeting, February 12-13, 1962," PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); President's Commission on the Status of Women, minutes of the first meeting, 12-13 February, 1962, PCSW Doc. 18, box 4644, Eleanor Roosevelt papers, FDRL; Staff meeting, 17 December 1962, folder 93-13, Katherine P. Ellickson papers, ALUA. A full list of committee members can be found in Appendix 3.

19. John F. Kennedy to Alma Lutz, 11 February 1957, in folder "Equal Rights Amendment, December 5, 1956-January 28, 1958," box 690, Prepresidential papers, JFKL.

20. John F. Kennedy to Adele E. Moroney, 5 February 1958, in folder "Equal Rights Amendment, February 4, 1958-June 5, 1958," box 690, Prepresidential papers, JFKL.

21. John F. Kennedy memorandum, 22 June 1960, reel 106, NWP papers (microfilm ed.).

22. "Advance platform hearings of the Democratic National Committee," 27 June 1960, and "Statement of Mrs. Esther Peterson," 7 July 1960, in folder "ERA 1960-61," box "Women,'' Esther Peterson papers, SL.

Peterson later asserted that the views she expressed on protective labor legislation reflected the convictions of the AFL-CIO. Her own opinion, she said, was that the labor legislation that applied exclusively to women was no longer appropriate. Catherine East, who worked with Esther Peterson on the President's Commission on the Status of Women, supports this contention (Telephone interview with Esther Peterson, 23 September 1981 [Washington, D.C.]; Telephone interview with Catherine East, 31 July 1981, [Arlington, Va.]).

23. "Hearing on Equal Rights for Women plank in the Democratic Platform," National Democratic Convention, Los Angeles, California, 11-17 July, 1960, and "Mr. Chairman and fellow members of the Platform Committee," [7 July 1960], reel 106, NWP papers (microfilm ed.).

24. The Republicans continued to support the ERA in their platform, despite Peterson's testimony. Marjorie Longwell to Alice Paul (telegram), 7 July 1960, 13 July 1960, Emma Newton to Mary Sinclair Crawford, 24 August 1960, "Plank on Equality for Women in the Republican Platform, adopted in Chicago, Illinois July, 1960," Emma Guffey Miller to Clara Wolf, 16 February 1961, and Marjorie Longwell to Alice Paul (telegram), 13 July 1960, reel 106, NWP papers (microfilm ed.); Emma Guffey Miller to Joseph Clark, 28 October 1963, folder 73, and Emma Guffey Miller to Clare B. Williams, 17 August 1960, folder 66, box 4, Emma Guffey Miller papers, SL; AFLCIO, Industrial Union Division, press release, 20 July 1960, and "Statement of Mrs. Esther Peterson," 21 July 1960, in folder "ERA, 1960-61," box ''Women," Esther Peterson papers, SL; Julia Thompson et al. to Walter Reuther, 25 July 1960, in folder "1960 Misc. Correspondence,'' box "Political (Dem. campaigns)," Esther Peterson papers, SL; Carl Hayden to B. Kay Walters, 28 November 1960, folder 4, box 268, Carl Hayden papers, Arizona State University; Donald B. Johnson (ed.), National Party Platforms , 2 vols. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1978), 2:583, 589, 610, 614.

25. Marion Sayward to Walter Martin, 5 August 1960, and Marion Sayward to Marjorie Longwell, 9 August 1960, reel 106, NWP papers (microfilm ed.).

26. Herbert Klein to Emma Guffey Miller and Perle Mesta, 1 September 1960, and "Statement by the Vice President on the Equal Rights Amendment," 2 September 1960, reel 106, NWP papers (microfilm ed.); Los Angeles Times , 3 September 1960, in folder "ERA Special re: NWP, 1960," box "Women," Esther Peterson papers, SL.

27. Emma Guffey Miller to John Kennedy, 3 September 1960, folder 67, box 4, Emma Guffey Miller papers, SL.

28. "Letter from Kennedy to Emma Guffey Miller (Women's [ sic ] Party)," 28 September 1960," in folder "ERA Special re: NWP, 1960," box "Women," Esther Peterson papers, SL.

29. John Kennedy to Emma Guffey Miller, 28 September 1960, reel 106, (microfilm ed.) NWP papers; John Kennedy to Emma Guffey Miller, 28 September 1960 (typed copy with handwritten amendments), in folder "ERA Special re: NWP, 1960," bos "Women," Esther Peterson papers, SL; John Kennedy to Emma Guffey Miller, 7 October 1960, and Mary Kennedy to Emma Guffey Miller, 12 October 1960, reel 106, NWP papers (microfilm ed.).

30. Emma Guffey Miller to John Kennedy (telegram), 11 December 1960, Miller to Victoria Gilbert (telegram), 11 December 1960, and Miller to William Green, 14 December 1960, reel 106, NWP papers (microfilm ed.).

31. Washington Post , 16 April 1961, in folder "ERA newspapers clippings," Women's Bureau, DOL (Washington, D.C.).

32. Miller pretended not to notice the discrepancy between Kennedy's amended campaign letter and Goldberg's response in May 1961. Emma Guffey Miller to Mrs. Forrest, 18 April 1961, and Arthur Goldberg to Marjorie Longwell, 4 May 1961, reel 106, NWP papers (microfilm ed.); Esther Peterson to Myer Feldman, 12 May 1961, in folder "ERA, 1960-61," box "Women," Esther Peterson papers, SL.

33. National Woman's party, minutes of meeting, 16 September 1961, reel 115, NWP papers (microfilm ed.).

34. Emma Guffey Miller to Esther [?], 25 September 1961, reel 107, NWP papers (microfilm ed.); U.S. Congress, House, "Equal Rights for Women," 87th Cong., 1st sess., 30 August 1961, Congressional Record 107: 17644; Morag Simchak to Esther Peterson, 25 September 1961, in folder "PCSW, background, 1961," box "PCSW #1," Esther Peterson papers, SL; Emma Guffey Miller to James Eastland, 20 October 1961, S. J. Res. 142, Bill Files, Committee on the Judiciary, Records of the U.S. Senate, RG 46, NA.

35. Esther Peterson to Clara Dunn, 5 April 1961, and Eva vB. Hansl to Edith Green, 14 April 1961, in folder "Pending file--Equal pay for equal work," box 61-11, Edith Green papers, OHS; "Need for a commission on the status of women," 1 May 1961, and Katherine Ellickson to Esther Peterson, 5 May 1961, in folder "PCSW background 1961," box "PCSW #1,'' Esther Peterson papers, SL; ''February 28 [1961] discussion with trade union women." folder 90-31, Katherine P. Ellickson papers, ALUA.

36. Mildred Barber to Esther Peterson, 21 March 1961, in folder "PCSW background 1961," box "PCSW #1," Esther Peterson papers, SL.

37. Esther Peterson to Myer Feldman, 6 June 1961 (plus attachments), in folder "PCSW background 1961," box "PCSW #1," Esther Peterson papers, SL; Draft, Secretary of Labor to the President, 17 July 1961 (plus attachments), folder FG 737, box 206, WHCF, JFKL.

38. "Statement by Esther Peterson," folder 91-12, Katherine P. Ellickson papers, ALUA; Arthur Goldberg to John Kennedy, 13 December 1961, and White House, press release, 14 December 1961, in black looseleaf notebook, box 4644, Eleanor Roosevelt papers, FDRL; Executive Order 10908, 14 December 1961, 3 C.F.R. (1959-1963), 500-501; Alice Morrison to Esther Peterson, 10 October 1963, in folder "Briefing 3," box "PCSW #1," Esther Peterson papers, SL.

39. Caroline Davis to Esther Peterson, 15 December 1961, in folder "Peterson's letters," PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); Katherine Peden to Viola Hymes, 29 December 1961, in folder "PCSW alphabetical (Liaison Federal Government) (1 of 3)," BPW Archives (Washington, D.C.).

40. Washington Post , 26 December 1961.

41. Christian Science Monitor , 15 December 1961. Interview with Evelyn Harrison, 12 September 1978 (Washington, D.C.).

42. Emanuel Celler, press release, 15 December 1961, and Arthur Goldberg to Emanuel Celler, 15 December 1961, in folder "H. J. Res. 92-87 (1) Legal Status of Women 3," box 408, Emanuel Celler papers, LC.

43. Emma Guffey Miller to Elizabeth Conkey, 15 December 1961, reel 107, NWP papers (microfilm ed.).

44. Alice Paul to Mary Seebach, 27 December 1961, and Miller to Richard Lester, 28 March 1962, reel 107, NWP papers (microfilm ed.).

45. Arthur Goldberg to Emanuel Celler, 6 February 1962, in folder "LL-2-2 Judiciary 1962," box 69, RG 174 (Goldberg), NA; Draft letter, Special Assistant to the President, National Federation of Business and Professional Woman's Clubs, n.d. [early 1962], in folder "ERA 1962," box "Women," Esther Peterson papers, SL; Estes Kefauver to Mrs. Franklin D. Roosevelt, 14 February 1962, attached to Esther Peterson to Katherine Ellickson, 27 February 1962, in folder "PCSW Correspondence with Congress and Cabinet,'' box "PCSW #1,'' Esther Peterson papers, SL; Carl Hayden, draft letter, n.d., folder 3, box 268, Carl Hayden papers, Arizona State University; "Summary of H.J. Res. 55--complete to February 11, 1963," in folder "ERA, 1963 sponsors," box 50, Katherine St. George papers, Cornell University; Estes Kefauver to Emanuel Celler, 18 March 1963 (and handwritten notes), in folder "Legislative file, H.J. Res. 92-87(1), Legal Status of Women no. 1," box 408, Emanuel Celler papers, LC.

46. Eva Parshalle to Emma Guffey Miller, March 1962, reel 107, NWP papers (microfilm ed.).

47. See folders "Potential members--Lists" (1) and (2), 90-21 and 90-22, Katherine P. Ellickson papers, ALUA; "Recommended list of people to be considered for members of the President's Commission on Women in American Democracy," Elizabeth Carpenter to Esther Peterson, 18 August 1961, Frances Ambursen to Esther Peterson, 6 September 1961, and [untitled lists], 3 August 1961, in folder "PCSW members," box "PCSW #1," Esther Peterson papers, SL.

The commission chairman, Eleanor Roosevelt had opposed the Equal Rights Amendment until the 1950s, when she withdrew her objection. She never became an advocate of it, but in May 1962 she told the Lucy Stone League: "Many of us opposed the amendment because we felt it would do away with protection in the labor field. Now with unionization, there is no reason why you shouldn't have it if you want it." By the time the Commission took up the issue, in October 1962, the former first lady had fallen ill. She never participated in any of the Commission discussions on the ERA ( New York Times , 6 May 1962).

48. The National Woman's party reciprocated Green's enmity; Alice Paul described Green as "probably the greatest opponent of the Equal Rights Amendment on the Commission next to Mrs. Peterson" (Alice Paul to Marjorie Longwell, 2 April 1962, reel 107, NWP papers [microfilm ed.]). Emma Guffey Miller to Katie Louchheim, 26 February 1962, in folder "Department of State, Letters of Congratulations, M-Z, 1962," box C17, Katie S. Louchheim papers, LC; Genevieve Blatt to Emma Guffey Miller, 27 March 1962, Emma Guffey Miller to John Kennedy (draft), n.d., folder 69, and Alice Paul to Emma Guffey Miller, 18 July 1963, folder 72, box 4, Emma Guffey Miller papers, SL; Stephen Shulman to T. J. Reardon, Jr., 12 March 1962 (plus attachments), in folder "Civil and Political Rights--correspondence, March-December 1962'' box "PCSW #2,'' Esther Peterson papers, SL; Emma Guffey Miller to John Kennedy, 26 April 1963, and Esther Peterson to Claude Desautels, n.d., attached to draft of letter to Emma Guffey Miller, 7 May 1963, in folder "White House/PCSW, 1963-66," box "Political (Dem. campaigns)," Esther Peterson papers, SL.

49. Emma Guffey Miller to Elizabeth Stanton, 1 February 1963, reel 108, NWP papers (microfilm ed.).

50. Nina Horton Avery to Emma Guffey Miller, 13 July 1963, Nina Horton Avery to Lee White, 15 July 1963, and Lee White to Nina Horton Avery, 12 August 1963, reel 108, NWP papers (microfilm ed.); Esther Peterson to Lee White, 7 August 1963, attached to Nina Horton Avery to Lee White, 13 September 1963, folder HU3, box 374, WHCF, JFKL. For a fuller discussion of the character of the National Woman's party, see Leila Rupp and Verta Taylor, Survival in the Doldrums: The American Women's Rights Movement, 1945 to the 1960s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987).

51. Esther Peterson to Daniel Patrick Moynihan, 3 April 1963, in folder "ERA, 1963," box "Women," Esther Peterson papers, SL.

52. Esther Peterson to Mary F. Anderson, 24 June 1963, in folder "Commission materials, folder 2," box 1, PCSW papers, JFKL.

53. President's Commission on the Status of Women, transcript of the meeting of 12 February 1962, Washington, D.C., pp. 51-53, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.).

54. Rough draft, "Political and Civil Status," in folder "Biographies, Members of Committee, Civil and Political Rights," CPR papers, PCSW.

55. PCSW, American Woman , 77-78; Interview with Marguerite Rawalt, 9 November 1984 (Arlington, Va.).

56. "Court decisions determining the validity of laws which distinguish on the basis of sex," n.d., Doc. II-9, CPR papers, PCSW; see folder "Inquire Replies," PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); see folder "Jury Compositions (CPR)," CPR papers, PCSW; ''Information paper on civil and political rights of women,'' 5 February 1962, Doc. II-2, PCSW papers; Committee on Civil and Political Rights, minutes of first meeting, 28 May 1962, in folder "Materials used at May 28, 1962 meeting," CPR papers, PCSW; "Summary, matters dealt with by Political and Civil Rights Committee, meeting of May 28, 1962," Doc. II-4, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); Committee on Civil and Political Rights, "Report of meeting held August 24, 1962," Doc. II-8, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); "Summary of Activities, Political and Civil Rights Committee, October 1-2, 1962," Doc. II-7, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); Telephone interview with Pauli Murray, 12 November 1981 (Baltimore, Md.).

The committee decided not to discuss birth control laws. When Pauli Murray raised the issue, Florence Murray, a Rhode Island judge, warned: "You are walking right into the face of something that will kill this commission off" (Committee on Civil and Political Rights, transcript of the meeting of 28 May 1962, pp. 147-149, CPR papers, PCSW).

57. Committee on Civil and Political Rights, transcript of the meeting of 24 August 1962, pp. 81-83, CPR papers, PCSW. The "Brandeis brief," written by Josephine Goldmark and Louis Brandeis, was submitted to the Supreme Court in the 1908 case of Muller v. Oregon (208 U.S. 412). It devoted eighty-seven pages to anecdotal data culled primarily from reports of factory inspectors and testimony of witnesses before legislative investigating committees to show that long hours of work in factories and laundries resulted in ill health of women workers and their children. Brandeis argued that women suffered more from such conditions than men did because of their physical characteristics and that sexual differences justified legislation restricting the hours women could work. The Supreme Court agreed, validating state labor legislation for women for the first time. William A. Chafe, The American Woman: Her Changing Social, Economic, and Political Roles, 1920-1970 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972), 128; Judith Baer, The Chains of Protection: The Judicial Response to Women's Labor Legislation (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978), 57-67; "Draft memorandum of applicability of the Fourteenth Amendment to state statutes and administrative or executive practices which distinguish on the basis of sex," 24 August 1962, CPR papers, PCSW.

58. Katherine Ellickson to Pauli Murray, 4 October 1962, in folder "Pauli Murray--Correspondence," PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); Pauli Murray to Katherine Ellickson, 13 October 1962, Pauli Murray papers, SL.

59. "A proposal to reexamine the applicability of the fourteenth amendment to state laws and practices which discriminate on the basis of sex per se," December 1962, Doc. II-20, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.). Marguerite Rawalt deeply resented Peterson's failure to let her know of her plans to ask Murray to make a presentation (Interview with Marguerite Rawalt, 9 November 1984 [Arlington, Va.]).

60. Esther Peterson to Pauli Murray, 11 November 1963, in folder "Pauli Murray--Correspondence," PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.).

61. See, for example, Mary Eastwood to Emma Guffey Miller, 8 February 1963, in folder "General Correspondence, Civil and Political Rights Committee," PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.).

62. Pauli Murray to Edith Green, 24 February 1963, in box "Misc. Box A," Edith Green papers, OHS.

63. Anna Rose Hawkes to Mary Eastwood, 26 February 1963 (plus attachments), in folder "Materials used at March 8-9, 1963 meeting," CPR papers, PCSW.

64. "Statement of Mrs. Samuel Brown before the Committee on Civil and Political Rights of the President's Commission on the Status of Women," 8 March 1963, Doc. II-35, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.).

65. Margery Leonard to Emma Guffey Miller, 16 February 1963, reel 108, NWP papers (microfilm ed.).

66. Miriam Holden to Anita Pollitzer, 16 February 1963, reel 108, NWP papers (microfilm ed.).

67. Committee on Civil and Political Rights, transcript of meeting, 8 March 1963, pp. 1-130, CPR papers, PCSW.

68. Mrs. Joseph McCarthy to Edith Green, 5 March 1963, in folder "Materials used at March 8-9, 1963 meeting," CPR papers, PCSW. The ACLU later supported Murray's plan enthusiastically (Dorothy Kenyon to Board of Directors, 28 March 1963, in folder "Equal Rights--Civil and Political Rights," PCSW papers [Washington, D.C.]).

69. Committee on Civil and Political Rights, transcript of the meeting of 8 March 1963, p. 43, CPR papers, PCSW.

70. Ibid., 183-184.

71. Ibid., 125, 146, 180-187.

72. Ibid., 193-194.

73. Ibid., 194-199.

74. Pauli Murray to Edith Green et al., 12 March 1963, in folder "White House, President's Commission on the Status of Women," box 63-2, Edith Green papers, OHS; "Tentative draft recommendation on protection of the rights of women under the Constitution," n.d. [19 March 1963], Doc. II-42, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); Judith Patterson, Be Somebody: A Biography of Marguerite Rawalt (Austin, Tex.: Eakin Press, 1986), 142.

75. Committee on Civil and Political Rights, transcript of the meeting of 5 April 1963, pp. 75-120, box 14, PCSW papers, JFKL; Patterson, Be Somebody , 143.

76. President's Commission on the Status of Women, transcript of the meeting of 23 April 1963, Washington, D.C., p. 151, PSCW papers (Washington, D.C.).

77. Ibid., 23 April 1963, pp. 151-194, 24 April 1963, p. 343.

78. Ibid., 23 April 1963, pp. 151-194, 24 April 1963, p. 343; President's Commission on the Status of Women, Revised draft no. 1, Recommendation 4, attached to Katherine Ellickson to Norbert Schlei, 18 April 1963, in folder "Recommendations, Civil and Political Rights Committee," CPR papers, PCSW.

79. President's Commission on the Status of Women, transcript of the meeting of 24 April 1963, Washington, D.C., pp. 460-462, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.).

80. Ibid., 23 April 1963, pp. 80-83, 94-96, 125-136, 143-181 (see esp. 178-180), 190-195.

81. PCSW, American Women , 44-45.

82. Esther Peterson to Carl Hayden, 10 October 1963, folder 3, box 268, Carl Hayden papers, Arizona State University.

83. "Statement by the National Woman's Party with regard to the report just issued by the President's Commission on the Status of Women," [October 1963], reel 108, NWP papers (microfilm ed.); "Reports by the President's Commission on the Status of Women, analysis of the report by the National Woman's Party," n.d., reel 108, NWP papers. The NWP had itself tried in the past to finance test cases of this sort (Susan D. Becker, "An Intellectual History of the National Woman's Party, 1920-1941," [Ph.D. diss., Case Western Reserve University, 1975], 154).

84. Rupp and Taylor, Survival in the Doldrums , 438.

85. Alice Paul to Mary Kennedy, 23 October 1963, reel 108, NWP papers (microfilm ed.).

86. Carl Hayden to Hazel Harvey Quaid, 18 October 1963, reel 108, NWP papers (microfilm ed.).

87. Alice Paul to Mary Kennedy, 23 October 1963, reel 108, NWP papers (microfilm ed.).

88. Alice Paul to Carl Hayden, 30 October 1963, and Marjorie Greenbie to Emma Guffey Miller, 14 November 1963, reel 108, NWP papers (microfilm ed.); untitled minutes of meeting, 6 November 1963, in folder "General Correspondence, Civil and Political Rights Committee," PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.).

89. PCSW, American Women , 45.

1. Executive Order 10980, 14 December 1961, in President's Commission on the Status of Women, American Women (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1963), 76.

2. Washington Post , 24 May 1962, clipping, folder 91-5, Katherine P. Ellickson papers, ALUA. The article quoted other cabinet wives expressing similar sentiments.

3. Draft reply for the signature of a special assistant to the president, in folder "General Correspondence, PCSW, 12/61-12/62," PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.).

4. "Notes by Mr. Bookbinder," 16 June 1962, in folder "General Correspondence," PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.).

5. Margaret Mealey to Esther Peterson, 8 March 1963, in folder "Background memo, Dr. Ware, folder 1," box 1, PCSW papers, JFKL.

6. President's Commission on the Status of Women, Report of the Committee on Home and Community (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1963), 9.

7. President's Commission on the Status of Women, transcript of the meeting of 1 April 1963, Washington, D.C., pp. 11-12, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.).

8. Ibid., 11 February 1963, pp. 91-92, 1 April 1963, pp. 5-6; Interview with Richard A. Lester, 22 March 1974 (Princeton, N.J.).

At a meeting of the Civil and Political Rights Committee, Harriet Pilpel, a New York attorney, responded to Katherine Ellickson's assertion that the commission would be more likely to act on a resolution framed more generally than the one Pilpel had been proposing, by saying: "I am disinclined to state my view in view of what Mrs. Ellickson says. She knows what the Commission wants. If the Commission doesn't want it, I won't urge it" (Committee on Civil and Political Rights, transcript of the meeting of 9 March 1963, pp. 331-333, in box "Misc. Box A," Edith Green papers, OHS). Myer Feldman observed, talking about the report of the Panel on Mental Retardation, that part of his job was to "avoid anything that would be embarrassing to the President." He therefore went over the panel's report to "make sure that there weren't any outlandish recommendations." Any such group, he said, was "not completely independent, except in very rare instances" (Transcript, Myer Feldman Oral History interview, 21 September 1968, pp. 8-10. JFKL).

See David Burner and Thomas West, The Torch Is Passed: The Kennedy Brothers and American Liberalism (New York: Atheneum, 1984), for a discussion of the liberalism of the Kennedy administration.

9. PCSW, American Women, 10, 16, 30.

10. Section 165, "Revised Statutes and Opinion of the Attorney General of September 17, 1934," Doc. IV-24, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.).

11. J. Stanley Lemons, The Women Citizen: Social Feminism to the 1920s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1975), 77-78; O. Glenn Stahl to the commission, 19 September 1957, file 38-2, CSC; "Background Information on Women in the Federal Government," December 1926, in folder "Women Executives—Federal Woman's Award Winners," FE papers, PCSW; Catherine East to John Macy, 13 June 1963, in black notebook "Debate—Section 165 Revised Statutes," FE papers, PCSW; U.S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, ''In the Federal Service: Equal Opportunity and Equal Pay," January 1965, reel 16, DOL records, LBJL; J. Lee Rankin to Hon. Charles C. Diggs, Jr., 16 March 1955, in folder "ERA,'' box 57-3, Edith Green papers, OHS; Cindy S. Aron, Ladies and Gentlemen of the Civil Service: Middle-Class Workers in Victorian America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987).

12. See citations in previous note.

13. See citations in note 11; Mary Anderson, Woman at Work: The Autobiography of Mary Anderson as Told to Mary Winslow (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1951). 152-153.

14. U.S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, Women in the Federal Service 1954, pamphlet 4 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1957); Civil Service Journal, October-December 1960, 24.

15. The BPW came out against selection by sex in the civil service in 1944. Minnie L. Maffett to Harry B. Mitchell, 15 March 1944, and Harry B. Mitchell to Minnie L. Maffett, 22 March 1944, file 36-150, CSC. Civil Service commissioner Barbara Gunderson, working from within, tried to wrest a new interpretation of Section 165 from administration attorneys, but to no avail. Frustrated, she developed an awards program at least to recognize the contributions of women in the federal service. Interview with Evelyn Harrison, 12 September 1978 (Washington, D.C.); Mary Seebach to Alice Paul, 27 June 1956 (plus attachments: The Federal Employee, September 1954, 7 [typed copy] and Independent Woman, May 1955, 163 [typed copy]), reel 102, NWP papers (microfilm ed.); George Stafford to H. Richard McCamant, 31 July 1954, and H. Richard McCamant to George Stafford, 22 July 1954, file 36-150, CSC; J. Rankin to Charles Diggs, Jr., 16 March 1955, in folder "Equal Rights Amendment," box 57-3, Edith Green papers, OHS; O. Glenn Stahl to the Commission, 19 September 1957, file 38-2, CSC; Harris Ellsworth to Thomas Murray, n.d., file 38-2, CSC.

16. Civil Service Journal, October-December 1960, 24.

17. U.S. Civil Service Commission, 77th Annual Report Fiscal Year Ended--June 30, 1960 , 26.

18. "Highlights of Federal Employment," January 1962, Doc. IV-28, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); Philip Hart to Lawrence O'Brien, 15 May 1961, folder HU3 (Exec.), box 374, WHCF, JFKL.

19. "Committee on Federal Employment Policies and Practices, Activities since April 9, 1962," 8 June 1962, in black notebook, box 4644, Eleanor Roosevelt papers, FDRL; Robert Kennedy to John F. Kennedy, 14 June 1962, Doc. IV-23, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); Catherine East to Margaret Hickey, n.d., in folder "Miss Hickey's Hyde Park Commission meeting notebook papers," FE papers, PCSW; John F. Kennedy to Eleanor Roosevelt, 15 June 1962, box 4526, and John W. Macy to Heads of Departments and Agencies, 24 July 1962, Doc. IV-31, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); President's Commission on the Status of Women, transcript of the meeting of 16 June 1962, Washington, D.C., pp. 86-87, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); Evelyn Harrison to Warren B. Irons, 20 June 1962, and O. Glenn Stahl to the Civil Service Commission, 20 July 1962, file 39-2, CSC; John F. Kennedy, Memorandum for Heads of Executive Departments and Agencies, 24 July 1962, Doc. IV-30, PCSW papers; (Washington, D.C); FPM letter 30-1, 31 July 1962, Doc. IV-33, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.).

20. John Macy to the President, n.d., [11 October 1963], in folder "Commission on Status of Women, August, 1963 to November, 1963," box 7, Myer Feldman papers, JFKL.

21. PCSW, American Women, 52.

22. "Analysis of appointments of top women. . . ," n.d., in folder "Political Executives," FE papers, PCSW; Margaret Hickey to Eleanor Roosevelt, 7 August 1962, in folder ''Meeting of committee, September 21, 1962,'' FE papers, PCSW; Catherine East to Margaret Hickey, 28 August 1962, in folder "Meeting of committee, September 21, 1962," FE papers, PCSW; President's Commission on the Status of Women, transcript of the meeting of 2 October 1962, Washington, D.C., pp. 243-267, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); "Notes on meeting with Mr. Dan Fenn, Thursday, December 13, 1962," attached to Catherine East to John Macy, 14 December 1962, "Report on Political Executives to the Committee on Federal Employment Policies and Practices from the Chairman," 3 January 1963, in folder "Political Executives, U.S.,'' FE papers, PCSW.

23. Phillip S. Hughes to Lee White, 23 January 1962, in folder "Federal Equal Employment Opportunity Act, January 4-October 1962, 6/25/63," box 20, Lee White papers, JFKL; Clarence Mitchell to Edith Green, 21 January 1962, in folder "Equal Pay--Equal Rights, August 24, 1961-1962," box 61-3, Edith Green papers, OHS; James Roosevelt to Catherine May, 8 March 1962, in folder "H.J.R. 55," box 42, Katharine St. George papers, Cornell University.

24. Executive order 10925, 6 March 1961; Executive Order 11114, 22 June 1963; Frances Ambursen to Emily S. Wood, 13 June 1961, in folder "ERA letter 1961," Women's Bureau, DOL (Washington, D.C.); Interview with Catherine East, 6 July 1978 (Arlington, Va.); Inter-agency procurement policy committee, minutes of the meeting of 7 June 1962, in folder "General Correspondence, Committee on Government Contracts, #1 folder," PE papers, PCSW; Summary of federal interagency procurement policy committee meeting, 7 June 1962, Doc. 7, PE papers, PCSW. An employment discrimination bill was considered by the Subcommittee on Labor, House Committee on Education and Labor, early in 1962.

25. President's Commission on the Status of Women, transcript of the meeting of 12 February 1962, Washington, D.C., pp. 9-10, 24-25, PSCW papers (Washington, D.C.).

26. Committee on Private Employment, transcription of the meeting of 4 April 1962, pp. 25-28, 97-101, PE papers, PCSW.

27. Summary of federal interagency procurement policy committee meeting, 7 June 1962, Doc. 7, PE papers, PCSW.

28. Committee on Private Employment, minutes of meetings of 19 November 1962, Doc. 22, and 31 January 1963, Doc. 30, PE papers, PCSW.

29. President's Commission on the Status of Women, Report of the Committee on Private Employment, (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1963), 7-8.

30. Ibid., 16-18.

31. "Confidential background paper on the PCSW," PCSW Doc. 4, December 1961, file 4644, Eleanor Roosevelt papers, FDRL.

32. President's Commission on the Status of Women, transcript of meetings of 12 February 1963, pp. 307-340, 23 April 1963, pp. 260-273, and 27 May 1963, pp. 127-36, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); Richard Lester to Samuel Morgenstein, 21 February 1963, folder L, PE papers, PCSW; Esther Peterson to members of the Commission, n.d., folder 94-17, Katherine P. Ellickson papers, ALUA.

33. PCSW, American Women, 30.

34. Ibid.

35. Ibid., 27-34.

36. Committee on Protective Labor Legislation, summary of the meeting of 6 June 1962, Doc. VII-1, and transcript of the meeting of 6 June 1962, pp. 83-84, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); Summary report and recommendations, Committee on Protective Labor Legislation, 26 March 1963, in folder "Commission meeting, April 1-2, 1963," PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.).

37. Committee on Protective Labor Legislation, transcript of the meeting of 6 February 1963, pp. 63-69, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.). (David quotes are on pp. 67-68).

38. Summary report of the meeting of the Committee on Protective Labor Legislation, 6 February 1963, Doc. 8, PLL papers, PCSW; Committee on Protective Labor Legislation, transcript of the meeting of 6 February 1963, pp. 63-74, PLL papers, PCSW; Draft outline--Preliminary report of Subcommittee of Committee on Protective Labor Legislation, 1 February 1963, Doc. VII-5, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); President's Commission on the Status of Women, Report of the Committee on Protective Labor Legislation (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1963), 9-13.

39. President's Commission on the Status of Women, transcript of the meeting of 1 April 1963, Washington, D.C., pp. 153-204, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.). (David statement is on p. 171).

40. Esther Peterson to Arthur Morley et al., 19 April 1963, in file "General Correspondence, January 1963-December 1963," PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.).

41. President's Commission on the Status of Women, transcript of the meeting of 24 April 1963, Washington, D.C., pp. 384-415, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.).

42. PCSW, American Women, 9-12.

43. President's Commission on the Status of Women, Report of the Committee on Education, (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1963), 31.

44. PCSW, American Women, 16.

45. Ibid., 15.

46. President's Commission on the Status of Women, Report of the Committee on Civil and Political Rights, (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1963), 22.

47. PCSW, American Women , 48.

48. "The Status of Women Under the Old-Age Survivors' and Disability Insurance Program," 15 May 1962, Doc. VIII-2, p. 11, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); Elizabeth Wickenden to Martha Griffiths, 14 June 1962, in folder "88th Cong., Ways and Means, Social Security," box 50, Martha Griffiths papers BHL; Committee on Social Insurance and Taxes, transcript of the meeting of 29 June 1962, pp. 38-41, minutes of the meeting of 29 June 1962, Doc. VIII-28, transcript of the meeting of 29 January 1963, pp. 78-85, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); Eveline Burns to Esther Peterson, 5 February 1963, SIT papers, PCSW; President's Commission on the Status of Women, Report of the Committee on Social Insurance and Taxes (Washington, D.C.:GPO, 1963); 36-39; PCSW, transcript of the meeting of 1 April 1963, (Washington, D.C., pp. 60-65, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); PCSW, American Women , 40-43.

49. Recommendations on old-age, survivors', and disability insurance, n.d., Committee Doc. B-6, in folder "Committee meetings--January 29-30, 1963," SIT papers, PCSW.

50. Ibid.; PCSW, Report of the Committee on Social Insurance and Taxes , 3-10; PCSW, American Women , 40-43. A similar decision was made about civil service pension benefits for women.

51. PCSW, American Women , 69.

52. William Chafe, The American Woman: Her Changing Social, Economic, and Political Roles, 1920-1970 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972), 159-173, 186; "History of Daycare and Child Development Council of America," in folder "Daycare," box 3, Elinor Guggen-heimer papers, SL; U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Children's Bureau, and U.S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, Day Care Services, Form and Substance: Report of a Conference, November 17-18, 1960 (Children's Bureau Publication, no. 393, 1961; Women's Bureau bulletin no. 281, 1961); Mildred Arnold to Miss Emery, 6 March 1959, in folder "1959, legislation, day care," Katherine B. Oettinger to Charles I. Schottland, 28 July 1958, in folder "1958, legislation, day care,'' box 27, acc. 72A-3008, Records of the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Federal Records Center (Suitland, Md.); Esther Peterson to Arthur Goldberg, 1 August 1961 (plus attachments), folder WA-1, box 92, RG 174 (Goldberg), NA; New York Times , 28 July 1962.

53. New York Times , 2 February 1962, 17 May 1963; "Use of Federal funds for day care of children," in folder "1963, legislation, day-care," box 29, acc. 72A-3008, Records of the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Federal Records Center (Suitland, Md.); PL 87-543, 26 July 1962; Committee on Home and Community, transcript of the meeting of 25 May 1962, pp. 148-156, summary of the meeting of 13 September 1962, Doc. 6, HC papers, PCSW; President's Commission on the Status of Women, transcript of the meeting of 1 October 1962, Washington, D.C., pp. 86-88, 95-96, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.).

54. PCSW, Report of the Committee on Home and Community , 7.

55. President's Commission on the Status of Women, transcript of the meeting of 1 April 1963, Washington, D.C., pp. 287-292; PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); PCSW, Report of the Committee on Home and Community , 7, 39-42; PCSW, American Women , 19.

56. PCSW, American Women , 18.

57. Ibid., 53-54. Esther Peterson did not favor the establishment of continuing bodies. She said later she intended the Women's Bureau to oversee the commission recommendation (Esther Peterson, Recorded Interview by Ann M. Campbell, 11 February 1970, p. 77, JFKL Oral History Program).

58. Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique (New York: Dell, 1974), 361.

59. Katherine Ellickson to Esther Peterson, 12 January 1962, draft letter, 31 January 1962, folder 90-27, and Evelyn Harrison to John Macy, 1 February 1962, folder 91-21, Katherine P. Ellickson papers, ALUA; Summary of meeting of 23 January, 1962, Esther Peterson to Mrs. Arthur L. Zepf, 10 August 1962, attached to Mrs. Arthur Zepf to Esther Peterson, 20 June 1962, and Mrs. Robert J. Phillips to Esther Peterson, 9 July 1962, in folder "Women's Organizations File, General, PCSW," PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); Committee on Social Insurance and Taxes, transcript of the meeting of 29 June 1962, p. 8, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); Summary of meeting of 19 February, 1962, in folder "PCSW organization," box "PCSW #1," Esther Peterson papers, SL; Interviews with Catherine East, 6 July 1978 and 20 November 1978 (Arlington, Va.).

60. Governor John Swainson of Michigan had created the first state commission in September 1962, before the BPW began its campaign. Swainson did so on the advice of Mildred Jeffries, a close political associate of his, who had been the first director of the Women's Division of the United Automobile Workers, and who had been involved in the quest for a commission on women since the forties. Telephone interview with Mildred Jeffries, 23 October 1981 (Detroit, Mich.); President's Commission on the Status of Women, transcript of the meetings of 2 October 1962, pp. 400-401, and 24 April 1963, pp. 324-325, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); Eleanor Coakley to Esther Peterson, 30 November 1962, in folder "General Correspondence, PCSW, 12/61-12/62," Minnie C. Miles to Esther Peterson, 30 November 1962, in folder "Organizations--Correspondence," PCSW papers (Washington, D. C.); Esther Peterson to Kenneth O'Donnell, 11 January 1963, in folder "Peterson, Esther," box 2174, WHNF, JFKL; Esther Peterson to Myer Feldman, 17 January 1963, "Memorandum of Conversation with the President and Dr. Miles and Miss Allen of the BPW, January 18, 1963," in folder ''Governor's Commissions on the Status of Women,'' box "Women," Esther Peterson papers, SL; Albert D. Rosellini to the Members of the Governor's Commission on the Status of Women, 30 February 1963 (plus attachments), in folder "Commission and Committees, President's Commission on the Status of Women," box 7, Maurine Neuberger papers, University of Oregon; National Federation of Business and Professional Women's Clubs, press release, 18 January 1963, in folder "PCSW . . . (2 of 3)," BPW Archives; Interdepartmental Committee/Citizens' Advisory Council on the Status of Women, Progress Report on the Status of Women October 11, 1963 Through October 10, 1964 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1964), 18-25.

61. Diana T. Michaelis to Esther Peterson, n.d., in folder "Meeting February 11-12, 1963," box "PCSW, #1," and Esther Peterson to Pierre Salinger, n.d., in folder "PCSW, Misc., Mass Media," box "PCSW #2," Esther Peterson papers, SL; President's Commission on the Status of Women, transcript of media consultation, 19 March 1963, pp. 21-22, 85, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); President's Commission on the Status of Women, Four Consultations (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1963).

62. Daniel Patrick Moynihan to Esther Peterson, 26 March 1963, folder 95-1, Katherine P. Ellickson papers, ALUA.

63. "Women in Minority Groups," 18 March 1963, in folder "Minority Groups," PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); President's Commission on the Status of Women, transcript of minority consultation, 19 April 1963, pp. 3, 11, and passim, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); "Summary of Meeting on the Status of the Negro Woman," 19 April 1963, in folder "Minority Groups Meeting, April 19, 1963," PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); PCSW press release, n.d., "Problems of Negro Women Discussed at Commission Sponsored Meeting," press release file, PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); PCSW, Four Consultations , 29-38.

64. At the ceremony, the first row of commission members was filled, according to protocol, with cabinet members, who were of course all male. Before the pictures were taken and the ceremony began, Kennedy rearranged the seating so that Senator Maurine Neuberger and Representative Edith Green shared the front row with the cabinet (Transcript, John W. Macy, Jr., Oral History Interview, 23 May 1964, p. 60, JFKL). Myer Feldman to Esther Peterson, 9 October 1963, "Thank you letters, PCSW report," PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); John F. Kennedy to Esther Peterson, 22 October 1961, folder FG737, box 206, WHCF, JFKL; White House press release, 11 October 1963, in folder "1963 Commission--PCSW (May-Oct.)," box 52, RG 174 (Wirtz), NA; Arthur Schlesinger to Esther Peterson, 16 October 1963, Lyndon Johnson to Esther Peterson, 7 October 1963, and Walter Heller to Esther Peterson, 10 October 1963, in folder ''Thank you letters, PCSW report," PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.).

65. Wall Street Journal , 6 November 1963, cited in Loeta Korns, "Treatment by Seven Newspapers of the Report of the President's Commission on the Status of Women," 9 December 1963, in folder "General Correspondence, PCSW, January 1964-," PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.).

66. Washington Post , 12 October 1963; Washington Post , 13 October 1963, and Baltimore Sun , 12 October 1963, clippings in folder "Publicity on presentation of report, October 11, 1963," PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); Milwaukee Journal , 16 October 1963, clipping, in folder "Women--President's Commission on the Status of Women, reported October, 1963," box 105, DNC papers, LBJL; Ruth Holstein, "The Status of Women," NEA Journal , November 1963, 68; ''The Status of Women" (editorial), Catholic Nurse , December 1963, 16-17; The Guidepost (American Personnel and Guidance Association), November 1963, 1-3, in folder "Appreciation letters--Report, American Women," PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); National Businesswoman , November-December 1963, 16-18; Margaret Mead, "Do We Undervalue Full-Time Wives?" Redbook , November 1963, 22, 24, 26; Esther Peterson, "The Status of Women in the United States," International Labour Review 89 (May 1964): 447-460; New York Times , 12 October 1963, 2 November 1963.

67. Myer Feldman to John F. Kennedy, 9 October 1963, folder FG737, box 206, WHCF, JFKL.

68. Executive Order 11126, 1 November 1963; White House, press release, 1 November 1963, in folder "Continuing Leadership, Executive Order," PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.).

69. Esther Peterson to Arthur Goldberg, 2 June 1961, FG737, box 206, WHCF, JFKL.

1. For a brief discussion of the Johnson period, see William Chafe, The Unfinished Journey: America Since World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), chap. 8, and James Gilbert, Another Chance: Postwar America, 1945-1968 (New York: Knopf, 1981), chap. 10.

2. Jo Freeman, The Politics of Women's Liberation (New York: McKay, 1975), 28-30.

3. Ibid., 30-43; Abbot L. Ferriss, Indicators of Trends in the Status of American Women (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1971), 143. Evidence indicates that black women did not experience the same relative deprivation with respect to black men. The economic opportunities for black women actually progressed compared with those for black men, and the black community expressed the belief that it was imperative to improve the status of black men relative to white men, and of black people generally. These views militated against black women feeling an acute sense of injustice vis-à-vis black men. See, for example, the consultation on the problems of Negro women held by the President's Commission on the Status of Women in April 1963 (chapter 8 above).

4. "The America Woman: Her Achievements and Troubles," special issue of Life, 24 December 1956; William J. Grace, "The Dilemma of Modern Woman: Can She Solve It?" Catholic World, April 1956, 16-23; Mary Clinch, ''The Phenomenon of the Working Wife,'' Social Order 6 (October 1956): 362-366; Mirra Komarovsky, Women in the Modern World (Boston: Little, Brown, 1953); Margaret Mead, "Modern Marriage, the Danger Point," Nation 177 (31 October 1953): 348-350; Marya Mannes, "Female Intelligence: Who Wants It?" New York Times Magazine, 3 January 1960; Mary Freeman, "The Marginal Sex: America's Alienated Woman," Commonweal 75, no. 19 (2 February 1962): 483-486; Harper's 225 (October 1962): 117. For a fuller discussion of articles about women in popular magazines, see Cynthia Harrison, "Women and the New Frontier" (Master's thesis, Columbia University, 1974).

5. Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique (New York: Dell, 1974).

6. Freeman, Politics of Women's Liberation, chap. 1.

7. Ibid., 44, 52.

8. Margaret Mead and Frances B. Kaplan (eds.), American Women (New York: Scribner, 1965); Interdepartmental Committee on the Status of Women [hereinafter ICSW], Summary of the meeting of 20 January 1964, item 16, box 16, Papers of the Citizens' Advisory Council on the Status of Women [hereinafter CACSW], NA (Record Group number not assigned).

9. Esther Peterson to Elizabeth Carpenter, 29 November 1963, attached to Esther Peterson to the Secretary, 29 November 1963, in folder "White House/PCSW, 1963-66," box "Political (Dem. campaigns)," Esther Peterson papers, SL; Lyndon Johnson to Margaret Hickey, 7 January 1964 (plus attachments), folder FG686/A, box 386, WHCF, LBJL; CACSW, Summary of the first meeting, 12 and 13 February 1964, item 17, box 5, CACSW papers, NA; Washington Post, 13 and 14 February 1964, and Washington Star, 12 and 14 February 1964, clippings, in folder "Education, federal programs" [obviously mismarked], PCSW papers (Washington, D. C.); "What the Administration has done for women,'' 20 April 1964, in folder ''Panzer: women," box 5D4-503, WHCF, 489, LBJL; Transcript, Esther Peterson Oral History Interview, 25 November 1968, LBJL (Peterson's copy is in her papers at Giant Foods, Landover, Md).

10. First Annual Report of Interdepartmental Committee and Citizens' Advisory Council on the Status of Women, [ICSW/CACSW], Progress Report on the Status of Women, October 11, 1963 through October 10, 1964 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1964).

11. Elizabeth Carpenter, rather than Margaret Price, proved to be the main conduit to the president in support of jobs for women. Carpenter, a journalist who realized that appointments for women made good press, contacted India Edwards, Katie Louchheim, and Margaret Price soon after Johnson took office. Carpenter quickly realized that Price was not effective in her job, and she advised Lyndon Johnson to replace her with India Edwards posthaste (advice Johnson did not take). Price, she explained, was "more ceremonial than workhorse," and something had to be done before the 1964 campaign ("Pending vacancies to which women might be appointed, [Carpenter]," 16 January 1964, folder PE2, box 7, WHCF, LBJL). Katie S. Louchheim to Elizabeth Carpenter, 4 December 1963, in folder "Carpenter, Elizabeth," box C2, Katie S. Louchheim papers, LC; President's Commission on the Status of Women, American Woman (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1963), 52; Patricia Zelman, "Development of Equal Employment Opportunity for Women as a National Policy, 1960-1967" (Ph.D. diss., Ohio State University, 1980), chap. 3; Notes for cabinet meeting, 17 January 1964, appointment file (25 January 1964) (diary backup), box 3, LBJL; Washington Post , 18 January 1964; Elizabeth Carpenter to Lyndon Johnson, 20 January 1964, appointment file (25 January 1964) (diary backup), box 3, LBJL; Elizabeth Carpenter to Lyndon Johnson, 29 January 1964, folder PE2, box 7, WHCF, LBJL; White House press release, 3 January 1964, folder PE4-2, "Peterson, Esther, 1964," box 190, RG 174 (Wirtz), NA; Ralph Dungan to Lyndon Johnson, 17 February 1964 (plus attachments), folder PE2, box 7, WHCF, LBJL; Transcript, India Edwards Oral History Interview, 4 February 1969, pp. 34-39, LBJL.

12. Newsweek, 16 March 1964, clipping, in folder "Panzer: Women," box 5D4-503, WHCF #489, LBJL; Ralph Dungan to Margaret Horgen, 20 March 1964, folder PE2, box 15, LBJL; National Business Woman, May 1964, 2-15; William J. Crockett to Ralph Dungan, 24 February 1964, in folder "Department of State, women and minorities in DOS Statistics, appointments, report, 1964," box C20, Katie S. Louchheim papers, LC; Elizabeth Carpenter to ''Anyone interested in women," 24 February 1964, Ralph Dungan to Elizabeth Carpenter, 25 February 1964, and Elizabeth Carpenter to the President, 25 February 1964, folder PE2, box 7, WHCF, LBJL; Karen Keesling and Suzanne Cavanagh, "Women Presidential Appointees Serving or Having Served Full-Time Positions Requiring Senate Confirmation, 1912-1977,'' Congressional Research Service Report 78-73 G, 23 March 1978, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., 36-43.

13. Zelman, "Development of Equal Employment Opportunity," 114.

14. Notes on meeting with John Macy, 2 March 1965, in folder "Papers 1965 re: DACOWITS," box 16, Margaret Price papers, BHL; CACSW, transcript of the meeting of 12 February 1964, p. 48, box 13, CACSW papers, NA; Mary Stack to John B. Clinton, 9 December 1964, in folder "1964--committee--ICSW (Jan.-May)," box 243, RG 174 (Wirtz), NA; Interview with Esther Peterson, 10 June 1978 (Washington, D.C.); India Edwards to Lyndon Johnson, 8 January 1964, attached to Mary Stack to Juanita Roberts, 19 March 1964, in folder "Selected names, E," box 17, LBJA, LBJL; Transcript, Esther Peterson Oral History Interview, 25 November 1968, LBJL (Peterson's copy); Walter Heller to Lyndon Johnson, 28 December 1963, FI, LBJL; Zelman, "Development of Equal Employment Opportunity," chap. 3; Transcript, Mary Keyserling Oral History Interview, 1-4 February 1982, pp. 174-179, SL.

15. Keyserling also took over, by virtue of her position as Women's Bureau director, the post of executive vice-chairman of the Interdepartmental Committee on the Status of Women, but Peterson arranged for a new Executive Order, signed in May 1965, that ultimately made Peterson vice-chairman, ranking her above Keyserling. Esther Peterson to the Secretary of Labor, 26 November 1963, in folder PE-4-2, "Peterson, Esther, 1963," box 101, Willard Wirtz to the President, 9 January 1964, attached to Wirtz to Ralph Dungan, 9 January 1964, in folder "1964 White House President (Jan.-Feb.)," box 126, Esther Peterson to the Secretary, 6 January 1965, folder PE-4-2, "Peterson, Esther 1965," box 290, Willard Wirtz to Kermit Gordon, 26 February 1965, folder LL-2-1, ''Budget Bureau (February) 1965,'' box 274, Willard Wirtz to Esther Peterson, 22 July 1965, in folder "1965 Committee ICSW July," box 244, RG 174 (Wirtz), NA; CACSW, transcript of the meeting of 28 July 1965, p. 23, box 13, CACSW papers, NA; Federal Register 30, no. 89 (8 May 1965): 6427; Abe Fortas to Jack Valenti, 20 February 1964 (plus attachments), folder PE-2, box 7, WHCF, LBJL; Interview with Esther Peterson, 27 February 1978 (Washington, D.C.). For an example of the different approaches Peterson and Keyserling took toward states abolishing protective labor legislation that applied only to women, see Esther Peterson to Hope Roberts, 18 January 1965, 26 February 1965, and Mary D. Keyserling to Hope Roberts, 26 January 1965, in folder "Governor's Commission on the Status of Women," reel 25, DOL microfilm, LBJL.

16. U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, Legislative History of Title VII and XI of Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Washington, D. C.: GPO, n.d.), 9-10, 2001-2038.

17. "Resolution adopted unanimously by the National Council of the National Woman's Party . . . Regarding the proposed Civil Rights Bill (H.R. 7152)," 16 December 1963, reel 108, NWP papers (microfilm ed.).

18. Emma Guffey Miller to Marjorie Longwell, 24 July 1961, reel 107, NWP papers (microfilm ed.); Nina Horton Avery to J. Vaughan Gary, 8 January 1964, reel 108, NWP papers (microfilm ed.); Emma Guffey Miller to Edith Green, 20 January 1964, in folder "Judiciary Committee Civil Rights," box 64-3, Edith Green papers, OHS; Emma Guffey Miller to Members of the House of Representatives, 3 February 1964, folder 74, box 5, Emma Guffey Miller papers, SL. See also Carl Brauer, "Women Activists, Southern Conservatives, and the Prohibition of Sex Discrimination in Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act," Journal of Southern History 49 (1983): 37-57.

19. Zelman, "Development of Equal Employment Opportunity," chap. 4; Howard Smith to Nina Horton Avery, 26 December 1963, Smith to Emma Guffey Miller, 10 January 1964, untitled report beginning "Reported Judiciary Committee of the House, November 20, 1963," reel 108, NWP papers (microfilm ed.); Telephone interview with Martha Griffiths, 27 November 1978 (Romeo, Mich.); Alice Paul oral history, pp. 616-636.

20. U.S. Congress, House, 88th Cong., 2d sess., 8 February 1964, Congressional Record 110: 2577-2584; Alice Paul oral history, pp. 616-636. An attempt had been made by a representative from Texas, acting at the behest of the National Woman's Party, to add sex to each title as it came up, but these efforts met defeat. The congresswomen decided to vest their efforts in Title VII.

Although much has been made of Smith's ridiculing the "sex" amendment, it is quite possible that he was sincere. His support would be in keeping with his advocacy of the Equal Rights Amendment and the notion that blacks should not have rights not granted to women. Also, given the nature of the amendment and its potential impact on business, he would be unlikely to have undertaken such a legislative move frivolously. Furthermore, he cited the achievement in his campaign literature (Smith brochure, 1968, folder 36, box 79, Legislative Reference Files, Meany Archives).

21. New York Times, 9 February 1964; Zelman, "Development of Equal Employment Opportunity," chap. 4; U.S. Congress, House, 88th Cong., 2d sess., 8 February 1964, Congressional Record 110: 2577-2584.

22. U.S. Congress, House, 88th Cong., 2d sess., 8 February 1964, Congressional Record 110: 2577-2584; Zelman, "Development of Equal Employment Opportunity," chap. 4. The exception was Ross Bass (D-Tenn.) (Zelman, p. 149). Jo Freeman concludes that Republican ERA supporters played a crucial role ("Title VII" [1987], 7).

23. Emma Guffey Miller to Martha Griffiths, 14 February 1964, Dorothy Meehan to Martha Griffiths, 10 February 1964, and Martha Griffiths to Lucille Beckwith, 14 February 1964, in folder "Civil Rights Bill," box 47, Martha Griffiths papers, BHL; Washington Post, 10 February 1964, clipping, in folder "Commission and Committee, President's Commission on the Status of Women," box 7, Maurine Neuberger papers, OHS; Edith Green, the lone holdout among congresswomen, confided to a friend that she was finding the "climate . . . a bit frigid" on the Hill (Edith Green to Peggy Roach, 15 February 1964, in folder "Judiciary Committee Civil Rights," box 64-3, Edith Green papers, OHS).

24. Washington Post, 11 February 1964, clipping, in folder "H.R. 1752(88), Civil Rights Administration Omnibus Clippings," box 462, Emanuel Celler papers, LC.

25. CACSW, transcript of the meeting of 12 February 1964, pp. 146-158, box 13, CACSW papers, NA.

26. Zelman, "Development of Equal Employment Opportunity," 156-57; Pauli Murray, "Memorandum in support of retaining the amendment to H.R. 7152, Title VII (Equal Employment Opportunity) to prohibit discrimination in employment because of sex," 14 April 1964, in folder "Civil Rights Bill," box 47, Martha Griffiths papers, BHL; Carl Brauer, "Sex and Race: Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964," unpublished paper, pp. 23-27 (I am grateful to Carl Brauer for permitting me to see a copy of this paper); Lyndon Johnson to Modell Scruggs, 23 April 1964 (draft), folder HU3 (Exec.), box 58, LBJL. The senators, however, received few letters from constituents about the sex amendment. See, for example, "Civil Rights," folders, box 12, Daniel Brewster papers, University of Maryland. (Brewster was a cosponsor of the Senate Civil Rights Bill.)

27. Emma Guffey Miller to Helen Bitterman, 22 February 1964, and Joseph Clark to Emma Guffey Miller, 10 March 1964, reel 108, [Alice Paul] to Mary Kennedy (draft), June 1964, reel 109, NWP papers (microfilm ed.); Zelman, "Development of Equal Employment Opportunity," chap. 4.

28. CACSW, summaries of first meeting, 12-13 February 1964, second meeting, 12-13 October, 1964, fourth meeting, 26-27 October, 1965, and fifth meeting, 31 May 1966, in folder "CACSW Summary of Meetings," and summary of third meeting, 28 July 1965, in folder "Summary CACSW meeting, July 28, 1965," box 5, CACSW papers, NA; ICSW, summaries of first meeting, 20 January 1964, item 16, second meeting, 18 May 1964, item 65, and third meeting, 23 February 1965, item 89, box 16, and summary of fourth meeting, 1 October 1965, item 97, box 17, CACSW papers, NA; ICSW, summary of fifth meeting, 14 October 1965, in folder "ICSW meeting, 17 January 1967," reel 25, DOL microfilm, LBJL; First Annual Report of ICSW/CACSW, Progress Report on the Status of Women (1963-1964); Second Annual Report of ICSW/CACSW, Report on Progress in 1965 on the Status of Women (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1965); Third Annual Report of ICSW/CACSW, Report on Progress in 1966 on the Status of Women (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1966); Report of the ICSW, American Women 1963-1968, (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1968).

The CACSW also observed with pleasure in its 1965 report (p. 21) that the Federal Communications Commission had reduced interstate telephone rates after 8 P.M., obviously a great boon to American women.

29. Esther Peterson to Myer Feldman, attached to Myer Feldman to Jane Grant, 31 December 1963, folder LE/HU3 (General), box 72, LBJL.

30. Emma Guffey Miller to Lyndon Johnson, 29 August 1964, folder 75, box 5, Emma Guffey Miller papers, SL.

31. ICSW, Summary of First Meeting, January 20, 1964, item 16, box 16, CACSW papers, NA; Zelman, "Development of Equal Employment Opportunity," 209; Alice Paul to Mrs. Arthur Holden, 30 November 1963, and Emma Guffey Miller to Lyndon Johnson, 27 November 1963, reel 108, NWP papers (microfilm ed.); Myer Feldman to Women's Organizations (copy), 31 December 1963, in folder "CACSW & ICSW items," box 16, CACSW papers, NA; Alma Lutz to Emma Guffey Miller, 23 January 1964, reel 108, NWP papers (microfilm ed.); Elizabeth Carpenter to Lyndon Johnson, 18 May 1964, in name file folder "Miller, Emma," WHCF, LBJL; Emma Guffey Miller to Elizabeth Carpenter, 9 June 1964, folder 75, box 5, Emma Guffey Miller papers, SL; "Support for pending equal rights amendment to the U.S. Constitution by possible nominees for the presidency," 1964, reel 109, NWP papers (microfilm ed.); Emma Guffey Miller, memorandum, 11 August 1964, Ivan Sinclair to Elsie Hill, 24 July 1964, ''Hearing before Panel III, Platform Committee program for speakers for equal rights for women amendment to the U.S. Constitution," 21 August 1964, speech by Mrs. Emma Guffey Miller, 21 August 1964, and Lyndon Johnson to Emma Guffey Miller, 4 September 1964, reel 109, NWP papers (microfilm ed.); Donald B. Johnson (comp.), National Party Platforms, vol. 2: 1960-1976 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1978), 645.

32. Pauli Murray to Alma Lutz, 9 December 1965, reel 109, NWP papers (microfilm ed.); Esther Peterson to the Secretary, 28 December 1965, folder PE-4-2, "Peterson, Esther, 1965," box 290, RG 174 (Wirtz), NA; White v. Crook, 251 F. Supp. 401, 1966; Frank Wozencraft to Mary Dublin Keyserling, 21 October 1966, in folder "Government agencies," Women's Bureau Office Files, DOL (Washington, D.C.). Cf. State of Mississippi v. Virginia Hall, 187 So. 2d. 861 (1966).

33. CACSW, White v. Crook, 23 February 1966, item 102, in folder " White v. Crook, March 1966," box "Women," Esther Peterson papers, SL.

34. ICSW/CACSW, Progress Report on the Status of Women (1963-1964), Report on Progress in 1965, Report on Progress in 1966; ICSW, American Women 1963-1968; CACSW, Summary of Third Meeting, 28 July 1965, in folder "Summary CACSW Meeting, 28 July 1965," box 5, CACSW papers, NA; ICSW, Summary of Third Meeting, 23 February 1965, item 89, box 16, CACSW papers, NA.

35. ICSW/CACSW, Progress Report on the Status of Women (1963-1964), Report on Progress in 1965, Report on Progress in 1966; ICSW, American Women 1963-1968; Summary of the Proceedings of the Conference of Governors' Commissions on the Status of Women, 12 June 1964, in folder "CACSW & ICSW Items," box 16, CACSW papers, NA.

36. Summary of the Proceedings of the Conference of Governors' Commissions on the Status of Women, 12 June 1964, in folder "CACSW & ICSW Items," box 16, CACSW papers, NA; ICSW/CACSW, Progress and Prospects: The Report of the Second National Conference on Governors, Commissions on the Status of Women, 28-30 July 1965 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1966), 40-42, 45-46.

37. "Questions raised by the Civil Rights Act Title VII," 5 November 1964, in folder "Title VII," reel 17, DOL microfilm, LBJL; Mary Keyserling to Emma Guffey Miller, 8 January 1965, reel 109, NWP papers (microfilm ed.); ICSW, "Women and the Equal Employment Provisions of the Civil Rights Act," 20 February 1965, item 68, box 16, CACSW papers, NA; Esther Peterson to the Secretary, 3 March 1965, folder PE-4-2, ''Peterson, Esther, 1965," box 290, RG 174 (Wirtz), NA.

38. Mary Dublin Keyserling to the Secretary, 5 May 1965, folder 4, reel 17, DOL microfilm, LBJL; Pauli Murray and Mary Eastwood, "Jane Crow and the Law: Sex Discrimination and Title VII," George Washington Law Review 34 (December, 1965): 253.

39. "Prohibition to discriminate in employment on the basis of sex, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, address by Esther Peterson . . . July 8, 1965 [with amendments by Mary Dublin Keyserling], in folder "Title VII," reel 20, DOL microfilm, LBJL. See also note 13 above.

40. Secretary of Labor to Franklin Roosevelt, Jr., 9 August 1965, in folder "1965--Commission--Equal Employment Opportunity (August)," box 237, RG 174 (Wirtz), NA.

41. Margaret Hickey to members, CACSW, 11 September 1965, item 91, in folder "Citizens' Advisory Council on the Status of Women, 1," reel 25, DOL microfilm, LBJL; policy resolution adopted by the AFL-CIO 6th Constitutional Convention, San Francisco, California, December 1965, in folder "1967, Committee, (ICSW (Jan))," box 52, RG 174 (Wirtz), NA; Olya Margolin to Franklin Roosevelt, Jr., 30 July 1965, folder 1-20, Morag Simchak papers, ALUA; CACSW, "Equal Employment Opportunities for Women Under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964," 1 October 1965, item 91, box 17, CACSW papers, NA.

42. Excerpts from the remarks of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Jr., 30 July 1965, in folder "1965--Commission--Equal Employment Opportunity (January-July)," box 237, RG 174 (Wirtz), NA.

43. Frances Kolb, "The National Organization for Women: A History of the First Ten Years," p. 109 (unpublished manuscript).

44. N. Thompson Powers to Willard Wirtz, 7 September 1965, in folder "1965—Commission—Equal Opportunity (September-October)," box 237, RG 174 (Wirtz), NA.

45. Washington Post, 23 November 1965, clipping, in folder "Title VII, Civil Rights Act of 1964, Legislation 1964-65," BPW Archives.

46. New York Times, 19 August 1965, 28 September 1965; Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, press release, 18 August 1965, in folder "1965--Commission--Equal Employment Opportunity (August)," box 237, RG 174 (Wirtz), NA.

47. Interview with Richard Graham, 31 July 1985 (Washington, D. C.)

48. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, press release, 18 August 1965, in folder "1965--Commission--Equal Employment Opportunity (August)," box 237, RG 174 (Wirtz).

49. New Republic, 4 September 1965, clipping, in folder "General 1964-1966," box "Title VII," Catherine East papers (Arlington, Va.).

50. Wall Street Journal, 22 June 1965.

51. "Current appraisal of issues relating to the status of women" [author not indicated, but internal evidence suggests that it is Esther Peterson writing to John Macy], 18 July 1966, in folder "General, 1964-66," box "Title VII," Catherine East papers (Arlington, Va.).

52. Wall Street Journal, 22 June 1965.

53. Ibid.

54. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission press release, 22 November 1965, in box "Title VII," Catherine East papers (Arlington, Va.); Federal Register, 30 (2 December 1965): 14926-14928.

55. Richard Graham to Ruth Gage-Colby, 1 December 1965, reel 109, NWP papers (microfilm ed.).

56. Washington Post, 23 November 1965, clipping, in folder "Title VII, Civil Rights Act 1964, Legislation 1964-65," BPW Archives.

57. New York Times, 27 March 1966.

58. Federal Register, 31 (28 April 1966), title 29, part 1604.

59. Edelsberg quoted in Griffiths's speech, U.S. Congress, House, 89th Cong., 2d sess., 20 June 1966, Congressional Record 112: 13689-13694.

60. Esther Peterson to the Secretary, 8 April 1966, in folder PE-4-2, "Peterson, Esther, 1966," box 400, RG 174 (Wirtz), NA; New York Times, 29 April 1966; Zelman, "Development of Equal Employment Opportunity," 234-235.

61. U.S. Congress, House, 89th Cong., 2d sess., 20 June 1966, Congressional Record 112: 13689-13694.

62. Kolb, "National Organization for Women," 6.

1. Betty Friedan, It Changed My Life: Writings on the Women's Movement (New York: Random House, 1976), 77.

2. Esther Peterson to the Secretary, 26 January 1966, folder PE-4-2, "Peterson, Esther, 1966," box 400, RG 174 (Wirtz), NA; citizens' Advisory Council on the Status of Women, transcript of the meeting of 31 May 1966, pp. 93-96, box 13, CACSW papers, NA.

3. "How NOW Began, Background Memorandum on NOW from Betty Friedan," n.d. [1967], in folder "NOW," box "Women's Organizations," Catherine East papers (Arlington, Va.); Interview with Catherine East, 6 July 1978 (Arlington, Va.); Frances Kolb, "The National Organization for Women: A History of the First Ten Years,'' chap. 1 (unpublished manuscript); Friedan, It Changed My Life, 77-84.

4. Citizens' Advisory Council on the Status of Women, transcript of the meeting of 12 October 1964, pp. 30-35, box 13, CACSW papers, NA.

5. Friedan, It Changed My Life, 77-84; East interview, 6 July 1978 (Arlington, Va.); Friedan, "How NOW Began," in folder "NOW," box "Women's Organizations," Catherine East papers (Arlington, Va.).

6. Interview with Richard Graham, 31 July 1985 (Washington, D.C.); Richard Graham to Cynthia Harrison, 13 February 1987; Cynthia Harrison to Richard Graham, 27 February 1987 (with Graham's handwritten notes).

7. Friedan, It Changed My Life, 77-84; East interview, 6 July 1978; Friedan, "How NOW Began," in folder "NOW," box "Women's Organizations," Catherine East papers (Arlington, Va.).

8. Esther Peterson to John Macy, n.d., in folder "NOW," box "Women's Organizations," Catherine East papers (Arlington, Va.).

9. According to Clarenbach, Esther Peterson was more receptive to the idea of permitting resolutions than the others, but Peterson later explained that she could not side with Clarenbach because Keyserling opposed the plan and insisted that Peterson not usurp her authority at the conference (Interview with Esther Peterson, 17 June 1980 [Washington, D.C.]; Telephone interview with Kathryn Clarenbach, 22 June 1981 [Madison, Wis.]). Friedan, "How NOW Began," in folder "NOW," box "Women's Organizations," Catherine East papers (Arlington, Va.); Friedan, It Changed My Life, 77-84; Washington Post and Washington Evening Star, 1 July 1966, clippings, in folder "Publicity," drawer "1966 Conference,'' PCSW papers (Washington, D.C.); U.S. News and World Report, 4 July 1966, 61-62, clipping in folder "NOW," Esther Peterson papers (in Peterson's possession).

10. Mary Keyserling, "Report to the Secretary on the Third National Conference of Commissions on the Status of Women, June 28-29-30," 12 July 1966, in folder "1966—Committee—ICSW (June-July)," box 349, RG 174 (Wirtz), NA; Olya Margolin to Andrew Biemiller, 5 August 1966, folder 22, box 55, Legislative Reference Files, Meany Archives.

11. Kolb, "National Organization for Women," chap. 1.

12. Chicago Tribune, 3 July 1966, clipping, in folder "89th Congress, women, comments re: discrimination," box 118, Martha Griffiths papers, BHL; Charles Maguire to Mr. Kintner, 29 June 1966, folder FG655 (Exec.), and 12 October 1966, folder FG655A (Exec.), LBJL.

13. Detroit News, 13 November 1966, clipping, in folder "General 1964-66," box "Title VII," Catherine East papers (Arlington, Va.); Toni Carabillo, "A Passion for the Possible," Do It NOW 9, no. 9 (October 1976): 5-8.

14. Carabillo, "A Passion for the Possible"; Friedan, It Changed My Life, 83-85; Kolb, "National Organization for Women," 4, 23, 39-44; Judith Hole and Ellen Levine, Rebirth of Feminism, (New York: Quadrangle Books, 1971), 84.

15. Carabillo, "A Passion for the Possible," 5-8; National Organization for Women, "An Invitation to Join," September 1966, reel 110, NWP papers (microfilm ed.); National Organization for Women, "Statement of Purpose," in Up From the Pedestal: Selected Writings in the History of American Feminism, ed. Aileen S. Kraditor (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1968), 363-69.

16. Friedan, "How NOW Began," in folder "NOW," box "Women's Organizations," Catherine East papers (Arlington, Va.).

17. Esther Peterson to John Macy, attached to untitled memorandum beginning, "The specific events I have set forth. . . ," n.d., in folder "NOW," Esther Peterson papers (in Ms. Peterson's possession); Esther Peterson to John Macy, n.d., in folder "NOW," box "Women's Organizations," Catherine East papers (Arlington, Va.).

18. Kolb, "National Organization for Women," 19-33; National Organization for Women, "Targets for Action, 1966-67" (draft), 26 October 1966, in folder "NOW," box "Women's Organizations," Catherine East papers (Arlington, Va.).

19. Kolb, "National Organization for Women," 25, 30-31; Friedan, It Changed My Life, 84.

20. Kolb, "National Organization for Women," 20-21.

21. NOW, "Statement of Purpose," in Kraditor (ed.), Up From the Pedestal, 363-369.

22. Ibid.

23. Kathryn Clarenbach, Betty Friedan, and Caroline Davis to Stephen N. Shulman, Luther Holcomb, and Samuel Jackson, 11 November 1966, and Clarenbach, Friedan, and Davis to the President, 11 November 1966, and Clarenbach, Friedan, and Davis to Ramsey Clark, 11 November 1966, in folder "ICSW meeting, January 17, 1976, Room 102-A," reel 25, DOL microfilm, LBJL; Betty Friedan to John Macy, 24 January 1967, in folder "NOW," Esther Peterson papers (in Peterson's possession).

24. Kathryn Clarenbach, Betty Friedan, and Caroline Davis to the President, 11 November 1966, in folder "ICSW meeting, January 17, 1967, Room 102-A," reel 25, DOL microfilm, LBJL.

25. Betty Friedan to John Macy, 24 January 1967, in folder "NOW," Esther Peterson papers (in Peterson's possession); Stephen Shulman to Edith Green, 27 February 1967, in folder "EEOC," box 67-12, Edith Green papers, OHS.

26. Willard Wirtz to Betty Friedan, 25 November 1966, in folder "1966--Committee--ICSW (Nov.-Dec.)," box 349, and Kathryn Clarenbach and Betty Friedan to Willard Wirtz, 9 April 1967, in folder "1967--Committee--ICSW (meeting April 18, 1967)," box 53, RG 174 (Wirtz), NA.

27. Esther Peterson to the officers of NOW, 15 December 1966, in Betty Friedan papers, cited in Kolb, "National Organization for Women," 112.

28. Betty Friedan to Marvin Watson, 5 December 1966 (plus attachments) folder HU3 (General), box 58, LBJL.

29. Kolb, "National Organization for Women," 111.

30. Harry McPherson, Jr., to Kathryn Clarenbach, 20 March 1967, folder S2-3/1967/HU2/Pro/A-Z, box 90, LBJL.

31. Willard Wirtz to Esther Peterson, 26 July 1965 (plus attachments), Joseph Goldberg, note for follow-up, 5 August 1965, and Joseph Goldberg, memorandum for the files, 1 October 1965, in folder "Re: Labor," box "Engagements--Labor," Esther Peterson papers, SL.

32. Penelope H. Thunberg to Willard Wirtz, 14 April 1967, in folder "H.R. 643(2)," box "Women," Esther Peterson papers, SL; Attachment 2 to FPM letter 713-7, 13 October 1967, "Catherine East to Esther Peterson, 17 February 1967," in folder "Government--Federal Woman's Award, 1963, 1966-67," box ''Correspondence Files,'' Esther Peterson papers, SL; Joseph Goldberg to Esther Peterson, 30 September 1966, in folder "NOW," Esther Peterson to the Secretary, 24 March 1967, [no folder], Esther Peterson papers (in Peterson's possession); Willard Wirtz to the President, 2 June 1967, attached to Wilfred Rommel to Mr. Levinson, 21 June 1967, folder HU2-1 (Exec.), box 43, LBJL; Harry McPherson, Jr., to Kathryn Clarenbach, 20 March 1967, folder SP2-3/1967/HU2/Pro/A-Z, box 90, LBJL: Francena Miller to the President, 19 October 1967, folder HU3 (General), box 58, LBJL; White House press release, 28 February 1966, folder MA1/F, box 2, LBJL; White House press release, 10 October 1967, in folder "1967—Committee—ICSW(Oct.-Dec.)," box 53, RG 174 (Wirtz), NA; Betty Friedan, Report of the President, NOW Second National Conference, 18 November 1967, reel 110, NWP papers (microfilm ed.); U.S. Congress, House, 90th Cong., 1st sess., 16 and 17 October 1967, Congressional Record 113: 28948-28949, 29098-29099; Federal Woman's Award Study Group on Careers for Women, Progress Report to the President, 3 March 1967, in notebook "ICSW meeting, 18 April 1967," box 23, CACSW papers, NA.

33. Betty Friedan, Report of the President, NOW Second National Conference, 18 November 1967, reel 110, NWP papers (microfilm ed.).

34. Wisconsin Commission Resolution, 20 April 1966, in folder "1966—Committee—ICSW (Jan.-Apr.)," box 349, RG 174 (Wirtz), NA; Dorothy Height to Luther Holcomb, 28 July 1966, in folder "Women's Bureau, Interdepartmental Committee on the Status of Women," reel 25, DOL microfilm, LBJL; ''Statement adopted by the Commissioners at meeting #123 of August 19, 1963," in folder "1967—Committee—ICSW (Feb.)," box 53, RG 174 (Wirtz), NA; Esther Peterson to Willard Wirtz, 9 December 1966, in folder "ICSW meeting, 17 January 1967,'' box 23, CACSW papers, NA; Summary of meeting with representatives of Consumers League, 4 January 1967, in folder "1967--Committee--ICSW (March)," box 53, RG 174 (Wirtz), NA; Mary Keyserling to Esther Peterson, 23 January 1967, in folder "Title VII," reel 17, DOL microfilm LBJL; Draft working paper, Title VII and State Protective Laws, in folder "Equal Opportunity (1)," reel 20, DOL microfilm, LBJL; Proposed Department of Labor position on state labor standards relating to the employment of women and their relationship to Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, 14 March 1967, in folder "Title VII," reel 17, DOL microfilm, LBJL; Department of Labor position on state labor standards laws relating to the employment of women and their relationship to Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, 16 March 1967, in folder "Labor Standards," reel 16, DOL microfilm, LBJL; Draft position paper on inter-relationship of state labor legislation and Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, 2 February 1967, attached to Title VII and State Protective Laws, draft working paper, n.d., attached to Briefing for meeting with representatives of the National Consumers League, 8 March 1967, in folder "1967—Committee—ICSW (March)," box 53, RG 174 (Wirtz), NA.

35. Kolb, "National Organization for Women," chap. 2; Equal Employment Opportunity Commission press release, 1 May 1967, reel 110, NWP papers (microfilm ed.); Federal Register 32 (11 July 1967): 10228; Stephen Shulman to the President, 23 March 1967, folder FG 655, box 380, LBJL; Jo Freeman, The Politics of Women's Liberation (New York: McKay, 1975), 56.

36. Despite the new policy, the issue was finally decided by the courts. Litigation, supported by NOW and other feminist groups organizing its wake, raised the matter repeatedly, and by 1971 federal courts ruled consistently that hours laws and weight-lifting laws that applied only to women were invalidated by Title VII. Citizens' Advisory Council on the Status of Women, "Summary of Equal Employment Opportunity Commission Hearings," 2 and 3 May 1967, item 141, box 17, CACSW papers, NA; National Federation of Business and Professional Women press release, 3 May 1967, in folder "Title VII, 1967 Legislation," BPW Archives; Statement by Marguerite Rawalt, 2 May 1967, reel 110, NWP papers (microfilm ed.); U.S. Congress, House, 90th Cong., 1st sess., statement by Martha Griffiths on 3 May 1967, 17 May 1967, Congressional Record 111:13108-13110; Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, press release, 23 February 1968, in folder "Equal Employment Opportunity, President's Commission on," box 68-4, Edith Green papers, OHS; Federal Register 33 (24 February 1968): 3344, 3361; Hole and Levine, Rebirth of Feminism , 409; Los Angeles Times , 11 September 1968, clipping, reel 111, NWP papers (microfilm ed.); Rosenfeld v. Southern Pacific , 293 F. Supp. 1219 (C.D. Cal. 1968), Aff'd, 444F. 2d. 1219 (9th Cir. 1971).

37. CACSW, "Summary of Equal Employment Opportunity Commission Hearings."

38. Catherine East to Easther Peterson, 20 December 1966, attached to Phineas Indritz to Officers and Directors of NOW, 6 December 1966, in folder "Advertising," box "Title VII," Catherine East papers (Arlington, Va.); Petition to the EEOC to amend the Commission's rule set forth in section 1604.4 of 29 Code of Federal Regulations, 19 December 1966, in folder "Equal Opportunity (2)," reel 20, DOL microfilm, LBJL; Stephen Shulman to Edith Green, 27 February 1967, and Edith Green to Stephen Shulman, 14 February 1967, in folder "Equal Employment Opportunity Commission,'' box 67-12, Edith Green papers, OHS; Stephen Shulman to Willard Wirtz, and Willard Wirtz to Stephen Shulman, 26 January 1967, in folder ''1967—Committee—ICSW (Feb.)," box 53, RG 174 (Wirtz), NA; Esther Peterson to Clifford Alexander, Jr., 9 September 1967, in folder "Title VII," reel 17, DOL microfilm, LBJL; U.S. Congress, House, 90th Cong., 2d sess., 30 September 1968, Congressional Record 114:28819-28825.

39. Carabillo, "A Passion for the Possible," 5-8; Hole and Levine, Rebirth of Feminism , 40-44; Equal Employment Opportunity Commission press release, 6 August 1968, in folder "Equal Employment Opportunity, President's Commission on," box 68-4, Edith Green papers, OHS; Federal Register 33 (14 August 1968): 11539; Freeman, Politics of Women's Liberation , 76-79; Jacob Potofsky to Willard Wirtz, 7 March 1968, and Willard Wirtz to Jacob Potofsky, 29 April 1968, in folder "WA-3 Employment Advancement 1968,'' box 95, RG 174 (Wirtz), NA.

40. Freeman, Politics of Women's Liberation , 80-81; Jean Witter to Alice Paul, 15 April 1968, reel 111, NWP papers (microfilm ed.). Congress submitted the ERA to the states in March 1972. In 1982, when the ratification period expired, the ERA went down, having won approval from only 35 of the 38 states needed. It remains an important item on the feminist agenda.

41. The CACSW also adopted a recommendation to repeal criminal abortion laws in April 1968. Council member Viola Hymes responded initially to the makers of the motion, "Well, you have got a lot of guts" (Citizens' Advisory Council on the Status of Women, transcript of the meeting of 26 April 1968, pp. 168-204, box 13, CACSW papers, NA [quote, p. 169]). National Organization for Women press release, 20 November 1967, in folder "NOW" box 92, Martha Griffiths papers, BHL; Miriam Holden to Miss Newall, 1 February 1967, and Ernestine Powell to Alice Paul, 25 January 1968, reel 110, NWP papers (microfilm ed.).

42. Alice Paul oral history, pp. 530-535.

43. The CACSW endorsed the ERA in 1970. Freeman, Politics of Women's Liberation , 212; Citizens' Advisory Council on the Status of Women, notes for Mrs. Peterson, 2 and 3 December 1967, and notes for Senator Neuberger, 2 and 3 December 1967, in folder: "CACSW meeting, December 2-3, 1967," box 5, CACSW papers NA; Interdepartmental Committee on the Status of Women, Summary of Eighth Meeting, 14 February 1968, in folder "Women's Bureau, Interdepartmental Committee on the Status of Women," reel 25, DOL microfilm, LBJL; Joseph Califano to Emma Guffey Miller, 11 April 1968, folder HU3.(General), box 58, LBJL.

In October 1967, Johnson did send Emma Guffey Miller a letter saying his Senate support for the ERA was unchanged. Miller's request for a statement had come through Deputy Press Secretary Robert Fleming and presidential assistant Will Sparks, who considered it a personal message and therefore did not send the inquiry to the Department of Labor to be answered as was the customary practice. Johnson's letter was an aberration, however, and subsequent letters from the White House were worded to avoid either reiterating support for the ERA or implying that the president's October 1967 letter was a mistake. Emma Guffey Miller to the President, 1 November 1967 (plus attachments), folder HU3 (Executive), box 58, LBJL; cf. Califano to Miller, 11 April 1968, and George Christian to Margery Leonard, 12 October 1967, folder HU3 (Executive), box 58, LBJL; Will R. Sparks to Cynthia Harrison, 11 December 1980.

44. Margery Leonard, "The Equal Rights Amendment in the New Hampshire Primary," telegram sent to all presidential candidates by Betty Friedan, 15 May 1968, National Organization for Women press release, 6 May 1968, George Wallace to Alice Paul, 20 July 1968, Statement by former Vice-President Richard M. Nixon on the Equal Rights Amendment, [July 1968], reel 111, NWP papers (microfilm ed.); New York Times , 7 May 1968; National Organization for Women press release, 6 May 1968, reel 111, NWP papers (microfilm ed.).

45. See Sara Evans, Personal Politics: The Roots of Women's Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement and the New Left (New York: Knopf, 1979).

46. See Cynthia Harrison, Women's Movement Media (New York: Bowker, 1975), for a contemporaneous compilation of the publications of the women's movement.

47. Freeman, Politics of Women's Liberation , 83-92, 145-151.

48. For discussions of the policy impact of the women's movement, see Freeman, Politics of Women's Liberation; Hole and Levine, Rebirth of Feminism; Irene L. Murphy, Public Policy on the Status of Women: Agenda and Strategy for the 70s (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1973); and Joyce Gelb and Marian Leif Palley, Women and Public Policies (Princeton: N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982).

1. Geoffrey Parsons, "Royal Commission," Punch , 24 August 1955, quoted in Harold Seidman, Politics, Position, and Power: The Dynamics of Federal Organization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), 23.

2. Joan Hoff Wilson, Herbert Hoover: Forgotten Progressive (Boston: Little, Brown, 1975).

3. Wolanin in fact underestimated the impact of commissions because he looked at the responses only to recommendations made in final reports and not to those made during the life of the body (Thomas R. Wolanin, Presidential Advisory Commissions [Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1975], chap. 7).

4. Jo Freeman, The Politics of Women's Liberation (New York: McKay, 1975), chap. 2.

5. Ibid., chap. 7.

6. Ibid.

7. Evans goes on: "The existence of the commission and in subsequent years of state commissions on the status of women provided a rallying cry for professional women. Such commissions constituted a tacit admission that there was indeed a 'problem' regarding women's position in American society, that the democratic vision of equal opportunity had somehow left them out. Furthermore, they furnished a platform from which inequities could be publicized and the need for women's rights put forth. The President's Commission's report . . . was moderate in tone. Yet despite obeisance to the primacy of women's roles within the family, it catalogued in great detail the inequities in the lives of women, the discrimination women faced in employment, and the need for proper child-care centers" (Sara Evans, Personal Politics: The Roots of Women's Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement and the New Left [New York: Knopf, 1979], (16-17).

8. Frances Kolb, "The National Organization for Women: The First Ten Years," 16, (unpublished manuscript).

9. Freeman, Politics of Women's Liberation, 6, 151.

10. James Q. Wilson, Political Organizations (New York: Basic Books, 1973), 344.

11. Ethel Klein, Gender Politics: From Consciousness to Mass Politics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984), 39, 55, 73.

12. New York Times, 14 December 1967.