1. Chapter 4 was first published in English Literary History 52 (1985): 259-77; chapter 5 in Critical Quarterly 28 (1986): 63-77. They are reprinted with thanks to the Johns Hopkins University Press and Manchester University Press respectively. Part of chapter 6 was first published in John Drakakis, ed., Alternative Shakespeares (Methuen, 1985): I am grateful to Routledge and to Jonathan Dollimore for agreeing that it should appear here.

2. Alan Sinfield, Literature in Protestant England, 1560-1660 (London: Croom Helm, 1983; Totowa, N.J.: Barnes & Noble, 1983).

1. Roland Barthes by Roland Barthes, trans. Richard Howard (London: Macmillan, 1977), pp. 170-72.

2. It is a sentimental derivative of Claes Jansz Visscher's long view of London; see Irwin Smith, Shakespeare's Globe Playhouse (London: Peter Owen, 1963), pp. 20-23. I am indebted to Susan Schweik for showing me the advertisement.

3. Robert Fraser and Michael Wilson, Privatisation: The UK Experience and International Trends (London: Longman, 1988), pp. 81-82.

4. In this, Ordnance was only typical—like Bimec, Thorn EMI, Wickman Bennett, Racal, Churchill, and many continental European companies. See "How Minister Helped British Firms to Arm Saddam's Soldiers," Sunday Times, December 2, 1990, p. 5. John Drakakis drew this article to my attention.

5. Financial Times, February 27, 1991, pp. 22, 23.

6. "How Minister Helped British Firms," p. 5.

7. E. K. Chambers, Sir Henry Lee: An Elizabethan Portrait (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1936), pp. 121, 119-27; and see H. C. Tomlinson, Guns and

Government: The Ordnance Office under the Later Stuarts (London: Royal Historical Society, 1979), pp. 1-6.

8. John Fekete, The Critical Twilight (London: Routledge, 1977), p. 195. See Jonathan Dollimore, Radical Tragedy, 2d ed. (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1989), ch. 3.

9. The Autobiography of Thomas Whythorne, ed. James M. Osborn (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1961), pp. xxviii-xxx, 83-86, 298-99.

10. Thomas Carlyle, On Heroes, Hero-Worship and the Heroic in History (London: James Frazer, 1841), p. 181; quoted by Malcolm Evans, Signifying Nothing: Truth's True Contents in Shakespeare's Text, 2d ed. (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1989), p. 88; and see pp. 86-108. Wilson Knight is quoted by Terence Hawkes, That Shakespeherean Rag: Essays on a Criticial Process (London: Methuen, 1986), p. 68. See also Peter Widdowson, ed., ReReading English (London: Methuen, 1982); Graham Holderness, ed., The Shakespeare Myth (Manchester Univ. Press, 1988); Chris Baldick, The Social Mission of English Criticism, 1848-1932 (Oxford Univ. Press, 1983); Ania Loomba, Gender, Race, Renaissance Drama (Manchester Univ. Press, 1989).

11. The Prose Works of Fulke Greville, Lord Brooke, ed. John Gouws (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), pp. 42, 45, 200.

12. J. Hillis Miller, "Presidential Address, 1986: The Triumph of Theory, the Resistance to Reading, and the Question of the Material Base," PMLA 102 (1987): 281-91, p. 287.

13. Letter from James Wood, London Review of Books, March 8, 1990; responding to a review article by Terence Hawkes in the issue of February 22.

14. Letter from Alan Sinfield, London Review of Books, April 19, 1990; see also the letter from John Drakakis in the issue of June 14.

15. See Raymond Williams, "Base and Superstructure in Marxist Cultural Theory," in Williams, Problems in Materialism and Culture (London: New Left Books, 1980).

16. Catherine Belsey, The Subject of Tragedy (London: Methuen, 1985), pp. 101-3; see also id., "Shakespeare and Film: A Question of Perspective," Literature/Film Quarterly 11 (1983): 152-58. For the case against "humanity," see, e.g., John Drakakis, ed., Alternative Shakespeares (London: Methuen, 1985), p. 4.

17. Quoted by Arthur Humphreys, ed., Julius Caesar (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984), p. 52.

18. John Ripley, "Julius Caesar" on Stage in England and America, 1599-1973 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1980), pp. 23-24, 28, 147.

19. Ibid., p. 100; Alfred Van Rensselaer Westfall, American Shakespearean Criticism, 1607-1865 (New York: H. W. Wilson, 1939), p. 221.

20. Ripley, "Julius Caesar," p. 317.

21. Raphael Samuel, Ewan MacColl, and Stuart Cosgrove, Theatres of the Left, 1880-1935 (London: Routledge, 1985), pp. 8-9; see also E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class, rev. ed. (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1968), p. 809. Julius Caesar is quoted from the New Arden edition, ed. T. S. Dorsch (London: Methuen, 1955), 1.2.94-95.

22. Ripley, "Julius Caesar," pp. 140, 332. For further discussion of the history of Shakespearean stage productions in the United States, see chapter 10 below.

23. Ida M. Tarbell, The Life of Abraham Lincoln (New York: McClure, Phillips, 1908), 2:252-60. Tarbell's account is laced with implicit allusions to Julius Caesar, such as the tearing down of banners, speech-making, and crowd action against opponents; 3.2.135-39 is quoted (pp. 246-51).

24. David Donald, Lincoln Reconsidered, 2d ed. (New York: Knopf, 1965), p. 5; Michael Rogin, "Ronald Reagan," The Movie (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1987), pp. 86-90, and illustrations 3.3, 3.4, 3.5. In 1939 Julius Caesar was found to have been the one most read in schools: see Esther Cloudman Dunn, Shakespeare in America (1939; New York: Benjamin Blom, 1968), pp. 219-20, 244.

25. Robert Justin Goldstein, Political Repression in Modern America from 1870 to the Present (Cambridge, Mass.: Schenkman, 1978), pp. 24-34.

26. Ripley, "Julius Caesar," p. 223.

27. See Victor S. Navasky, Naming Names (New York: Viking Press, 1980), pp. 179-81. For the idea and the reference I am indebted to Vivian Sobchack, who placed Mankiewicz's Caesar in this context in a talk at Santa Cruz in 1988. On the liberalism of this film, see Belsey, "Shakespeare and Film."

28. See Ripley, "Julius Caesar," p. 260. However, Glen Byam Shaw's 1957 Stratford production re-centred Caesar: see Roy Walker, "Unto Caesar: A Review of Recent Productions," Shakespeare Survey 11 (1958): 128-35.

29. Ralph Berry, On Directing Shakespeare (London: Croom Helm, 1977), pp. 75-81.

30. Interview with Trevor Nunn in Berry, On Directing Shakespeare, pp. 63-66; quotation from Nunn in Ripley, "Julius Caesar," p. 270. For further comparable productions, see Humphreys, ed., Julius Caesar, pp. 66-71; Martin Spevack, ed., Julius Caesar (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1988), P. 40.

31. See Jonathan Goldberg, James I and the Politics of Literature (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1983), pp. 163-76.

32. The time set for the inauguration of President Reagan had to be changed when astrologers said it was unfavorable for him. See Garry Wills, Reagan's America (New York: Doubleday, 1987), pp. 299, 196-97.

33. However, at the time of her removal from office, Mrs. Thatcher was widely compared to Julius Caesar, mainly in respect of the treachery of her colleagues: see the Guardian, November 26, 1990, p. 35.

34. Annabel Patterson, Shakespeare and the Popular Voice (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989), pp. 11, 129.

35. Richard Wilson," 'Is this a holiday?': Shakespeare's Roman Carnival," English Literary History 54 (1987): 31-44, pp. 32-33. See Peter Stallybrass and Allon White, The Politics and Poetics of Transgression (London: Methuen, 1986), Introduction.

36. Here I disagree with David Margolies, "Teaching the Handsaw to Fly: Shakespeare as a Hegemonic Instrument," in Holderness, ed., Shakespeare Myth, p. 44.

37. S. A. Cook, F. E. Adcock, and M. P. Charlesworth, eds., The Cambridge Ancient History (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1932), 9:291-93, 334-36.

38. Niccolò Machiavelli, The Discourses 1.57-58, ed. Bernard Crick (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1974), pp. 251, 255.

39. Dorsch, ed., Julius Caesar, pp. 138-39.

40. Thomas Kyd, The First Part of Hieronimo and The Spanish Tragedy, ed. Andrew S. Cairncross (London: Arnold, 1967), 1.1.90-91.

41. See Sinfield, "Royal Shakespeare," in Jonathan Dollimore and Alan Sinfield, eds., Political Shakespeare (Manchester: Manchester Univ. Press; Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Press, 1985), p. 160.

42. See Richard Wilson's powerful article," 'A mingled yarn': Shakespeare and the Cloth Workers," Literature and History 12 (1986): 164-80, pp. 167-69; also my program note, "History and Power," for the Royal Shakespeare Company production of The Plantagenets (two reconstructed Henry VI plays plus Richard III ), directed by Adrian Noble in 1988.

43. See Pierre Macherey, A Theory of Literary Production, trans. Geoffrey Wall (London: Routledge, 1978); also Jonathan Goldberg, "Speculations: Macbeth and Source," in Jean E. Howard and Marion F. O'Connor, eds., Shakespeare Reproduced (New York: Methuen, 1987), p. 247; and my chapter 2.

44. I rehearse here the argument in Sinfield, "Four Ways with a Reactionary Text," LTP: Journal of Literature Teaching Politics 2 (1983): 81-95.

45. Jonathan Dollimore, "Middleton and Barker: Creative Vandalism," in the program for the Royal Court production of Women Beware Women, published with a text of the play as Playscript 111 (London: Calder; New York: Riverrun, 1986). See also Dollimore's imagined camp production of Antony and Cleopatra, in Dollimore, "Shakespeare, Cultural Materialism, Feminism and Marxist Humanism," New Literary History 21 (1990): 471-93, pp. 484-90.

46. Marowitz's own account; in Charles Marowitz and Simon Trussler, eds., Theatre at Work (London: Methuen, 1967), p. 170.

47. Charles Marowitz, The Marowitz Hamlet (London: Allen Lane, 1968), pp. 16, 18. For discussion of this and Shakespearean plays by Tom Stoppard, Arnold Wesker, and Edward Bond, see Alan Sinfield, "Making Space: Appropriation and Confrontation in Recent British Plays," in Holderness, ed., Shakespeare Myth .

48. See the interviews with Bogdanov and Miller in Holderness, ed., Shakespeare Myth, pp. 89-91, 195, 200-202, and p. 182. On recent work by Bogdanov and the scope for radical productions, see Isobel Armstrong, "Thatcher's Shakespeare," Textual Practice 3 (1989): 1-14.

49. Raymond Williams, Culture (Glasgow: Fontana, 1981), p. 225; Humphreys, ed., Julius Caesar, p. 71.

50. Charles Marowitz, The Marowitz Shakespeare (London: Marion Boyars, 1978), p. 24. See Sinfield, "Making Space," and also, on Wesker's play, p. 300 below.

51. Robert S. Miola, Shakespeare's Rome (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1983), p. 96.

52. Richard Wilson points out that Jack Cade and his supporters are hostile to writing (" 'A mingled yarn,' " p. 168).

53. See Ann Thompson's New Cambridge edition of Shakespeare, The Taming of the Shrew (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1984), pp. 35-36, and the Bogdanov interview in Holderness, ed., Shakespeare Myth , p. 90.

54. A further clue: don't forget the spelling. This advertisement has been current for some months; it appeared in the Daily Mirror on February 25, 1991 (p. 13) immediately next to the following news report:

MPs Slam "Degree in Gays"

Students at a university are being offered a degree course in gay and lesbian studies. But the one year course at Sussex University in Brighton is under attack by Tory MPs. Terry Dicks said it was a waste of taxpayers' subsidy. "The place should be shut down and disinfected," he said.

It would be good if we could make Shakespeare comparably disconcerting.

55. Walter Benjamin, Illuminations , ed. Hannah Arendt, trans. Harry Zohn (Glasgow: Fontana/Collins, 1973), pp. 258-59.

1. Othello is quoted from the New Arden edition, ed. M. R. Ridley (London: Methuen, 1962). An earlier version of parts of this paper, entitled "Othello and the Politics of Character," was published in Manuel Barbeito, ed., In Mortal Shakespeare: Radical Readings (Santiago: Univ. de Santiago de Compostela, 1989).

2. Stephen Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1980), p. 245; and also pp. 234-39, and Greenblatt, "Psychoanalysis and Renaissance Culture," in Patricia Parker and David Quint, eds., Literary Theory / Renaissance Texts (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1986), p. 218. On stories in Othello, see further Jonathan Goldberg, "Shakespearean Inscriptions: The Voicing of Power," in Patricia Parker and Geoffrey Hartman, eds., Shakespeare and the Question of Theory (New York: Methuen, 1985), pp. 131-32.

3. Ania Loomba, Gender, Race, Renaissance Drama (Manchester Univ. Press, 1989), p. 48. See also Doris Adler, "The Rhetoric of Black and White in Othello, " Shakespeare Quarterly 25 (1974): 248-57.

4. Louis Althusser, "Ideological State Apparatuses," in Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays, trans. Ben Brewster (London: New Left Books, 1971), pp. 160-65.

5. Peter Stallybrass, "Patriarchal Territories: The Body Enclosed," in Margaret W. Ferguson, Maureen Quilligan, and Nancy J. Vickers, eds., Rewriting the Renaissance (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1986), p. 139. Greenblatt makes a comparable point about Jews in Marlowe's Jew of Malta, though in Othello he stresses Iago's "ceaseless narrative invention": see Renaissance Self-Fashioning, pp. 208, 235. On Blacks in Shakespearean England, see Loomba, Gender, Race, Renaissance Drama, pp. 42-52; Ruth Cowhig, "Blacks in English Renaissance Drama and the Role of Shakespeare's Othello, '' in David Dabydeen, ed., The Black Presence in English Literature (Manchester: Manchester Univ. Press, 1985).

6. Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy , pp. 123-28. For further elaboration of the theory presented here, see Alan Sinfield, Literature, Politics and Culture in Postwar Britain (Oxford: Basil Blackwell; Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1989), ch. 3.

7. Colin Sumner, Reading Ideologies (London and New York: Academic Press, 1979), p. 288.

8. Anthony Giddens, Central Problems in Social Theory (London: Macmillan, 1979), pp. 69-71, 77-78. Giddens's development of langue and parole is anticipated in Michel Foucault, The Order of Things (London: Tavistock, 1970), p. 380.

9. Stephen Orgel, "Nobody's Perfect: Or Why Did the English Stage Take Boys for Women?" South Atlantic Quarterly 88 (1989): 7-29, pp. 8-10. Jonathan Goldberg writes of the Duke's scripting in Measure For Measure in his James I and the Politics of Literature (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1983), pp. 230-39. See also Steven Mullaney, The Place of the Stage (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1988), pp. 107-10.

10. On attitudes to Turks, see Simon Shepherd, Marlowe and the Politics of Elizabethan Theatre (New York: St Martin's Press, 1986), pp. 142-49. The later part of Othello's career, in fact, has been devoted entirely to state violence—as Martin Orkin has suggested, he is sent to Cyprus to secure it for the colonial power: see Orkin, Shakespeare against Apartheid (Craighall, South Africa: Ad. Donker, 1987), pp. 88-96.

11. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The German Ideology (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1965), p. 61. See further Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy , pp. 139-42; Pierre Bourdieu, "Cultural Reproduction and Social Reproduction," in Richard Brown, ed., Knowledge, Education and Cultural Change (London: Tavistock, 1973).

12. See Lynda E. Boose, "The Family in Shakespearean Studies; or—Studies in the Family of Shakespeareans; or—the Politics of Politics," Renaissance Quarterly 40 (1987): 707-42; Carol Thomas Neely, "Constructing the Subject: Feminist Practice and the New Renaissance Discourses," English Literary Renaissance 18 (1988): 5-18.

13. Kathleen McLuskie, "The Patriarchal Bard: Feminist Criticism and Shakespeare," in Jonathan Dollimore and Alan Sinfield, eds., Political Shakespeare (Manchester: Manchester Univ. Press; Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Press, 1985), p. 97. For a reply to her critics by Kathleen McLuskie, see her Renaissance Dramatists (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1989), pp. 224-29; and for further comment, Jonathan Dollimore, "Shakespeare, Cultural Materialism, Feminism and Marxist Humanism," New Literary History 21 (1990): 471-93.

14. Carolyn Ruth Swift Lenz, Gayle Greene, and Carol Thomas Neely, eds., The Woman's Part (Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1980), p. 5.

15. McLuskie, "Patriarchal Bard," p. 92.

16. Boose, "Family in Shakespearean Studies," pp. 734, 726, 724. See also Ann Thompson, "'The warrant of womanhood': Shakespeare and Feminist Criticism," in Graham Holderness, ed., The Shakespeare Myth (Manchester: Manchester Univ. Press, 1988); Judith Newton, "History as

Usual?: Feminism and the New Historicism," Cultural Critique 9 (1988): 87-121.

17. Richard Ohmann, English in America (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1976), p. 313. See V. N. Voloshinov, Marxism and the Philosophy of Language , trans. Ladislav Matejka and I. R. Titunik (New York and London: Seminar Press, 1973), pp. 17-24, 83-98.

18. Antonio Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks , ed. and trans. Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell-Smith (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1971), p. 324.

19. Judith Butler, Gender Trouble (London: Routledge, 1990), p. 6. See Celia Kitzinger, The Social Construction of Lesbianism (London: Sage, 1987). Diana Fuss asks: "Is politics based on identity, or is identity based on politics?" ( Essentially Speaking [London: Routledge, 1989], p. 100, and see ch. 6).

20. Neely, "Constructing the Subject," p. 7.

21. J. Hillis Miller, "Presidential Address, 1986: The Triumph of Theory, the Resistance to Reading, and the Question of the Material Base," PMLA 102 (1987): 281-91, pp. 290-91. Cf., e.g., Raymond Williams, "Base and Superstructure in Marxist Cultural Theory," New Left Review 82 (1973): 3-16; reprinted in Williams, Problems in Materialism and Culture (London: Verso, 1980; New York: Schocken Books, 1981). James Holstun, "Ranting at the New Historicism," English Literary Renaissance 19 (1989): 189-225, makes more effort than most to address European/Marxist work.)

22. Peter Nicholls, "State of the Art: Old Problems and the New Historicism," Journal of American Studies 23 (1989): 423-34, pp. 428, 429.

23. Don E. Wayne, "New Historicism," in Malcolm Kelsall, Martin Coyle, Peter Garside, and John Peck, eds., Encyclopedia of Literature and Criticism (London: Routledge, 1990), p. 795. I am grateful to Professor Wayne for showing this essay to me in typescript. Further on this topic, see Jean E. Howard and Marion F. O'Connor, "Introduction," Don E. Wayne, "Power, Politics and the Shakespearean Text: Recent Criticism in England and the United States," and Walter Cohen, "Political Criticism of Shakespeare," all in Jean E. Howard and Marion F. O'Connor, eds., Shakespeare Reproduced (London: Methuen, 1987); Louis Montrose, ''Professing the Renaissance: The Poetics and Politics of Culture," in H. Aram Veeser, ed., The New Historicism (New York: Routledge, 1989), pp. 20-24; Alan Liu, "The Power of Formalism: The New Historicism," English Literary History 56 (1989): 721-77.

24. Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning , pp. 120, 209-14. For further instantiation, see pp. 173-74.

25. Carolyn Porter, "Are We Being Historical Yet?" South Atlantic Quarterly 87 (1988): 743-86; see also Porter, "History and Literature: 'After the New Criticism,'" New Literary History 21 (1990): 253-72.

26. Stephen J. Greenblatt, Learning to Course: Essays in Early Modern Culture (London: Routledge, 1990), pp. 164-66.

27. Shakespeare, Macbeth , ed. Kenneth Muir, 9th ed. (London: Methuen, 1962), 1.4.12-13. See further chapter 5.

28. William Shakespeare, King Henry V , ed. J. H. Walter (London: Methuen, 1954), act 5, Chorus, 29-35. See further chapter 6.

29. Raymond Williams, Culture (Glasgow: Fontana, 1981), p. 201.

30. Porter, "Are We Being Historical Yet?" p. 774. For important recent discussions of the scope for movement in the early modern state, see Richard Cust and Ann Hughes, eds., Conflict in Early Stuart England (London: Longmans, 1989), esp. Johann Sommerville, "Ideology, Property and the Constitution."

31. I am not happy that race and sexuality tend to feature in distinct parts of this chapter; in this respect, my wish to clarify certain theoretical arguments has produced some simplification. Of course, race and sexuality are intertwined, in Othello as elsewhere. See Loomba, Gender, Race, Renaissance Drama, pp. 48-62; Karen Newman, "'And wash the Ethiop white': Femininity and the Monstrous in Othello, " in Howard and O'Connor, eds., Shakespeare Reproduced; Jonathan Dollimore, Sexual Dissidence (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1991), part 4.

32. I set out this argument in Alan Sinfield, Literature in Protestant England, 1560-1660 (London: Croom Helm, 1983), ch. 4. See also Juliet Dusinberre, Shakespeare and the Nature of Women (London: Macmillan, 1976); Simon Shepherd, Amazons and Warrior Women (Brighton: Harvester, 1981), pp. 53-56, 107-18; Catherine Belsey, The Subject of Tragedy (London: Methuen, 1985), ch. 7; Dympna Callaghan, Woman and Gender in Renaissance Tragedy (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1989), ch. 2 et passim; McLuskie, Renaissance Dramatists, pp. 31-39, 50-55 et passim.

33. Certain Sermons or Homilies (London: Society for Promoting Religious Knowledge, 1899), p. 534.

34. Sir Philip Sidney, Arcadia, ed. Maurice Evans (Harmondsworth, Penguin Books, 1977), p. 501.

35. Robert Burton, The Anatomy of Melancholy, ed. Holbrook Jackson (London: Dent, 1932), 3:52-53.

36. Certain Sermons, p. 589.

37. Henry Smith, Works, with a memoir by Thomas Fuller (Edinburgh, 1886), 1: 32, 19.

38. Gerrard Winstanley, Works, ed. G. H. Sabine (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Press, 1941), p. 599.

39. William Perkins, Christian Economy (1609), in The Work of William Perkins, ed. Ian Breward (Abingdon: Sutton Courtenay Press, 1970), pp. 418-19.

40. Lawrence Stone, The Family, Sex and Marriage (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1977), p. 137. See also ibid., pp. 151-59, 178-91, 195-302; Charles and Katherine George, The Protestant Mind of the English Reformation (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1961), pp. 257-94; Christopher Hill, Society and Puritanism in Pre-Revolutionary England (London: Panther, 1969), pp. 429-67; Louis Adrian Montrose, "'Shaping Fantasies': Figurations of Gender and Power in Elizabethan Culture," in Stephen Greenblatt, ed., Representing the English Renaissance (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1988), pp. 37-40; Lisa Jardine, Still Harping on Daughters (Brighton: Harvester, 1983), ch. 3; Leonard Tennenhouse, Power on Display (London: Methuen, 1986), pp. 17-30, 147-54; Patrick Collinson, The Birthpangs of Protestant England (London: Macmillan, 1988, ch. 3.

41. Callaghan, Woman and Gender, p. 21; also pp. 19-22, 101-5. On women's scope for negotiation, see also Ann Rosalind Jones, The Currency of Eros: Women's Love Lyric in Europe, 1540-1620 (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1990), pp. 1-10.

42. Montrose, "'Shaping Fantasies,'" p. 37. For the thought that the men in Othello are preoccupied with their masculinity but ineffectual, see Carol Thomas Neely, Broken Nuptials in Shakespeare's Plays (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1985), pp. 119-22.

43. John Clarke, Stuart Hall, Tony Jefferson, and Brian Roberts, "Subcultures, Cultures and Class," in Stuart Hall and Tony Jefferson, eds., Resistance through Rituals (London: Hutchinson; Birmingham: Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies, 1976), p. 12. The final phrase is quoted from E. P. Thompson's essay "The Peculiarities of the English."

44. Giddens, Central Problems, p. 6. See further Raymond Williams, Marxism and Literature (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1977), pp. 108-27; Fredric Jameson, "Reification and Utopia in Mass Culture," Social Text 1 (1979): 144-48; Colin Gordon, "Afterword," in Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge (Brighton: Harvester, 1980).

45. Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality: Volume 1 , trans. Robert Hurley (New York: Random House, Vintage Books, 1980), pp. 95-96. Also, as Jonathan Culler has remarked, Foucault's exposure of the ubiquity of regulatory practices may itself be experienced as liberatory: Culler, Framing the Sign (Oxford: Blackwell, 1988), pp. 66-67.

46. Foucault, History of Sexuality, p. 101. See Jonathan Dollimore and Alan Sinfield, "Culture and Textuality: Debating Cultural Materialism," Textual Practice 4, no. 1 (Spring 1990): 91-100, p. 95; and Jonathan Dollimore, "Sexuality, Subjectivity and Transgression: The Jacobean Connection," Renaissance Drama , n.s., 17 (1986): 53-82.

47. Jonathan Goldberg, "Speculations: Macbeth and Source," in Howard and O'Connor, Shakespeare Reproduced , pp. 244, 247. See also Jonathan Goldberg, Writing Matter: From the Hands of the English Renaissance (Stanford: Stanford Univ. Press, 1990), esp. pp. 41-55.

48. Williams, Culture, pp. 94, 110; Keith Thomas, "The Meaning of Literacy in Early Modern England," in Gerd Baumann, ed., The Written Word: Literacy in Transition (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), pp. 116, 118.

49. Dollimore, "Shakespeare, Cultural Materialism, Feminism and Marxist Humanism," p. 482. See also Holstun, "Ranting at the New Historicism."

50. Dollimore and Sinfield, Political Shakespeare, p. 13; discussed in Dollimore and Sinfield, "Culture and Textuality." See also Alan Liu's argument that we need to consider not only subjects and representation, but action: Liu, "Power of Formalism," pp. 734-35.

51. Wayne, "New Historicism," in Kelsall, Coyle, Garside, and Peck, eds., Encyclopedia, pp. 801-2. See also Culler, Framing, p. 37; Porter, "History and Literature," pp. 253-56.

52. "The Political Function of the Intellectual," trans. Colin Gordon, Radical Philosophy 17 (1977): 12-15, p. 14; see Eve Tavor Bannet, Structuralism and the Logic of Dissent (London: Macmillan, 1989), pp. 170-83.

53. Raymond Williams, Marxism and Literature (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1977) p. 209.

Epigraphs: David Henry Hwang, M. Butterfly (New York: New American Library, 1989), p. 63; note Hwang's locution "supposed to act." Pope, Moral Essays 2.1-2.

1. The argument here formed part of a paper, " Othello and the Politics of Character," which I delivered at the University of Santiago de Compostella in 1987; it has been published in Manuel Barbeito, ed., In Mortal Shakespeare: Radical Readings (Santiago: Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 1989). The problem I have in mind has been observed by Lena Cowen Orlin in a paper, "Desdemona's Disposition," which she has kindly allowed me to see; it was delivered to the Shakespeare Association of America in 1987. See also Peter Stallybrass, "Patriarchal Territories: The Body Enclosed," in Margaret W. Ferguson, Maureen Quilligan, and Nancy J. Vickers, eds., Rewriting the Renaissance (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1986), p. 141; Kathleen McLuskie, Renaissance Dramatists (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1989), pp. 149-52; Dympna Callaghan, Woman and Gender in Renaissance Tragedy (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press International, 1989), pp. 91-93, pp. 116-17; and ch. 8.

2. Othello is quoted from the New Arden edition, ed. M. R. Ridley (London: Methuen, 1962).

3. Linda Woodbridge, Women and the English Renaissance (Brighton: Harvester, 1984), p. 195; cf. p. 327. Marvin Rosenberg says Desdemona has been seen as "a silly fool; an indelicate wanton; loving unnaturally; a sinful daughter; a deceiver; a moral coward; too gentle; a saint; a symbol" ( The Masks of Othello [Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1971], p. 305).

4. Shakespeare, Twelfth Night , ed. J. M. Lothian and T. W. Craik (London: Methuen, 1975), 2.4.115; see Lisa Jardine, Still Harping on Daughters , 2d ed. (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1989), pp. 181-93.

5. Catherine Belsey, The Subject of Tragedy (London: Methuen, 1985), p. 149

6. Leonard Tennenhouse observes: "Shakespeare does not differ from Iago in terms of the basis upon which gender distinctions should be made" ( Power on Display [London: Methuen, 1986], p. 126). See also Terry Eagleton, William Shakespeare (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986), p. 68; McLuskie, Renaissance Dramatists , p. 150.

7. Janet Adelman, "'This Is and Is Not Cressid': The Characterisation of Cressida," in Shirley Nelson Garner, Claire Kahane, and Madelon Sprengnether, eds., The (M)other Tongue: Essays in Feminist Psychoanalytic Interpretation (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Press, 1985), p. 140. However, Adelman believes that Desdemona "remains a vigorous and independent character, larger than Othello's fantasies of her" (p. 140).

8. Sigmund Freud, "Some Character-Types Met within Psycho-Analytic Work" (1916), in The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works , ed. James Strachey, vol. 14 (London: Hogarth Press, 1957), pp. 318-19;

reprinted in Alan Sinfield, ed., "Macbeth": A New Casebook (London: Macmillan, 1992).

9. E.g. A. W. Verity, ed., Macbeth (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1902, reprinted twenty-two times by 1952), pp. xxx-xxxiii. More recently, see Juliet Dusiberre, Shakespeare and the Nature of Women (London: Macmillan, 1975); Joan Larsen Klein, "Lady Macbeth: 'Infirm of purpose,'" in Carolyn Ruth Swift Lenz, Gayle Greene, and Carol Thomas Neely, eds., The Woman's Part (Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1980), pp. 241-44; David Norbrook, " Macbeth and the Politics of Historiography," in Kevin Sharpe and Steven N. Zwicker, eds., Politics of Discourse: The Literature and History of Seventeenth-Century England (Univ. of California Press, 1987), p. 104. However, Simon Shepherd turns the argument around, suggesting that Lady Macbeth mistakenly imagines that she must kill off the female in herself in order to be the partner Macbeth needs: her tragedy derives from this confusing of social and biological definitions of maleness ( Amazons and Warrior Women [Brighton: Harvester, 1981], pp. 38-39). Tennenhouse avoids "ascribing a psychological cause" to the presentation of Lady Macbeth ( Power on Display, p. 128), and Jardine regards her as frankly incredible, a ''nightmare" ( Still Harping, pp. 97-98).

10. G. Wilson Knight, The Wheel of Fire (1930; London: Methuen, 1949), p. 11. Cf. A. C. Bradley, Shakespearean Tragedy (1904; London: Macmillan, 1957).

11. L. C. Knights, "How Many Children Had Lady Macbeth?" (1933), in Knights, Explorations (London: Chatto, 1946).

12. Lily B. Campbell, Shakespeare's Tragic Heroes (1930; London, Methuen, 1961), p. vii; M. C. Bradbrook, Themes and Conventions in Elizabethan Tragedy (1935; Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1960), pp. 50, 54. On these earlier critics, see pp. 109-10, and John Drakakis, ed., Alternative Shakespeares (London: Methuen, 1985), pp. 9-12, 18-22.

13. Barbara Everett, Young Hamlet: Essays in Shakespeare's Tragedies (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), p. 103.

14. John Bayley, Shakespeare and Tragedy (London: Routledge, 1981), pp. 184, 164-66.

15. See Lenz, Greene, and Neely, Woman's Part ; Irene G. Dash, Wooing, Wedding and Power (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1981). I have addressed aspects of this approach in chapter 2.

16. Woodbridge, Women and the English Renaissance , p. 327.

17. Jonathan Goldberg, "Shakespearean Inscriptions: The Voicing of Power," in Patricia Parker and Geoffrey Hartman, eds., Shakespeare and the Question of Theory (London: Methuen, 1985), pp. 118-19.

18. Catherine Belsey, "Disrupting Sexual Difference: Meaning and Gender in the Comedies," in Drakakis, ed., Alternative Shakespeares , pp. 187-88; Julia Kristeva, "Women's Time," Signs 7 (1981): 13-35.

19. Joel Fineman, Shakespeare's Perjured Eye (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1986), pp. 25, 79-80, 82; see also pp. 42-43.

20. William Nigel Dodd, "Metalanguage and Character in Drama," Lingua e Stile 14 (1979): 135-50, pp. 136, 143-44; alluding to Peter Szondi, Theorie des modernen Dramas (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1956),

ch. 1. Dodd also discusses "out of character" speech to the audience, and ambiguous instances.

21. Belsey, Subject of Tragedy , p. 38 and ch. 2, with reference to Shakespeare, 3 Henry VI , ed. Andrew S. Cairncross (London: Methuen, 1964), 5.6.80-91.

22. Francis Barker, The Tremulous Private Body: Essays on Subjection (London: Methuen, 1984), pp. 31, 35-38. I discuss Hamlet partly in this light in chapter 9 below.

23. Simon Shepherd, Marlowe and the Politics of Elizabethan Theatre (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1986), p. 81, and ch. 3.

24. Dollimore, Radical Tragedy , 2d ed., p. xxxii; and see ch. 10.

25. Bradley, Shakespearean Tragedy , p. 7.

26. Jacqueline Rose, "Sexuality in the Reading of Shakespeare: Hamlet and Measure for Measure, " in Drakakis, ed., Alternative Shakespeares, p. 102.

27. Cf. Belsey, Subject of Tragedy, pp. 47, 51; McLuskie, Renaissance Dramatists , p. 136 and ch. 6. For another argument about the realism of Shakespeare's characters, see A. D. Nuttall, A New Mimesis (London and New York: Methuen, 1983), pp. 80-100, 163-81. Nuttall allows my position when he acknowledges that Jack the Giant Killer is not real like Falstaff (p. 100), but I think he would disagree with me on how far Shakespearean characters are like Jack the Giant Killer.

28. Twelfth Night, New Arden ed., 2.1; 3.3; 3.4.356-79; 5.1.74-90, 216-26. Molly M. Mahood concludes her introduction to the New Penguin edition of the play (Harmondsworth, 1968) with the suggestion that Antonio's is "the true voice of feeling" and perhaps a "rare revelation" of Shakespeare's "personal experience" (p. 39).

29. Orgel, "Nobody's Perfect: Or, Why Did the English Stage Take Boys for Women?" South Atlantic Quarterly 88 (1989): 7-29; Louis Adrian Montrose, "'Shaping Fantasies': Figurations of Gender and Power in Elizabethan Culture," in Stephen Greenblatt, ed., Representing the English Renaissance" (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1988), p. 36.

30. Stephen Greenblatt, Shakespearean Negotiations (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988), pp. 67-68.

31. E.g., Coppélia Kahn, Man's Estate (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1981), pp. 207-9. According to Kahn, the play ends with "men and women truly knowing themselves through choosing and loving the right mate" (p. 211). However, Olivia is appreciated as the principal threat to gender hierarchy in the play by Jean Howard, "Crossdressing, the Theater and Gender Struggle in Early Modern England," Shakespeare Quarterly 39 (1988): 418-40. For the view that Viola is no real challenge, see also Clara Clairborne Park, "As We Like It: How a Girl Can Be Smart and Still Popular," in Lenz, Greene, and Neely, Woman's Part , p. 108 et passim.

32. E.g., Juliet Dusinberre, Shakespeare and the Nature of Women (London: Macmillan, 1975), pp. 47-48.

33. See Jardine, Still Harping , pp. 78-80, 84-88, on some of the circumstances in which women might inherit and achieve some independence. I disagree with Stephen Greenblatt's expectation that courtship should be facilitated by the absence of males with whom Orsino would otherwise nego-

tiate; the play shows the opposite—that Orsino's courtship suffers from the absence of a sympathetic male to dominate Olivia on his behalf ( Shakespearean Negotiations, pp. 68-69). Compare Portia in The Merchant of Venice, who is controlled by her father even after his death.

34. E.g. Richard P. Wheeler, Shakespeare's Development and the Problem Comedies (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1981), p. 102; Howard, "Crossdressing," p. 432.

35. Woodbridge, Women and the English Renaissance, p. 238. See also Tennenhouse, Power on Display, pp. 63-68.

36. Montrose, "'Shaping Fantasies,'" p. 41.

37. John Webster, The Duchess of Malfi, in Jonathan Dollimore and Alan Sinfield, eds., The Selected Plays of John Webster (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1983), 1.1.7-9.

38. C. L. Barber, Shakespeare's Festive Comedy (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1959), pp. 244-45. Psychoanalytic criticism is likely to be reactionary here. For instance: " Twelfth Night traces the evolution of sexuality as related to identity, from the playful and unconscious toyings of youthful courtship, through a period of sexual confusion, to a final thriving in which swagger is left behind and men and women truly know themselves through choosing and loving the right mate"—so Kahn, Man's Estate , pp. 210-11.

39. Leslie Fiedler, The Stranger in Shakespeare (St Albans, Herts.: Paladin, 1974), pp. 76-79.

40. Callaghan, Woman and Gender , pp. 74-75 and ch. 5; see Pierre Macherey, A Theory of Literary Production , trans. Geoffrey Wall (London: Routledge, 1978); McLuskie, Renaissance Dramatists , p. 154.

41. See V. N. Volosinov, Marxism and the Philosophy of Language , trans. Ladislav Matejka and I. R. Titunik (New York and London: Seminar Press, 1973), pp. 17-24, 95-106.

42. Nicos Poulantzas, Political Power and Social Classes , trans. Timothy O'Hagan (London: New Left Books, 1973), p. 207.

43. See William Witherle Lawrence, Shakespeare's Problem Comedies (1931; New York: Ungar, 1960); E. M. W. Tillyard, Shakespeare's Problem Plays (London: Chatto, 1950); F. R. Leavis, The Common Pursuit (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1962), p. 169. The ending, Leavis continues, is "marvellously adroit, with an adroitness that expresses, and derives from, the poet's sure human insight and his fineness of ethical and poetic sensibility."

44. On the interinvolvement of the elements in a binary stereotype, see Homi Bhabha, "The Other Question," Screen 24, no. 6 (1983): 18-36, p. 34; and Sinfield, Literature, Politics and Culture , pp. 116-21.

45. Jardine, Still Harping , pp. 75, 119-20, 184-85. See Orlin, "Desdemona's Disposition"; McLuskie, Renaissance Dramatists , pp. 150-51.

46. Wheeler, Shakespeare's Development and the Problem Comedies , pp. 128-30; see Measure for Measure , ed. J. W. Lever (London: Methuen, 1965), 5.1.95-104. Steven Mullaney argues that having to speak as Mariana helps Isabella internalize Angelo's view of her ( The Place of the Stage [Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1988], pp. 108-11).

47. Callaghan, Woman and Gender , p. 67.

48. Edward A. Snow, "Sexual Anxiety and the Male Order of Things in Othello," English Literary Renaissance 10 (1980): 384-412.

49. Quoted by Karen Newman, "Femininity and Monstrosity in Othello ," in Jean E. Howard and Marion F. O'Connor, eds., Shakespeare Reproduced (London: Methuen, 1987), p. 152.

50. On Adams, see Alfred Van Rensselaer Westfall, American Shakespearean Criticism, 1607-1865 (New York: H. W. Wilson, 1939), pp. 224-26; and see Allan Bloom, Shakespeare's Politics (1964; Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1986), ch. 3. An alternative, of course, is to deny that Othello is really black: so Henry N. Hudson, replying to Adams (see Westfall, pp. 252-53), and M. R. Ridley in the introduction to the New Arden edition of Othello , pp. l-liv.

51. Peter Stallybrass, " Macbeth and Witchcraft," in John Russell Brown, ed., Focus on "Macbeth" (London: Routledge, 1982), p. 198. According to the historians Boece and Buchanan, Lady Macbeth and Macbeth did have a son and he was killed by Macduff, David Norbrook points out (" Macbeth and the Politics of Historiography," p. 89).

52. See Sinfield, Literature, Politics and Culture , pp. 116-21; and on Man, Jonathan Dollimore, Radical Tragedy , 2d ed. (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1989), chs. 10, 16.

1. Dictionary of National Biography, ed. Sidney Lee (London: Smith, Elder, 1909), 19: 118-19.

2. Miscellaneous Prose of Sir Philip Sidney, ed. Katherine Duncan-Jones and Jan van Dorsten (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973), p. 33.

3. Stephen Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1980), p. 209.

4. Stephen Greenblatt, "Invisible Bullets: Renaissance Authority and Its Subversion," Glyph 8 (1981): 40-61, p. 53.

5. Jonathan Goldberg, James I and the Politics of Literature (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1983), pp. 177, 116. The criticism of Greenblatt's "totalistic urge" is in Jonathan Goldberg, "The Politics of Renaissance Literature: A Review Essay," English Literary History 49 (1982): 514-42.

6. Greenblatt, "Invisible Bullets," p. 57; Goldberg, James I, p. 154.

7. Nicos Poulantzas, Political Power and Social Classes, trans. Timothy O'Hagan (London: New Left Books, 1975), pp. 161-62; see also pp. 168-72.

8. Perry Anderson, Lineages of the Absolute State (London: New Left Books, 1974), p. 142.

9. V. G. Kiernan, "State and Nation in Western Europe," Past and Present 31 (1965): 20-38, p. 33.

10. W. T. MacCaffrey, "England: The Crown and the New Aristocracy, 1540-1600," Past and Present 30 (1965): 52-64, p. 64.

11. Ernest William Talbert, The Problem of Order (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1962), p. 28.

12. See Norbert Elias, The Court Society, trans. Edmund Jephcott (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1983).

13. W. T. MacCaffrey, "Elizabethan Politics: The First Decade, 1558-1568," Past and Present 24 (1963): 25-41, p. 41.

14. W. T. MacCaffrey, "Place and Patronage in Elizabethan Politics," in Elizabethan Government and Society, ed. S. T. Bindoff, J. Hurstfield, and C. H. Williams (London: Athlone Press, 1961), p. 97.

15. I owe this point to conversations with Philippa Berry. See also Elias, Court Society, p. 42: "Everything that came from the king's wider possessions, from the realm, had to pass through the filter of the court before it could reach him; through the same filter everything from the king had to pass before it reached the country"; et passim.

16. See Stephen Orgel, The Illusion of Power (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1975), pp. 10-11, 14.

17. Louis Adrian Montrose, "Celebration and Insinuation: Sir Philip Sidney and the Motives of Elizabethan Courtship," Renaissance Drama, n.s., 8 (1977): 3-35, p. 15. For other evidence of the political scope of the masque, see Orgel, Illusion of Power, pp. 79-83; Marie Axton, "The Tudor Mask and Elizabethan Court Drama," in English Drama: Forms and Development, ed. Marie Axton and Raymond Williams (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1977), pp. 24-47; and Malcolm Smuts, "The Political Failure of Stuart Cultural Patronage," in Patronage in the Renaissance, ed. Guy Fitch Lytle and Stephen Orgel (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1981), pp. 165-87.

18. See MacCaffrey, "England: The Crown and the New Aristocracy," chapter 8.

19. The Prose Works of Fulke Greville, Lord Brooke, ed. John Gouws (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), p. 32.

20. W. D. Briggs, "Political Ideas in Sidney's Arcadia, " Studies in Philology 28 (1931): 137-61; "Sidney's Political Ideas," SP 29 (1932): 534-42. See also James E. Phillips, "George Buchanan and the Sidney Circle," Huntington Library Quarterly 12 (1948-49): 23-55.

21. Sir Philip Sidney, The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia, ed. Maurice Evans (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1977), pp. 452-53.

22. Frances A. Yates, Astraea: The Imperial Theme in the Sixteenth Century (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1977), pp. 88-94, 103-4; Roy Strong, The Cult of Elizabeth (London: Thames & Hudson, 1977), pp. 147-49.

23. See Anderson, Lineages , pp. 33-34; Poulantzas, Political Power and Social Classes, pp. 164-65; Michael Walzer, The Revolution of the Saints (New York: Atheneum, 1968), p. 241; MacCaffrey, "Elizabethan Politics: The First Decade," pp. 28-30.

24. The Prose Works of Sir Philip Sidney, ed. Albert Feuillerat (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1963), 3:166-67.

25. Ibid., p. 119; trans. Malcolm William Wallace, The Life of Sir Philip Sidney (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1915), p. 198.

26. Perez Zagorin, The Court and the Country (New York: Atheneum, 1970), pp. 54-55, 96-98.

27. Conyers Read, Mr. Secretary Walsingham and the Policy of Queen Elizabeth (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1925), 1:416; see also 2:14-22. Between 1562 and 1584, Leicester, Warwick, and Sir Henry Sidney supported Christopher Goodman, who was often in trouble for his propagation of puritan

arguments for tyrannicide and the limitation of monarchical rule (Phillips, "George Buchanan and the Sidney Circle," pp. 28-30).

28. Lucien Goldmann, The Hidden God, trans. Philip Thody (London: Routledge, 1964), p. 120 et passim.

29. Pierre Bourdieu, "Symbolic Power," in Identity and Structure: Issues in the Sociology of Education, ed. Denis Gleeson (Driffield: Nafferton Books, 1977), p. 116. And see Poulantzas, Political Power, pp. 84, 113-16, 203.

30. See Raymond Williams, Culture (Glasgow: Fontana, 1981), pp. 38-46, 98-108; and in the present volume, pp. 171-73.

31. Leonard Tennenhouse, "Sir Walter Ralegh and the Literature of Clientage," in Patronage in the Renaissance, ed. Lytle and Orgel, pp. 247-58.

32. John Fiske and John Hartley, Reading Television (London: Methuen, 1978), p. 105. See also Manfred Naumann, "Literary Production and Reception," New Literary History 8 (1976): 107-26.

1. Macbeth is quoted from the New Arden edition, ed. Kenneth Muir (London: Methuen, 1962). Since this chapter was written, I have become aware of two important essays that anticipate aspects of its argument. Harry Berger, Jr., "The Early Scenes of Macbeth: Preface to a New Interpretation," English Literary History 47 (1980): 1-31, shows how Duncan's Scotland is already subject to major structural political disturbance. David Norbrook, " Macbeth and the Politics of Historiography," in Kevin Sharpe and Steven N. Zwicker, eds., Politics of Discourse: The Literature and History of Seventeenth-Century England (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1987), shows the significance of George Buchanan's account of Macbeth and Scottish history, and argues that Shakespeare follows neither Buchanan's hostility to unreasoning submission to hierarchy and tradition, nor King James's line.

2. See chapters 2 and 4.

3. Perry Anderson, Lineages of the Absolute State (London: New Left Books, 1974), p. 18. On attitudes to government and Macbeth, see Michael Hawkins, "History, Politics and Macbeth, " in John Russell Brown, ed., Focus on "Macbeth" (London: Routledge, 1982).

4. King Richard II, ed. Peter Ure (London: Methuen, 1956), 5.1.59-61.

5. See chapter 6.

6. John Gerard, The Autobiography of an Elizabethan, trans. Philip Caraman (London: Longman, 1951), pp. 52-53.

7. The Political Works of James I, ed. Charles Howard McIlwain (New York: Russell & Russell, 1965), p. 18.

8. James I, Daemonologie (1597), Newes from Scotland (1591) (London: Bodley Head, 1924), p. 55.

9. See James I, The Trew Law of Free Monarchies, in Political Works, ed. McIlwain, pp. 56-61, 66.

10. Henry Paul, The Royal Play of "Macbeth" (New York: Octagon Books, 1978), p. 373.

11. Francis Bacon, Essays, introduction by Michael J. Hawkins (London: Dent, 1972), p. 160. See further Jonathan Dollimore, Radical Tragedy (Brighton: Harvester, 1984), esp. ch. 5.

12. Paul, Royal Play of "Macbeth," p. 196.

13. See W. D. Briggs, "Political Ideas in Sidney's Arcadia, " Studies in Philology 28 (1931): 137-61, and "Philip Sidney's Political Ideas," ibid. 29 (1932): 534-42.

14. See The Tyrannous Reign of Mary Stewart, George Buchanan's Account, trans. and ed. W. A. Gatherer (Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press, 1958), pp. 12-13; James E. Phillips, "George Buchanan and the Sidney Circle," Huntington Library Quarterly 12 (1948/49): 23-55; I. D. McFarlane, Buchanan (London: Duckworth, 1981), pp. 392-440.

15. The Tyrannous Reign of Mary Stewart, p. 49; see also p. 99.

16. Ibid., pp. 72, 86, 91, 111, 119, 145, 153; cf. Macbeth 3.1.48-56; 5.7.17-18; 3.5.130-31; 5.8.27-29.

17. See chapter 9.

18. However, as Jim McLaverty points out to me, the play has arranged that Macduff will not experience temptation from his wife. In the chronicles, Malcolm's son is overthrown by Donalbain; in Polanski's film of Macbeth, Donalbain is made to meet the Witches.

19. The Trew Law of Free Monarchies, in Political Works, ed. McIlwain, pp. 56-61; referring to 1 Sam. 8:9-20.

20. See Hunter, Macbeth (Penguin ed.), pp. 33-34; Dennis Bartholomeusz, "Macbeth" and the Players (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1969). On the Witches and the ideological roles of women in the play, see Peter Stallybrass, " Macbeth and Witchcraft," in Brown, ed., Focus on "Macbeth."

21. Muir in the New Arden Macbeth, p. xlix, quoting G. Wilson Knight, L. C. Knights, F. C. Kolbe, Derek Traversi. See also Irving Ribner, Patterns in Shakespearean Tragedy (London: Methuen, 1960), p. 153; Robert Ornstein, The Moral Vision of Jacobean Tragedy (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1965), p. 230; Hunter (Penguin ed.), p. 7.

22. Ribner, Patterns in Shakespearean Tragedy, p. 159.

23. Roger Scruton, The Meaning of Conservatism (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1980), p. 21.

24. A. C. Bradley, Shakespearean Tragedy, 2d ed. (London: Macmillan, 1965), p. 305; Wayne Booth, "Macbeth as Tragic Hero," Journal of General Education 6 (1951): revised for Shakespeare's Tragedies, ed. Laurence Lerner (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1963), p. 186. See also Hunter (Penguin ed.) pp. 26-29; Wilbur Sanders, The Dramatist and the Received Idea (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1968), pp. 282-307.

25. John Bayley, Shakespeare and Tragedy (London: Routledge, 1981), p. 199; see also p. 193. I am grateful for the stimulating comments of Russell Jackson, Tony Inglis, Peter Holland, and Jonathan Dollimore.

1. E. M. W. Tillyard, Shakespeare's History Plays (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1962), p. 21.

2. Lily B. Campbell, Shakespeare's Histories (London: Methuen, 1964), pp. 3-4.

3. Tillyard, Shakespeare's History Plays, pp. 69, 237.

4. Campbell, Shakespeare's Histories, p. 6.

5. Jan Kott, Shakespeare Our Contemporary, 2d ed. (London: Methuen, 1967), pp. 14, 39.

6. See Jacques Derrida, Writing and Difference, trans. Alan Bass (London: Routledge, 1978), p. 19; and Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology, trans. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1976), p. 315.

7. See Alan Sinfield, ed., Society and Literature, 1945-1970 (London: Methuen, 1983), pp. 94-105; Jonathan Dollimore and Alan Sinfield, eds., Political Shakespeare (Manchester: Manchester Univ. Press, 1985), pp. 131-33, 160-64.

8. Wilbur Sanders, The Dramatist and the Received Idea (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1968), pp. 157, 166, and also p. 190.

9. Cf. ibid., pp. 183-85.

8. Wilbur Sanders, The Dramatist and the Received Idea (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1968), pp. 157, 166, and also p. 190.

9. Cf. ibid., pp. 183-85.

10. G. K. Hunter, Dramatic Identities and Cultural Tradition (Liverpool: Liverpool Univ. Press, 1978), pp. 251-52.

11. A materialist criticism will be concerned with aspects of ideology additional to those dealt with here, and our emphasis on ideology as legitimation, though crucial, should not be taken as an exhaustive definition of the topic. For a fuller discussion of ideology and subjectivity, see Dollimore, Radical Tragedy, esp. chs. 1, 10, 16; Dollimore and Sinfield, eds., Political Shakespeare ; and, more generally, Janet Wolff, The Social Production of Art (London: Macmillan, 1981), esp. ch. 3.

12. See Stephen Orgel, "Making Greatness Familiar," in Stephen Greenblatt, ed., The Power of Forms in the English Renaissance (Norman, Okla.: Pilgrim Books, 1982).

13. Ian Breward, ed., The Work of William Perkins (Abingdon: Sutton Courtenay Press, 1970), p. 150.

14. Ibid., p. 449.

15. Lancelot Andrewes, Works (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1841), 1:325.

16. Shakespeare, Henry V, ed. John H. Walter (London: Methuen, 1954), 1.2.211-12.

17. See pp. 175-81, 199-200, and Alan Sinfield, Literature in Protestant England, 1550-1660 (London: Croom Helm, 1983), ch. 7.

18. This distinction derives from (but also differs from) Anthony Giddens, A Contemporary Critique of Historical Materialism (London: Macmillan, 1981), 1:231-37.

19. See Raymond Williams, Marxism and Literature (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1977), pp. 121-27.

20. John Strype, The Life and Acts of John Whitgift (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1822), 1:524-26. See further Felicity Heal, Of Prelates and Princes (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1980).

21. J. E. Neale, Elizabeth I and Her Parliaments, 1584-1601 (London: Cape, 1957), pp. 309-10; Lucy de Bruyn, Mob-Rule and Riots (London: Regency, 1981), p. 36.

22. William Hunt, The Puritan Moment (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1983), pp. 33, 60-61.

23. See Perry Anderson, Lineages of the Absolute State (London: New Left Books, 1974), pp. 16-59, 113-42; W. T. MacCaffrey, "England: The Crown and the New Aristocracy, 1540-1600," Past and Present 30 (1965): 52-64.

24. G. B. Harrison, The Life and Death of Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex (London: Cassell, 1937), p. 102 and chs. 9-12.

25. Ibid., pp. 214-15. See in the present volume pp. 40-41.

26. Geoffrey Bullough, Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare, vol. 4, Later English History Plays (London: Routledge, 1966), p. 386.

27. Andrewes, Works, 1:326.

28. See Gary Taylor's note to these lines in his Oxford edition of Henry V (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1982).

29. Hunt, Puritan Moment, p. 60; de Bruyn, Mob-Rule, p. 62; for further instances see Hunt, p. 50; and de Bruyn, p. 26.

30. Philip Edwards, Threshold of a Nation (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1979), pp. 75-78, referring to Henry V 3.2.125-27. Edwards shows how an Irish captain who had been in Essex's army made a protest similar to that of Macmorris.

31. David Williams, A History of Modern Wales, 2d ed. (London: John Murray, 1977), ch. 3.

32. Paul L. Hughes and James F. Larkin, Tudor Royal Proclamations (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1969), 3:134-35.

33. Edwards, Threshold, pp. 74-86. See David Beers Quinn, The Elizabethans and the Irish (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Press, 1966), chs. 4, 5, and 7.

34. Richard Levin, "The Poetics and Politics of Bardicide," PMLA 105 (1990): 491-504.

35. Edmund Spenser, A View of the Present State of Ireland, ed. W. L. Renwick (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970), p. 104.

36. Hughes and Larkin, Tudor Royal Proclamations, 3:201.

37. George L. Geckle, "Politics and Sexuality in Shakespeare's Second Tetralogy," in H. W. Matalene, Romanticism and Culture: A Tribute to Morse Peckham (Columbia, S.C.: Camden House, 1984), pp. 130-31. The second half of the present chapter is new; Jonathan Dollimore and I have sometimes been asked why we did not address the sexual politics of Henry V in this essay as it appeared in Alternative Shakespeares, edited by John Drakakis. The answer is that other essays in Alternative Shakespeares were to do that (see the fine contributions of Jacqueline Rose and Catherine Belsey), and we had a strict word limit in which to attempt the complex topic of ideology.

38. Linda Bamber, Comic Women, Tragic Men (Stanford: Stanford Univ. Press, 1982), p. 152; Peter Erickson, Patriarchal Structures in Shakespeare's Drama (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1985), p. 62. This is like Wilbur Sanders's centering of individuals in the history plays (see n. 8 above).

39. See Dollimore, in Dollimore and Sinfield, eds., Political Shakespeare, pp. 72-80.

40. Coppélia Kahn, Man's Estate (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1981), p. 47; Bamber, Comic Women, pp. 135, 164-65; Erickson, Patriarchal

Structures, pp. 61-62. However, Phyllis Rackin argues that women are potentially subversive in Shakespearean history plays, that this subversion works only momentarily in 1 Henry VI, and that it is effective in King John (Rackin, Stages of History [Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Press, 1990], ch. 4). See also Jean Howard, "'Effeminately Dolent': Gender and Legitimacy in Ford's Perkin Warbeck, " in Michael Neill, ed., John Ford: Critical Re-Visions (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1988), pp. 263, 278, et passim.

41. 1.2.91-92. Here, no doubt significantly, but I am no Freudian, Coppélia Kahn slips, and says, "Henry bases his claim to the French crown on the Salic Law, which forbids inheritance through the female" ( Man's Estate, p. 79). It is the other way round: Henry's title depends on denying that Salic law applies, he claims to inherit through the female line.

42. Rackin, Stages of History, p. 191; also pp. 167-68.

43. Shakespeare, 1 Henry IV, ed. A. R. Humphreys (London: Methuen, 1960), 1.3.28-68.

44. Shakespeare, Richard II, ed. Peter Ure (London: Methuen, 1966), 5.3.7, 10-12.

45. Richard III, ed. Antony Hammond (London: Methuen, 1981), 3.7.210; Romeo and Juliet, ed. Brian Gibbons (London: Methuen, 1980), 3.1.116.

46. 1 Henry IV 1.2.2-4, 3.3.150-52; Richard II 5.3.7. In an essay forth-coming in Renaissance Drama (1991), "Wales, Ireland, and 1 Henry IV, " Christopher Highley shows how 1 Henry IV, like other contemporary documents, imagines the threat from the Celtic fringe in terms of the overthrow of a masculine English identity through castration.

47. In Elaine Showalter, ed., The New Feminist Criticism (London: Virago, 1986), p. 278. Coppélia Kahn, partly following W. H. Auden in The Dyer's Hand (New York: Random House, 1963), p. 196, says Falstaff avoids "sexual maturity," desires food and drink more than women, and gives "his own deepest affections to a boy" (Kahn, Man's Estate, pp. 72-73). Of course, Auden and Kahn are hinting, darkly, at homosexuality.

48. Shakespeare, 2 Henry IV, ed. A. R. Humphreys (London: Methuen, 1966), 4.4.31-33; 5.4.

49. Howard, "'Effeminately Dolent,'" p. 275. Howard argues that Perkin Warbeck in John Ford's play of that name (c. 1632) is "'contaminated' by traffic with the feminine," that his courtship is unlike that of Henry V, and that it all shows "the faltering, but hardly the collapse, of the machinery of patriarchal absolutism" (pp. 272, 276).

50. In the New Arden edition, John H. Walter says "the effeminate Dauphin is riding a lady's horse" (p. 84), but Gary Taylor in the Oxford edition says this need not be so, discerning no "signs of effeminacy in the Dauphin" (p. 197). Erickson says the Dauphin is "a travesty of masculinity" ( Patriarchal Structures, p. 55).

51. Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, Between Men: English Literature and Male Homosocial Desire (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1985), pp. 25, 5, and pp. 1-27, passim. See Stephen Orgel, "Nobody's Perfect: Or Why Did the English Stage Take Boys for Women?" South Atlantic Quarterly 88 (1989):

7-29; Alan Bray, Homosexuality in Renaissance England (London: Gay Men's Press, 1982); and Alan Bray's important new article: ''Homosexuality and the Signs of Male Friendship in Elizabethan England," History Workshop 29 (1990): 1-19.

52. See Ian Maclean, The Renaissance Notion of Women (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1980); Thomas Laqueur, "Orgasm, Generation, and the Politics of Reproductive Biology," Representations 14 (1986): 1-41; Greenblatt, "Fiction and Friction," in Stephen Greenblatt, Shakespearean Negotiations (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988), pp. 73-86.

53. J. E. Neale, Queen Elizabeth (London: Cape, 1934), p. 279.

54. Troilus and Cressida, ed. Kenneth Palmer (London: Methuen, 1982), 3.3.216-19; Orgel, "Nobody's Perfect," pp. 14-15. Rebecca W. Bushnell observes that tyrants were said to be "effeminate"—subject to their lusts, mainly in respect of women ( Tragedies of Tyrants [Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Press, 1990], pp. 63-69).

55. Spenser, View, ed. Renwick, pp. 69-70. Spenser says he is quoting Aristotle, but Renwick says it is an elaboration of Herodotus (p. 206).

56. For Erickson, this "set piece is a microcosm of the historical as well as psychological escapism implicit in Henry V's heroic impulse" ( Patriarchal Structures, p. 54).

57. See Norman Rabkin, "Rabbits, Ducks and Herny V, " Shakespeare Quarterly 28 (1977): 279-96; Kahn, Man's Estate, pp. 79-80; Colin MacCabe, "Towards a Modern Trivium—English Studies Today," Critical Quarterly 26 (1984): 69-82, p. 72; Leonard Tennenhouse, Power on Display (New York: Methuen, 1986), p. 71; Erickson, Patriarchal Structures, pp. 59-63; Lance Wilcox, "Katherine of France as Victim and Bride," Shakespeare Studies 17 (1985): 61-76.

58. Taylor, ed., Henry V (Oxford ed.), p. 270.

59. Kahn, Man's Estate, p. 79; Bamber, Comic Women, p. 146.

60. Wilcox, "Katherine of France," p. 66.

61. Shakespeare, 1 Henry VI, ed. Andrew S. Cairncross (London: Methuen, 1962), 1.1.35, 5.4.107. Coppélia Kahn quotes the prophecy that there will be "none but women left to wail the dead" ( 1 Henry VI 1.1.51) and observes "the fear that without the masculine principle of succession the race will become impotent and feminized" (Kahn, Man's Estate, p. 62).

62. Spenser, View, ed. Renwick, pp. 66-68. See also the notes in Rudolf Gottfried, ed., Spenser's Prose Works, in Edwin Greenlaw, Charles Grosvenor Osgood, Frederick Morgan Padelford, and Ray Heffner, eds., The Works of Edmund Spenser: A Variorum Edition (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1949), pp. 349-51.

1. See Roger Howell, Sir Philip Sidney: The Shepherd Knight (London: Hutchinson, 1968), chs. 1, 2, 5, 8, 10, et passim; James M. Osborn, Young Philip Sidney, 1572-1577 (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1972); Michael Walzer, The Revolution of the Saints (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press,

1965), pp. 116 and 241, and also pp. 66-74, 236-47; Martin Bergbush, "Rebellion in the New Arcadia, " Philological Quarterly 53 (1974): 29-41; David Norbrook, Poetry and Politics in the English Renaissance (London: Routledge, 1984), ch. 4 and chs. 3-6.

2. Patrick Collinson, The Elizabethan Puritan Movement (London: Cape, 1967); Christopher Hill, Society and Puritanism in Pre-Revolutionary England (London: Secker & Warburg, 1964; Panther, 1969), ch. 1; Peter Lake, Moderate Puritans and the Elizabethan Church (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1982).

3. The Thirty-nine Articles are printed at the end of the Church of England Book of Common Prayer . See Charles H. and Katherine George, The Protestant Mind of the English Reformation (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1961); J. F. New, Anglican and Puritan (London: Black, 1964); Andrew D. Weiner, Sir Philip Sidney and the Poetics of Protestantism (Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1978), pp. 8-18.

4. Certain Sermons or Homilies (London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1899), pp. 26-27 (cited hereafter as Homilies ).

5. Theodore Spencer, Shakespeare and the Nature of Man, 2d ed. (London: Macmillan, 1958), p. 157.

6. However, from about 1970 literary studies began to engage with early modern protestantism. See Roland Mushat Frye, Shakespeare and Christian Doctrine (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1963); William R. Elton, "King Lear" and the Gods (San Marino, Calif.: Huntington Library, 1968); William G. Halewood, The Poetry of Grace (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1970); Dominic Baker-Smith, "Religion and John Webster," in Brian Morris, ed., John Webster (London: Benn, 1970); H. A. Kelly, Divine Providence in the England of Shakespeare's Histories (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1970); Ivor Morris, Shakespeare's God (London: Allen & Unwin, 1972); Paul R. Sellin,"The Hidden God," in R. S. Kinsman, ed., The Darker Vision of the Renaissance (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1974); Robert G. Hunter, Shakespeare and the Mystery of the Gods (Athens, Ga.: Univ. of Georgia Press, 1976); Stevie Davies, Renaissance Views of Man (Manchester: Manchester Univ. Press, 1978); Weiner, Sir Philip Sidney and the Poetics of Protestantism ; Barbara Kiefer Lewalski, Protestant Poetics and the Seventeenth-Century Religius Lyric (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1979); Margot Heinemann, Puritanism and Theatre (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1980); Stephen Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1980); A. D. Nuttall, Overheard by God (London: Methuen, 1980); John Carey, John Donne: Life, Mind and Art (London: Faber, 1981); John N. King, English Reformation Literature (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1982); Jonathan Dollimore, Radical Tragedy (1984), 2d ed. (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1989); Anthea Hume, Edmund Spenser: Protestant Poet (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1984); Norbrook, Poetry and Politics; Gene Edward Veith, Jr., Reformation Spirituality. The Religion of George Herbert (London and Toronto: Associated Univ. Presses, 1985); Ernest B. Gilman, Iconoclasm and Poetry in the English Reformation (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1986); David Morse, England's Time of Crisis: From Shakespeare to Milton (London: Macmillan, 1989).

7. Hugh Kearney, Scholars and Gentlemen: Universities and Society in Pre-industrial Britain, 1500-1700 (London: Faber, 1970), pp. 22-35; see also Ronald A. Rebholz, The Life of Fulke Greville (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), pp. 11-12.

8. Anthony Grafton and Lisa Jardine, From Humanism to the Humanities (London: Duckworth, 1986), pp. xii-xiv, also pp. 22-26 and ch. 7.

9. Jonathan Goldberg, Writing Matter: From the Hands of the English Renaissance (Stanford: Stanford Univ. Press, 1990), p. 3, quoting Claude Lévi-Strauss, Tristes Tropiques , trans. John and Doreen Weightman (New York: Atheneum, 1974), p. 300. See also Goldberg, pp. 2-7 and 41-55; and Brian V. Street, Literacy in Theory and Practice (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1984).

10. Goldberg, Writing Matter, p. 41, quoting Keith Thomas, "The Meaning of Literacy in Early Modern England," in Gerd Baumann, ed., The Written Word: Literacy in Transition (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), p. 117.

11. Louis L. Martz, The Poetry of Meditation, rev. ed. (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1962), pp. 15-20, also 43-56. Cf. Lewalski, Protestant Poetics, pp. 264-75, and chs. 5, 8.

12. Like Lewalski ( Protestant Poetics, pp. 264-65), I follow the ordering of the Holy Sonnets in the 1635 manuscript, made conventional by Grierson; quoting from the modernized text edited by A. J. Smith: John Donne, The Complete English Poems (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1971), pp. 309-17. See further Lewalski, Protestant Poetics, pp. 13-27 and ch. 8; Adrian James Pinnington, "Reformation Themes and Tensions in John Donne's 'Divine Poems' "(diss., University of Sussex, 1983); Thomas Docherty, John Donne, Undone (London: Methuen, 1986).

13. Sermon Preached at Whitehall, April 19, 1618: George R. Potter and Evelyn M. Simpson, The Sermons of John Donne (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1953-62), 1:293. Donne makes other emphases at other points; my argument does not require that he be consistent: see Halewood, Poetry of Grace, pp. 58-65; John Carey, John Donne, pp. 241-45. Carey sees Donne's struggle with orthodoxy as a specially personal alarm consequent upon Donne's change from Catholicism. But most sixteenth-century protestants had been born into Catholic families. I disagree here also with the reading of Veith, Reformation Spirituality, ch. 5.

14. Herbert's poems are quoted from The English Poems of George Herbert, ed. C. A. Patrides (London: Dent, 1974); see also the poem "Grace." And see Halewood, Poetry of Grace, ch. 4; Lewalski, Protestant Poetics, pp. 285-87 and ch. 9; Veith, Reformation Spirituality .

15. See ch. 10 and Sinfield, Literature, Politics and Culture, ch. 4.

16. David Williams, A History of Modern Wales, 2d ed. (London: John Murray, 1977), pp. 150, 155-56, 246, 260-64; Chronicle (Newspaper for the Tanat and Cain Valleys), no. 119, July 1990, p. 2.

17. Howell, Sir Philip Sidney, pp. 128-29; Rebholz, Life of Fulke Greville, p. 10; Exploring Shropshire (Church Stretton: Scenesetters, 1990), p. 1.

18. Michael D. Bristol, Shakespeare's America, America's Shakespeare (London: Routledge, 1990), p. 154 (quoting Theodore Spencer, Shakespeare and the Nature of Man, p. 1), and see ch. 6.

19. Louis Montrose, "Professing the Renaissance," in H. Aram Veeser, ed., The New Historicism (London: Routledge, 1989), p. 24.

20. The Norton Anthology of English Literature, 5th ed. (New York: Norton, 1986), 1:1033-44.

21. Claire Cross, Church and People, 1450-1660 (Glasgow: Fontana, 1976), p. 153; see H. C. Porter, Reformation and Reaction in Tudor Cambridge (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1958), p. 264.

22. Sinfield, "Against Appropriation," Essays in Criticism 31(1981): 181-95.

23. "Four Ways with a Reactionary Text," LTP: The Journal of Literature Teaching Politics 2 (1983): 81-95; for an elaboration of the argument of this paper, see pp. 21-22 above. This issue of the journal has long been out of print; the last issue was no. 6, published at Bristol in 1987.

24. Jonathan Culler, Framing the Sign (Oxford: Blackwell, 1988), pp. 71, 78. Culler considers William Empson's work in this light.

25. John Calvin, Calvin's Institutes [trans. Henry Beveridge] (Florida: MacDonald Publishing, n.d.), 3.8.10, 3.7.10; cited hereafter in the text as Institutes .

26. E. Gordon Rupp and Philip S. Watson, eds., Luther and Erasmus (London: SCM, 1969), p. 228.

27. Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologica, pt. 1, quest. 23, art. 1.

28. Ian Breward, ed., The Work of William Perkins (Abingdon: Sutton Courtenay Press, 1970), pp. 142, 144. On widespread indifference to Christianity, see Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic (Harmondsworth: Peregrine, 1978), pp. 183-88, 198-206; Keith Wrightson, English Society, 1580-1680 (London: Hutchinson, 1982), pp. 199-214. On survivals of Catholicism, see J. J. Scarisbrick, The Reformation and the English People (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984), chs. 7, 8.

29. Thomas Nashe, The Unfortunate Traveller and Other Works, ed. J. B. Steane (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1972), p. 68. See G. T. Buckley, Atheism in the English Renaissance (New York: Russell, 1965); Herschel Baker, The Wars of Truth (London: Staples, 1952); Hiram Haydn, The Counter-Renaissance (New York: Scribner's, 1950); Elton, "King Lear" and the Gods; Dollimore, Radical Tragedy, chs. 1, 5.

30. Conrad Russell, The Crisis of Parliaments (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1971), p. 200; Michel de Montaigne, Essays, trans. John Florio (London: Dent, 1965), 2:126-27.

31. See C. M. Dent, Protestant Reformers in Elizabethan Oxford (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1983), Pp. 93-102; Joan Simon, Education and Society in Tudor England (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1967), pp. 331-32.

32. Edmund Grindal, Remains (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1843), p. 339.

33. E.g., in 1563 we find the puritan Grindal suppressing the Dutch sponsor of the Family of Love, Justus Velsius, who held that Christ is "God in man" and that "all Christians are gods" (Grindal, Remains, pp. 439-40).

34. John Ayre, ed., The Works of John Whitgift (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1853), 3:612; see Powel Mills Dawley, John Whitgift and the

Reformation (London: Black, 1955), pp. 214-21. Even Lancelot Andrewes retained the substantial force of Reformation doctrine on human capacity and the priority of grace: see New, Anglican and Puritan, pp. 12-13. Andrewes was confident that most people will be damned: "The greatest part of the world by far are entered upon and held by the unholy spirit"( Works [Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1841], 6:191). See George and George, Protestant Mind, pp. 53-70; Lake, Moderate Puritans, ch. 9.

35. Dent, Protestant Reformers, pp. 220-31, 238-39; Kearney, Scholars and Gentlemen, pp. 44-45.

36. See Nicholas Tyacke, "Puritanism, Arminianism, and Counter-Revolution," in Conrad Russell, ed., The Origins of the English Civil War (London: Macmillan, 1973); A. G. Dickens, The English Reformation (London: Batsford, 1964), pp. 313-21; Russell, Crisis of Parliaments, pp. 209-17, 237-40, 313-17; Nicholas Tyacke, Anti-Calvinists: The Rise of English Arminianism, c. 1590-1640 (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1987); Peter Lake, "Anti-Popery: The Structure of a Prejudice," in Richard Cust and Ann Hughes, eds., Conflict in Early Stuart England (London: Longman, 1989). On the Calvinism of James and his maintaining of this theology, see Cross, Church and People, pp. 162-74.

37. Homilies, p. 60. Greenblatt remarks that Catholics had been affirming the idea of the inner life of individuals, but the Reformation pushed Catholic apologists into asserting external authority ( Renaissance Self-Fashioning, p. 99).

38. Rupp and Watson, eds., Luther and Erasmus, p. 137.

39. Richard Sibbes, The Soul's Conflict, 1635 (London: Religious Tract Society, 1837) p. 323; so, too, Work of William Perkins, ed. Breward, pp. 155-58. See Christopher Hill, The World Turned Upside Down (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1975), pp. 152-55.

40. Andrewes, Works, 2:72; M. M. Knappen, ed., Two Elizabethan Puritan Diaries (Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith, 1966), p. 55.

41. George Herbert, Works in Prose and Verse (London: Frederick Warne, n.d.), p. 317.

42. Joseph Hall, Works, ed. Josiah Pratt (London: 1808), 1:344.

43. Rupp and Watson, eds., Luther and Erasmus, p. 88.

44. Ibid., p. 138.

45. Ibid., pp. 327-28. Calvin uses the image ( Institutes 2.4.1), deriving it from Augustine.

46. Hugh Latimer, Selected Sermons, ed. A. R. Buckland (London: Religious Tract Society, 1904), p. 9.

47. An Instruction touching Religious Worship (1601), in Work of William Perkins, ed. Breward, p. 313.

48. William Tyndale, in Writings of Tindal, Frith and Barnes (London: Religious Tract Society, n.d.), p. 18; emphasis added. See Thomas F. Merrill, ed., William Perkins (Nieuwkoop: B. de Graaf, 1966), pp. 169-72.

49. Walzer, Revolution of the Saints, pp. 307-8. See also Hill, World Turned Upside Down, pp. 170-82. And cf. Knappen, ed., Two Elizabethan Puritan Diaries, pp. 14-16; Robert Burton, The Anatomy of Melancholy, ed. Holbrook Jackson (London: Dent, 1932), 3:392-432.

50. Carey, John Donne, p. 57.

51. Knappen, ed., Two Elizabethan Puritan Diaries, p. 62.

52. Ibid., pp. 119, 106. Daniel Dyke is typical: "The deceitfulness of our hearts must cause us daily to keep an audit in our own conscience, ever and anon calling them to their accounts" ( The Mystery of Selfe-Deceiving [London: William Stansby, 1633], p. 367).

53. Halewood, Poetry of Grace, p. 80.

54. "Dialogue of the State of a Christian Man" (1588), in Work of William Perkins, ed. Breward, p. 368.

55. See Nuttall, Overheard by God, pp. 32-82.

56. Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality: Volume 1, trans. Robert Hurley (New York: Random House, Vintage Books, 1980), pp. 61-62.

57. Merrill, ed., William Perkins, p. 9.

58. Tyndale, Writings, pp. 67-68. Greenblatt remarks: "To be left alone, unregarded and self-governing, is far worse than to be punished" ( Renaissance Self-Fashioning, p. 125).

59. Louis Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays, trans. Ben Brewster (London: New Left Books, 1971), p. 167.

60. Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning, p. 9.

61. Karl Marx, Early Writings, ed. and trans. T. B. Bottomore (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964), p. 53. Marx adds that this did "pose the problem correctly": in terms of the struggle with one's " own internal priest ."

62. E. G. Rupp and Benjamin Drewery, eds., Martin Luther (London: Arnold, 1970), p. 60.

63. Tyndale, Writings, pp. 159, 275, 50, 303.

64. Burton, Anatomy of Melancholy, 3:332; Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy, p. 169.

65. The Psalmes of David and others. With M. John Calvins Commentaries, trans. Arthur Golding (London: Tho. East and H. Middleton, 1571), vol. 1, "To the Reader"; Richard Sibbes takes the same approach in the opening section of The Soul's Conflict (1635). See Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning, pp. 115-26; Lewalski, Protestant Poetics and the Seventeenth-Century Religious Lyric, pp. 131-34, 136-38.

66. Calvin, Psalmes of David, Preface.

67. Martin Luther, "Preface to the Psalms," trans. Bertram Lee Woolf, in Martin Luther, Selections from his Writings, ed. John Dillinger (New York: Doubleday, 1961), p. 41; Althusser says ideology is internalized in a process of double mirroring ( Lenin and Philosophy, p. 168).

68. Patrick McGrath, Papists and Puritans under Elizabeth I (London: Blandford Press, 1967), pp. 311-12, 349.

69. Francis Bacon, Essays, intr. Oliphant Smeaton (London: Dent, 1906), p. 11.

70. Simon, Education and Society, p. 177.

71. McGrath, Papists and Puritans, pp. 116-21, 300-313; Cross, Church and People, pp. 143-46. On control of preaching, see Hill, Society and Puritanism, pp. 33-44. For instances of theater censorship, see E. K. Chambers, The Elizabethan Stage (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1923), vol. 1, ch. 10; also Heinemann, Puritanism and Theatre .

72. Patrick Collinson, The Religion of Protestants (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1982), p. 150 and ch. 4; also Russell, Crisis of Parliaments, pp. 202-5, 210, 240, and Kearney, Scholars and Gentlemen, pp. 34-36.

73. John Morgan, Godly Learning: Puritan Attitudes towards Reason, Learning, and Education, 1560-1640 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1986), p. 86, and see p. 97.

74. Hill, World Turned Upside Down, p. 155; see Walzer, Revolution of the Saints, pp. 30-47.

75. Lawrence Stone, The Family, Sex and Marriage in England, 1500-1800 (London: Weidenfeld, 1977).

76. Shakespeare, 1 Henry IV, ed. A. R. Humphreys (London: Methuen, 1967), 3.2.4-11.

77. Hall, Works, 1:xxvi. See Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic, ch. 4.

78. Carey, John Donne, p. 123.

79. Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic, p. 194, and see p. 180.

80. Tyndale, Writings, pp. 61-62.

81. Ibid., p. 61. In Perkins's account of the body politic, "there be several members which are men walking in several callings and offices, the execution whereof must tend to the happy and good estate of the rest, yea, of all men everywhere, as much as possible is" ( Of the Vocations or Callings of Men, in Work of William Perkins, ed. Breward, p. 449).

82. Hill, World Turned Upside Down, p. 153; Patrick Collinson, The Birthpangs of Protestant England (London: Macmillan, 1988), p. 148, also pp. 143-52 and chs. 1-2.

83. Hill, Society and Puritanism, p. 131, and ch. 4. Wrightson says Reformation doctrine was most influential among "a minority of the gentry, the yeomen and craftsmen of the villages, and the merchants, tradesmen and artisans of the towns" ( English Society, pp. 213-14).

84. The Prose Works of Sir Philip Sidney, ed. Albert Feuillerat (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1963), 3:125. See Walzer, Revolution of the Saints, pp. 66-74, 116, 236-47; New, Anglican and Puritan, pp. 87-91; Claire Cross, The Puritan Earl (London: Macmillan, 1966), p. 4; Rebholz, Life of Fulke Greville, pp. 11-12.

85. See Knappen, ed., Two Elizabethan Puritan Diaries, pp. 29, 31-32; Eleanor Rosenberg, Leicester, Patron of Letters (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1955), ch. 6; Rosemary O'Day, The English Clergy: The Emergence and Consolidation of a Profession, 1558-1642 (Leicester: Leicester Univ. Press, 1979), ch. 7; Cross, Church and People, p. 153, and ch. 7.

86. Latimer, Selected Sermons, ed. Buckland, pp. 90, 80.

87. O'Day, English Clergy, p. 27; O'Day shows in her chs. 4, 5, and 10 the extent to which this was changed. See also Simon, Education and Society, pp. 397-403; Dent, Protestant Reformers, chs. 7, 9; Hill, Society and Puritanism, chs. 2, 3; Collinson, Birthpangs of Protestant England, pp. 40-46; Morgan, Godly Learning .

88. John Brinsley the Younger, The Preachers Charge and the People's Duty (1631), pp. 4, 7, quoted in Morgan, Godly Learning, p. 81; see also Scarisbrick, Reformation and the English People, pp. 165-70.

89. O'Day, English Clergy, pp. 1-2, 126, 159-60, 189, 234, and chs. 10, 12, 16; see Morgan, Godly Learning, pp. 79-89.

90. See Sinfield, Literature, Politics and Culture, pp. 271-73; Wrightson, English Society, p. 209; Goldberg, Writing Matter, pp. 41-49.

91. Hill, Society and Puritanism, p. 98 and ch. 3, passim. See also Collinson, Birthpangs of Protestant England, pp. 56-58, 149-52; O'Day, English Clergy, ch. 14.

92. Hill, Society and Puritanism, pp. 135-40; Russell, Crisis of Parliaments, pp. 201, 204, 222-29, 237-40; Felicity Heal, Of Prelates and Princes (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1980).

93. Collinson, Religion of Protestants, p. 182.

94. William Haller, The Rise of Puritanism (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1938), p. 168. See Hill, Society and Puritanism, p. 241; Robert Weimann, "Discourse, Ideology and the Crisis of Authority in Post-Reformation England," REAL: The Yearbook of Research in English and American Literature 5 (1987): 109-40.

95. Dollimore, Radical Tragedy, p. 14.

96. See Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning, pp. 57, 143, 151, 154, 161, 220. However, cf. p. 152, where "the conflicting cultural codes that fashion male identity in Tudor court lyrics" are invoked (though hardly specified).

97. Walzer, Revolution of the Saints, pp. 1-21, 95-98, 114-30, 310-20; Savonarola may be the exception (p. 9).

98. Hill, Society and Puritanism, pp. 476-77. At some points there was a specific organization—during the Marian persecution, and in the "classical movement" of the 1580s (see Collinson, Elizabethan Puritan Movement ); at other times it was a looser association. See Natalie Zemon Davis, "The Sacred and the Body Social in Sixteenth-Century Lyon," Past and Present 90 (1981): 40-70, pp. 64-70; Simon Shepherd, Marlowe and the Politics of Elizabethan Theatre (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1986), p. 141.

99. Russell, Crisis of Parliaments, pp. 195-96. And see Wrightson, English Society, ch. 6 et passim; Hill, World Turned Upside Down, chs. 2, 3; Lucy de Bruyn, Mob-Rule and Riots (London: Regency Press, 1981); William Hunt, The Puritan Moment (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1983); Morse, England's Time of Crisis .

100. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, ed. C. B. Macpherson (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1968), p. 179.

101. The Journals of Søren Kierkegaard, ed. and trans. Alexander Dru (London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1938), p. 1.

102. Wrightson, English Society, p. 217; see Hill, Society and Puritanism, pp. 242, 480, and World Turned Upside Down .

103. Gerrard Winstanley, Works, ed. G. H. Sabine (New York: Russell & Russell, 1965), p. 493; ensuing quotations are from this edition. Hill compares Winstanley and Hobbes: World Turned Upside Down, appendix 1; and see ch. 7.

104. Richard Verrall in New Nation, no. 1 (1980), quoted by Martin Barker, The New Racism (London: Junction Books, 1981), p. 100.

105. Richard Leakey and Roger Lewin, People of the Lake (London: Collins, 1979), p. 125; also p. 213. And see Robert David Sack, Human Territoriality: Its Theory and History (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1986), p. 217; Lionel Tiger, Men in Groups (London: Nelson, 1969), pp. 162-64; Richard Leakey, The Making of Mankind (London: Joseph, 1981), pp. 223-37; Sinfield, Literature, Politics and Culture, pp. 139-50.

106. Hill, World Turned Upside Down, chs. 2, 5, 6; Sabine, introduction to Winstanley, Works, pp. 21-35. See Janet E. Halley, "Heresy, Orthodoxy, and the Politics of Religious Discourse: The Case of the English Family of Love," in Stephen Greenblatt, ed., Representing the English Renaissance (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1988).

107. Winstanley, Works, p. 523. On anticlericalism among sectarians, see O'Day, English Clergy, pp. 190-91 and ch. 15.

108. Carey, John Donne, pp. 239-40; Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning, pp. 105-14.

109. Hill, Society and Puritanism, p. 480; Walzer, Revolution of the Saints, p. 42.

110. Walzer, Revolution of the Saints, p. 2, and pp. 310-15, 319-20.

111. Hill, World Turned Upside Down, p. 15. See also Malcolm Evans, Signifying Nothing: Truth's True Contents in Shakespeare's Text, 2d ed. (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1989), pp. 254-64.

1. L. I. Brezhnev, Report of the Central Committee of the CPSU to the XXVI Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Moscow: Novosti Press Agency, 1981), pp. 110-11. See Henri Arvon, Marxist Esthetics, trans. Henry R. Lane (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Press, 1973), ch. 6; Jonathan Dollimore, Radical Tragedy, 2d ed. (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1989), ch. 4.

2. Sir Philip Sidney, Miscellaneous Prose, ed. Katherine Duncan-Jones and Jan van Dorsten (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973), pp. 79, 88. The Defence of Poetry is quoted throughout from this edition.

3. Stephen Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1980), p. 15; John N. King, English Reformation Literature: The Tudor Origins of the Protestant Tradition (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1982), pp. 233, 231-41.

4. C. Wright Mills, Power, Politics and People , ed. Irving Louis Horowitz (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1963), p. 406. See Malcolm Smuts, "The Political Failure of Stuart Cultural Patronage," in Guy Fitch Lytle and Stephen Orgel, eds., Patronage in the Renaissance (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1981), pp. 183-85; also Eleanor Rosenberg, Leicester: Patron of Letters (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1955), ch. 1; Kevin Sharpe and Steven N. Zwicker, eds., Politics of Discourse: The Literature and History of Seventeenth-Century England (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1987), Introduction.

5. Sidney, Defence of Poetry, p. 90.

6. See Lawrence Stone, The Crisis of the Aristocracy, 1558-1641 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965), pp. 257-68.

7. King, English Reformation Literature, p. 20 et passim.

8. On Sidney's upbringing and activist circle, see Roger Howell, Sir Philip Sidney: The Shepherd Knight (London: Hutchinson, 1968), chs. 1, 2, 5, 8, 10, et passim; James M. Osborn, Young Philip Sidney (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1972); Andrew D. Weiner, Sir Philip Sidney and the Poetics of Protestantism (Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1978), pp. 3-8, 19-28.

9. On Leicester's contributions, see Rosenberg, Leicester: Patron of Letters; Golding's later translations were dedicated to Leicester, including De la vérité de la religion chrestienne . On Mary, countess of Pembroke, see John Buxton, Sir Philip Sidney and the English Renaissance (London: Macmillan, 1965), ch. 6, and Gary Waller, Mary Sidney, Countess of Pembroke (Salzburg: Institut für Anglistik und Amerikanistik, 1979), chs. 2, 3; on Huntingdon, see Claire Cross, The Puritan Earl (London: Macmillan, 1966), pp. 260-63. See Rosemary O'Day, The English Clergy: The Emergence and Consolidation of a Profession, 1558-1642 (Leicester: Leicester Univ. Press, 1979), ch. 7; and Margaret Patterson Hannay, ed., Silent but for the Word: Tudor Women as Patrons, Translators and Writers of Religious Works (Kent, Ohio: Kent State Univ. Press, 1985).

10. Lawrence Humphrey, The Nobles (1563), sig. m.

11. On Goodman, see Howell, Sir Philip Sidney, p. 217; on Buste, see Osborn, Young Philip Sidney, pp. 313-17, and John Strype, The Life and Acts of John Whitgift (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1822), 1:198-99; on Stiles, see Paul S. Seaver, The Puritan Lecturerships (Stanford: Stanford Univ. Press, 1970), pp. 150, 211.

12. On the Netherlands, see Jan van Dorsten, Poets, Patrons and Professors (Leiden: Leiden Univ. Press, 1962), pt. 2.

13. Languet is quoted from Osborn, Young Philip Sidney, p. 204; the bishop from John Strype, Annals of the Reformation (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1824), 2, pt. 1, pp. 403-4. See also The Prose Works of Fulke Greville, Lord Brooke, ed. John Gouws (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), pp. 21-22.

14. Trans. Malcolm Wallace, The Life of Sir Philip Sidney (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1915), p. 198.

15. See Louis A. Montrose, "Celebration and Insinuation: Sir Philip Sidney and the Motives of Elizabethan Courtship," Renaissance Drama 8 (1977): 3-35; Marie Axton, "The Tudor Mask and Elizabethan Court Drama," in Marie Axton and Raymond Williams, eds., English Drama: Forms and Development (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1977), pp. 38-42; Philippa Berry, Of Chastity and Power: Elizabethan Literature and the Unmarried Queen (London and New York: Routledge, 1989), ch. 4.

16. Anthony Grafton and Lisa Jardine, From Humanism to the Humanities (London: Duckworth, 1986), p. xiv; Jonathan Goldberg, Writing Matter: From the Hands of the English Renaissance (Stanford: Stanford Univ. Press, 1990), p. 45.

17. Grafton and Jardine, From Humanism to the Humanities, p. 144, and pp. 142-48.

18. King, English Reformation Literature, pp. 9-16, 42-56, 209-31. Conversely, King points out, More's Utopia flourishes on classical Greek authors only (p. 43).

19. Joan Simon, Education and Society in Tudor England (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1966), pp. 87, 89, 140.

20. An Open Letter to the Christian Nobility (1520), in Martin Luther, Three Treatises (Philadelphia: Lutheran Church in America, 1960), p. 93; Desiderius Erasmus, Opus epistolarum , ed. P. S. Allen and H. M. Allen (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1906-58), 7:366. See also Stephen Orgel, ''The Royal Theatre and the Role of the King," in Orgel and Lytle, eds., Patronage in the Renaissance, pp. 263-65.

21. Roger Ascham, The Schoolmaster, ed. Lawrence V. Ryan (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Press, 1967), p. 70; see also Robert Burton, The Anatomy of Melancholy, ed. Holbrook Jackson (London: Dent, 1932), 3:387-88.

22. Sidney, Defence of Poetry, pp. 73, 75, 79, 86, 105-6, 109-10. On Sidney as champion of an Italianate style, see King, English Reformation Literature, pp. 11-12, 209-11.

23. Quoted by Simon, Education and Society, p. 324. By the late sixteenth century, the colloquies of Erasmus and Vives had been largely replaced in schools by the Genevan texts of Castellion and Corderius: John Morgan, Godly Learning: Puritan Attitudes towards Reason, Learning and Education, 1560-1640 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1986), p. 182; and chs. 3, 4, 6. See also M. M. Knappen, Tudor Puritanism (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1939), ch. 26; Patrick Collinson, The Birthpangs of Protestant England (London: Macmillan, 1988), ch. 4; and Ernest B. Gilman, Iconoclasm and Poetry in the English Reformation (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1986).

24. Thomas Starkey, A Dialogue between Reginald Pole and Thomas Lupset, ed. Kathleen M. Burton (London: Chatto, 1948), pp. 153, 35.

25. Lord Herbert of Cherbury, Life, ed. J. M. Shuttleworth (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1976), p. 24.

26. William Tyndale, Doctrinal Treatises, ed. Henry Walter (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1848), p. 107. So Calvin, Institutes 2.2.2.

27. John Donne, Sermons, ed. George R. Potter and Evelyn M. Simpson (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1953-62), 2:308.

28. D. P. Walker, The Ancient Theology (London: Duckworth, 1972), p. 142 and ch. 4. Walker's mistaken account has often been followed—by Frances Yates in Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1964), pp. 176-79; William R. Elton, "King Lear" and the Gods (San Marino, Calif.: Huntington Library, 1968), pp. 38-42; and Roger Howell, Jr., "The Sidney Circle and the Protestant Cause in Elizabethan Foreign Policy," Renaissance and Modern Studies 19 (1975): 311-46. But see Weiner, Sir Philip Sidney, pp. 82-83; and, for a fuller refutation than here, see Sinfield, "Sidney, du Plessis-Mornay and the Pagans," Philological Quarterly 58 (1979): 26-39.

29. Philippe du Plessis-Mornay, A Woorke concerning the Trewness of the Christian Religion, trans. Arthur Golding, 2d ed. (London, 1592), p. 359; see also pp. 337, 356, 368-69, 373, 551. So Calvin, Institutes 1.15.8, 2.2.4.

John Reynolds took a similar line in his 1572 Oxford lecture on rhetoric, discussed in C. M. Dent, Protestant Reformers in Elizabethan Oxford (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1983), pp. 103-4. But cf. Marsilio Ficino, The Philebus Commentary (1469), trans. Michael J. B. Allen (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1975), pp. 180, 246, 416.

30. Walker, Ancient Theology, p. 146; cf. Sinfield, "Sidney, du Plessis-Mornay," pp. 32-35; and R. B. Levinson, "The 'Godlesse Minde' in Sidney's Arcadia, " Modern Philology 29 (1931): 21-26. Pamela's argument against Cecropia is in Sir Philip Sidney, The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia, ed. Maurice Evans (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1977), pp. 488-92; Cicero's Stoic arguments are in book 2 of De natura deorum . The issue comes up also in Sidney, Defence of Poetry, in Miscellaneous Prose, p. 108; and in Greville's account of Sidney's deathbed conversation ( Prose Works of Fulke Greville, pp. 81-82).

31. John Calvin, Commentaries on the First Book of Moses Called Genesis, trans. John King (Edinburgh, 1847), 1:49.

32. Knappen, Tudor Puritanism, p. 474; Morgan, Godly Learning, pp. 199, 200, 241-43.

33. Stone, Crisis of the Aristocrat, pp. 740-41. See ch. 7; Morgan, Godly Learning, chs. 9-12; King, English Reformation Literature, passim; O'Day, English Clergy .

34. Quoted in Morgan, Godly Learning, p. 113; for further instances see pp. 157-59, 179, 187.

35. Thomas Becon, The Catechism, ed. John Ayre (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1844), p. 382.

36. Hugh Kearney, Scholars and Gentlemen: Universities and Society in Pre-Industrial Britain, 1500-1700 (London: Faber, 1970), pp. 39-44.

37. Compare Jacopo Sannazaro's brief epic The Virgin Birth (1526), which invokes a classical pantheon to celebrate the birth of Jesus; and Pierre de Ronsard's Hercule Chrestien (1555) where the lives of Jesus and Hercules are paralleled (e.g., serpents were sent to kill the infant Hercules, and Herod tried to murder Jesus, and Hercules' self-immolation on Etna is like the crucifixion). Joseph Hall complains of such writing in Virgidemiarum (1598), 1.8.

38. Louis Thorn Golding, An Elizabethan Puritan (New York: Smith, 1937), chs. 4, 12, 13.

39. Ovid's Metamorphoses, trans. Arthur Golding, ed. John Frederick Nims (New York: Macmillan, 1965), Epistle, lines 111-16.

40. Torquato Tasso, Discourses on the Heroic Poem, trans. Mariella Cavalchini and Irene Samuel (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973), pp. 43-44; Marsilio Ficino, Letters, trans. Language Department of the School of Economic Science (London: Shepheard-Walwyn, 1975-88), 2:77-78. For an English version, see the Epistle to Henry, Prince of Wales, with which George Chapman prefaced his translation of Homer.

41. Niccolò Machiavelli, The Discourses, ed. Bernard Crick (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1970), p. 278.

42. William Perkins, The Cases of Conscience (1600), in Thomas F. Merrill, ed., William Perkins (Nieukoop: B. de Graaf, 1966), p. 165. Mornay explained

the existence of suffering and error as God's way of discouraging godlike pretensions; otherwise "we would think at the length, that it was of our own steadiness, and not of God's upholding of us, not only that we tripped not, but also that we tumbled not down. For what made us fall but pride: and what manner of pride, but we thought we would be gods without God, yea even of ourselves" (Du Plessis-Mornay, Woorke concerning the Trewness of the Christian Religion, pp. 209-10).

43. Sidney, The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia , ed. Evans, pp. 258, 275.

44. Paradise Lost 9.13-41, in John Milton, Poetical Works, ed. Douglas Bush (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1966). On heroism in Spenser and Milton, see further Alan Sinfield, Literature in Protestant England, 1560-1660 (London: Croom Helm, 1983), pp. 37-48; on their attitudes to images, see Gilman, Iconoclasm, chs. 3, 6. On standing, see Paradise Lost 3.98-99, 178-79; 4.63-7; 6.911; 8.640-41; and Eph. 6:13-14.

45. James VI, The Essayes of a Prentise, ed. Edward Arber (London: Arber, 1869), p. 29; see Anne Lake Prescott, "The Reception of du Bartas in England," Studies in the Renaissance 15 (1968): 144-73; Alan Sinfield, "Sidney and du Bartas," Comparative Literature 27 (1975): 8-20. On divine poetry, see also King, English Reformation Literature; Lily B. Campbell, Divine Poetry and Drama in Sixteenth-Century England (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press; Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1959); Barbara Kiefer Lewalski, Protestant Poetics and the Seventeenth-Century Religious Lyric (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1979).

46. The English Poems of George Herbert, ed. C. A. Patrides (London: Dent, 1974), p. 205.

47. Edmund Spenser, Poetical Works, ed. J. C. Smith and E. de Selincourt (London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1912), p. 593.

48. The Poems of Sir Philip Sidney, ed. William A. Ringler, Jr. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962), p. 339; Ronald A. Rebholz, The Life of Fulke Greville (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), p. 312 et passim.

49. Douglas Brooks-Davies, Spenser's "Faerie Queene": A Critical Commentary on Books I and II (Manchester: Manchester Univ. Press, 1977), p. 191.

50. Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning, pp. 170-72.

51. Tasso, Discourses on the Heroic Poem: Armida's island is described in books 15 and 16, and Ariosto is criticized on pp. 11-12.

52. Sidney, Defence of Poetry, p. 77. Aspects of my theme are treated by G. F. Waller, "'This Matching of Contraries': Bruno, Calvin and the Sidney Circle," Neophilologus 56 (1972): 331-43; and in Weiner, Sir Philip Sidney, pp. 28-50.

53. John Calvin, Calvin's Institutes [trans. Henry Beveridge] (MacDill, Fla.: MacDonald Publishing, n.d.), 2.2.22.

54. Printed by Osborn, Young Philip Sidney, p. 538. The moral philosophy Sidney recommends in the letter is Aristotle, Cicero, and Plutarch. The distinction had been drawn similarly by William Baldwin in his Treatise of Morall Phylosophie (1547-48): see King, English Reformation Literature, p. 361.

55. The Whole Booke of Psalmes. . . by T Starnhold, J. Hopkins & Others (London, 1562); Collinson, Birthpangs of Protestant England, p. 96. The present chapter is contrary to Collinson's argument that in 1580 protestants

ceased to take existing cultural forms and employ them for religious purposes ( Birthpangs, pp. 98ff.). Rather, the relatively popular and amateur modes that Collinson mainly considers were overwhelmed by the developing sophistication of courtly and professional poetry and drama, such that the old questions took newly complex forms.

56. Francis Bacon, Philosophical Works, ed. John M. Robertson (London: Routledge, 1905), p. 335. See Sinfield, Literature in Protestant England, pp. 130-37; Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic (Harmondsworth: Peregrine, 1978), ch. 4.

57. Calvin, Institutes 1.5.1, 1.14.21; The Work of William Perkins, ed. Ian Breward (Abingdon: Sutton Courtenay Press, 1970), p. 447. On special providence, see chapter 9.

58. Sir Thomas Elyot, The Book named The Governor, ed. S. E. Lehmberg (London: Dent, 1962), pp. 29-33, 47-50; George Puttenham, The Arte of English Poesie, ed. Gladys Doidge Willcock and Alice Walker (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1936), p. 227; the point about Sidney's wavering argument on love poetry is made by T. G. A. Nelson, "Sir John Harington as a Critic of Sir Philip Sidney," Studies in Philology 68 (1970): 41-56, pp. 45-49.

59. Stephen Gosson, The Schoole of Abuse (London: Shakespeare Society, 1841), p. 11.

60. Sidney, Defence of Poetry, pp. 90-91. Peter C. Herman points out that in letters to his brother Robert and to Edward Denny, Sidney does not encourage them to read poetry; in fact, he transfers to history and philosophy the qualities that in the Defence are supposed to assure poetry's superiority (Herman, "'Do as I say, not as I do': The Apology for Poetry and Sir Philip Sidney's Letters to Edward Denny and Robert Sidney," Sidney Newsletter, 10, no. 1 [1989]: 13-24). I think this shows Sidney's sense of strategy—he makes the best case he can in each circumstance.

61. Marsilio Ficino, Platonic Theology, trans. Josephine L. Burroughs, Journal of the History of Ideas 5 (1944): 227-39, p. 233.

62. Weiner, Sir Philip Sidney, p. 35.

63. Ibid., p. 36; and see the commentary on the Defence by Katherine Duncan-Jones and Jan van Dorsten in Sidney, Miscellaneous Prose, p. 190. But cf. Wailer, "'This Matching of Contraries.'"

64. In Merrill, ed., William Perkins, p. 164.

65. Milton, Paradise Lost 7.505-16; see also 4.288-89, 8.258-61; and Davis P. Harding, Milton and the Renaissance Ovid (Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1946), pp. 77-78.

66. Richard Hooker, Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity, ed. Christopher Morris (London: Dent, 1965), 1.7.3, in 1:170. Hooker does allow that the will, being free, may shrink from or decline a good object when it has "some difficulty or unpleasant quality annexed to it," but this and other reservations (1:171-73) are evidently designed to explain exceptional cases, not to admit a general recalcitrance. On Hooker's status in the period, see pp. 149-50 above.

67. For Calvin the question is "whether the will is so utterly vitiated and corrupted in every part as to produce nothing but evil, or whether it retains

some portion uninjured, and productive of good desires"; he concludes that since only divine grace can produce any good motions in fallen men, the will must be "bound with the closest chains" to sin ( Institutes 2.2.26-27).

68. Erasmus, Handbook of the Militant Christian, trans. John P. Dolan (Notre Dame, Ind.: Fides, 1962), pp. 79, 82. Also, Erasmus totally fuses pagan reason and the regenerate spirit: "What the philosophers term 'reason' St Paul calls either 'the spirit' or 'the inner man'" (p. 85).

69. Anthony Giddens, Central Problems in Social Theory (London: Macmillan, 1979), pp. 193-95.

70. Terry Eagleton, The Rape of Clarissa (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1982), p.4.

71. Stuart Hall, "Deviance, Politics, and the Media," in Paul Rock and Mary McIntosh, eds., Deviance and Social Control (London: Tavistock, 1974), p. 293.

72. Spenser, Poetical Works, p. 407.

73. Sir John Harington, in G. Gregory Smith, Elizabethan Critical Essays (London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1904), 2:197-99, 202-3.

74. Nelson, "Sir John Harington as a Critic of Sir Philip Sidney," pp. 49-50, 52.

75. Greville, Prose Works, p. 134. See also pp. 8-12; "A Treatie of Humane Learning," stanzas 111-15, in Poems and Dramas of Fulke Greville, ed. Geoffrey Bullough (Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, 1939); Rebholz, Life of Fulke Greville, p. 76; and Dollimore, Radical Tragedy, pp. 78-82.

76. Joseph Hall, Collected Poems, ed. A. Davenport (Liverpool: Liverpool Univ. Press, 1949), p. 97. Hall refers to Mary and Philip Sidney and Bartas in respect of his versification of the Psalms (p. 271). On the persistence of these topics in the seventeenth century, see Lewalski, Protestant Poetics .

77. Herbert, English Poems , ed. Patrides; Sidney, Poems, ed. Ringler.

78. John Milton, Complete Prose Works (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1953-82), 1:817-18, 820-21.

79. Sidney was knighted in 1582 because prince John Casimir of the Palatinate nominated him as his proxy (Howell, Sir Philip Sidney, pp. 92-93).

80. Greville, Prose Works, p. 3. On Sidney's idealized reputation after death as a Protestant activist, see Howell, Sir Philip Sidney, pp. 5-11, 263-67.

81. Poems of Ben Jonson, ed. George Burke Johnston (London: Routledge, 1954).

82. The Complete Works of Percy Bysshe Shelley, ed. Thomas Hutchinson (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1943), p. 441; W. B. Yeats, "In Memory of Major Robert Gregory," in Collected Poems (London: Macmillan, 1933), p. 150.

83. Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch, On the Art of Writing (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1946), pp. 34-35.

84. Buxton, Sir Philip Sidney, pp. 54-55.

85. John Fekete, The Critical Twilight (London: Routledge, 1977), p. 195.

86. D. H. Craig, "The Hybrid Growth: Sidney's Theory of Poetry in An Apology for Poetry, " English Literary Renaissance 10 (1980): 183-201, pp. 183,

201; Martin N. Raitiere, "The Unity of Sidney's Apology for Poetry, " Studies in English Literature 1500-1900 21 (1981): 37-58, p. 49.

1. M. M. Bakhtin and P. N. Medvedev, The Formal Method in Literary Scholarship (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), p. 121.

2. See Jonathan Dollimore, Radical Tragedy, 2d ed. (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1989), pp. 22-28, et passim; Margot Heinemann, Puritanism and Theatre (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1980); David Morse, England's Time of Crisis: from Shakespeare to Milton (London: Macmillan, 1989), chs. 5, 8, 9, et passim.

3. G. K. Hunter, "Seneca and English Tragedy," in C. D. N. Costa, ed., Seneca (London: Routledge, 1974), p. 170.

4. T. S. Eliot, Introduction, in Seneca, his Tenne Tragedies, ed. Thomas Newton (1581; New York: AMS Press, 1967), 1:xliii. See also pp. xxxix and xlvii-xlviii, and John W. Cunliffe, The Influence of Seneca on Elizabethan Tragedy (Hamden, Conn.: Archon, 1965), especially pp. 9 and 54-55.

5. Quoted in Hunter, "Seneca and English Tragedy," pp. 171-72.

6. Seneca, his Tenne Tragedies, ed. Newton, 1:4-5; The Seventh Tragedie of Seneca entitled Medea, trans. John Studley (1566), prefatory letter (in Newton, vol. 2).

7. The Miscellaneous Prose of Sir Philip Sidney , ed. Katherine Duncan-Jones and Jan van Dorsten (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973), p. 96.

8. The Prose Works of Fulke Greville, Lord Brooke , ed. John Gouws (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), p. 133.

9. Phillip Stubbes, The Anatomie of Abuses , ed. Frederick J. Furnivall (London: Trubner for the New Shakespeare Society, 1877-79), 1:143-44. On Bale and Protestant attitudes to theater, see John N. King, English Reformation Literature (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1982), pp. 275-78 and ch. 6. On the later period see Heinemann, Puritanism and Theatre, pp. 18-36.

10. See William R. Elton, "King Lear" and the Gods (San Marino, Calif.: Huntington Library, 1968); Dominic Baker-Smith, "Religion and John Webster," in Brian Morris, ed., John Webster (London: Benn, 1970); H. A. Kelly, Divine Providence in the England of Shakespeare's Histories (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1970); Paul R. Sellin, ''The Hidden God," in R. S. Kinsman, ed., The Darker Vision of the Renaissance (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1974); Robert G. Hunter, Shakespeare and the Mystery of the Gods (Athens, Ga.: Univ. of Georgia Press, 1976); Dollimore, Radical Tragedy, chs. 1, 5, 7.

11. Jew of Malta 5.5.125-26, in The Plays of Christopher Marlowe, ed. Roma Gill (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1971). Marlowe's plays are quoted hereafter from this edition.

12. Thomas Kyd, The First Part of Hieronimo and The Spanish Tragedy, ed. Andrew S. Cairncross (London: Arnold, 1967): Spanish Tragedy 4.1.31-33.

13. Sir Philip Sidney, The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia, ed. Maurice Evans (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1977), p. 817. Earlier in the New

Arcadia, Pamela says, in Stoic manner, that she and her friends are "balls to injurious fortune"; she is dissuaded, with a Stoic argument, from suicide (ed. Evans, pp. 584-85).

14. Duchess of Malfi 5.4.51-54; 5.5.100-103, in The Selected Plays of John Webster, ed. Jonathan Dollimore and Alan Sinfield (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1983).

15. E. Gordon Rupp and Philip S. Watson, eds., Luther and Erasmus (London: SCM, 1969), p. 41.

16. William Lawne, An Abridgement of the Institution of Christian Religion, written by M. John Calvin, trans. Christopher Fetherstone (Edinburgh, 1587), pp. 223-24. See Dollimore, Radical Tragedy, pp. xxix-xxxii and ch. 5.

17. Robert Burton, The Anatomy of Melancholy , ed. Holbrook Jackson (London: Dent, 1932), 3:419, quoting Matt. 20:16 and 22:14.

18. Ibid., p. 420, quoting 1 Tim. 2:4. Lawne's objector quotes this, but the reply is another text: "I will have mercy on whom I will have mercy" (Exod. 33:19, repeated by Paul, Rom. 9:15): Lawne, Abridgement , p. 230.

19. Institutes 1.3.2, 4.20.31; the opinion attributed to Marlowe is quoted from Paul Kocher, Christopher Marlowe (New York: Russell, 1962), p. 34.

20. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan , ed. C. B. Macpherson (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1968), p. 398, quoting Job 38:4.

21. Hamlet is quoted from the New Arden edn., ed. Harold Jenkins (London: Methuen, 1982).

22. Seneca, Moral Essays , trans. John W. Basore, Loeb ed. (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard Univ. Press, 1958), 1:36-39.

23. A. C. Bradley, Shakespearean Tragedy (London: Macmillan, 1960), p. 116. See also H. B. Charlton, Shakespearian Tragedy (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1949), pp. 103-4.

24. Roland Mushat Frye, Shakespeare and Christian Doctrine (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1963), p. 231. See also Ivor Morris, Shakespeare's God (London: Allen & Unwin, 1972), pp. 422-30.

25. Roy W. Battenhouse, Shakespearean Tragedy, Its Art and Its Christian Premises (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1969), p. 250. See also Lily B. Campbell, Shakespeare's Tragic Heroes (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1930), pp. 141-47.

26. Kyd, Spanish Tragedy, ed. Cairncross, 3.13.1, 6-7; cf. Calvin, Institutes 2.2.24.

27. Seneca, De ira 1.12.2, in Moral Essays , trans. Basore, 1:136-37.

28. Seneca, his Tenne Tragedies, ed. Newton, 1:67.

29. Seneca, Ad Lucilium epistulae morales 24.25, trans. Richard M. Gunmere, Loeb ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1961), 1:180-81. The secular manner in which Hamlet discusses suicide (3.1.56-88) recalls the disputes between Oedipus and Antigone in Seneca's Phoenissae (1-319), and Deianira, the Nurse and Hyllas in Hercules Oetaeus (842-1030).

30. Seneca, De constantia 8.2, in Moral Essays, trans. Basore, 1:72-73.

31. Henry Smith, Works, with introduction by Thomas Fuller (Edinburgh, 1866), 1:205.

32. Marsilio Ficino, Platonic Theology, trans. Josephine L. Burroughs, Journal of the History of Ideas 5 (1944): 227-39, p. 238. See Ernst Cassirer, Paul

Oskar Kristeller, and John Herman Randall, Jr., eds., The Renaissance Philosophy of Man (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1948).

33. Joseph Hall, Works, ed. Josiah Pratt (London: 1808), 5:292. However, in Heaven upon Earth (1606), Hall made a typically "puritan humanist" attempt to reconcile Stoicism and protestantism.

34. John Marston, Antonio and Mellida , ed. G. K. Hunter (London: Arnold, 1965), 4.1.68-69. For the argument here, it does not matter whether Hamlet or the Antonio plays were produced first.

35. John Marston, Antonio's Revenge , ed. G. K. Hunter (London: Arnold, 1966), 4.3.69-75. See Dollimore, Radical Tragedy, pp. 30-39; and, on the interaction of Senecan and providential ideas of tragedy, see Willard Farnham, The Medieval Heritage of Elizabethan Tragedy (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1956), chs. 9-10 passim.

36. John Marston, Poems , ed. Arnold Davenport (Liverpool: Liverpool Univ. Press, 1961), p. 123.

37. Miriam T. Griffin, Seneca, a Philosopher in Politics (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976), p. 177.

38. Arthur Golding, A Discourse upon the Earthquake (1580), repr. in Louis Thorn Golding, An Elizabethan Puritan (New York: Richard H. Smith, 1937), p. 190. See also Henry Bullinger, The Decades, ed. Thomas Harding (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1849-52), 4:180, 194.

39. Rupp and Watson, eds., Luther and Erasmus, pp. 83-84.

40. Francis Barker, The Tremulous Private Body (London: Methuen, 1984), p. 39; see pp. 58-63 above.

41. Bullinger, Decades, 4:184.

42. Lawne, Abridgement, p. 49; Calvin, Institutes 1.17.4.

43. Perkins, "A Discourse of Conscience" (1596), in Thomas F. Merrill, ed., William Perkins (Nieuwkoop: B. dc Graaf, 1966), p. 9.

44. On Christian humanists, see pp. 144-52 above. For a good selection, including James Smith, W. W. Greg, J. C. Maxwell, Helen Gardner, Cleanth Brooks, J. B. Steane, and L. C. Knights, see John Jump, ed., Marlowe: "Dr Faustus": A Casebook (London: Macmillan, 1969). However, Una Ellis Fermor found the God of Faustus to be "sadistic" and revolt against him only proper (Jump, ed., Marlowe , p. 43). For more recent attitudes, see Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning , ch. 5; Dollimore, Radical Tragedy , ch. 6; Simon Shepherd, Marlowe and the Politics of Elizabethan Theatre (New York: St Martin's Press, 1986), pp. 100-108, 136-41. I come shortly to Empson.

45. Kyd, First Part of Hieronimo and The Spanish Tragedy , ed. Cairncross: First Part of Hieronimo , 3.59-62.

46. King James I, Daemonologie (1597), Newes from Scotland (1591) (London: Bodley Head, 1924), p. 20.

47. Douglas Cole, Suffering and Evil in the Plays of Christopher Marlowe (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1962), p. 198. Cole recognizes that Faustus's behavior is typical of the reprobate, but still believes he makes "his original choice by himself' (pp. 199-201). See also Helen Gardner and J. B. Steane, in Jump, ed., Marlowe , pp. 95, 181-82. Malcolm Kelsall says Faustus's tone and failure to complete his quotations show a superficial attitude and

"would be picked on by any school child" ( Christopher Marlowe [Leiden: Brill, 1981], p. 163). The texts are 1 John 1:8-9 and Rom. 6:23.

48. T. H. L. Parker, English Reformers (London: SCM Press, 1966), p. 111.

49. G. E. Duffield, ed., The Work of William Tyndale (Appleford, Berks: Sutton Courtenay Press, 1964), p. 175.

50. Stubbes, Anatomie of Abuses , 1:190. However, Calvin seems uneasy at Institutes 3.3.24.

51. Rupp and Watson, eds., Luther and Erasmus, pp. 230-31, 64. Sidney's theory of poetry centers upon the claim that people are moved by it, but he accepts nevertheless that in Alexander Pheraeus, it "wrought no further good in him" beyond that he "withdrew himself from hearkening to that which might mollify his hardened heart" (Sidney, Miscellaneous Prose , pp. 96-97).

52. Perkins, "A Discourse of Conscience," in Merrill, ed., William Perkins , pp. 20-21; see Lawne, Abridgement , pp. 53, 72-73, 221. Apropos of the second commandment, where God promises to visit "the iniquity of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth generation" (Deut. 5:9), Lawne's objector is told that children are justly punished for the iniquity they themselves commit ''when God taketh away grace and other helps of salvation from a family" (Lawne, Abridgement , pp. 86-87).

53. William Empson, Faustus and the Censor (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1987), p. 168 and ch. 6. Empson dismisses as insignificant Faustus's uncompleted biblical quotations (discussed above), on the ground that "to accept the promises of God requires a miracle" anyway, "and it had been vouchsafed to Luther but not to Faust" (p. 169).

54. In Parker, ed., English Reformers , p. 142.

55. Richard Baines's allegation, quoted from Kocher, Christopher Marlowe , p. 36.

56. Nathaniel Woodes, The Conflict of Conscience (Oxford: Malone Society, 1952), lines 2116, 2151. See Celesta Wine, "Nathaniel Wood's Conflict of Conscience, " PMLA 50 (1935): 661-78; Lily B. Campbell, " Dr Faustus: A Case of Conscience ," PMLA 67 (1952): 219-39.

57. Certain Sermons or Homilies (London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1899), p. 568; Hooker, Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity, intro. C. Morris (London: Dent, 1969), 1:295. See also Calvin, Institutes 3.3.22; Ian Breward, ed., The Work of William Perkins (Abingdon: Sutton Courtenay Press, 1970), p. 254. And see Plays of Christopher Marlowe, ed. Gill, p. xxii.

58. Plays of Christopher Marlowe, ed. Gill, p. xiii.

59. Niccolò Machiavelli, The Discourses , ed. Bernard Crick (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1970), p. 178.

60. Seneca, his Tenne Tragedies, ed. Newton, 1:40; 2:255. See Eugene M. Waith, The Herculean Hero (London: Chatto, 1962).

61. Shepherd, Marlowe , pp. 142-53.

62. Roy W. Battenhouse, Marlowe's Tamburlaine (Nashville, Tenn.: Vanderbilt Univ. Press, 1964), pp. 116-17, 86-92, 131-33, 169-74. Cf. C. J. Sisson's belief that Hamlet is "God's justiciar in Denmark" ( Shakespeare's Tragic Justice [London: Methuen, 1963], p. 73 and ch. 3).

63. Calvin, Institutes 1.17.5; so Homilies , pp. 87-88, 595.

64. See Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning , pp. 194, 202-3; Sinfield, Literature in Protestant England , pp. 82-83; Shepherd, Marlowe , pp. 18-22, 149-52.

65. Hall, Works , ed. Pratt, 1:274.

66. Lancelot Andrewes, Works (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1841), 1:331. The hired razor is from Isa. 7:20.

67. Shakespeare, King Lear , ed. Kenneth Muir (London: Methuen, 1963), 5.3. 170-73.

68. Andrewes, Works , 5:224, 234; so also Edmund Grindal, Remains (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1843), pp. 113-14.

69. Paul Slack, The Impact of Plague in Tudor and Stuart England (London: Routledge, 1985), p. 143 and chs. 5-7; F. P. Wilson, The Plague in Shakespeare's London (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1963), p. 172. On the behavior of Andrewes in the plague of 1603, see Slack, p. 234.

70. Wilson, Plague in Shakespeare's London, pp. 72, 153-54; Slack, Impact of Plague, pp. 239-40, 305-9.

71. Shakespeare, Richard III, ed. Antony Hammond (London: Methuen, 1981), 5.3.109-15.

72. See Alan Sinfield, " King Lear versus Lear at Stratford," Critical Quarterly 24 (1982): 5-14.

73. See W. D. Briggs, "Political Ideas in Sidney's Arcadia ," Studies in Philology 28 (1931): 137-61, and "Sidney's Political Ideas," Studies in Philology 29 (1932): 534-42; Michael Walzer, The Revolution of the Saints (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1965), pp. 59-61, 78-87; Martin Bergbush, "Rebellion in the New Arcadia ,'' Philological Quarterly 53 (1974): 29-41; Calvin, Institutes 4.20.31.

74. Peter Womack, Ben Jonson (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986), pp. 135-37, quoting Wilson, Plague in Shakespeare's London, p. 52, quoting T. White preaching at Paul's Cross in 1577.

75. Greville, Prose Works, ed. Gouws, p. 133.

76. David Norbrook, Poetry and Politics in the English Renaissance (London: Routledge, 1984), p. 160, and ch. 6; see Dollimore, Radical Tragedy, pp. 78-82 and ch. 7.

77. Shakespeare, Richard II, ed. Peter Ure (London: Methuen, 1961), 3.3.85-88; 5.1.59-65.

78. Slack, Impact of Plague, pp. 228-44.

79. George Puttenham, The Arte of English Poesie , ed. Gladys Doidge Willcock and Alice Walker (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1936), p. 33.

80. Greville, Prose Works , pp. 93, 131. Greville very likely altered his Alaham for similar reasons: see Ronald A. Rebholz, The Life of Fulke Greville (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), pp. 131-34.

81. Dollimore, Radical Tragedy , ch. 8.

82. See Annabel Patterson, Censorship and Interpretation (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1984), pp. 44-58; Heinemann, Puritanism and Theatre , pp. 36-47.

83. Patterson, Censorship and Interpretation , pp. 7, 11. On The Shepheardes Calender, see Norbrook, Poetry and Politics , ch. 3.

84. Heinemann, Puritanism and Theatre, pp. 36-47.

85. See David A. Miller, The Novel and the Police (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1988), pp. 206-7; Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, Epistemology of the Closet (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1990), ch. 1; Alan Sinfleld, "Private Lives / Public Theatre: Noel Coward and the Politics of Homosexual Representation," Representations 36 (1991): 43-63.

86. Thomas Middleton, Women Beware Women , ed. Roma Gill (London: Ernest Benn, 1968), 4.2.7-10.

87. Heinemann, Puritanism and Theatre , p. 45. See Peter Holland, " Hamlet and the Art of Acting," in Drama and the Actor, ed. James Redmond, Themes in Drama 6 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1984): 39-61.

88. Bertolt Brecht, Plays (London: Methuen, 1962), 2:207. See Raymond Williams, Modern Tragedy , rev. ed. (London: Verso, 1979), pt. 1.

1. Marcia Pointon, William Dyce, 1806-1864 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979), pp. 93-95, 100. Prince Albert then commissioned Dyce to decorate the Queen's Robing Room in the rebuilt Palace of Westminster with frescoes of Malory's Morte d'Arthur . I'm grateful to Professor Pointon for discussing Dyce with me, and to Christine Barrow for showing me Grenada.

2. Pointon, William Dyce, p. 94. Raphael's Galatea (c. 1512), is in the Villa Farnesina, Rome; see Roger Jones and Nicholas Penny, Raphael (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1983), p1. 106 and pp. 93-97.

1. Dean MacCannell, The Tourist: A New Theory of the Leisure Class (New York: Schocken Books, 1976).

2. Stephen Greenblatt, "Towards a Poetics of Culture," in H. Aram Veeser, ed., The New Historicism (New York: Routledge, 1989), pp. 8-10.

3. E. D. Hirsch, Jr., Cultural Literacy (Boston: Houghton Mufflin, 1987), p. 29.

4. Richard Slotkin, Regeneration through Violence (Middletown, Conn: Wesleyan Univ. Press, 1973), chs. 9-10; see Henry Nash Smith, Virgin Land (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1950), pp. 51-61. The theory implied here is set out in chapter 2 above.

5. [John Filson], Life and Adventures of Colonel Daniel Boon. . . Written by Himself (Brooklyn, N.Y.: C. Wilder, 1823), p. 25.

6. William Carlos Willliams, In the American Grain (New York: New Directions, 1956), p. 133.

7. Stewart Edward White, Daniel Boone: Wilderness Scout (New York: Garden City Publishing, 1922), p. 273.

8. Michael A. Lofaro, The Life and Adventures of Daniel Boone (Lexington: Univ. Press of Kentucky, 1986), p. 123.

9. [Filson], Life and Adventures of Colonel Daniel Boon. . . Written by Himself, pp. 33, 37.

10. John Collier, Indians of the Americas (New York: Mentor Books, 1963), p. 124; White, Daniel Boone, p. 82.

11. George Orwell, Burmese Days (1934; Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1967), p. 25.

12. Doris Lessing, The Grass Is Singing (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1961), p. 192. See Sinfield, Literature, Politics and Culture in Postwar Britain (Oxford: Basil Blackwell; Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1989), pp. 119-22 and ch. 7.

13. Francis Jennings, The Invasion of America (New York: Norton, 1976), p. 90.

14. Bernard W. Sheehan, Savagism and Civility (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1980), pp. 110-15.

15. George Rogers Taylor, ed., The Turner Thesis, 3d ed. (Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath, 1972), pp. 27, 41-43; see Smith, Virgin Land . On The Renegade, see Roy Harvey Pearce, The Savages of America, rev. ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1965), p. 225 and ch. 7.

16. See Jennings, Invasion, chs. 7-8; and Michael Rogin, "Ronald Reagan," The Movie (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1987), pp. 45-51.

17. Dee Brown, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee (New York: Bantam Books, 1972), p. 300.

18. George Lamming, The Pleasures of Exile (London: Michael Joseph, 1960), p. 107.

19. Jean-Paul Sartre, Preface, in Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, trans. Constance Farrington (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1967), p. 22.

20. Jennings, Invasion, p. 60.

21. Brown, Bury My Heart, p. 313, and ch. 11.

22. Rogin, "Ronald Reagan," pp. 45-51.

23. William Bennett, "Lost Generation: Why America's Children Are Strangers in Their Own Land," Policy Review 33 (1985): 43-45, p. 45.

24. Sigmund Freud, On Sexuality: Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality and Other Works, ed. Angela Richards (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1977), p. 198.

25. Ania Loomba, Gender, Race, Renaissance Drama (Manchester: Manchester Univ. Press, 1989), p. 16, and ch. 1. See also Lillian S. Robinson, Sex, Class, and Culture (New York: Methuen, 1986), pp. 22-46; Gauri Viswanathan, "Currying Favor: The Beginnings of English Literary Study in British India," Social Text 7, nos. 1-2 (Fall 1988): 85-104; Chris Baldick, The Social Mission of English Criticism, 1848-1932 (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1983).

26. Lamming, Pleasures, p. 27. See also Lamming's novel In the Castle of My Skin (1953).

27. Loomba, Gender, Race , p. 22; see Sinfield, Literature, Politics and Culture, pp. 124-34.

28. Maya Angelou, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings (New York: Bantam Books, 1971), p. 11; Richard Wright, Black Boy (New York: Harper & Row, 1966), pp. 273-74.

29. Viswanathan, "Currying Favor," p. 94.

30. Joseph Quincy Adams, "The Folger Shakespeare Memorial Dedicated: April 21, 1932: Shakespeare and American Culture," Spinning Wheel 12 (1932): 212-15 and 229-31, pp. 215, 229. See Stephen J. Brown, "The Uses of Shakespeare in America: A Study in Class Domination," in David Bevington and Jay L. Halio, eds., Shakespeare, Pattern of Excelling Nature (Newark: Univ. of Delaware Press, 1978); Esther Cloudman Dunn, Shakespeare in America (1939; NewYork: Benjamin Blom, 1968), cbs. 3, 4, 8, 9; James G. McManaway, "Shakespeare in the United States,'' PMLA 79 (1964): 511-18, p. 514.

31. James Fenimore Cooper, Notions of the Americans (New York: Frederick Unger, 1962), 2:113, 100; The Collected Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson, vol. 4, Representative Men, ed. Wallace E. Williams and Douglas Emory Wilson (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1987), p. 121.

32. Alfred Van Rensselaer Westfall, American Shakespearean Criticism, 1607-1865 (New York: H. W. Wilson, 1939), p. 202. See also Louis Marder, His Entrances and Exits: The Story of Shakespeare's Reputation (London: John Murray, 1964), 294-313; Lawrence L. Levine, Highbrow/Lowbrow (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1988), pp. 60-68; Adams, "Folger Shakespeare Memorial Dedicated," pp. 212-13.

33. Ashley Thorndike, "Shakespeare in America," Proceedings of the British Academy 13 (1927): 154.

34. James Fenimore Cooper, The Pioneers (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1959), p. 476.

35. Richard Hofstadter, The Progressive Historians (New York: Knopf, 1968), p. 54, and Introduction to Hofstadter and Seymour Martin Lipset, eds., Turner and the Sociology of the Frontier (New York: Basic Books, 1968), p. 3.

36. Sic ; Maurice Morgann, "An Essay on the Dramatic Character of Sir John Falstaff," in D. Nichol Smith, ed., Eighteenth-Century Essays on Shakespeare (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963), p. 233.

37. Quoted by Westfall, American Shakespearean Criticism, p. 80.

38. Thorndike, "Shakespeare in America," pp. 161-63; Dunn, Shakespeare in America, ch. 10; McManaway, "Shakespeare in the United States," p. 514; Louis B. Wright, Shakespeare for Everyman (New York: Washington Square Press, 1965), pp. 41-48; Levine, Highbrow/Lowbrow, pp. 16-21.

39. Adams, "Folger," p. 229; Wright, Shakespeare for Everyman, pp. 43-44.

40. Emerson, Representative Men, p. 125.

41. Dunn, Shakespeare in America, pp. 175-76; Wright, Shakespeare for Everyman, pp. 41-42. See Michael D. Bristol, Shakespeare's America, America's Shakespeare (New York: Routledge, 1990), p. 159 on Hardin Craig as pioneer.

42. Dunn, Shakespeare in America, cbs. 5, 9; Marder, His Entrances, pp. 313-17; Levine, Highbrow/Lowbrow, pp. 13-16, 21-23, 42-45.

43. Jonathan Bate, Shakespearean Constitutions (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), p. 43.

44. Marder, His Entrances, pp. 310-11; Levine, Highbrow/Lowbrow, pp. 63-68; Charles H. Shattuck, Shakespeare on the American Stage (Washington, D.C.: Folger Shakespeare Library, 1976), pp. 62-87.

45. Levine, Highbrow/Lowbrow, pp. 30, 56; Levine's emphasis.

46. Robert Falk, "Shakespeare in America: A Survey to 1900," Shakespeare Survey 18 (1965): 102-18, p. 103.

47. Dunn, Shakespeare in America, p. 129; Shattuck, Shakespeare on the American Stage, p. 97 and ch. 4; McManaway, "Shakespeare in the United States," pp. 516-18; Marder, His Entrances, pp. 317-18; Levine, Highbrow/ Lowbrow , pp. 33-34, 45-56, 69-81.

48. Derek Longhurst, "'You base football-player!': Shakespeare in Contemporary Popular Culture," in Graham Holderness, ed., The Shakespeare Myth (Manchester: Manchester Univ. Press, 1988), p. 67.

49. Falk, "Shakespeare in America," pp. 109-15; Sinfield, Literature, Politics and Culture, pp. 39-47; Dunn, Shakespeare in America, p. 278; she illustrates from Lincoln and John Quincy Adams.

50. Irving Babbitt, Literature and the American College (Boston: Roughton Muffin, 1908), pp. 105, 151.

51. Allan Bloom, The Closing of the American Mind (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987), p. 279, and pp. 251-54, 284.

52. Wright, Shakespeare For Everyman, p. 46.

53. Thomas Carlyle, On Heroes, Hero-Worship and the Heroic in History (London: James Frazer, 1841), pp. 184-85; quoted by Malcolm Evans, Signifying Nothing, 2d ed. (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1989), p. 89; and see pp. 86-108.

54. Charles Mills Gayley, Shakespeare and the Founders of Liberty in America (New York: Macmillan, 1917), p. vi; see Bristol, Shakespeare's America, pp. 137-43. On the Virginia Company see Jennings, Invasion, pp. 53-56, 76-80.

55. Stewart Bird, Dan Georgakas and Deborah Shaffer, eds., Solidarity Forever (Chicago: Lake View Press, 1985), pp. 10-15, 140-41, and passim; Howard Zinn, A People's History of the United States (London: Longman, 1980), pp. 366-67.

56. James Yaffe, The American Jews (New York: Random House, 1968), p. 7.

57. Thorndike, "Shakespeare in America," pp. 159-60.

58. Adams, "Folger," p. 230.

59. Ibid., pp. 230-31. See Brown, "Uses of Shakespeare in America"; Louis A. Montrose, "Professing the Renaissance: The Poetics and Politics of Culture," in Veeser, ed., New Historicism, pp. 27-29; Bristol, Shakespeare's America, pp. 78-81; and on a similar attitude in the work of Hardin Craig, see Bristol, pp. 157-66.

60. Quoted by Don Wayne, "Power, Politics, and the Shakespearean Text: Recent Criticism in England and the United States," in Jean E. Howard and Marion F. O'Connor, eds., Shakespeare Reproduced (London: Methuen, 1987), p. 55.

61. Hofstadter, Progressive Historians, p. 85.

62. Frederick Merk, Manifest Destiny and Mission in American History (New York: Random House, Vintage Books, 1966), p. 119; and see p. 29.

63. Godfrey Hodgson, America in Our Time (New York: Random House, Vintage Books, 1978), pp. 468-70. Soviet unfreedom was branded, in imperialist terms, as "oriental": William Pietz, "The 'Post-Colonialism' of Cold

War Discourse," Social Text 7, nos. 1-2 (Fall 1988): 55-75, pp. 58-59. Diverse aspects of the argument in the remainder of this section are broached in Sinfield, Literature, Politics and Culture: see chs. 6 and 9.

64. Taylor, ed., Turner Thesis, p. 27.

65. San Francisco Chronicle, February 10, 1989; Martin Gilbert, Winston Churchill, vol. 4, 1916-22 (London: Heinemann, 1975), p. 797; also pp. 596, 610.

66. Serge Guilbaut, How New York Stole the Idea of Modern Art , trans. Arthur Goldhammer (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1983), pp. 128, 172.

67. General Education in a Free Society, Report of the Harvard Committee (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press., 1945), p. xv; see Richard Ohmann, English in America (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1976), pp. 70-80, 86-89; Gerald Graff, Professing Literature (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1987), pp. 162-73; Elizabeth Bruss, Beautiful Theories (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1982), pp. 10-13.

68. See Stephen Spender, The Thirties and After (New York: Random House, 1978), pp. 122-29.

69. Bloom, Closing of the American Mind, pp. 48, 54.

70. Hugh Kenner, A Homemade World: The American Modernist Writers (New York: Knopf, 1975), p. 213.

71. Westfall, American Shakespearean Criticism, pp. 203-4; Bristol, Shakespeare's America, p. 74.

72. Marder, His Entrances, p. 362.

73. Wright, Shakespeare for Everyman, p. 46.

74. Nina Baym, "Melodramas of Beset Manhood: How Theories of American Fiction Exclude Women Authors," in Elaine Showalter, ed., Feminist Criticism (London: Virago, 1986), pp. 71, 75; Slotkin, Regeneration, pp. 300-301.

75. Taylor, ed., Turner Thesis, pp. 14-56; see Smith, Virgin Land; Hofstadter, Progressive Historians, p. 151.

76. Williams, In the American Grain, pp. 136-37. Williams is full of respect for the Indians—they, in his view and, he says, Boone's, knew how to possess the land. But the native was "the prototype of it all," and as such necessarily overwhelmed by white men. See also Rupert Wilkinson, American Tough (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1984), pp. 17-23, 47, 91-104.

77. Ann Douglas, The Feminization of American Culture (New York: Avon Books, 1978), p. 122; see also Nancy Armstrong, Desire and Domestic Fiction (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1987). For this situation in relation to England, see Sinfield, Literature, Politics and Culture, ch. 5.

78. Alfred Austin, The Poetry of the Period, in Joseph Bristow, ed., The Victorian Poet: Poetics and Persona (London: Croom Helm, 1987), pp. 120, 124; Douglas, Feminization, p. 314 and ch. 9. See Carol Christ, "The Feminine Subject in Victorian Poetry," ELH 54 (1987): 385-401.

79. Sandra M. Gilbert and Susan Gubar, No Man's Land, vol. 1: The War of the Words (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1988), p. 154.

80. Quoted by Frank Lentricchia, Ariel and the Police (Brighton: Harvester, 1988), p. 161.

81. From Gilbert Seldes, The Great Audience (1951), repr. in Bernard Rosenberg and David Manning White, eds., Mass Culture (New York: Free Press, 1957), pp. 76-77.

82. Rosenberg and White, eds., Mass Culture, p. 486.

83. Dwight Macdonald, "Masscult & Midcult," in Macdonald, Against the American Grain (New York: Random House, 1962), pp. 14, ix. See Christopher Brookeman, American Culture and Society since the 1930s (London: Macmillan, 1984), chs. 5-6; Andrew Ross, No Respect: Intellectuals and Popular Culture (London: Routledge, 1989), ch. 2.

84. Marder, His Entrances, pp. 310-11. On the Schlegels and Wilcoxes, see Sinfield, Literature, Politics and Culture , pp. 39-43, 106-11, 238-45, 258-66.

85. Douglas, Feminization, p. 285; Blake Morrison, The Movement (London: Methuen, 1986), pp. 59-61.

86. Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, Epistemology of the Closet (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1990), p. 56.

87. Baym, "Melodramas of Beset Manhood," in Showalter, ed., Feminist Criticism .

88. C. L. Barber, Shakespeare's Festive Comedy (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1959), pp. 244-45; see pp. 70-71 above. For an investigation that addresses the anxiety and anticipates the current interest, see Leslie Fiedler, The Stranger in Shakespeare (St Albans: Paladin, 1974), pp. 15-40, 71-79.

89. Tennyson's vacillation between a transcendent and worldly role for poetry caused these anxieties to cluster around him: see Alan Sinfield, Alfred Tennyson (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986), p. 128; also pp. 17-21 and ch. 5. Critical evasions are amusingly displayed by Simon Shepherd, "Shakespeare's Private Drawer: Shakespeare and Homosexuality," in Holderness, ed., Shakespeare Myth .

90. Eric Partridge, Shakespeare's Bawdy (New York: Dutton, 1948), pp. 13-18. "Lesbianism was an extremely rare deviation in Shakespearean England," Partridge says, but he doesn't share his evidence. I am grateful to Janet Adelman for drawing Partridge to my attention. Hesketh Pearson is quoted from his Life of Shakespeare .

91. Benjamin P. Kurtz, Charles Mills Gayley (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1943), pp. 151-52.

92. Babbitt, Literature and the American College , pp. 118-19; see Gerald Graff, Professing Literature (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1987), p. 107. From the 1890s on, there were attempts to reduce the proportions of women teachers and reverse the move towards co-education in colleges (Douglas, Feminization , p. 397).

93. John Montgomery, The Fifties (London: Allen & Unwin, 1965), p. 100; see Sinfleld, Literature, Politics and Culture , pp. 134-39 and ch. 7.

94. The Times, September 1, 1955; quoted in William Sargant, Battle for the Mind (London: Heinemann, 1957), pp. 150-51.

95. Lamming, Pleasures, p. 85; Sartre, Preface, in Fanon, Wretched of the Earth, pp. 21, 24.

96. White, Daniel Boone, p. 263.

97. Gore Vidal, "The Day the American Empire Ran Out of Gas," in Vidal, Armageddon? (London: André Deutsch, 1987), p. 115.

98. Ray Bradbury, Fahrenheit 451 (London: Corgi, 1969), p. 74.

99. Noam Chomsky, American Power and the New Mandarins (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1969), pp. 23-61.

100. Bloom, Closing of the American Mind, pp. 56, 21, 55; Hirsch, Cultural Literacy, p. 91. In their book Free to Choose (London: Seeker & Warburg, 1980, pp. 2-3), Milton and Rose Friedman assert that in the nineteenth century the United States experienced a "golden age," but begin their account by "omitting" Indians and "excepting" slavery!

101. William Bennett, "To Reclaim a Legacy," American Education 21 (1985): 4-15, pp. 14-15.

102. Hirsch, Cultural Literacy, p. 92.

103. Bennett, "To Reclaim a Legacy," p. 15. See Montrose, "Professing the Renaissance," pp. 27-28.

104. "In the Republic . . . the only possible solution is for philosophers to rule.. . . But this outline of a solution is ironic and impossible. It only serves to show what one must live with" (Bloom, Closing of the American Mind, p. 266; and see pp. 373-74).

105. By Greenblatt, see also Renaissance Self-Fashioning , pp. 180-88, 225-29; "Learning to Curse: Aspects of Linguistic Colonialism in the Sixteenth Century," in Fredi Chiapelli, ed., First Images of America: The Impact of the New World on the Old (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1976), 2:568-76; and "Invisible Bullets: Renaissance Authority and Its Subversion," in Dollimore and Sinfield, eds., Political Shakespeare . Of course, others have addressed these issues; I cite Greenblatt to show their strong presence at the heart of new historicism.

106. C. D. B. Bryan, "Operation Desert Norm," New Republic, March 11, 1991, p. 26. I am grateful to Peter Dreyer for this reference. On the Pequote massacre, see Jennings, Invasion , pp. 220-25, and on the Arapaho, see Brown, Bury My Heart, pp. 108-9, also pp. 257-58, 278-79.

107. Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge, ed. Colin Gordon (Brighton: Harvester, 1980), p. 126; "John K. Simon: A Conversation with Michel Foucault," Partisan Review 38 (1971): 192-201; Jean-François Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition, trans. Geoff Bennington and Brian Massumi (Manchester: Manchester Univ. Press, 1984), pp. 48-53. See Harold Perkin, The Rise of Professional Society (London: Routledge, 1969).

108. Steven Connor, Postmodernist Culture (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989), pp. 17, 15; Connor argues that "the postmodern" may facilitate this tendency. See Wayne, "Power, Politics," pp. 59-62; Ross, No Respect, p. 211 and ch. 7.

109. Ohmann, English in America, pp. 86-89, 330.

110. T. S. Eliot, Notes towards a Definition of Culture (London: Faber & Faber, 1948), p. 42.

111. So Christopher Jencks and David Riesmann, quoted by Jonathan Culler, Framing the Sign (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988), p. 29.

112. See Russell Jacoby, The Last Intellectuals (New York: Basic Books, 1987), pp. 219, 272.

113. Bristol, Shakespeare's America, p. 209. So Louis Montrose writes of "a nagging sense of professional, institutional, and political powerlessness or

irrelevance" ("Professing the Renaissance," p. 26). See also Walter Cohen, "Political Criticism of Shakespeare," in Howard and O'Connor, eds., Shakespeare Reproduced, pp. 35-38; Bloom, Closing of the American Mind, p. 353.

114. Is There a Text in This Class? (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1980), p. 165.

115. Ibid., pp. 171, 173. See Elizabeth A. Meese, "Sexual Politics and Critical Judgment," in Gregory S. Jay and David L. Miller, eds., After Strange Texts (University, Ala.: Univ. of Alabama Press, 1985).

116. Stanley Fish, "Commentary: The Young and the Restless," in Veeser, ed. New Historicism, pp. 312-15.

117. David Simpson, "Literary Criticism and the Return to 'History,'" Critical Inquiry 14 (1988): 721-47, p. 726. See also the powerful discussion in John Fekete, "Literature and Politics / Literary Politics," Dalhousie Review 66 (1986): 45-86.

118. Michel Foucault, L'Ordre du discours (Paris: Gallimard, 1971), p. 46; quoted by Eve Taylor Bannet, Structuralism and the Logic of Dissent (London: Macmillan, 1989), p. 177; and see pp. 170-83, 240-49.

119. Michel Foucault, "The Political Function of the Intellectual," trans. Colin Gordon, Radical Philosophy 17 (1977): 12-15, p. 14; "John K. Simon: A Conversation with Michel Foucault," p. 201. See Ross, No Respect, pp. 211-12.

120. Sigmund Freud, Case Histories I: "Dora" and "Little Hans," ed. Angela Richards (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1977), p. 117.

121. The Nation, December 12, 1988, p. 644; I am grateful to Richard Burt for this reference.

122. Bennett, "To Reclaim a Legacy," p. 15.

123. James Yaffe, The American Jews (New York: Random House, 1968), pp. 41, 51-52; Culler, Framing the Sign, pp. 31-32; Wayne, "Power, Politics," pp. 53-58; Bristol, Shakespeare's America, pp. 40-51.

124. Yaffe, American Jews, pp. 53-56 and ch. 4. Yaffe suggests that Jewish culture may have been readily adaptable to the professionalizing of culture—an old lullaby of the shtetl enjoins, "Study the Torah, darling. For Torah is the best merchandise": pp. 229-30. Russell Jacoby argues that in the 1950s, professionalization was a refuge from political visibility: Jacoby, Last Intellectuals, pp. 126-30, 135-39, 200-209.

125. Richard Hofstadter, "The Pseudo-Conservative Revolt," in Daniel Bell, ed., The New American Right (New York: Criterion Books, 1955), p. 46.

126. Yaffe, American Jews, pp. 126-27; Marder, His Entrances, pp. 292-93.

127. Robinson, Sex, Class, and Culture, p. 35.

128. Wayne, "Power, Politics," pp. 54-56; and see Jacoby, Last Intellectuals, ch. 4.

129. Alexander Bloom, Prodigal Sons (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1986), pp. 20-21.

130. Wayne, "Power, Politics," p. 58; Culler, Framing the Sign , p. 78 and ch. 4; see pp. 150-51 above.

131. Wayne, "Power, Politics," p. 53. Allan Bloom, of course, sees this as a loss for the education system: once Jews were admitted, he says, Harvard,

Yale, and Princeton ceased to be "the last resorts of aristocratic sentiment" ( Closing of the American Mind, p. 89).

132. Babbitt, Literature and the American College, p. 8.

133. Collier, Indians , pp. 126-29.

134. Raymond Williams, Second Generation (London: Chatto & Windus, 1964), pp. 137-38.

135. John Banks and Martina Weitsch, eds., Meeting Gay Friends (Manchester: Friends Homosexual Fellowship, 1982), p. 18. Marlon T. Riggs, "What Time Is It?" Out/Look , Spring 1990, p. 135. I am grateful to Carrie Bramen for this reference.

136. Celia Kitzinger, "Liberal Humanism as an Ideology of Social Control: The Regulation of Lesbian Identities," in J. Shotter and K. Gergen, eds., Texts of Identity (London: Sage, 1989), pp. 85-86; see Kitzinger, The Social Construction of Lesbianism (London: Sage, 1987), chs. 2, 7.

137. Quoted in Lillian Faderman, Surpassing the Love of Men (London: Junction Books, 1985), p. 409. For a sequence of such responses, see Mandy Merck, "'Liana' and the Lesbians of Art Cinema," in Charlotte Brunsdon, ed., Films for Women (London: British Film Institutte, 1986), p. 170.

138. See Collier, Indians, ch. 11.

139. Suzanne Pharr, Homophobia: A Weapon of Sexism (Inverness, Calif.: Chardon Press, 1988), p. 22.

140. Richard Wright, Native Son (1940; New York: Harper & Row, 1966), p. xvi. Cf. Henry Louis Gates, Jr., The Signifying Monkey (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1988), pp. 118-20, 181-83.

141. Cf. Barbara Herrnstein Smith, Contingencies of Value (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1988), pp. 166-79.

142. Zinn, People's History, p. 367.

143. Tony Bennett, "Texts in History: The Determinations of Readings and Their Texts," in Derek Attridge, Geoff Bennington and Robert Young, eds., Post-Structuralism and the Question of History (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1987), p. 68.

144. Quoted in Peter Stallybrass and Allon White, The Politics and Poetics of Transgression (London: Methuen, 1986), p. 20.

145. Fiedler, Stranger, pp. 82-83.

146. Arnold Wesker, The Journalists / The Wedding Feast / Shylock (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1990), p. 178. Wesker's play is in effect close to Margaret Ferguson's suggestion that a historical study of productions of the Merchant might be mounted in a course perhaps entitled "Shakespeare and the American Ideology of the 'Melting Pot'" (Ferguson, "Afterword," in Howard and O'Connor, eds., Shakespeare Reproduced, p. 280).

147. Allan Bloom with Harry V. Jaffa, Shakespeare's Politics (New York: Basic Books, 1964; Univ. of Chicago Press, Midway Reprint, 1986), p. 21. It is amusing to note that the falling off of standards Bloom attributes to the 1960s and after in Closing of the American Mind (pp. 313-35) is already being lamented here in 1964 (pp. 1-2). It is typical of a conservative cultural critique to appeal to a supposed good past that always recedes as it is approached.