1. The standard history is Georg Misch, Die Geschichte der Authobiographie , 6 vols. (Berne: A. Francke, 1949-62); but see Karl J. Weintraub, The Value of the Individual: Self and Circumstance in Autobiography (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978). General theories are proposed by Marjorie O'Rourke Boyle, "A Likely Story: The Autobiographical as Epideictic," Journal of the American Academy of Religion 57 (1989):23-51; Geoffrey Galt Harpham, "Conversion and the Language of Autobiography," in Studies in Autobiography , ed. James Olney (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), 42-50; Jürgen Lehmann, Bekennen--Erzählen--Berichten: Studien zu Theorie und Geschichte der Autobiographie (Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1988), 1-87; Antonio Gómez-Moriana, "Narration and Argumentation in Autobiographical Discourse,'' in Autobiography in Early Modern Spain , ed. Nicholas Spadaccini and Jenaro Talens, Hispanic Issues, 2 (Minneapolis, Minn.: Prisma Institute, 1988), 41-58; John Freccero, "Autobiography and Narrative," in Reconstructing Individualism: Autonomy, Individuality, and the Self in Western Thought , ed. Thomas C. Heller, Morton Sosna, and David E. Wellbery (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1986), 16-29; Susanna Egan, Patterns of Experience in Autobiography (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), 3-14, 196-202; Janet Varner Gunn, Autobiography: Toward a Poetics of Experience (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982); John Pilling, Autobiography and Imagination: Essays in Self-Scrutiny (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1981), 1-7, 116-20; William C. Spengemann, The Forms of Autobiography: Episodes in the History of a Literary Genre (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1980), xi-xvii; Olney, ed., Autobiography: Essays Theoretical and Critical (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1980); idem, Metaphors of the Self:

The Meaning of Autobiography (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1972), 3-50; Georges May, L'autobiographie (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1979); Louis A. Renza, "The Veto of the Imagination: A Theory of Autobiography," New Literary History 9 (1977): 1-26; Elizabeth W. Bruss, Autobiographical Acts: The Changing System of a Literary Genre (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976), 1-32; Georges Gusdorf, "De l'autobiographie initiatique à l'autobiographie genre littéraire," Revue d'histoire littéraire de la France 75 (1975):957-94; idem, "Conditions et limites de l'autobiographie," in Formen der Selbstdarstellung: Analekten zu einer Geschichte des literarischen Selbstportraits , ed. Günther Reichenkron and Erich Hasse (Berlin: Dunker and Humblot, 1956), 105-23; Philippe Lejeune, La pacte autobiographique (Paris: Seuil, 1975); idem, On Autobiography , ed. Paul John Eakin, trans. Katherine Leary, Theory and History of Literature, 52 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989); idem, ''Autobiographie et historie littéraire," Revue d'histoire littéraire de la France 75 (1975):903-30; Randolph D. Pope, La autobiografia española hasta Torres Villarroel , Hispanistische Studien, 1 (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1974); John Claude Curtin, "Autobiography and the Dialectic of Consciousness," International Philosophical Quarterly 14 (1974):343-46; William Howarth, "Some Principles of Autobiography," New Literary History 5 (1974):363-81; Jean Starobinsky, "The Style of Autobiography," in Literary Style: A Symposium (London: Oxford University Press, 1971); Mary Sue Carlock, "Humpty Dumpty and the Autobiography," Genre 3 (1970):340-50; Francis R. Hart, "Notes for an Anatomy of Modern Autobiography," New Literary History 1 (1970):485-511; Bernd Neumann, Identität und Rollenzwang: Zur Theorie der Autobiographie (Frankfurt: Athenäum, 1970); Stephen A. Shapiro, "The Dark Continent of Literature: Autobiography," Comparative Literature Studies 5 (1968):421-54; Roy Pascal, Design and Truth in Autobiography (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1960). Christian sacred biography illustrating the virtuous deed as a paradigm for social behavior is stated to be "a narrative which is epideictic because the goal of the text is not authentication, but persuasion" by Thomas J. Heffernan, Sacred Biography: Saints and Their Biographers in the Middle Ages (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), 150. Since all three genres of rhetoric are for persuasion this designation does not explain "epideictic," however,

2. Boyle, "The Prudential Augustine: The Virtuous Structure and Sense of his Confessions" Recherches augustiniennes 22 (1987):129-50, citing Augustine, Retractationes 2.6.1.

3. See Erwin Panofsky, Hercules am Scheideweg: Und andere antike Bildstoffe in der neueren Kunst , Studien der Bibliothek Warburg, 18 (Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1930), 1-35 and Abb. 1-25.

4. Pierre Courcelle, Recherches sur les "Confessions" de saint Augustin , rev. ed. (Paris: E. de Boccard, 1968), 191-92.

5. Xenophon, Memorabilia 1.2.21-34. See also G. Karl Galinsky, The Herakles Theme: The Adaptations of the Hero in Literature from Homer to the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1971), 101-3; Marcel Simon, Hercule et le christianisme , Publications de la faculté des lettres de l'Université de Strasbourg, 19 (Paris: Belles lettres, 1955).

6. Gusdorf, "Conditions et limites de l'autobiographie," 109.

7. Guillaume de Deguileville, Pèlerinage de vie humaine 81, 86-90. See also Ritamarie Bradley, "Backgrounds of the Title Speculum in Mediaeval Literature," Speculum 29 (1954):100-15.

8. "Autobiography," in Powers of Imagining: Ignatius de Loyola , trans. Antonio T. de Nicolas (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1986); A Pilgrim's Journey: The Autobiography of Ignatius of Loyola , trans. Joseph N. Tylenda (Wilmington, Del.: Michael Glazier, 1985); The Autobiography of Saint Ignatius Loyola and Related Documents , trans. Joseph O'Callaghan (New York: Harper & Row, 1974); The Autobiography of St. Ignatius , trans. J. F. X. O'Connor (New York: Benzinger Bros., 1900).

9. Fernando Zapico and de Dalmases, eds., Acta , p. 324.

10. W. W. Meissner, Ignatius of Loyola: The Psychology of a Saint (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1992).

11. "Praefatio scriptoris" 1.

12. "Praefatio patris Natalis" 2.

13. Exercitia spiritualia , p. 164.

14. Theodore C. Burgess, Epideictic Literature (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1902).

15. Erasmus, Epistolae 396; The Correspondence of Erasmus , trans. R. A. B. Mynors and D. F. S. Thomson, in The Collected Works of Erasmus (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1976), 3:257.

16. Fernando Zapico and de Dalmases, eds., Acta , p. 328, and for the manuscripts, 331-37, 351-52.

17. See Roger Dragonetti, Le mirage des sources: L'art du faux dans la roman médiévale (Paris: Seuil, 1987), 38-40, 42.

18. Thomas M. Greene, The Light in Troy: Imitation and Discovery in Renaissance Poetry (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1982), 1-2. See also George W. Pigman III, "Versions of Imitation in the Renaissance," Renaissance Quarterly 33 (1980):1-32; Jo Ann Della Neva, "Reflecting Lesser Lights: The Imitation of Minor Writers in the Renaissance," ibid. 42 (1989):449-79. For the issue of Ciceronian imitation among the Jesuits see Barbara Bauer, Jesuitische ''ars rhetorica" im Zeitalter der Glaubenskämpfe , Mikrokosmos, 18 (Bern: Peter Lang, 1986).

17. See Roger Dragonetti, Le mirage des sources: L'art du faux dans la roman médiévale (Paris: Seuil, 1987), 38-40, 42.

18. Thomas M. Greene, The Light in Troy: Imitation and Discovery in Renaissance Poetry (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1982), 1-2. See also George W. Pigman III, "Versions of Imitation in the Renaissance," Renaissance Quarterly 33 (1980):1-32; Jo Ann Della Neva, "Reflecting Lesser Lights: The Imitation of Minor Writers in the Renaissance," ibid. 42 (1989):449-79. For the issue of Ciceronian imitation among the Jesuits see Barbara Bauer, Jesuitische ''ars rhetorica" im Zeitalter der Glaubenskämpfe , Mikrokosmos, 18 (Bern: Peter Lang, 1986).

19. Boyle, Erasmus on Language and Method in Theology , Erasmus Studies, 2 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1977), 33-57.

20. Greene, Light in Troy , with bibliography on classical and renaissance theory and practice, 305-6 n. 1; 312-13 n. 34; 147.

21. Seneca, Ad Lucilium 7-8.

22. Petrarch, Epistolae familiares 23.19.11-12; Letters on Familiar Matters: Rerum familiarum libri XVII-XXIV , trans. Aldo Bernardo (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985), 301.

23. "Praefatio scriptoris" 1 and passim.

24. "Praefatio scriptoris" 1.

25. "Praefatio patris Natalis" 2.

26. "Praefatio scriptoris" 1-2.

27. Ibid. 2, 3.

26. "Praefatio scriptoris" 1-2.

27. Ibid. 2, 3.

28. See G. Zanker, " Enargeia in the Ancient Criticism of Poetry," Rheinisches Museum für Philologie 124 (1981):297-311; Heinrich Lausberg, Handbuch der literarischen Rhetorik: Eine Grundlegung der Literaturwissenschaft , 2 vols. (Munich: Max Hueber, 1960), 1:paragraphs 810-19; Mary E. Hazard, "The Anatomy of "Liveliness' as a Concept in Renaissance Aesthetics," Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 33 (1975):407-18. For the comparison of writing and painting see Claire J. Farago, ed., Leonardo da Vinci's "Paragone," 32-91; Michael Baxandall, Giotto and the Orators: Humanist Observers of Painting in Italy and the Discovery of Pictorial Composition, 1350-1450 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1971), esp. 33-44; John R. Spencer, " Ut rhetorica pictura A Study in Quattrocento Theory of Painting,'' Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 20 (1957):26-44; Rensselaer W. Lee, " Ut pictura poesis : The Humanist Theory of Painting," Art Bulletin 22 (1940):197-269.

29. Monumenta paedagogica societas Iesu , cited by J. K. Sowards, introduction to The Collected Works of Erasmus (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1978), 25:li n. 150; 26:490.

30. Erasmus, De duplici copia verborum ac rerum commentarii duo 2, in Opera omnia (Amsterdam), 1-6:202; Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style , trans. Betty I. Knott, in The Collected Works of Erasmus (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1974), 24:576.

31. Terence C. Cave, " Copia and Cornucopia," in French Renaissance Studies, 1540-1570: Humanism and the Encyclopedia , ed. Peter Sharratt (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1976), 57, 66.

32. Zanker, " Enargeia "; Lausberg, Handbuch . Baxandall notes that ekphrasis was an epideictic device, without neutrality, in Giotto and the Orators , 87. See also my references in chapter two, n. 26.

33. Cave, " Enargeia : Erasmus and the Rhetoric of Presence in the Sixteenth Century," L'Esprit créateur 16 (1976):6.

34. For classical and renaissance precedents of Buffon's aphorism see Wolfgang C. Müller, "Der Topos 'Le style est l'homme même,'" Neophilologus 61 (1977):481-84.

35. See Baxandall, Giotto and the Orators , 19-20, referring to Cicero, De partitione oratoriae 6.20; Dante, De vulgari eloquentia 1.17.

36. See Walter J. Ong, Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word (London: Methuen, 1982), 10. For more recent background see Tony M. Lentz, Orality and Literacy in Hellenic Greece (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press 1989); Paul Zumthor, La lettre et la voix: De la "littérature" médiévale (Paris: Seuil, 1987).

37. See Zumthor, La lettre et la voix , 19, 57.

38. See Elisabeth Eisenstein, The Printing Press as an Agent of Change: Communications and Cultural Transformations in Early Modern Europe , 2 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979).

39. See Karl D. Uitti, "The Clerkly Narrator Figure in Old French Hagiography and Romance," Medioevo romanzo 2 (1975):394-408.

40. Acta 3.

41. See Ong, Orality and Literacy , 60.

42. Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 11.2.43.

43. Hesiod, Theogonia 53.

44. Cicero, De oratore 1.31.142; Partitiones oratoriae 3; Rhetorica ad C. Herennium 1.23; Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 3.3.1.

45. Rhetorica ad C. Herennium 3.16.28; Ad C. Herennium , trans. Harry Caplan (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968), 205.

46. Institutiones oratoriae 11.2.1; The "Institutio oratoria" of Quintilian , trans. H. E. Butler, 4 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1933-36), 4:213. For this model see Carruthers, The Book of Memory: A Study of Memory in Medieval Culture , Cambridge Studies in Medieval Literature, 10 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 33-45; Harry Caplan, " Memoria --Treasure House of Eloquence," in idem, Of Eloquence: Studies of Ancient and Mediaeval Rhetoric , ed. Anne King and Helen North (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1970), 196-246.

47. Frances A. Yates, The Art of Memory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), 1-7. For the model of the tablet, the neuropsychology of memory, elementary design, and the arts of memory see in detail Carruthers, Book of Memory , 16-32, 46-155.

48. Yates, Art of Memory , 9, 18; Ong, Orality and Literacy , 57-68.

49. Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 11.2.48-49; trans. Butler, 4:241.

50. Yates, Art of Memory , 9-10.

51. Ibid., 20-21, 57-78, 82-104, 33-35. For practical application of the architectural model see Carruthers, "The Poet as Master Builder: Composition and Locational Memory in the Middle Ages," New Literary History 24 (1993):881-904; Bettina Bergmann, "The Roman House as a Memory Theater: The House of the Tragic Poet in Pompeii," Art Bulletin 76 (1994):225-56.

50. Yates, Art of Memory , 9-10.

51. Ibid., 20-21, 57-78, 82-104, 33-35. For practical application of the architectural model see Carruthers, "The Poet as Master Builder: Composition and Locational Memory in the Middle Ages," New Literary History 24 (1993):881-904; Bettina Bergmann, "The Roman House as a Memory Theater: The House of the Tragic Poet in Pompeii," Art Bulletin 76 (1994):225-56.

52. Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 11.2.21, 29; trans. Butler, 4:223.

53. Terry Comito, The Idea of the Garden in the Renaissance (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1978), 70-71, referring to Cicero, De oratore 2.39.162; Topica 2.7; De oratore 2.34.146; De inventione 2.14.46. Comito's discussion distinguishes between memory and rhetoric. Since memory is a formal part of rhetoric, the correct distinction is between memory and invention; so I have adjusted the explanation.

54. Exercitia spiritualia, pp. 140, 160, 184-85 and passim, 234, 194, 188 and passim, 340. The influence of mnemonic art with places and images in Loyola's Exercitia Spiritualia was initially suggested by René Taylor, "Hermetism and Mystical Architecture in the Society of Jesus," in Baroque Art: The Jesuit Contribution , ed. Rudolf Wittkower and Irma B. Jaffe (New York: Fordham University Press, 1976), 65. The composition of place is also argued concerning religious poetry by Louis Martz, The Poetry of Meditation: A Study in English Religious Literature of the Seventeenth Century (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1954), 25-32.

55. Marianne Wynn, "Geography of Fact and Fiction in Wolfram von Eschenbach's Parzival," Modern Language Review 56 (1961):28-43; idem, "Scenery and Chivalrous Journeys in Wolfram's Parzival," Speculum 36 (1961):393-423. For a Spanish example see Agustín Boyer, "Geography as a Linking-Device in the Poema de mío Cid," Romanic Review 84 (1993):463-74. See in general Charles Muscatine, "Locus of Action in Medieval Narrative," Ro-

mance Philology 17 (1963-64):115-22; and for an introduction to the conceptual importance of place through literature and art in modern cultural geography, Stephen Daniels, "Place and the Geographical Imagination," Geography 77 (1992):310-22.

56. Acta 1.7.

57. Exercitia spiritualia , p. 206.

58. Jerome, Epistolae 108.9-10. See also for geography in the literature of pilgrimage Blake Leyerle, "Landscape as Cartography in Early Christian Pilgrimage Narratives," Journal of the American Academy of Religion 64 (1996):119-43.

59. Felix Fabri, Evagatorium , 1:285-87; Francisco Guerrero, El viaje de Hierusalem 2. Cf. Exercitia spiritualia , p. 362. For a literary precedent see Pseudo-Bonaventure, Meditationes vitae Christi 88. See also Rogier van der Weyden, right wing of triptych, Christ appearing to his mother after the resurrection, Staatliche Museen, Berlin-Dahlem, and Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Reproduced in Martin Davies, Rogier van der Weyden: An Essay with a Critical Catalogue of Paintings Assigned to Him and to Robert Campin (London: Phaidon, 1972), pl. 15; Odile Delenda, Rogier van der Weyden: Roger de la Pasture (Paris: Cerf, 1987), between 32-33. The version now in the Berlin museum was called the Miraflores altarpiece from its location in the charterhouse of Burgos, but it was transferred in 1505 at the bequest of Queen Isabella to the Capella real in Granada.

60. Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 9.4.3-6; 9.4.9; trans. Butler, 3:511; 9.4.45; 9.4.147; 9.4.22.

61. Lee, " Ut rhetorica pictura ," 264-65. See also Jack M. Greenstein, "Alberti on historia : A Renaissance View of the Structure of Significance in Narrative Painting," Viator 21 (1990):286-87, 298-99.

62. For the meditations of Marcus Aurelius as based on tripartite philosophical topics see Pierre Hadot, Exercices spirituels et philosophie antique , 2d ed. rev. (Paris: Etudes augustiniennes, 1987), 135-53.

63. Exercitia spiritualia , passim, p. 322.

64. Plautus, Miles gloriosus 1292-95; Plautus , trans. Paul Nixon, 5 vols. (London: William Heinemann, 1924), 3:265-67.

65. See Marie-Madeleine Mactoux, Pénélope: Légende et mythe , Annales littéraires de l'Université de Besançon, 175, Centre de recherches d'histoire ancienne, 16 (Paris: Belles lettres, 1975), 23-25, 127, 169.

66. Augustine, Confessiones 7.17-18; Confessions , trans. Vernon J. Bourke (New York: Fathers of the Church, 1953), 213.

67. Cicero, De oratore 1.123-24; trans. E. W. Sutton and H. Rackham, 2 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1967-68), 1:87; 1.26.120; 1.27.122.

68. Lorne Campbell, Renaissance Portraits: European Portrait-Painting in the Fourteenth, Fifteenth, and Sixteenth Centuries (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1990), 152.

69. "Praefatio scriptoris" 2.

70. Ibid. 2-3. For the sabbath see Jean Leclercq, "Otia monastica": Etudes

sur le vocabulaire de la contemplation au moyen âge , Studia anselmiana, philosophica, theologica, 51 (Rome: Herder, 1963), 50-59.

69. "Praefatio scriptoris" 2.

70. Ibid. 2-3. For the sabbath see Jean Leclercq, "Otia monastica": Etudes

sur le vocabulaire de la contemplation au moyen âge , Studia anselmiana, philosophica, theologica, 51 (Rome: Herder, 1963), 50-59.

71. "Praefatio scriptoris" 3-4.

72. Ernst R. Curtius, European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages , trans. Willard R. Trask (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1953), 87-88.

73. "Praefatio patris Natalis" 1-3, 3-4.

74. Ibid. 4.

73. "Praefatio patris Natalis" 1-3, 3-4.

74. Ibid. 4.

75. Constitutiones 1.2.7; 1.3.13; 4.6.13.

76. Jonathan D. Spence, The Memory Palace of Matteo Ricci (New York: Viking, 1984).

77. See Carruthers, Book of Memory , 12-13, 20.

78. "Praefatio patris Natalis" 4.

79. See M.-D. Chenu, La théologie au douzième siècle , 2d ed. (Paris: Vrin, 1976), 353-57.

80. "Praefatio scriptoris" 4. For "Prester" see Francisco Alvares, Verdadeira informação das terras do preste João das Indias .

81. "Praefatio scriptoris" 5.

82. See Dragonetti, Mirage des sources , 38-40.

83. See A. Bartlett Giamatti, The Earthly Paradise and the Renaissance Epic (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1966), 123-24. To the examples cited may be added Petrarch's Africa .

84. Aristotle, Rhetorica 3.14.6; The "Art" of Rhetoric , trans. John Henry Freese (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1975), 431.

85. Cicero, De inventione 1.15.20-1.16.21; De oratore 2.53.212-15.

86. Curtius, European Literature , 85-86.

87. "Praefatio scriptoris" 1.

88. "Praefatio patris Natalis" 4.

89. For the topic of modesty see Curtius, European Literature , 83-85.

90. See ibid., 84.

89. For the topic of modesty see Curtius, European Literature , 83-85.

90. See ibid., 84.

91. "Praefatio scriptoris" 3. See Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 9.3.88; Evelyn Birge Vitz, Medieval Narrative and Modern Narratology: Subjects and Objects of Discourse (New York: New York University Press, 1989), 54.

92. Curtius, European Literature , 85.

93. Cicero, Orator 1.1; Brutus, Orator , trans. H. M. Hubbell (London: William Heinemann, 1942), 307.

94. Baldassare Castiglione, Libro del cortegiano; The Book of the Courtier , trans. George Bull (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1967), 39.

95. "Praefatio patris Natalis" 2.

96. Augustine, Confessiones 13.28.43; 13.32.47-13.33.48.

97. Boyle, "Prudential Augustine," 137-41.

98. Cicero, De oratore 2.45.189; trans. Sutton and Rackham, 1:333.

99. Johann Huizinga, The Waning of the Middle Ages: A Study of the Forms of Life, Thought, and Art in France and the Netherlands in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries (London: Edward Arnold, 1924), 4, 5.

100. Baxandall, Painting and Experience in Fifteenth-Century Italy: A Primer in the Social History of Pictorial Style , 2d ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), 65.

101. Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 11.3.75; trans. Butler, 4:285.

102. "Praefatio scriptoris" 5.

103. Heraclitus, Fragmenta 15; Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 11.2.34, cited in Memory in Historical Perspective: The Literature before Ebbinghaus , ed. Douglas J. Herrmann and Roger Chaffin (New York: Springer, 1988).

104. Cicero, De oratore 2.86-88.357; 3.59.221; trans. Sutton and Rackham, 1:177.

105. Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 11.3.72; trans. Butler, 4:283. For modern research confirming the mutual roles of listeners and speakers see Michael Argyle and Mark Cook, Gaze and Mutual Gaze (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 172.

106. Robert Sommer, Personal Space: The Behavioral Basis of Design (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1969), 26-38.

107. Paul M. Insel and Henry Clay Lindgren, Too Close for Comfort: The Psychology of Crowding (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1978), 144. E. H. Gombrich states that there is no systematic study of ocular contacts in art but he mentions the gaping onlooker in "Action and Expression in Western Art," in idem, Non-Verbal Communication , ed. R. A. Hinde (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972), 391, 375; rpt. in idem, The Image and the Eye: Further Studies in the Psychology of Pictorial Representation (Oxford: Phaidon, 1982), 78-104.

108. Argyle and Cook, Gaze and Mutual Gaze , 172, 29.

109. For an introduction see Jonathan Nicholls, The Matter of Courtesy: Medieval Courtesy Books and the Gawain-Poet (Woodbridge, Suffolk: D. S. Brewer, 1985), 1-74; Norbert Elias, The Civilizing Process , trans. Edmund Jephcott, 2 vols. (New York: Urizen, 1978), 1.

110. W. O. Evans, " Cortaysye in Middle English," Mediaeval Studies 29 (1967):151-57, referring at 152 to Cursor mundi , Trin. MS. 1.2256.

111. Nicholls, Matter of Courtesy , 34.

112. Benedict, Regula 7; The "Rule" of St. Benedict in Latin and English , trans. Timothy Fry (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 1980), 201.

113. Constitutiones 3.1.4; The Constitutions of the Society of Jesus , trans. George E. Ganss, S. J. (St. Louis, Mo.: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1970), 155. For Jesuit development of gesture see Alfred S. Golding, "'Nature as Symbolic Behavior': Cresol's Autumn Vacations and Early Baroque Acting Technique," Renaissance and Reformation 10 (1986): 147-57.

114. Exercitia spiritualia , pp. 210, 208.

115. André Labhardt, " Curiositas : Notes sur l'histoire d'un mot et d'une notion," Museum helveticum 17 (1960):206-24; Heiko A. Oberman, Contra vanam curiositatem: Ein Kapitel der Theologie zwischen Seelenwinkel und Weltall (Zürich: Theologischer, 1974); La curiosité a la Renaissance , ed. Jean Céard (Paris: Société d'édition et d'enseignement supérieur, 1986); H. J. Mette, " Curiositas ," in Festschrift Bruno Snell (Munich: C. H. Beck, 1956), 227-35; Hans Blumenberg, "Augustins Anteil an der Geschichte des Begriffs der theoretischen Neugierde," Revue des études augustiniennes 7 (1961):35-70.

116. Plutarch, "De curiositate" 515d, in Moralia , cited by Labhardt, " Curiositas ," 206.

117. Bernard of Clairvaux, Ad clericos de conversione 14, cited by Leclercq, " Otia monastica ," 113-14.

118. Montaigne, Essais 1.27, cited by Françoise Charpentier, "Les Essais de Montaigne: Curiosité/incuriosité," in Curiosité a la Renaissance , ed. Céard, 111; The Complete Works of Montaigne , trans. Donald M. Frame (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1967), 135.

119. See Elias, Civilizing Process , 1:70-80, 102, 53-59.

120. Franz Bierlaire, "Erasmus at School: The De civilitate morum puerilium libellus ," in Essays on the Works of Erasmus , ed. Richard L. DeMolen (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1978), 239-51. See also Roger Chartier, "From Text to Manners, a Concept and Its Books: Civilité between Aristocratic Distinction and Popular Appropriation," in idem, The Cultural Uses of Print , trans. Lydia G. Cochrane (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1987), 71-79. The Jesuits sometimes used Erasmus's manuals, although they suppressed the name of the author, as noted by Bierlaire, 245, and see 242-43.

121. Erasmus, De civilitate morum puerilium 1, in Opera omnia (Leiden), 1:1033, 1041; "On Good Manners for Boys," trans. Brian McGregor, in Collected Works of Erasmus , 25:274, 286-87.

122. Aelian, De natura animalium 7.5.

123. Leonardo da Vinci, "Studies on the Life and Habits of Animals" 1255, in Notebooks .

124. Erasmus, De civilitate morum puerilium 1, in Opera omnia (Leiden), 1:1034; trans. McGregor, 274.

125. Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 11.3.66; trans. Butler, 4:279.

1. Acta 1.1-2.

2. Fernando Zapico and de Dalmases, eds., Acta , pp. 14-24.

3. Bartolomé Bennassar, The Spanish Character: Attitudes and Mentalities from the Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1979), 27-28.

4. Walter J. Ong, Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word (London: Methuen, 1982), 97-98.

5. See Harry Verdeveld, "The Ages of Erasmus and the Year of His Birth," Renaissance Quarterly 46 (1993):754-809; John B. Gleason, "The Birth Dates of John Colet and Erasmus of Rotterdam: Fresh Documentary Evidence," ibid. 32 (1979):73-76; Margaret Mann Phillips, "The Date of Erasmus' Birth," Erasmus in English 6 (1973):14-15; A. C. F. Koch, The Year of Erasmus' Birth and Other Contributions to the Chronology of His Life (Utrecht: H. Dekker & Gumbert, 1969).

4. Walter J. Ong, Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word (London: Methuen, 1982), 97-98.

5. See Harry Verdeveld, "The Ages of Erasmus and the Year of His Birth," Renaissance Quarterly 46 (1993):754-809; John B. Gleason, "The Birth Dates of John Colet and Erasmus of Rotterdam: Fresh Documentary Evidence," ibid. 32 (1979):73-76; Margaret Mann Phillips, "The Date of Erasmus' Birth," Erasmus in English 6 (1973):14-15; A. C. F. Koch, The Year of Erasmus' Birth and Other Contributions to the Chronology of His Life (Utrecht: H. Dekker & Gumbert, 1969).

6. "Praefatio scriptoris" 2.

7. Augustine, Confessiones 7.1.1. Brent D. Shaw, "The Family in Late Antiquity: The Experience of Augustine," Past and Present 115 (1987):3-51.

8. See Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae 11.2.16, cited by Charles W. Jones, Saint Nicholas of Myra, Bari, and Manhattan: The Biography of a Legend . See also in general Elizabeth Sears, The Ages of Man: Medieval Interpretations of

the Life Cycle (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986); Phyllis Gaffney, "The Ages of Man in Old French Verse Epic and Romance," Modern Language Review 85 (1990):570-82; and for middle age, Mary Dove, The Perfect Age of Man's Life (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).

9. Erich Köhler, "Sens et fonction du terme jeunesse dans la poesié des troubadours," in Melanges offerts à René Crozet , ed. Pierre Gallais and Yves-Jean Riou, 2 vols. (Poitiers: Société d'études médiévales, 1966), 1:569-83. For youth in comparative English literature see J. A. Burrow, The Ages of Man: A Study in Medieval Writing and Thought (Oxford: Clarendon, 1986), 166-77.

10. Georges Duby, "Youth in Aristocratic Society: Northwestern France in the Twelfth Century," in idem, The Chivalrous Society , trans. Cynthia Postan (London: Edward Arnold, 1977), 112-14, 116-17, 120.

11. Acta 3.21.

12. Andreas Wang, Der "miles christianus" im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert und seine mittelalterliche Tradition: Ein Beitrag zum Verhaltnis von sprachlicher und graphische Bildlichkeit , Mikrokosmos: Beiträge zur Literaturwis-senschaft und Bedeutungs Forschung, 1 (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1975), 163-75.

13. For this type see Herbert Grabes, The Mutable Glass: Mirror-Imagery in Titles and Texts of the Middle Ages and English Renaissance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 56-58.

14. Xenophon, Memorabilia 2.1.21, 30, 34.

15. Werner Jaeger, "Paideia": The Ideals of Greek Culture , trans. Gilbert Highet, 3 vols. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1939), 1:3.

16. For background see Beth Cohen, "From Bowman to Clubman: Herakles and Olympia," Art Bulletin 76 (1994):695-715.

17. Acta 1.1.

18. See Allardyce Nicoll, Masks, Mimes, and Miracles: Studies in the Popular Theatre (New York: Cooper Square, 1963), 246-52.

19. Plautus, Miles gloriosus 56-57, 89-90, 11, 17, 21-22, 42-46; Plautus , trans. Paul Nixon, 5 vols. (London: William Heinemann, 1924), 3:129, 133.

20. See David Coffin, The Villa d'Este at Tivoli , Princeton Monographs in Art and Archaeology, 34 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1960), 55-56, 78-79, 85, 80-83, 3, 9; idem, Gardens and Gardening in Papal Rome (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1991), 19-20, 89-90; Hans Henrik Brummer, The Statue Court in the Vatican Belvedere , Stockholm Studies in the History of Art, 20 (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1970), 139-41, 142-52; Elizabeth B. MacDougall, " Ars hortulorum : Sixteenth-Century Garden Iconography and Literary Theory in Italy," in The Italian Garden: First Dumbarton Oaks Colloquium on the History of Landscape Architecture , ed. Coffin (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, 1972), 53.

21. For war versus leisure see Livy, Ab urbe condita 3.32.4, cited by Jean Leclercq, "Otia monastica": Etudes sur le vocabulaire de la contemplation au moyen âge , Studia anselmiana philosophica theologica, 51 (Rome: Herder, 1963), 27; Horace, Epodes 2.1-8, cited by Michael O'Loughlin, The Garlands of Repose: The Literary Celebration of Civic and Retired Leisure: The

Traditions of Homer and Vergil, Horace and Montaigne (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), 53-55, 76.

22. Acta 1.2.

23. See Luis Vásquez de Parga et al., Las peregrinaciones a Santiago de Compostela , 3 vols. (Madrid: Consejo superior de investigaciones científicas, Escuela de estudios medievales, 1948-49), 1:210-20, 224, 226-27, 230, 235, 245; in general, Antonio López Ferreiro, Historia de la santa a. m. iglesia de Santiago de Compostela , 11 vols. (Santiago: Seminario conciliar central, 1898-1909).

24. Dante, Inferno 9.105.

25. Horace, Ars poetica 148-49.

26. Dante, Inferno 1.1-3; The Divine Comedy , trans. Charles S. Singleton, 6 vols., Bollingen Series, 80 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1970-75), 1:3.

27. Erasmus, De copia 2, in Opera omnia (Amsterdam), 1-6:202. See also Andrew Sprague Becker, "The Shield of Achilles and the Poetics of Homeric Description," American Journal of Philology 111 (1990):139-53; Stephen W. Wheeler, " Imago mundi : Another View of the Creation in Ovid's Metamorphoses ," ibid. 116 (1995):95-121; and for ekphrasis in renaissance poetics, Leonard Barkin, "Making Pictures Speak: Renaissance Art, Elizabethan Literature, Modern Scholarship," Renaissance Quarterly 48 (1995):326-51. For theoretical discussion see also D. P. Fowler, "Narrate and Describe: The Problem of Ekphrasis ," Journal of Roman Studies 81 (1991):25-35; James A. W. Heffernan, " Ekphrasis and Representation,'' New Literary History 22 (1991):297-316.

26. Dante, Inferno 1.1-3; The Divine Comedy , trans. Charles S. Singleton, 6 vols., Bollingen Series, 80 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1970-75), 1:3.

27. Erasmus, De copia 2, in Opera omnia (Amsterdam), 1-6:202. See also Andrew Sprague Becker, "The Shield of Achilles and the Poetics of Homeric Description," American Journal of Philology 111 (1990):139-53; Stephen W. Wheeler, " Imago mundi : Another View of the Creation in Ovid's Metamorphoses ," ibid. 116 (1995):95-121; and for ekphrasis in renaissance poetics, Leonard Barkin, "Making Pictures Speak: Renaissance Art, Elizabethan Literature, Modern Scholarship," Renaissance Quarterly 48 (1995):326-51. For theoretical discussion see also D. P. Fowler, "Narrate and Describe: The Problem of Ekphrasis ," Journal of Roman Studies 81 (1991):25-35; James A. W. Heffernan, " Ekphrasis and Representation,'' New Literary History 22 (1991):297-316.

28. Plautus, Miles gloriosus 1-4.

29. G. M. Paul, " Urbs capta : Sketch of an Ancient Literary Motif," Phoenix 36 (1982):144-55. Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 6.2.29-36.

30. See Raymond Klibansky, Erwin Panofsky, and Fritz Saxl, Saturn and Melancholy: Studies in the History of Natural Philosophy, Religion, and Art (Cambridge: Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1964), 295, 297. For an example see Cesare Ripa, Iconologia , p. 75.

31. Acta 1.2.

32. Ibid.

31. Acta 1.2.

32. Ibid.

33. See Terry Jones, Chaucer's Knight: The Portrait of a Medieval Mercenary (London: Eyre Methuen, 1980), esp. 11, 145.

34. Baldassare Castiglione, Libro del cortegiano 1.43; The Book of the Courtier , trans. George Bull (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1967), 89; 1.17; cf. 2.8. See in general Margherita Morreale de Castro, Castiglione y Boscán: El ideal cortesano en el Renacimiento español (Madrid: S. Aguirre Torre, 1959).

35. M. H. Keen, "Chivalry, Nobility, and the Man-at-Arms," in War, Literature, and Politics in the Later Middle Ages: Essays in Honour of G. W. Coopland , ed. C. T. Allman (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1976), 32.

36. Ramon Lull, Libre de contemplació 112, cited by J. N. Hillgarth, The Spanish Kingdoms , 2 vols. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976-78), 1:60.

37. Francesco Guicciardini, "Relazione di Spagna," 29-31, cited by Bennessar, Spanish Character , xi.

38. A. W. H. Adkins, Moral Values and Political Behaviour in Ancient Greece: From Homer to the End of the Fifth Century (London: Chatto & Windus, 1972), 14, 6, 60-61, 35-36; T. P. Wiseman, "Competition and Cooperation," in Roman Political Life 90 B.C.-A.D. 69, ed. idem, Exeter Studies in History, 7 (Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 1985), 3-19. For Arete see also Jaeger, " Paideia ," 1:2-12.

39. See María Rosa Lida de Malkiel, La idea de la fama en la edad media castellana (Mexico: Fondo de cultura económica, 1952), 110; but for the reference see Lull, Libre de meravelles 8, proleg. The comparison with Adkin's analysis and with Loyola is mine.

40. Françoise Joukovsky, La gloire dans la poesie française et neolatine du XVIe siècle (Des rhetoriqueurs a Agrippa d'Aubigne) , Travaux d'humanisme et Renaissance, 102 (Geneva: Droz, 1969), 25-31, 33-52, referring at 25 to Cicero, De inventione 2.55.

41. Joukovsky, Gloire dans la poesie , 73-74.

42. Augustine, De civitate Dei 14.28; The City of God , trans. Gerald G. Walsh and Grace Monahan (New York: Fathers of the Church, 1952), 410.

43. Sophocles, Trachiniae 970. For Hercules as a comic figure see G. Karl Galinsky, The Herakles Theme: The Adaptations of the Hero in Literature from Homer to the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1971), xii, 81-100.

44. For surgery as butchery see Marie-Christine Pouchelle, Corps et chirugie à l'apogée du moyen âge (Paris: Flammarion, 1983), 125-29. For burlesque and satire of Spanish medical men see Yvonne David-Peyre, Le personnage du médecin et la relation médicin-malade dans la littérature ibérique du XVIe et XVIIe siècle (Paris: Hispano-americanas, 1971), 365-468.

45. Acta 1.2-3.

46. See Julio Caro Baroja, Los Vascos , 2 vols. (San Sebastian: Larrun, 1982), 2:403-4.

47. Acta 1.4-5.

48. Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 11.2.19.

49. Rhetorica ad C. Herennium 3.22.37; Ad C. Herennium , trans. Harry Caplan (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1978), 221.

50. Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 6.1.30; The "Institutio oratoria" of Quintilian , trans. H. E. Butler, 4 vols. (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1921), 2:403; see also 2.15.6; 5.9.1.

51. See Nicole Loraux, " Ponos : Sur quelques difficultés de la peine comme nom du travail," Aion: Annali del seminario di studi del mondo classico, Istituto universitario orientale 4 (1982):171-92.

52. See Donald Weinstein and Rudolph M. Bell, Saints and Society: The Two Worlds of Western Christendom, 100-1700 (Chicago: University of Chicago Pres, 1982), 156; and for patience in illness, Richard Kieckhefer, Unquiet Souls: Fourteenth-Century Saints and Their Religious Milieu (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), 57-58.

53. Augustine, De civitate Dei 14.9.6.

54. See Ralph A. Hanna III, "Some Commonplaces of Late Medieval Patience Discussions: An Introduction," in The Triumph of Patience: Medieval and

Renaissance Studies , ed. Gerald J. Schiffhorst (Orlando: University Presses of Florida, 1980), 70, citing Augustine, Epistolae 204.4.

55. Cicero, De partitione oratoria 23.81; De partitione oratoria , trans. H. Rackham (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1918), 371.

56. See Hillgarth, Spanish Kingdoms , 2:62-63, citing Juan de Pineda, Libro del passo honroso ; but see in my bibliography Pedro Rodriguez de Lena, Lletres de batalla, cartells de deseiximents, i capitols de passos d'armes 2.107-210; Martin de Riquer, Caballeros andantes españoles (Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, 1967), 52-99. Juan Ruiz, Libro de buen amor 1570-72.

57. See Kieckhefer, Unquiet Souls , 76. For this treatise in Spain see Dietrich Briesemeister, "The Consolatio philosophiae of Boethius in Medieval Spain," Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 53 (1990):68.

58. Brunetto Latini, Il tesoretto 2608-10.

59. José Sanchez Herrero, "Los cuidados de la belleza corporal femenina en los confesionales y tratados de doctrina cristiana de los siglos XIII al XVI," in Les soins de beauté: Moyen age, début des temps modernes , Actes du IIIe colloque international Grasse (26-28 avril 1985), ed. Denis Menjot (Nice: Université de Nice, 1987), 279, 280.

60. Pouchelle, The Body and Surgery in the Middle Ages , trans. Rosemary Morris (London: Polity, 1990), 86.

61. Lorne Campbell, Renaissance Portraits: European Portrait-Painting in the Fourteenth, Fifteenth, and Sixteenth Centuries (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1990), 197-98.

62. Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 11.3.66. For the orator's stances see also Elaine Fantham, "Quintilian on Performance: Traditional and Personal Elements in Institutiones 11.3," Phoenix 36 (1982):243-63.

63. Georges Vigarello, "The Upward Training of the Body from the Age of Chivalry to Courtly Civility," trans. Ughetta Lubin, in Fragments for a History of the Human Body , ed. Michel Feher with Ramona Nadaff and Nadia Tazi, 3 vols. (New York: Zone, 1989), 2:149-52. A book manuscript on the topic of erect bipedality is completed--Author.

64. Erasmus, De civilitate 1, in Opera omnia (Leiden), 1:1036.

65. Giovanni della Casa, Galateo 300-1.

66. Castiglione, Libro del cortegiano 1.20, trans. Bull, 61; 1.19; 1.17; cf. 2.8.

67. Transcript, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, Fonds it. 972, cited by Mabel Dolmetsch, Dances of Spain and Italy from 1400 to 1600 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1954), 3.

68. Guglielmo Ebreo da Pesaro, De practica seu arte tripudii 1; De practica seu arte tripudii: On the Practice or Art of Dancing , trans. Barbara Sparti (Oxford: Clarendon, 1993), p. 99.

69. Vigarello, "Upward Training of the Body," 149.

70. See Roberta D. Cornelius, The Figurative Castle: A Study in the Mediaeval Allegory of the Edifice with Especial Reference to Religious Writings (Bryn Mawr, Pa.: Bryn Mawr College, 1930), esp. 20-36, 68-72; Gaston Paris, "Les cours d'amour du moyen âge," in Mélanges de littérature française du moyen

âge (Paris: H. Champion, 1912), 473-97; Jill Mann, "Allegorical Buildings in Medieval Literature," Medium aevum 63 (1994):198-201.

71. Songe du castel 46-48, 165-166, 145-154.

72. Wolfram von Eschenbach, Parzival 227.23-24; 229; 246; 248.

73. Joukovsky, Gloire dans la poesie , 517-42.

74. Ovid, Metamorphoses 12.

75. Horace, Odes 3.2.31-32; The Odes and Epodes , trans. C. E. Bennett (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1924), 177. For examples of punishment or of a liar as wooden legged, dating to the turn of the seventeenth century, see Natalie Zemon Davis, The Return of Martin Guerre (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983), 155 n. 11. See also Karl Friedrich Schlegel, ed., Der Körperbehinderte in Mythologie und Kunst (Stuttgart: Georg Thieme, 1983).

76. Horace, Odes 3.2.13, 17-18, 21-24; trans. Bennett, 175, 177.

77. Acta 1.5.

78. Sara T. Nalle, "Literacy and Culture in Early Modern Castile," Past and Present 125 (1988):67, 69, 70, 75, 76-77, 79, 80, 81, 86; Keith Whinnom, "The Problem of the Best Seller in Spanish Golden-Age Literature," Bulletin of Hispanic Studies 57 (1980):184.

79. Brian Stock, "The Self and Literary Experience in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages," New Literary History 25 (1994):839-52.

80. Acta 1.5-6.

81. Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 6.2.29-30.

82. See David Summers, Michelangelo and the Language of Art (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1983), 103-43.

83. Leonardo da Vinci, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, MS 2038, fol. 26a, in Literary Works , 1:307.

84. Augustine, Confessiones 3.1. For courtly love as a pilgrimage see Juergen Hahn, The Origins of the Baroque Concept of "peregrinatio" (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1973), 64-113, with amor de lonh , 70.

85. Acta 1.6.

86. See Herbert Moller, "The Social Causation of the Courtly Love Complex," Comparative Studies in Society and History 1 (1959):137-63.

87. Acta 1.5.

88. Nalle, "Literacy and Culture," 80.

89. Edward Glasser, "Nuevos datos sobre la critica de los libros de caballerías en los siglos XVI y XVII," trans. Concepción Yañez, Anuarios de estudios medievales 3 (1966):393-410; D. W. Cruickshank, "Literature and the Book Trade in Golden-Age Spain," Modern Language Review 73 (1978):806.

90. Jerome, Epistolae 22.30. See Eugene F. Rice, Jr., Saint Jerome in the Renaissance , Johns Hopkins Symposia in Comparative History, 13 (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985), 13, 85.

91. Dante, Inferno 5.70-140.

92. Acta 1.7.

93. Augustine, Enarrationes in psalmos 120.5.

94. Régis Boyer, "An Attempt to Define the Typology of Medieval Hagiog-

raphy," in Hagiography and Medieval Literature: A Symposium (Odense: Odense University Press, 1981), 29-30.

95. See Weinstein and Bell, Saints and Society , 112-13, 247.

96. See ibid., 57, 102-3.

95. See Weinstein and Bell, Saints and Society , 112-13, 247.

96. See ibid., 57, 102-3.

97. Celano, Vita II s. Francisci 2.90.127.

98. Legend of Perugia 43; St. Francis of Assisi, Writings and Early Biographies: English Omnibus of the Sources for the Life of St. Francis , trans. Marion A. Habig, 3d ed. rev. (Chicago: Franciscan Herald, 1973), 1021-22.

99. Augustine, Confessiones 8.6.13; 8.8.19; Confessions , trans. Vernon J. Bourke (New York: Fathers of the Church, 1953), 214.

100. See Kiechefer, Unquiet Souls , 13.

101. Acta 1.7-9.

102. Augustine, De civitate Dei 9.5.

103. John of the Cross, El subido del Monte Carmelo 2.18.4; 2.19.11; and against knowledge by supernatural means, 2.21.4.

104. Ephemeris , p. 124.

105. Yasna 30, in The Hymns of Zarathustra ; 1 QS III 13-4.26, in The Dead Sea Scrolls in English ; Der Hirt des Hermas 36.3-5. See Marjorie O'Rourke Boyle, "Luther's Rider-Gods: From the Steppe to the Tower," Journal of Religious History 13 (1985):262-78; idem, "Angels Black and White: Loyola's Spiritual Discernment in Historical Perspective," Theological Studies 44 (1983):245-46.

106. Vita Antonii 35-36.

107. Erasmus, Annotationes in Novum Testamentum Matt. 3:2 ad loc. , in Opera omnia (Leiden), 5.

108. Acta 1.9; 4.40; 5.52.

109. See Jonathan Sumption, Pilgrimage: An Image of Mediaeval Religion (London: Faber & Faber, 1975), 112-13.

110. Acta 1.9.

111. Ibid. 1.10.

110. Acta 1.9.

111. Ibid. 1.10.

112. Macrobius, Commentariorum in somnium Scipionis 3.2-11. For theory see Steven F. Kruger, Dreaming in the Middle Ages , Cambridge Studies in Medieval Literature, 14 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Kathryn L. Lynch, The High Medieval Dream Vision: Poetry, Philosophy, and Literary Form (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1988); Lisa M. Bitel, " In visu noctis : Dreams in European Hagiography and Histories, 450-900," History of Religions 31 (1991):39-59.

113. Sixten Ringbom, "Devotional Images and Imaginative Devotions," Gazette des beaux-arts 6-73 (1969):159-70.

114. Acta 10.96; 2.14.

115. See Rona Goffen, "Icon and Vision: Giovanni Bellini's Half-Length Madonnas," Art Bulletin 57 (1975):511. The most complete study is Ronald G. Kecks, Madonna und Kind: Das häusliche Andachtsbild im Florence des 15. Jahrhunderts , Frankfurter Forschungen zur Kunst, 15 (Berlin: Gebr. Mann, 1988).

116. Acta 2.13; 1.1; 1.6; 2.15; 3.20; 3.21; 3.27; 3.32; 4.38.

117. See Carolly Erickson, The Medieval Vision: Essays in History and Perception (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976), 214.

118. William A. Christian, Jr., Apparitions in Late Medieval and Renaisance Spain (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981), 8, 150-85, 203.

119. Petrarch, Secretum praef.

120. Boethius, Philosophiae consolatio 1.1.

121. Cornelius, Figurative Castle , 37-48, referring to Robert Grosseteste, Château d'amour 567-824. The sources for castellum as "castle" are dated much later, to the eleventh or twelfth century, by Mary Immaculate Creek, "The Sources and Influence of Robert Grosseteste's Le chasteau d'amour ," Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1941, 162-64.

122. Aline Rousselle, "Porneia": On Desire and the Body in Antiquity , trans. Felicia Pheasant (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988), 157, 151, citing Historia monachorum in Aegypto 20; Palladius, Lausiac History 29; John Cassian, Collationes 7.1.

123. Victor Turner and Edith Turner, Image and Pilgrimage in Christian Culture: Anthropological Perspectives (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978), 154-55.

124. Augustine, Confessiones 8.11.26-27; trans. Bourke, 222,223. Cf. Pastor Hermae 3.8.4.

125. Caesarius of Hiesterbach, Dialogus miraculorum 7.48; Frederick C. Tubach, "Index exemplorum": A Handbook of Medieval Religious Tales (Helsinki: Suomolainen Tiedeakatamia, 1969), no. 3009.

126. Hugues Farsit, Libellus de miraculis Beatae Mariae Virginis in urbe Suessoniensi 31, included in several other collections, notably Alfonso X el Sabio, Cantigas , and absorbed into immaculatist liturgical books, according to Mirella Levi d'Ancona, The Iconography of the Immaculate Conception in the Middle Ages and the Early Renaissance , Monographs on Archaeology and Fine Arts Sponsored by The Archaeological Institute of America and The College Art Association of America, 7 (New York: College Art Association of America with Art Bulletin , 1957), 61 and n. 143.

127. Peter L. Hays, The Limping Hero: Grotesques in Literature (New York: New York University Press, 1971), 17-27.

128. See Claus Westermann, Genesis 12-36: A Commentary , trans. John J. Scullion (Minneapolis, Minn.: Augsburg, 1985), 514-20, with bibliography, 512-13.

129. Homer, Iliad 5.303-317.

130. Hays, Limping Hero , 8, 65-66, 68-69.

131. Bernard of Clairvaux, Sermones super Cantica canticorum 80.2.4, in Opera omnia , 2; On the Song of Songs , trans. Irene Edmonds, Cistercian Fathers Series, 40 (Kalamazoo, Mich.: Cistercian, 1980), 4:149. Also cited in Anthony K. Cassell, "Failure, Pride, and Conversion in 'Inferno' I: A Reinterpretation," Dante Studies 74 (1976):19 n. 2.

132. John Donne, "The First Anniuersarie" 191-92.

133. John Freccero, "Dante's Firm Foot and the Pilgrim without a Guide," Harvard Theological Review 52 (1959):251-68; rpt. in idem, Dante: The Po-

etics of Conversion , ed. Rachel Jacoff (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1986), 29-54.

134. Nancy H. Rosenberg, "Petrarch's Limping: The Foot Unequal to the Eye," Modern Language Notes 77 (1962):101-2.

135. Acta 1.2.

136. A book manuscript on this topic is completed--Author.

137. Gregory the Great, Moralia in Job 8.9.19.

138. Vita Antonii 5; Gregory the Great, Dialogi 1.2.4; Peter the Venerable, De miraculis 1.8; Teresa of Avila, Vida 31.4.

139. See Summers, The Judgment of Sense: Renaissance Aesthetics and the Rise of Naturalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 144-45. For vividness as a virtue of classical and renaissance art see also Leonardo da Vinci, Paragone 7, 14.

140. Augusine, De trinitate 11.2.5; The Trinity , trans. Stephen McKenna (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 1963), 321.

141. Brian Lawn, The Salernitan Questions: An Introduction to the History of Medieval and Renaissance Problem Literature (Oxford: Clarendon, 1963), appendix II, lines 82-83.

142. Laurent Joubert, Traité du rire 2 praef.

143. Albert the Great, De animalibus 22.5.10.

144. Augustine, Quaestionum in heptateuchum libri VII 1.93. The anecdote is not in the extant works of Hippocrates, according to Owsei Temkin, Hippocrates in a World of Pagans and Christians (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), 43.

145. Soranus, Gynaecia 1.39.

146. Paré, De monstres 9, 16; On Monsters and Marvels , trans. Janis L. Pallister (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), 54.

147. Leon Battista Alberti, De re aedificatoria 9. For examples of this belief in reformation texts see Hermann von Weinsberg, Das Buch Weinsberg: Kölner Denkwürdigkeiten aus dem 16. Jahrhundert , 1:96, cited by Steven E. Ozment, When Fathers Ruled: Family Life in Reformation Europe (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983), 113. Johann Coler, Oeconomia ruralis et domestica 2.4.5, cited by Ozment, When Fathers Ruled , 113.

148. Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 9.3.67; trans. Butler, 4:281.

149. Augustine, Confessiones 1.16.26; Terence, Eunuchus 584-91. Cf. for lust Augustine, De trinitate 11.4.7.

150. Michel de Montaigne, Essais 1.21, pp. 105, 91; The Complete Works of Montaigne , trans. Donald Frame (Stanford, Calif.: Standard University Press, 1967), 97. He also cited animal examples such as Jacob's sheep. For the hairy child see also Marie-Hélène Huet, Monstrous Imagination (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993), 19-22. She also discusses some texts of Montaigne, Pietro Pomponazzi, and Paré, 13-19, 22. This book appeared after my research on this topic was completed.

151. Acta 1.10.

152. See Weinstein and Bell, Saints and Society , 244, 228, 76-79, 154, without reference to Loyola.

153. Hillgarth, Spanish Kingdoms , 1:111-14; 2:100.

154. Caro Baroja, Vascos , 2:363.

155. Erasmus, Adagia 2.9.49, in Opera omnia (Leiden), 2; Montaigne, Essais 3.11.

156. Hugh of St. Victor, Diascalicon de studio legendi 1.5; 6.14.

157. Acta 1.9.

158. For a contemporary argument see Erasmus, Diatriba .

159. See Weinstein and Bell, Saints and Society , 114-19.

160. Pierre Courcelle, Recherches sur les "Confessions" de saint Augustin , rev. ed. (Paris: E. de Boccard, 1968), 175-87.

161. Petrarch, Epistolae familiares 4.1. For bibliography see Boyle, Petrarch's Genius: Pentimento and Prophecy (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1990), 166.

162. Acta 1.11.

163. See Mary Carruthers, The Book of Memory: A Study of Memory in Medieval Culture , Cambridge Studies in Medieval Literature, 10 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 9.

164. Erasmus, "Cyclopes sive evangeliophorus," in Colloquia , in Opera omnia (Amsterdam), 3-3:603; Epistolae 135; The Colloquies of Erasmus , trans. Craig R. Thompson (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965), 415; "Cyclops, or the Gospel Bearer," 417.

165. Acta 1.11.

166. Kieckhefer, Unquiet Souls , 11.

167. Plato, Respublica 7.532.

168. See Eugenio Garin, "La dignitas hominis et la letteratura patristica," La rinascita 1 (1938):102-46; and for some French renaissance authors, Lionello Sozzi, La "dignité de l'homme" à la Renaissance (Turin: Giappichelli, 1982), 12-21; and for a scholastic example, Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologiae 1.91.3 ad 3.

169. Seneca, Naturales quaestiones 1. praef. 10-13; Naturales quaestiones , trans. Thomas H. Corcoran, 2 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971-72), 2:11.

170. Plato, Theatetus 174a; Diogenes Laertius, Vitae philosophorum 1.34.

171. Chaucer, "The Miller's Tale," in Canterbury Tales; The Canterbury Tales , trans. David Wright (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986), 88.

172. Erasmus, Moria , in Opera omnia (Amsterdam), 4-3:144; Praise of Folly and Letter to Martin Dorp 1515 , trans. Betty Radice (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1971), 151. Boyle, "Fools and Schools: Scholastic Dialectic, Humanist Rhetoric: From Anselm to Erasmus," Medievalia et humanistica 13 (1985):175.

173. Acta 8.

174. Augustine, De beata vita 1.4; cf. Vergil, Aeneid 3.515.

175. Augustine, Confessiones 10.8.15; trans. Bourke, 276; Petrarch, Epistolae familiares 4.1.

176. Montaigne, Essais 3.13; trans. Frame, 857.

177. See Joukovsky, Gloire dans la poesie , 332-35.

178. Acta 1.12.

179. See Peter the Venerable, De miraculis libri duo 2.27.

180. Erasmus, "Militis et Cartusiani" in Colloquia , in Opera omnia (Amsterdam), 1-3:318; trans. Thompson, 132, 133.

181. Erasmus, "Militaria," in Colloquia , ibid., 154; trans. Thompson, 12.

182. Erasmus, "Militis et Cartusiani," in Colloquia , ibid., 315; trans. Thompson, 129.

183. Ibid.

180. Erasmus, "Militis et Cartusiani" in Colloquia , in Opera omnia (Amsterdam), 1-3:318; trans. Thompson, 132, 133.

181. Erasmus, "Militaria," in Colloquia , ibid., 154; trans. Thompson, 12.

182. Erasmus, "Militis et Cartusiani," in Colloquia , ibid., 315; trans. Thompson, 129.

183. Ibid.

180. Erasmus, "Militis et Cartusiani" in Colloquia , in Opera omnia (Amsterdam), 1-3:318; trans. Thompson, 132, 133.

181. Erasmus, "Militaria," in Colloquia , ibid., 154; trans. Thompson, 12.

182. Erasmus, "Militis et Cartusiani," in Colloquia , ibid., 315; trans. Thompson, 129.

183. Ibid.

180. Erasmus, "Militis et Cartusiani" in Colloquia , in Opera omnia (Amsterdam), 1-3:318; trans. Thompson, 132, 133.

181. Erasmus, "Militaria," in Colloquia , ibid., 154; trans. Thompson, 12.

182. Erasmus, "Militis et Cartusiani," in Colloquia , ibid., 315; trans. Thompson, 129.

183. Ibid.

184. Acta 2.12.

185. Weinstein and Bell, Saints and Society , 101, 18, 216, 196-98, 209.

186. Ibid., 18.

185. Weinstein and Bell, Saints and Society , 101, 18, 216, 196-98, 209.

186. Ibid., 18.

187. Acta 1.4, 10.

1. Donald Weinstein and Rudolph M. Bell, Saints and Society: The Two Worlds of Western Christendom, 1000-1700 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), 18.

2. Acta 2.1.

3. See Francis Rapp, "Les pèlerinages dans la vie religieuse de l'Occident medieval au XIVe et XVe siècles," in Freddy Raphaël et al., Les pèlerinages de l'antiquité biblique et classique à l'occident médiévale (Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1973), 130-31; Jonathan Sumption, Pilgrimage: An Image of Mediaeval Religion (London: Faber & Faber, 1975), 123-28.

4. Lull, Libre de contemplació 110-22, cited in J. N. Hillgarth, The Spanish Kingdoms , 2 vols. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976-78), 1:46; Sumption, Pilgrimage , 122-25.

5. Baldassare Castiglione, Lettere , 1:7, cited by J. R. Hale, "Castiglione's Military Career," in Castiglione: The Ideal and the Real in Renaissance Culture , ed. Robert W. Hanning and David Rosand (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1983), 148-49.

6. Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II , trans. Siân Reynolds, 2 vols. (New York: Harper & Row, 1972), 1:284-85.

7. Montaigne, Essais 1.48. According to Las siete partidas of Alfonso X, knights were to ride only horses, not mules. Hillgarth, Spanish Kingdoms , 1:49. Disdain is also reflected in the conciliar decree that the concubines of the clergy were to be buried in the pits used for dead mules.

8. Erasmus, Parabolae sive similia , in Opera omnia (Amsterdam), 1-5:286; "Parallels," trans. R. A. B. Mynors, in The Collected Works of Erasmus (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1974), 23:252. For the ass as a symbol of sloth see Samuel Chew, The Pilgrimage of Life (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1962), 100-2, 204.

9. Acta 2.1.

10. William A. Christian, Local Religion in Sixteenth-Century Spain (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981), 124-25, 94-95; idem, Apparitions in Late Medieval and Renaissance Spain (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981), 13-14.

11. La más antigua historia de Aranzazu (1648) 2.1.58; 2.5.76. The first

miracle through intercession of the image typically brought rain, 2.5.60. The discovery is dated at 2.1.58 as 1469 or 1470, coincident with the papal approval of the liturgy of the Virgin immaculate. There was a Franciscan convent on the site since 1514, 2.1.3-4. Since 1918 the Madonna of Aránzau has been patronness of the province of Guizpúcoa, with 9 September as her feast. Luis-Pedro Peña Santiago, Las ermitas de Guizpúcoa (San Sebastian: Txertoa, n.d.), 50; idem, Fiestas tradicionales y romerías de Guipúzcoa (ibid., 1973), 53-55.

12. See John Demaray, The Invention of Dante's "Commedia" (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1974), 155. Anthropologists who have studied the cult have not made this association, but it is the probable reason why the statues are found in brambles (in Mexico, in cactuses).

13. See, without reference to Aránzazu, Christian, Apparitions , 16-20, 208-9. Since his data is confined to Castile and Catalonia, the application to Aránzazu is mine. For the medieval legends known as the shepherd's cycle see also Victor Turner and Edith Turner, Image and Pilgrimage in Christian Culture: Anthropological Perspectives (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978), 41-42.

14. Turner and Turner, Image and Pilgrimage .

15. "Praefatio scriptoris" 1. There is a statue of her at Uribarri in a roadside shrine on the route of ascent to the greater shrine at Aránzazu, although the documentation does not indicate its date. Gerardo López de Guereñu, Devoción popular en España a la Virgen blanca y a nuestra Señora de las nieves (Vitoria: Obra cultural de la caja de ahorros municipal de la ciudad de Vitoria, 1967), 201 with photograph.

16. For Espinosa de los Monteros in general see Jose Luis García Grinda, Burgos edificado (Madrid: Colegio oficial de arquitectos de Madrid, 1984), 217-21; Valentin de la Cruz, Burgos: Guía completa de las tierras del Cid , 2d ed. (Burgos: Diputación provincial, 1973), 156-59.

17. See Hillgarth, Spanish Kingdoms , 2:122.

18. Susan Tax Freeman, The Pasiegos: Spaniards in No Man's Land (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), 6, 10-11, 17.

19. Ignacio Ruiz Velez et al., Leyendas y fiestas populares del norte de Burgos (Villarcayo: Garcia, 1988), 13; Carlos Blanco, Las fiestas de aquí (Valladolid: Ambibo, 1983), 95-97.

20. Ruiz Velez et al., Leyendas y fiestas populares , 18; and for the maypole as a custom associated throughout Spain with various summer--usually August--festivals see Jose Luis Alonso Pongo, Tradiciones y costumbres de Castilla y Leon , Collection nueva Castilla, 3 (Valladolid: Castilla, 1982), 53-65; Julio Caro Baroja, El estio festivo: Fiestas populares del verano , Otra historia de España, 10 (Madrid: Taurus, 1984), 24-27.

21. Ruiz Velez et al., Leyendas y fiestas populares , 19; Blanco, Fiestas de aquí , 95-97.

22. "From Rioseco to Trueba, from La Sía to Lunada all call on you." Ruiz Velez et al., Leyendas y fiestas populares , 21. Rioseco and Trueba are two of the rivers that converge at Las Machorras; Lunada is about 6 kilometers north; but La Sía does not appear on the official map or in the gazeteer consulted. Rioseco is also a town between Burgos and Espinosa de los Monteros, and there

is also a town of Trueba near the site. Trueba, Lunada, and La Sía are also mountainous elevations, according to Valentin de la Cruz, Burgos , 159.

23. The couplets are cited in Ruiz Velez et al., Leyendas y fiestas populares , 20-22, but the interpretation of them is mine.

24. Stephen F. Ostrow, ''The Sistine Chapel at S. Maria Maggiore: Sixtus V and the Art of the Counter Reformation," Ph.D. diss,, Princeton University, 1987, 1-5, 27, 12; idem, Art and Spirituality in Counter-Reformation Rome: The Sistine and Pauline Chapels in S. Maria Maggiore (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 3; Mariano Armellini, Le chiese di Roma del secolo IV al XIX , 2 vols. (Rome: Nicola Ruffolo, 1942), 1:281-94.

25. López de Guereñu, Devoción popular , prologue by Placido Inchaurraga; and for sites in Guizpúcoa, 55, 86, 118, 130, and 201 (most with photographs).

26. Angel Dotor y Municio, La catedral de Burgos: Guía histórico-descriptiva (Burgos: Hijos de Santiago Rodríguez, 1928), 254-55. Main retable, Nuestra Señora la Mayor, silver statue, 15th century, cathedral, Burgos. Reproduced ibid., fig. 47, and Luciano Huidobro, La catedral de Burgos , Los monumentos cardinales de España, 8 (Madrid: Plus-Ultra, 1958), 138.

25. López de Guereñu, Devoción popular , prologue by Placido Inchaurraga; and for sites in Guizpúcoa, 55, 86, 118, 130, and 201 (most with photographs).

26. Angel Dotor y Municio, La catedral de Burgos: Guía histórico-descriptiva (Burgos: Hijos de Santiago Rodríguez, 1928), 254-55. Main retable, Nuestra Señora la Mayor, silver statue, 15th century, cathedral, Burgos. Reproduced ibid., fig. 47, and Luciano Huidobro, La catedral de Burgos , Los monumentos cardinales de España, 8 (Madrid: Plus-Ultra, 1958), 138.

27. See Valentin de la Cruz, Burgos: Remansos de historia y arte (Burgos: Caja de ahorras municipal, 1987), 53, without reference to Loyola and Gonçalves dâ Camara.

28. See Levi d'Ancona, Iconography of the Immaculate Conception 72; Edward Dennis O'Connor, The Dogma of the Immaculate Conception: History and Significance (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1958), 242, noting that the Society of Jesus in its fifth general council of 1593 officially adopted this belief. See also Susanne L. Stratton, The Immaculate Conception in Spanish Art (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 1-66, with the Virgin with the sun at 46-58; Nancy Mayberry, "The Controversy over the Immaculate Conception in Medieval and Renaissance Art, Literature, and Society," Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies 21 (1991): 207-24.

29. One of the most frequent representations of the Virgin immaculate with the child Jesus is in the guise of the apocalyptic woman, with the earliest examples dating from the fourteenth century. See Levi d'Ancona, Iconography of the Immaculate Conception , 56, 20-28, and for an example of the apocalyptic woman and the Madonna with playing child combined as the Virgin immaculate, see Virgin immaculate standing, German woodcut, after 1477, fig. 7. For the type of the Virgin in the burning bush, whose virginity burns without consumption, see 67-69; and for the Spanish oral tradition, Christian, Apparitions , 26-57 passim.

30. Sixten Ringbom, Icon to Narrative: The Rise of the Dramatic Close-up in Fifteenth-Century Devotional Painting (Åbo: Åbo Akademie, 1965), 165 and fig. 3. See also Francesco della Rovere (Pope Sixtus IV), L'orazione della Immacolata .

31. Photograph in Ruiz Velez et al., Leyendas y fiestas populares , 25, which notes that Isabella II donated for it a golden mantle, now lost, 13. The original statue was destroyed in 1936 during the Civil War. López de Guereñu, Devoción popular , 106.

32. Glykophilousia (Vzygranye), a variant of Eleousa, in which the infant

on arm reaches up toward the Virgin's face to touch her chin or cheek. The earliest example in the West is Madonna, Tuscan School, late 13th century, Gualino Collection (formerly), Turin. See Victor Lasareff, "Studies in the Iconography of the Virgin," Art Bulletin 20 (1938):42-46; 40, fig. 18. The fresco in S. Maria di Monserrato, Rome, is also of the type of the Virgin with playing child. Fresco, first half of 16th century, sacristy, S. Maria di Monserrato, Rome. Reproduced in Armellini, Chiese di Roma , 1:507.

33. d'Ancona, Iconography of the Immaculate Conception , 20-28, 56; and for the convergence of the images see also Stratton, Immaculate Conception in Spanish Art , 58.

34. Ruiz Velez et al., Leyendas y fiestas populares , 20-22.

35. These ancient dances are the ahorcado , the pasacalle , and the caracol , for which the authority is Justo del Río Velasco, Danzas típicas burgalesas: Tradiciones y costumbres , 2d ed. (Burgos: n.p., 1975). See also Caro Baroja, Estio festivo , 103, 110-15; Ruiz Velez et al., Leyendas y fiestas populares , 18-19, with illustration of the ahorcado at Espinosa de los Monteros, 19; Blanco, Fiestas de aquí, 95; Canciones y danzas de España (Madrid: Magerit, 1956), with an illustration of the paleoteo , n.p.; Valentin de la Cruz, Burgos: Guía , 160.

36. Acta 3.31.

37. See Juan Ignacio de Iztueta, Viejas danzas de Guipúzcoal Gipuzkoa'ko dantza gogoangarriak , 2d ed. (Bilbao: Gran eciclopedia vasca, 1968), 222-27. It is still conserved in Tolosa, the ancient capital, according to Caro Baroja, Los Vascos , 2 vols. (San Sebastian: Larrun, 1982), 2:405.

38. Acta 1.3.

39. d'Ancona, Iconography of the Immaculate Conception , 57, 60.

40. See Anna Ivanova, The Dancing Spaniards (London: John Baker, 1970), 65-71, 61.

41. Guglielmo Ebreo da Pesaro, Trattato dell'arte del ballo , ed. F. Zambrini (Bologna, 1873), p. 7, cited by Michael Baxandall, Painting and Experience in Fifteenth-Century Italy: A Primer in the Social History of Pictorial Style , 2d ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), 60.

42. "Praefatio scriptoris" 1.

43. Raphaël, "Pèlerinage: Approche sociologique," in idem, Pèlerinages , 14.

44. See Fernando Zapico and de Dalmases, eds., Acta , pp. 380-81 n. 2.

45. See Christian, Apparitions , 14, although his study is of public phenomena such as vows to spare the populace some disaster.

46. Acta 2.13.

47. López de Guereñu, Devoción popular , 130.

48. Acta 2.13.

49. See Christian, Apparitions , 203-24, 205.

50. For wool see J. H. Elliott, Imperial Spain, 1469-1716 (New York: New American Library, 1977), 21-22, 108-10; and for sheep raising, Hillgarth, Spanish Kingdoms , 2:8. In particular see Manuel Riu, "Woolen Industry in Catalonia in the Later Middle Ages," trans. Roger M. Walker, in Cloth and Clothing in Medieval Europe: Essays in Memory of Professor E. M. Carus-Wilson , ed. N. B. Harte and K. G. Ponting, Passold Studies in Textile History,

2 (London: Heinemann Educational Books, Passold Research Fund, 1983), 205-29.

51. David E. Vassberg, Land and Society in Golden-Age Castile (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 91-92; Riu, "Woolen Industry," 211-12; Carla Rahn Phillips, "Spanish Merchants and the Wool Trade in the Sixteenth Century," Sixteenth Century Journal 14 (1983):259-82.

52. The inclusion of this devotional detail in the recital of the 1550s also reinforces the Catholic cult of images against Protestant polemic. For this issue see Giuseppe Scavizzi, "La teologia cattolica e le immagini durante il XVI secolo," Storia dell'arte 21 (1974):171-213.

53. Acta 2.13.

54. Romain Roussel, Les pèlerinages à travers les siècles (Paris: Payot, 1954), 33; Rapp, "Pèlerinages dans la vie religieuse," 130-31.

55. Sumption, Pilgrimage , 177, 182.

56. Acta 2.14.

57. See Bartolomé Bennassar, The Spanish Character: Attitudes and Mentalities from the Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1979), 77.

58. Acta 2.14-15.

59. Heath Dillard, Daughters of the Reconquest: Women in Castilian Town Society, 1100-1300 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 168-92. For the legal background see in general Rafael Serra Ruiz, Honor, honra, e injuria en el derecho medieval español , Anales de la Universidad de Murcia, derecho 23 (Murcia: Universidad de Murcia, 1969).

60. Jane Schneider, "Of Vigilance and Virgins: Honor, Shame, and Access to Resources in Mediterranean Societies," Ethnology 10 (1971):18, 21-22.

61. Julian Pitt-Rivers, "Honour and Social Status," in Honour and Shame: The Values of Mediterranean Society , ed. J. G. Peristiany (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), 25, 36, 42, 45.

62. Caro Baroja, "Honour and Shame: A Historical Account of Several Conflicts," in ibid., 91.

63. Ibid., 90-91.

61. Julian Pitt-Rivers, "Honour and Social Status," in Honour and Shame: The Values of Mediterranean Society , ed. J. G. Peristiany (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), 25, 36, 42, 45.

62. Caro Baroja, "Honour and Shame: A Historical Account of Several Conflicts," in ibid., 91.

63. Ibid., 90-91.

61. Julian Pitt-Rivers, "Honour and Social Status," in Honour and Shame: The Values of Mediterranean Society , ed. J. G. Peristiany (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), 25, 36, 42, 45.

62. Caro Baroja, "Honour and Shame: A Historical Account of Several Conflicts," in ibid., 91.

63. Ibid., 90-91.

64. Acta 2.15.

65. Louis Cardillac, Morisques et chrétiens: Un affrontement polémique (1492-1640) (Paris: Klincksieck, 1977), 268-79.

66. See Anwar G. Chejne, Islam and the West: A Cultural and Social History (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1983), vii, 2, 7, 8, 18, 180 n. 1. For Moriscos see also A. W. Lovett, Early Habsburg Spain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986), 257-76; and for the expulsion, Norman Roth, "The Jews of Spain and the Expulsion of 1492," Historian 55 (1992):17-30.

67. Acta 9.100.

68. See Barbara Nolan, The Gothic Visionary Perspective (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1977), 129-31.

69. See Pope Paul IV, "Cum quorumdam hominum," in Enchiridion , ed. Denzinger, no. 1880.

70. See Caro Baroja, "Honour and Shame," 84, 100-1, 104.

71. Lope García de Salazar, Las bienandanzas e fortunas 4.20, 22. For the

system of lineage see Caro Baroja, "Linajes y bandos," in idem, Vasconiana: (De historia y etnología) (Madrid: Minotauro, 1957), 15-61.

72. Acta 2.15-16.

73. Albert A. Sicroff, Los estatutos de limpieza de sangre: Controversias entre los siglos XV and XVII , trans. Mauro Armiño, La otra historia de España, 5, rev. ed. (Madrid: Taurus, 1985), 315-36.

74. Constitutiones 2.3.44.

75. Petrus Alfornsi, Disciplina clericalis 17, 18; The "Disciplina clericalis" of Petrus Alfonsi , trans. P. R. Quarrie from Eberhard Hermes (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1970), 135, 136. Cf. Climente Sanchez, Libro de enxemplos 362, 363, cited by John Esten Keller, Motif-Index of Mediaeval Spanish Literature (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1949), J21.5.

76. Chew, Pilgrimage of Life , 36. Fortune at her Wheel, George Pencz, woodcut, 16th century, reproduced, fig. 52; Hans Burgkmair in Petrarch, De remediis utriusque fortunae , Augsburg, 1532, fig. 53.

77. See, without reference to Loyola, Wolfgang Harms, Homo viator in bivio: Studien zur Bildlichkeit des Weges , Medium aevum, philologische Studien, 21 (Munich: Wilhelm Fink, 1970), 221-49.

78. Wolfram von Eschenbach, Parzival 224.19; 452.5-10. D. H. Green, Irony in the Medieval Romance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), 152-60.

79. Marion E. Gibbs, "Wrong Paths in Parzival ," Modern Language Review 63 (1968):875.

80. Green, "Homicide and Parzival ," in Approaches to Wolfram von Eschenbach: Five Essays , ed. idem and Leslie Peter Johnson, Mikrokosmos, Beiträge zur Literaturwissenschaft und Bedeutungsforschung, 5 (Bern: Peter Lang, 1978), 33-34.

81. Acta 2.16-17. For the site see Anselm M. Albareda, Historia de Montserrat , rev. ed. (Montserrat: Abadía de Montserrat, 1974).

82. Bartolomé Bermejo, Virgin and Child in a Landscape (Virgin of Montserrat), central panel, c. 1482-83, cathedral, sacristy, Acqui Terme, Reproduced in Eric Young, Bartolomé Bermejo: The Great Hispano-Flemish Master (London: Paul Elek, 1975), pl. 39, and detail, pl. 40; José Gudiol Ricart, Pintura gótica , vol. 9 of "Ars hispaniae": Historia universal del arte hispánico , 22 vols. (Madrid: Plus-Ultra, 1947-77), 270, fig. 230.

83. Acta 2.17.

84. Ruiz, Libro de buen amor 1128-1130; The Book of True Love , trans. Anthony N. Zahareas and Saralynn R. Daly (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1978), 291.

85. T. C. Price Zimmerman, "Confession and Autobiography in the Early Renaissance," in Renaissance Studies in Honor of Hans Baron , ed. Anthony Molho and John A. Tedeschi (Florence: G. C. Sansoni, 1971), 124, referring to Jacopo Passavanti, Lo specchio di vera pentienza , p. 128. Zimmerman's identification of the penitentials as the matrix of early renaissance autobiography at 126 is exceedingly restrictive.

86. Sanchez de Vercial, Libro de los examplos 1, cited in Keller, Motif-Index, V21.6.

87. See Richard Kieckhefer, Unquiet Souls: Fourteenth-Century Saints and Their Religious Milieu (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), 125-26.

88. Johann Huizinga, The Waning of the Middle Ages: A Study of the Forms of Life, Thought, and Art in France and the Netherlands in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries (London: Edward Arnold, 1924), 168.

89. Acta 2.17-18.

90. See Andreas Wang, Der "miles christianus" im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert und seine mittelalterliche Tradition: Ein Beitrag zum Verhaltnis von sprachlicher und graphischer Bildlichkeit , Mikrokosmos: Beiträge zur Literaturwissenschaft und Bedeutungsforschung, 1 (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1975), 39-104; Chew, Pilgrimage of Life , 140-43; Françoise Joukovsky, La gloire dans la poésie française et néolatine du XVIe siècle (Des rhétoriquers à Agrippa d'Aubigné) , Travaux d'humanisme et Renaissance, 102 (Geneva: Droz, 1969), 386-87.

91. Guillaume de Deguileville, Pèlerinage de vie humaine 7253-8199, cited by Susan K. Hagen, Allegorical Remembrance: A Study of the Pilgrimage of the Life of Man as a Medieval Treatise on Seeing and Remembering (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1990), 77-81. See also Pelerinage de la vida humana , pp. 140; 157, figs. 5, 6.

92. See Weinstein and Bell, Saints and Society , 100, 112, 111, 112, 109. For a knight placing his armor on Mary's altar and becoming a spiritual, rather than temporal, warrior see Caesarius of Heisterbach, Dialogus miraculorum 1.37.

93. Acta 2.18.

94. Weinstein and Bell, Saints and Society , 236.

95. For the term caballero see Hillgarth, Spanish Kingdoms , 1:63-65; Helen Nader, The Mendoza Family in the Spanish Renaissance, 1350 to 1550 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1979), 36-37, 103.

96. Montaigne, Essais 2.17, p. 633; The Complete Works of Montaigne , trans. Donald M. Frame (Stanford, Calif.: Standford University Press, 1967), 479.

97. Acta 2.18.

98. Caro Baroja, "Honour and Shame," 84.

99. "Praefatio scriptoris" 1.

100. Layman donating his garment to a poor man, Oxford, Bible moralisée , fol. 56. Reproduced in François Garnier, Le language de l'image au moyen âge , 2 vols. (Paris: Léopard d'or, 1982), 2:257, no. 360, and see p. 253.

101. See Adolf Katzenellenbogen, Allegories of the Virtues and Vices in Mediaeval Art: From Early Christian Times to the Thirteenth Century (London: Warburg Institute, 1939), 12-13.

102. E.g. Stefano di Giovanni, called Sassetta, St. Francis Giving His Cloak to a Poor Soldier, panel, 1437-38, National Gallery, London. Reproduced in Jill Dunkerton, Susan Foister, Dillian Gordon, and Nicholas Penny, Giotto to Dürer: Early Renaissance Painting in the National Gallery (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press with National Gallery Publications, London, 1991), pl. 19.

103. Sumption, Pilgrimage , 172-73.

104. Weinstein and Bell, Saints and Society , 157.

105. Hillgarth, Spanish Kingdoms , 2:8.

106. The locus classicus is Jerome, Contra Vigilantium 15. For a survey of the ascetic practice of weeping for sin see Sandra McEntire, "The Doctrine of Compunction from Bede to Margery Kempe," in The Medieval Mystical Tradition in England , Exeter Symposium 4, Papers Read at Dartington Hall, July 1987, ed. Marion Glasscoe (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1987), 77-90.

107. Huizinga, Waning of the Middle Ages , 173-74; Kieckhefer, Unquiet Souls , 15, 182.

108. Moshe Barasch, "The Crying Face," Artibus et historiae 15 (1987):21-36; rpt. in idem, "Imago hominis": Studies in the Language of Art (Vienna: IRSA, 1991), 85-99.

109. For a survey see Sheila Page Bayne, Tears and Weeping: An Aspect of Emotional Climate Reflected in Seventeenth-Century French Literature (Tübingen: Gunter Narr, 1981), 22-76; Anne Vincent-Buffault, Histoire des larmes (Paris: Rivages, 1984). For emotion as a historical phenomenon see Lucien Febvre, "La sensibilité et l'histoire: Comment reconstituer la vie affective d'autrefois?" Annales d'histoire sociale 3 (1941):5-20.

110. Hélène Monsacre, Les larmes d'Achille: Le héros, la femme, et la souffrance dans la poesié d'Homère (Paris: Albin Michel, 1984).

111. Ramsay MacMullen, "Romans in Tears," Classical Philology 75 (1980): 254-55.

112. L. Beszard, "Les larmes dans l'épopée, particulièrement dans l'épopée française jusqu'à la fin du XIIe siècle," Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie 27 (1903): 385-413, 513-49, 641-74; Heinz Gerd Wienand, Tränen: Untersuchungen über das Weinen in der deutschen Sprache und Literatur des Mittelalters , Abhandlungen zum Kunst-, Musik-, und Literaturwissenschaft, 5 (Bonn: Bouvier, 1958).

113. Acta 2.8, 10.

114. Christian, Apparitions , 199-201.

115. Acta 3.19.

116. Acta 2.18.

117. Augustine, Confessiones 10.38.63; Confessions , trans. Vernon J. Bourke (New York: Fathers of the Church, 1953), 319.

118. Acta 3.32.

119. Vita Danieli , p. 563, cited by Peter Brown, The Cult of the Saints (London: SCM, 1981), 68.

120. Acta 3.19.

121. Sumption, Pilgrimage , 101.

122. See Timothy Husband with Gloria Gilmore-House, The Wild Man: Medieval Myth and Symbolism (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1980), 1-3, 7, 8-10, 12, 94-109. For a Catalan example see Bermejo, Saint Onuphrius, from the predella of the Santa Engracia retable, c. 1474-77, Colegiata, Museo Parroquial, Daroca. Reproduced in Young, Bartolomé Bermejo , pl. 33. For the wild man in literature see Penelope B. R. Doob, Nebuchadnezzar's Children: Conventions of Madness in Middle English Literature (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1974), 134-207; for Spanish examples, Oleh Ma-

zur, The Wild Man in the Spanish Renaissance and Golden-Age Theater: A Comparative Study including the "Indio," the "Bárbaro," and Their Counterparts in European Lores (Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms for Villanova University, 1980); Stanley L. Robe, "Wild Men and Spain's Brave New World," in The Wild Man Within: An Image in Western Thought from the Renaissance to Romanticism , ed. Edward Dudley and Maximillian E. Novak (Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1973), 39-53; Alan Deyermond, ''El hombre salvaje en la novela sentimental," Filología 10 (1964):97-111. For Hercules' attribute see Beth Cohen, "From Bowman to Clubman: Herakles and Olympia," Art Bulletin 76 (1994):695-715.

123. Felix Fabri, Evagatorium , 1:65; Sumption, Pilgrimage , 172.

124. Erasmus, De civilitate 1, in Opera omnia (Leiden), 1:1035; "On Good Manners for Boys," trans. Brian McGregor in The Collected Works of Erasmus (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1978) 25:277.

125. Norbert Elias, The Civilizing Process , trans. Edmund Jephcott (New York: Urizen, 1978), 1:88, 69.

126. Ruiz, Libro de buen amor 306.

127. See Caro Baroja, "Honour and Social Status," in Honour and Shame , 25; and for crowns and hats in association with glory, Joukovsky, Gloire dans la poésie , 375-80. See also Paul-Henri Stahl, Histoire de la décapitation (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1986); Samuel Y. Edgerton, Jr., Pictures and Punishment: Art and Criminal Prosecution during the Florentine Renaissance (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1985), 128-29, 135, 65; Laurie Schneider, "Donatello and Caravaggio: The Iconography of Decapitation," American Imago 33 (1976):84-91.

128. For hats in the tub see A Bathing and Pleasure Palace, Valerius Maximus, Master of the Housebook, late 15th century, Galeria medievalia, London. Reproduced in Christine de Pizan, A Medieval Woman's Mirror of Honor: The Treasury of the City of Ladies , trans. Charity Cannon Willard (New York: Persea, 1989), 65, pl. 20. For hats in hell see Edgerton, Pictures and Punishment , 65 n. 23.

129. Natalie Zemon Davis, Fiction in the Archives: Pardon Tales and Their Tellers in Sixteenth-Century France (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1987), 38.

130. Dillard, Daughters of the Reconquest , 174-75. For the iconography of touching another person's hair see Garnier, Langage de l'image au moyen âge , 2:73-74.

131. Acta 5.51-53.

132. Robert J. Clements, The Poetry of Michelangelo (New York: New York University Press, 1965), 13.

133. Acta 9.89.

134. Jacques Roussiaud, Medieval Prostitution , trans. Lydia G. Cochrane (New York: Blackwell, 1988), 154.

135. See Caro Baroja, "Honour and Shame," 87.

136. Petrarch, Epistolae familiares 10.3; Letters on Familiar Matters: Rerum familiarum libri IX-XVI , trans. Aldo S. Bernardo (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982), 60, 59, citing Seneca, Ad Lucilium 94.70. For the

clerical critique of the effeminacy of males at court wearing their hair long and curly see C. Stephen Jaeger, The Origins of Courtliness: Civilizing Trends and the Formation of Courtly Ideals (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1985), 180. For the Spanish fashion see Ruth Matilda Anderson, Hispanic Costume, 1480-1530 (New York: Hispanic Society of America, 1979), 33-34.

137. Marcia L. Colish, The Stoic Tradition from Antiquity to the Early Middle ages , Studies in the History of Christian Thought, 24-25, 2 vols. (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1985), 1:48; 2:211, citing Augustine, De opere monchorum 31.39-33.41; idem, "Cosmetic Theology: The Transformation of a Stoic Theme," Assays: Critical Approaches to Medieval and Renaissance Texts 1 (1981): 5, 7-12. For Stoic cosmetology and hair see also Maud W. Gleason, "The Semiotics of Gender: Physiognomy and Self-Fashioning in the Second Century C.E.," in Before Sexuality: The Construction of Erotic Experience in the Ancient Greek World , ed. David M. Halperin, John J. Winkler, and Froma I. Zeitlin (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990), 399-402. See also in general Gábor Klaniczay, "Fashionable Beards and Heretic Rags,'' in idem, The Uses of Supernatural Power: The Transformation of Popular Religion in Medieval and Early-Modern Europe , ed. Karen Margolis, trans. Susan Singerman (London: Polity, 1990), 51-78.

138. Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 11.3.137.

139. Acta 3.29.

140. Constitutiones 1.2.10; 1.3.15.

141. See Jan Zialkowski, "Avatars of Ugliness in Medieval Literature," Modern Language Review 79 (1984):1-20.

142. Acta 3.34. For male dress see Anderson, Hispanic Costume , 35-79.

143. Erasmus, De civilitate 1, in Opera omnia (Leiden), 1:1036.

144. Anne Hollander, Seeing Through Clothes (New York: Viking, 1978), xiv-xv. For an introduction to the period see Madeleine Lazard, "Le corps vêtu: Signification du costume à la Renaissance," in Le corps à la renaissance , Actes du XXXe colloque de Tours, 1987, ed. Jean Céard, Marie Madeleine Fontaine, and Jean-Claude Margolin (Paris: Aux amateurs de livres, 1990), 77-94.

145. Hollander, Seeing Through Clothes , 2-3, 15-16, 23, 51-52.

146. Acta 2.16, 18.

147. See Roussel, Pèlerinages , 30.

148. Sumption, Pilgrimage , 171-72.

149. Elizabeth Birbari, Dress in Italian Painting, 1460-1500 (London: John Murray, 1975), 32-34, 30; and for the doublet, which was worn with hose, 43-47.

150. Castiglione, Libro del cortegiano 2.27.

151. Caro Baroja, "Honour and Shame," 87.

152. Georges Vigarello, Concepts of Cleanliness: Changing Attitudes in France since the Middle Ages , trans. Jean Birrell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 52.

153. Erasmus, De civilitate 2, in Opera omnia (Leiden), 1:1037.

154. See Hillgarth, Spanish Kingdoms , 1:139; 2:48-49.

155. Domenico Cavalca, Mirall de la creu 19, reporting the opinion of Greg-

ory the Great; Brunetto Latini, Il tesoretto 2608-15. For the endurance of this topic in the 1550s see Joukovsky, Gloire dans la poésie , 69 n. 184.

156. José Sanchez Herrero, "Los cuidados de la belleza corporal femenina en los confesionales y tratados de doctrina cristiana de los siglos XIII al XVI," in Les soins de beauté: Moyen age, début des temps modernes , Actes du IIIe colloque international Grasse, 26-28 avril 1985, ed. Denis Menjot (Nice: Université de Nice, 1987), 286.

157. Aileen Ribeiro, Dress and Morality (London: Batsford, 1986), 45, 60, 62, 65, 69; Jacqueline Herald, Renaissance Dress in Italy, 1400-1500 , History of Dress, 2 (New Jersey: Humanities, 1981), 53, 61, 211. For caps see ibid., 55; Irena Turneau, "The Diffusion of Knitting in Medieval Europe," trans. Maria Starowieyska in Cloth and Clothing in Medieval Europe , 389.

156. José Sanchez Herrero, "Los cuidados de la belleza corporal femenina en los confesionales y tratados de doctrina cristiana de los siglos XIII al XVI," in Les soins de beauté: Moyen age, début des temps modernes , Actes du IIIe colloque international Grasse, 26-28 avril 1985, ed. Denis Menjot (Nice: Université de Nice, 1987), 286.

157. Aileen Ribeiro, Dress and Morality (London: Batsford, 1986), 45, 60, 62, 65, 69; Jacqueline Herald, Renaissance Dress in Italy, 1400-1500 , History of Dress, 2 (New Jersey: Humanities, 1981), 53, 61, 211. For caps see ibid., 55; Irena Turneau, "The Diffusion of Knitting in Medieval Europe," trans. Maria Starowieyska in Cloth and Clothing in Medieval Europe , 389.

158. Acta 10.97.

159. Weinstein and Bell, Saints and Society , 81.

160. Acta 3.19.

161. Weinstein and Bell, Saints and Society , 154.

162. Hillgarth, Spanish Kingdoms , 1:35.

163. Acta 3.25, 27.

164. Dante, Purgatorio 9.13-18.

165. Acta 3.26

166. Palladius, Lausiac History 18.3; 2.2-3; 19.8; 38.11; 43.1; 48.2; 57.2. For the late medieval examples see Kieckhefer, Unquiet Souls , 26, 37, 144, 94, 95.

167. Acta 3.22.

168. Acta 3.23.

169. Sanchez, Libro des los exenplos 114, cited by Keller, Motif-Index , B563.4.1. For the friendship of holy men with animals see Clarence J. Glacken, Traces on the Rhodian Shore: Nature and Culture in Western Thought from Ancient Times to the End of the Eighteenth Century (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1967), 310-11.

170. Jacob de Voragine, Legenda aurea 108. The iconography includes the vision by Dominic's pregnant mother of a dog with a torch and star. I. Frank, in Ikonographie der cristlichen Kunst , ed. Engelbert Kirschbaum, 8 vols. (Rome: Herder, 1968-76), 6:76; and see the reproduction of the detail of Francesco Triani, polyptych, Church of St. Catherine, Pisa, in Weinstein and Bell, Saints and Society , 22, fig. 2.

171. See Penn R. Szittya, The Antifraternal Tradition in Medieval Literature (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986), esp. 60, 119.

172. Acta 3.23-24.

173. For the Dominican convent of St. Peter Martyr in Manresa see Cayetano Barraquer y Roviralta, Las casas de religiosos en Cataluña durante el primer tercio del siglo XIX , 2 vols. (Barcelona: Francisco J. Altés y Alabart, 1906), 2:59-62.

174. Augustine, Confessiones 9.4.9-10; trans. Bourke, 238. Cf. for the metaphor Enarratio in psalmos 4.6.

175. Acta 6.55. The philology is mine. The earliest occurence of aguja given in the historical Castilian dictionary is with reference to Pascual de Gayangos's

edition of La gran conquista de ultramar . The critical edition of Madrid, Biblioteca nacional, MS 1187, with a concordance, by Franklin M. Wallman and Louis Cooper has monte agudo , fol. 315r39 and mont agudo , fol. 322v13. The editors remark that Gayangos's edition is very corrupt with modernizations. The noun agujero does not appear in Antonio de Nebrija's Vocabulario de romance en latín .

176. Giles Constable, Attitudes Toward Self-Inflicted Suffering in the Middle Ages , Stephen J. Brademas, Sr., Lecture, 9 (Brookline, Mass.: Hellenic College, 1982), 8-10.

177. Kieckhefer, Unquiet Souls , 120.

178. Palladius, Lausiac History 38.8; 28; 58.5; The Lausiac History , trans. Robert T. Meyer, Ancient Christian Writers, 34 (Westminster, Md.: Newman, 1965), 112, 88, 140.

179. Ibid., 25; proem. 6; cf. praef. 14; trans. Meyer, 19. The proemium is only in some manuscripts and not in those of the best tradition, 167 n. 1.

178. Palladius, Lausiac History 38.8; 28; 58.5; The Lausiac History , trans. Robert T. Meyer, Ancient Christian Writers, 34 (Westminster, Md.: Newman, 1965), 112, 88, 140.

179. Ibid., 25; proem. 6; cf. praef. 14; trans. Meyer, 19. The proemium is only in some manuscripts and not in those of the best tradition, 167 n. 1.

180. See William J. Bouwsma, "Anxiety and the Formation of Early Modern Culture," in idem, A Usable Past: Essays in European Cultural History (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1990), 157-89.

181. See Siegfried Wenzel, The Sin of Sloth: Acedia in Medieval Thought and Literature (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1960); Reinhard Kuhn, The Demon of Noontide: Ennui in Western Literature (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1976), 3-98, 373-76; Roger Caillois, "Les démons de midi," Revue de l'histoire des religions 115 (1937):142-73; 116 (1937):54-83, 143-86; Stanford M. Lyman, The Seven Deadly Sins: Society and Evil (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1978), 5-18. For its Spanish manifestation see Teresa Scott Soufas, Melancholy and the Secular Mind in Spanish Golden-Age Literature (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1990), 1-63.

182. Ibid.

181. See Siegfried Wenzel, The Sin of Sloth: Acedia in Medieval Thought and Literature (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1960); Reinhard Kuhn, The Demon of Noontide: Ennui in Western Literature (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1976), 3-98, 373-76; Roger Caillois, "Les démons de midi," Revue de l'histoire des religions 115 (1937):142-73; 116 (1937):54-83, 143-86; Stanford M. Lyman, The Seven Deadly Sins: Society and Evil (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1978), 5-18. For its Spanish manifestation see Teresa Scott Soufas, Melancholy and the Secular Mind in Spanish Golden-Age Literature (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1990), 1-63.

182. Ibid.

183. See Wenzel, Sin of Sloth , 5, 21-22, 28, 32, 37, passim.

184. Barasch, Gestures of Despair in Medieval and Early Renaissance Art (New York: New York University Press, 1976), with my correction of his designation of prostration as a gesture of despair, 17. Although Barasch did not locate the source for the gesture of biting the hand, see the next note.

185. Elder Seneca, Controversiae 3.7. See Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 8.2.20; 8.5.23; cf. Ovid, Metamorphoses 8.877-78; Apuleius, Metamorphoses 8.27.

186. Book of Margery Kempe 1.1.

187. Acta 1.2.

188. Barasch, Gestures of Despair , 42, citing Prudentius, Psychomachia 145-54.

189. Garnier, Langage de l'image au moyen âge , 2:278-82.

190. See Ian Donaldson, The Rapes of Lucretia: A Myth and Its Transformations (Oxford: Clarendon, 1982); for artistic examples, H. Diane Russell with Bernadine Barnes, Eva/Ave: Woman in Renaissance and Baroque Prints (Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of Art with the Feminist Press at the City University of New York, 1990), 40-48. For recent studies of one artist's rendition see Patricia Emison, "The Singularity of Raphael's Lucretia," Art History

14 (1991): 372-96; Julien Stock, "A Drawing by Raphael of Lucretia," Burlington Magazine 126 (1984):423-24.

191. Mary D. Garrard, Artemisia Gentileschi: The Image of the Female Hero in Italian Baroque Art (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1989), 212-14.

192. Albrecht Altdorfer, Pyramus and Thisbe, woodcut, 1513, National Gallery, Washington, D.C. Reproduced in Russell with Barnes, Eva/Ave , 188.

193. Leonardo da Vinci, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, MS 2038, fol. 29b, in Literary Works , 1:342.

194. Michael Camille, The Gothic Idol: Idolatry and Image-making in Medieval Art (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 5-7.

195. Garnier, Language de l'image au moyen âge , 1:120-23. Orguel Ocozias face to humility in friar Laurent, Somme le roi , Bibliothèque Mazarine, 13th century, MS 870, fol. 89v. Reproduced 123, figs. A and B. Also, Fall of Ochozias, initial from Second Book of Kings, Bible de saint-Bénigne, 12th century, Dijon, Bibliothèque municipale, MS 2, fol. 135v; Initial from Second Book of Kings, Bible, 13th century, Laon, Bibliothèque municipale, MS 472. Fall of Paul on road to Damascus, reproduced figs. C and D.

196. Camille, Gothic Idol , 5-7.

197. Edgerton, Pictures and Punishment , 87-88.

198. Evagrius Ponticus, Logos praktikos 14.

199. Donald R. Howard, The Three Temptations: Medieval Man in Search of the World (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1966), 43-51, referring to Gregory the Great, Homiliae in evangelia 1.16; incorrectly to Peter Lombard, but see Sententiae 2.21.5; Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologiae 3.41.4; Augustine, Confessiones 10.36-40.

200. Bernard of Clairvaux, Sermone de conversione 14.5; "Lenten Sermons on the Psalm 'He Who Dwells,'" trans. Marie-Bernard Saïd, in Sermons on Conversion , Cistercian Fathers, 25 (Kalamazoo, Mich.: Cistercian Publications, 1981), 234.

201. Domenico Cavalca, Mirall de la creu 16.

202. See Howard, Three Temptations , 55-56, and 72 for a typical renaissance treatment in Coluccio Salutati, De seculo et religione 1.8; 21, 20; 2.3, 15.

203. See Howard, Three Temptations , 75.

204. Acta 2.24.

205. Aristotle, Metaphysica 1008b.

206. Acta 3.24-25.

207. Ibid. 3.20, 21, 25.

206. Acta 3.24-25.

207. Ibid. 3.20, 21, 25.

208. Frances A. Yates, The Art of Memory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), 1-7.

209. Acta 3.27.

210. Ibid. 3.28.

209. Acta 3.27.

210. Ibid. 3.28.

211. See Ringbom, "Devotional Images and Imaginative Devotions: Notes on the Place of Art in Late Medieval Private Piety," Gazette des beaux arts 6-73 (1969):159-70.

212. Reproduced in Joseph M. Gasol, Manresa: Panorama d'una ciutat

(Manresa: Montañà, 1971), 102, fig. 101; José María Mas y Casa, Ensayos-históricos sobre Manresa , 2d ed. (Manresa, 1882), 335.

213. See M. Soler I March, "Les fréres Serra," in M. M. Duran I Sanpere et al., La peinture catalane à la fin du moyen âge (Université de Paris, Institut d'art et d'archéologie, bibliothèque d'art catalan, Fondation Cambrò; Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1933), 33-36. For reproduction see Pere Serra, detail of retable, Seo, Manresa, Art de la Catalagne , pl. CLX, 248; Gasol, Manresa , 41; José Gudiol Ricart, Ars hispaniae , vol. 9, Pintura gótica (Madrid: Plus-Ultra, 1955), 76, fig. 50. For Catalan retables in general see Judith Berg Sobré, Behind the Altar Table: The Development of the Painted Retable in Spain, 1350-1500 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1989), 77-93.

214. Chandler Rafthon Post, A History of Spanish Painting , 14 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1930-66), 8-1:79.

215. See Benjamin Rowland, Jr., "Gabriel Guardia: A Fifteenth-Century Painter of Manresa," Art Bulletin 14 (1932):242-57. Gabriel Guardia, retable of the Trinity (reconstruction), Colegiata, Manresa. Reproduced in ibid., fig. 1, 242. See also fig. 2, Moses and the Burning Bush and the Baptism of Christ; fig. 3, the Creation of Eve; fig. 4, detail of the Madonna; fig. 15, Abraham and the Three Angels. For his discovery of the retable see 243. Also reproduced in idem, Jaume Huguet: A Study in Late Gothic Painting in Catalonia (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1932), fig. 60; and details, fig. 61. Reproduced in color in Gasol, Manresa , 41, and reported as still awaiting restoration and reinstallation, 43.

214. Chandler Rafthon Post, A History of Spanish Painting , 14 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1930-66), 8-1:79.

215. See Benjamin Rowland, Jr., "Gabriel Guardia: A Fifteenth-Century Painter of Manresa," Art Bulletin 14 (1932):242-57. Gabriel Guardia, retable of the Trinity (reconstruction), Colegiata, Manresa. Reproduced in ibid., fig. 1, 242. See also fig. 2, Moses and the Burning Bush and the Baptism of Christ; fig. 3, the Creation of Eve; fig. 4, detail of the Madonna; fig. 15, Abraham and the Three Angels. For his discovery of the retable see 243. Also reproduced in idem, Jaume Huguet: A Study in Late Gothic Painting in Catalonia (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1932), fig. 60; and details, fig. 61. Reproduced in color in Gasol, Manresa , 41, and reported as still awaiting restoration and reinstallation, 43.

216. See G. Karl Galinsky, The Herakles Theme: The Adaptations of the Hero in Literature from Homer to the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Basil Black-well, 1971), 64-68.

217. Wolfgang Harms, Homo viator in bivio: Studien zur Bildlichkeit des Weges , Medium aevum, philologischen Studien, 21 (Munich: Wilhelm Fink, 1970), 57-98. Y-Form Crucifix as vegetation, miniature, codex from southeast Germany, c. 1230, pl. 9.

218. Catalan crucifixes usually portrayed the head as frontal and erect, but when inclined, to the left. See Manuel Trens, Les majestats catalanes , Monumenta cataloniae, 13 (Barcelona: Alpha, 1966); and for the twelfth-century crucifix now in the museum of the Seo see Gasol, Manresa , 26, fig. 20; 101, fig. 100.

219. Erasmus, "Concio, sive Medardus," in Colloquia , in Opera omnia (Amsterdam), 1-3:655.

220. Evagrius Ponticus, Six Centuries 1.75; 3; passim.

221. Maurice Vloberg, La Vierge notre médiatrice , Art et paysages, 10 (Grenoble: B. Arthaud, 1936), 182-89.

222. Perugino, Donation of the Keys to St. Peter, fresco, Sistine Chapel, Vatican. Reproduced in Baxandall, Painting and Experience , 67, fig. 32.

223. Lateral face of an altar, episcopal museum, Vich. Reproduced in Duran I Sanpere et al., Peinture catalane , pl. II; and Josep Gudiol i Cunill, La pintura mig-eval catalana , vol. 2, Els primitius segona part, La pintura sobre fusta (Barcelona: S. Babra, 1929), fig. 94.

224. Tosses, detail of the frontal of the retable of St. Michael Weighing Souls,

lateral of an altar table, Suriguerola. Reproduced in Joaquim Folch i Torres, La pintura romànica sobre fusta , Monumenta cataloniae, 9 (Barcelona: Alpha, 1956), 56, pl. 89; Appendix, 50, pl. 81.

225. Acta 1.4.

226. Raymond of Peñaforte, Summa de poenitentia et matrimonio 3.34.1, cited by Thomas N. Tentler, Sin and Confession on the Eve of the Reformation (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1977), 105.

227. See ibid., citing a Scotist, Jacobus Lupi Rebello, Fructus , a. 23.

226. Raymond of Peñaforte, Summa de poenitentia et matrimonio 3.34.1, cited by Thomas N. Tentler, Sin and Confession on the Eve of the Reformation (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1977), 105.

227. See ibid., citing a Scotist, Jacobus Lupi Rebello, Fructus , a. 23.

228. See, without reference to Loyola, Tentler, Sin and Confession , 96-97, 104-11, 263-73; and for the rigorist requirement of a complete confession, also Killian McDonald, "The summae confessorum on the Integrity of Confession as Prolegomena for Luther and Trent," Theological Studies 54 (1993):405-26.

229. Tentler, Sin and Confession , 281-94, citing Andreas de Escobar, Modus confitendi , B2b, 292; and Eck, 298, and see n. 68.

230. Acta 3.28.

231. Bernard of Clairvaux, De gradibus humilitatis 22.56; The Steps of Humility and Pride , trans. M. Basil Pennington, in The Works of Bernard of Clairvaux , Cistercian Fathers, 13 (Washington, D.C.: Cistercian Publications Consortium, 1974), 5:82; ibid. 1-21.

230. Acta 3.28.

231. Bernard of Clairvaux, De gradibus humilitatis 22.56; The Steps of Humility and Pride , trans. M. Basil Pennington, in The Works of Bernard of Clairvaux , Cistercian Fathers, 13 (Washington, D.C.: Cistercian Publications Consortium, 1974), 5:82; ibid. 1-21.

232. Acta 2.3.

233. Lull, Horas de nuestra Señora 1-4, 16; Hores de santa Maria 41.3-4, 6.

234. Acta 2.17.

235. See Russell A. Peck, "Number as a Cosmic Language," in Essays in Numerical Criticism in Medieval Literature , ed. Caroline D. Eckhardt (Lewisburg, Pa.: Bucknell University Press, 1980), 15-64.

236. Acta 1.1.

237. See Caro Baroja, "Honour and Shame," 84-89; Las siete partidas , trans. Samuel Parsons Scott (Chicago: Commerce Clearing House for the Comparative Law Bureau of the American Bar Association, 1931), 353. For a review of anthropological interpretations of honor see John H. R. Davis, People of the Mediterranean: An Essay in Comparative Social Anthropology (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1977), 89-101.

238. E.g. Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologiae 3a.32.4; In 3 Sententiae 3.5. For its basis in Aristotle see Prudence Allen, The Concept of Woman: The Aristotelian Revolution , 750 B.C.-A.D. 1250 (Montreal: Eden, 1985), 83-126.

239. Ephemeris , p. 94.

240. Richard of St. Laurent, De laudibus beatae Mariae Virginis 12.1, 7.

241. Virgin as a tabernacle, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Reproduced closed and open in Barbara G. Lane, The Altar and the Altarpiece: Sacramental Themes in Early Netherlandish Painting (New York: Harper & Row, 1984), 27 and 28, figs. 17-18.

242. Exercitia spiritualia , p. 330.

243. For the paintings of the circumcision and the martyrs, including Mary queen of martyrs, see Howard Hibbard, " Ut picturae sermones : The First Painted Decorations of the Gesù," in Baroque Art: The Jesuit Contribution , ed.

Rudolf Wittkower and Irma B. Jaffe (New York: Fordham University Press, 1976), 33, 35, and pls. 18a-21b. The interpretation is mine.

244. Acta 3.29.

245. Augustine, Confessiones 7.5.7; trans. Bourke, 168; cf. Plotinus, Enneads 4.3.9; 6.16.26; 7.3.5; 7.9.13-15.

246. "Praefatio scriptoris" 1.

247. See Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 9.3.88.

248. Acta 2.27

249. See Jesse M. Gellrich, The Idea of the Book in the Middle Ages: Language Theory, Mythology, and Fiction (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1985), 181, 189-90. For rhetorical hestitation see also Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 9.3.88.

250. Acta 2.14; 3.20; 3.21.

251. Acta 3.21.

252. See Michael J. Ruggiero, The Evolution of the Go-Between in Spanish Literature through the Sixteenth Century , University of California Publications in Modern Philology (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1966); Jacques Bailbé, "Le thème de la vieille femme dans la poésie satirique du XVIe et du début du XVIIe siècle." Bibliothèque d'humanisme et Renaissance 26 (1964):98-119. For procuresses in Spanish society see Dillard, Daughters of the Reconquest , 199-201.

253. See Weinstein and Bell, Saints and Society , 98, 226.

254. See Christian, Apparitions , 185.

255. See sor María de santo Domingo, Libro de la oración ; Mary E. Giles, The Book of Prayer of sor María of santo Domingo (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1990), 3, 19, 77, 112, and passim; Bernardino Llorca, La Inquisición española y los alumbrados (1509-1667): Según las actas originales de Madrid y de otros archivos , Biblioteca de teólogos españoles, 7 (Salamanca: Universidad pontificia, 1980), 37-64, 259-71; Hillgarth, Spanish Kingdoms , 2:606; Marcel Bataillon, Erasmo y España: Estudios sobre la historia espiritual del siglo XVI , rev. ed. (Mexico: Fondo de cultura económica, 1950), 69-70. See also Jodi Bilinkoff, "A Spanish Prophetess and Her Patrons: The Case of María de santo Domingo," Sixteenth Century Journal 23 (1992):21-34; idem, "Charisma and Controversy: The Case of María de sto. Domingo," Archivo dominicano 10 (1989):55-66.

256. For the titles see Dillard, Daughters of the Reconquest , 16-21.

257. Christian, Apparitions , 186, 197-198, citing indirectly Jean Gerson, De examinatione doctrinarum 2.2.

258. Gerson, De examinatione doctrinarum 2.2, cited by D. Catherine Brown, Pastor and Laity in the Theology of Jean Gerson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 223, and see also 214-26.

259. See Weinstein and Bell, Saints and Society , 232.

260. Acta 3.37.

261. See Green, "On Damning with Faint Praise in Medieval Literature," Viator 6 (1975):117-69; idem, Irony in the Medieval Romance , 9, citing Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae 11.21.41, and Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 8.6.54-55; 9; trans. Butler, 3:333. See also Dilwyn Knox, " Ironia": Medieval and Re-

naissance Ideas on Irony , Columbia Studies in the Classical Tradition, 16 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1989), 15-16, 32, 43, passim; and for the difference between medieval and modern irony, Simon Gaunt, The Troubadours and Irony , Cambridge Studies in Medieval Literature, 3 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 5-38.

262. Gaunt, Troubadours and Irony , 22, 10-15, citing at 10 Buoncompagno of Signa, Rhetorica antiqua , fol. 9v-10r, from "Appendix: Definition of Irony by Buoncompagno of Signa from His Rhetorica antiqua , fol. 9v-10r," 37, in John F. Benton, "Clio and Venus: An Historical View of Medieval Love," in The Meaning of Courtly Love , Papers of the First Annual Conference of the Center for Medieval and Early Renaissance Studies, State University of New York at Binghamton, March 17-18, 1967, ed. F. X. Newman (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1968), 19-42.

263. See Caro Baroja, "Honour and Shame," 86.

1. José Maria de Mas y Casa, Ensayos-históricos sobre Manresa , 2d ed. (Manresa, 1882), 332.

2. William A. Christian, Jr., Local Religion in Sixteenth-Century Spain (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981), 93.

3. J. N. Hillgarth, The Spanish Kingdoms , 2 vols. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985-87), 2:149-50.

4. For an introduction with Spanish examples see The Military Orders: Fighting for the Faith and Caring for the Sick , ed. Malcolm Barber (Brookfield, Vt.: Variorum, 1994).

5. Jacob de Voragine, Legenda aurea 4.

6. Louis Réau, Iconographie de l'art chrétien , 6 vols. (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1955-59), 3-2:833-36 and pl. 54. Anonymous master of Estimariu (Catalan school), St. Lucy, Prado, Madrid. Cycle of St. Lucy, Catalan retable, An. Coll. Martin Le Roy, Paris. Maria Chaira Celletti, in Bibliotheca sanctorum , 12 vols. (Rome: Istituto Giovanni XXIII nella Pontificia università lateranense, 1961-68), 7:252-57; C. Squarr, in Lexikon der christlichen Ikonographie , ed. Engelbert Kirschbaum, 8 vols. (Rome: Herder, 1968-76), 7:415-20.

7. Julio Caro Baroja, El estio festivo: Fiestas populares del verano , Otra historia de España, 10 (Madrid: Taurus, 1984), 9.

8. Christian, Local Religion , 94.

9. Dante, Paradiso 32.136-38; "Paradiso" 1: Italian Text and Translation , trans. Charles Singelton, Bollingen Series, 80 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1975), 367; Inferno 2.97-100.

10. Acta 3.19; 3.30.

11. See Martin Ninck, Die Bedeutung des Wassers in Kult und Leben der Alten: Eine Symbolgeschichtliche Untersuchung , 2d ed. (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche, 1960); Philippe Reymond, L'Eau, sa vie, et sa signification dans l'ancient testament, Vetus testamentum Supplements , 6 (1958), 208-22.

12. Pierre Amandry, La mantique apollinienne à Delphes: Essai sur le fonctionnement

de l'oracle (Paris: E. de Boccard, 1950), 134-39; and for the spring Cassotis, Georges Roux, Delphes: Son oracle et ses dieux (Paris: Belles lettres, 1976), 136-45. It was characteristic of the Apolline sanctuaries that all were important hydraulic installations. René Ginouves, Balaneutike: Recherches sur le bain dans l'antiquité grecque Paris: E. de Boccard, 1962), 327-44.

13. Seneca, Epistolae 41.3; Ad Lucilium epistulae morales , trans. Richard M. Gummere, 3 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1961), 1:275.

14. Joachim du Bellay, Odes 2.6, and Pierre de Ronsard, cited by Françoise Joukovsky, La gloire dans la poésie française et néolatine du XVIe siècle (Des rhétoriqueurs à Agrippa d'Aubigné) , Travaux d'humanisme et Renaissance, 102 (Geneva: Droz, 1969), 344.

15. See Gershom G. Scholem, Jewish Gnosticism, Merkabah Mysticism, and Talmudic Tradition , 2d rev. ed. (New York: Jewish Theological Seminary, 1965); Wilhelm Neuss, Das Buch Ezechiel in Theologie und Kunst bis zum Ende des XII. Jahrhunderts , Beiträge zur Geschichte des alten Mönchtums und des Benediktinerordens, 1-2 (Münster: Aschendorff, 1912); and for an Ezekiel figure, Marjorie O'Rourke Boyle, Petrarch's Genius: Pentimento and Prophecy (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1991), 92-112.

16. Raffaele Pettazoni, The All-Knowing God: Researches into Early Religion and Culture (London: Methuen, 1956), 78, cf. 145.

17. Acta 3.30.

18. Lorenz Dürr, Ezekiels Vision von der Erscheinung Gottes (Ez. c. 1 u. 10) im Lichte der vorderasiatischen Altertumskunde (Münster: Aschendorff, 1917), 54-60; W.F. Albright, "What Were the Cherubim?" Biblical Archeologist 1 (1938):1-2; Simon Landersdorfer, Der Baal tetramorphos und die Kerube des Ezechiel , Studien zur Geschichte und Kultur des Altertums, 9 (Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh, 1918).

19. Hugo Gressmann, Die Lade Jahves , Forschungsinstitut für Religionsgeschichte, Israelitisch-Jüdische Abteilung, 5 (Berlin: W. Kohlhammer, 1920), 49-51. The Demon Bes with Horus-eyes and the Holy of Holies of Solomon's Temple. Reproduced 51 and Abb. 10. Pettazoni, All-Knowing God , 59, 110, cf. Ezek. 1:7. Bes pantheos, Bronze statuette, Louvre, Paris, figs. la, b. Bes reproduced in Balaji Mundkur, The Cult of the Serpent: An Interdisciplinary Survey of its Manifestations and Origins (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1983), 66. See also the bibliography in Waldemar Deonna, Le symbolisme de l'oeil , École française d'Athènes, Travaux et mémoires des anciens membres étrangers de l'école et de divers savants, 15 (Paris: E. de Boccard, 1965), 130 n. 3.

20. Didron Ainé, "Iconographie des anges," Annales archéologiques 11 (1851):347-62; 12 (1852):168-76; 18 (1858):33-48; reproduced in 11: 355, fig. 2. See also Adolphe N. Didron, Christian Iconography: The History of Christian Art in the Middle Ages , trans. E. J. Millington, 2 vols. (New York: Frederick Ungar, 1965), 1:152, 355, fig. 3; 2:89, 91, fig. 152; 265. Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, biblia sacra, MS lat. 6.i, 12th century, 97, fig. 157. Rabula Codex, Laurentian Library, Florence, in Neuss, Buch Ezechiel , 154-58, fig. 10; Vatican Kosmas manuscript, 9th or 7th century, 159-62, fig. 11, and further

162-79; Coptic chapel in Bawît, 190-93, figs. 27, 28. Réau, Iconographie de l'art chrétien , 2-1:41. Reliquary of Saint Maurice, enamel, 12th century, Church of St. Pantaleon, Museum Schnutgen, Cologne. Reproduced in Aurelia Stappart, L'ange roman: Dans la pensée et dans l'art (Paris: Berg, 1975), pl. 10. For the enduring iconography see the cloister church of the Holy Name, 17th century, Ohridsee, Macedonia. Reproduced in Lothar Heiser, Die Engel im Glauben der Orthodoxie (Trier: Paulinus, 1976), Tafel XXXI.

21. See examples in Neuss, Buch Ezechiel , 162-276 passim; Jesús Domínguez Bordona, Spanish Illumination , 2 vols. (Florence: Pantheon, 1930), pls. 28, 44, 56, 106.

22. E.g. in the Catalan bible of Sant Pere de Roda. Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, Bible Cod. lat. 6. Rod. B III, fol. 45. Reproduced in Neuss, Die Katalonische Bibelillustration um die Wende des ersten Jahrtausends und die altspanische Buchmalerei (Bonn: Kurt Schroeder, 1922), table 30, fig. 95; cf. table 60, fig. 181. This stroked version is frequent, e.g. Apocalypse de Saint-Sever, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, MS latin 8878, fol. 137v. The First Trumpet. Reproduced in Pedro de Palol and Max Hirmer, Early Medieval Art in Spain (London: Thames and Hudson, 1967), 70, fig. XVII. There is a Catalan cherub with two censers hanging from six wings with dotted semicircles in the upper arches in Tractát dels Set Querubins , Archive of the Crown of Aragon, MS n. 26, fol. 131. (Among the codices of Ripoll, a translation of Alain de Lille, De septem querubim ). Reproduced in Josep Gudiol, Els primitivs , part 3, Els llibres illuminats (Barcelona: Caruda, 1955), fig. 219. The dotted circle appears on the wings and at the center of the wheels of the tetramorph in the Great Scene of Judgment in Herrad of Hohenbourg, Hortus deliciarum , fol. 253r, pl. 144.

23. Bartolomé Bermejo, Christ at the Tomb with Angels, Heirs of Miguel Mateu, Barcelona. Reproduced in Eric Young, Bartolomé Bermejo: The Great Hispano-Flemish Master (London: Paul Elek, 1975), pl. 9; Elias Tormo y Monzo, "Bartolomé Bermejo el más recio de los primitivos españoles: Resumen de su vida, de su obra, y de su estudio," Archivo español de arte y arqueologia 2 (1926):fig. 25. Entry into Paradise (Te Deum) and Ascension, retable, 15th century, Instituto Amatller de arte hispánico, Barcelona. Reproduced in Young, Bartolomé Bermejo , pls. 3 and 4; Tormo y Monzo, "Bartolomé Bermejo," fig. 29 and detail fig. 31, fig. 36, with details figs. 37, 39. Resurrection, Museo municipale del Parque, Barcelona. Reproduced in Tormo y Monzo, ibid., fig. 33; but not included in Young's catalogue.

24. Lombard artist, King Ratchis altar, 8th century, S. Martino, Cividale. Reproduced in Gunnar Berefelt, A Study on the Winged Angel: The Origin of a Motif , trans. Patrick Hort (Stockholm: Almquist & Wiksell, 1968), 52, fig. 35. Angels surrounding Christ in glory holding the Eucharistic host, Carolingian illumination, sacramentary of the cathedral of Limoges, 11th century, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, MS latin 9438. Reproduced in Stappart, Ange roman , pl. 45. Miniature, Bible for Bishop Heinrich von Blois, Winchester Cathedral, mid-12th century. Reproduced in Neuss, Buch Ezechiel , 233-34, fig. 44. For other Romanesque figures see ibid., 234-48. Mosaics, domes of Monreale, Sicily, ibid., 254-55, fig. 61. Mosaic, cathedral, Cefalù. Reproduced in Peter Lamborn Wilson, Angels (New York: Pantheon, 1980), 128. La Pala d'Oro, detail,

12th century, S. Marco, Venice. Reproduced in Stappart, Ange roman , pl. 11. Miniature of Evangeliars, 13th century, Koniglich Bibliothek, Aschaffenburg. Reproduced in Neuss, Buch Ezechiel , 275-76, fig. 76.

22. E.g. in the Catalan bible of Sant Pere de Roda. Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, Bible Cod. lat. 6. Rod. B III, fol. 45. Reproduced in Neuss, Die Katalonische Bibelillustration um die Wende des ersten Jahrtausends und die altspanische Buchmalerei (Bonn: Kurt Schroeder, 1922), table 30, fig. 95; cf. table 60, fig. 181. This stroked version is frequent, e.g. Apocalypse de Saint-Sever, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, MS latin 8878, fol. 137v. The First Trumpet. Reproduced in Pedro de Palol and Max Hirmer, Early Medieval Art in Spain (London: Thames and Hudson, 1967), 70, fig. XVII. There is a Catalan cherub with two censers hanging from six wings with dotted semicircles in the upper arches in Tractát dels Set Querubins , Archive of the Crown of Aragon, MS n. 26, fol. 131. (Among the codices of Ripoll, a translation of Alain de Lille, De septem querubim ). Reproduced in Josep Gudiol, Els primitivs , part 3, Els llibres illuminats (Barcelona: Caruda, 1955), fig. 219. The dotted circle appears on the wings and at the center of the wheels of the tetramorph in the Great Scene of Judgment in Herrad of Hohenbourg, Hortus deliciarum , fol. 253r, pl. 144.

23. Bartolomé Bermejo, Christ at the Tomb with Angels, Heirs of Miguel Mateu, Barcelona. Reproduced in Eric Young, Bartolomé Bermejo: The Great Hispano-Flemish Master (London: Paul Elek, 1975), pl. 9; Elias Tormo y Monzo, "Bartolomé Bermejo el más recio de los primitivos españoles: Resumen de su vida, de su obra, y de su estudio," Archivo español de arte y arqueologia 2 (1926):fig. 25. Entry into Paradise (Te Deum) and Ascension, retable, 15th century, Instituto Amatller de arte hispánico, Barcelona. Reproduced in Young, Bartolomé Bermejo , pls. 3 and 4; Tormo y Monzo, "Bartolomé Bermejo," fig. 29 and detail fig. 31, fig. 36, with details figs. 37, 39. Resurrection, Museo municipale del Parque, Barcelona. Reproduced in Tormo y Monzo, ibid., fig. 33; but not included in Young's catalogue.

24. Lombard artist, King Ratchis altar, 8th century, S. Martino, Cividale. Reproduced in Gunnar Berefelt, A Study on the Winged Angel: The Origin of a Motif , trans. Patrick Hort (Stockholm: Almquist & Wiksell, 1968), 52, fig. 35. Angels surrounding Christ in glory holding the Eucharistic host, Carolingian illumination, sacramentary of the cathedral of Limoges, 11th century, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, MS latin 9438. Reproduced in Stappart, Ange roman , pl. 45. Miniature, Bible for Bishop Heinrich von Blois, Winchester Cathedral, mid-12th century. Reproduced in Neuss, Buch Ezechiel , 233-34, fig. 44. For other Romanesque figures see ibid., 234-48. Mosaics, domes of Monreale, Sicily, ibid., 254-55, fig. 61. Mosaic, cathedral, Cefalù. Reproduced in Peter Lamborn Wilson, Angels (New York: Pantheon, 1980), 128. La Pala d'Oro, detail,

12th century, S. Marco, Venice. Reproduced in Stappart, Ange roman , pl. 11. Miniature of Evangeliars, 13th century, Koniglich Bibliothek, Aschaffenburg. Reproduced in Neuss, Buch Ezechiel , 275-76, fig. 76.

22. E.g. in the Catalan bible of Sant Pere de Roda. Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, Bible Cod. lat. 6. Rod. B III, fol. 45. Reproduced in Neuss, Die Katalonische Bibelillustration um die Wende des ersten Jahrtausends und die altspanische Buchmalerei (Bonn: Kurt Schroeder, 1922), table 30, fig. 95; cf. table 60, fig. 181. This stroked version is frequent, e.g. Apocalypse de Saint-Sever, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, MS latin 8878, fol. 137v. The First Trumpet. Reproduced in Pedro de Palol and Max Hirmer, Early Medieval Art in Spain (London: Thames and Hudson, 1967), 70, fig. XVII. There is a Catalan cherub with two censers hanging from six wings with dotted semicircles in the upper arches in Tractát dels Set Querubins , Archive of the Crown of Aragon, MS n. 26, fol. 131. (Among the codices of Ripoll, a translation of Alain de Lille, De septem querubim ). Reproduced in Josep Gudiol, Els primitivs , part 3, Els llibres illuminats (Barcelona: Caruda, 1955), fig. 219. The dotted circle appears on the wings and at the center of the wheels of the tetramorph in the Great Scene of Judgment in Herrad of Hohenbourg, Hortus deliciarum , fol. 253r, pl. 144.

23. Bartolomé Bermejo, Christ at the Tomb with Angels, Heirs of Miguel Mateu, Barcelona. Reproduced in Eric Young, Bartolomé Bermejo: The Great Hispano-Flemish Master (London: Paul Elek, 1975), pl. 9; Elias Tormo y Monzo, "Bartolomé Bermejo el más recio de los primitivos españoles: Resumen de su vida, de su obra, y de su estudio," Archivo español de arte y arqueologia 2 (1926):fig. 25. Entry into Paradise (Te Deum) and Ascension, retable, 15th century, Instituto Amatller de arte hispánico, Barcelona. Reproduced in Young, Bartolomé Bermejo , pls. 3 and 4; Tormo y Monzo, "Bartolomé Bermejo," fig. 29 and detail fig. 31, fig. 36, with details figs. 37, 39. Resurrection, Museo municipale del Parque, Barcelona. Reproduced in Tormo y Monzo, ibid., fig. 33; but not included in Young's catalogue.

24. Lombard artist, King Ratchis altar, 8th century, S. Martino, Cividale. Reproduced in Gunnar Berefelt, A Study on the Winged Angel: The Origin of a Motif , trans. Patrick Hort (Stockholm: Almquist & Wiksell, 1968), 52, fig. 35. Angels surrounding Christ in glory holding the Eucharistic host, Carolingian illumination, sacramentary of the cathedral of Limoges, 11th century, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, MS latin 9438. Reproduced in Stappart, Ange roman , pl. 45. Miniature, Bible for Bishop Heinrich von Blois, Winchester Cathedral, mid-12th century. Reproduced in Neuss, Buch Ezechiel , 233-34, fig. 44. For other Romanesque figures see ibid., 234-48. Mosaics, domes of Monreale, Sicily, ibid., 254-55, fig. 61. Mosaic, cathedral, Cefalù. Reproduced in Peter Lamborn Wilson, Angels (New York: Pantheon, 1980), 128. La Pala d'Oro, detail,

12th century, S. Marco, Venice. Reproduced in Stappart, Ange roman , pl. 11. Miniature of Evangeliars, 13th century, Koniglich Bibliothek, Aschaffenburg. Reproduced in Neuss, Buch Ezechiel , 275-76, fig. 76.

25. So-called Alcuin Bible from Tours, written probably at Marmoutier between 834 and 843, Bamberg, Staatliche Bibliothek, MS 1, fol. 339v. Reproduced in Gertrude Schiller, Iconography of Christian Art , trans. Janet Seligman, 2 vols. (London: Lund Humphries, 1971), 2:fig. 397.

26. Trier Apocalypse, executed in northern France first quarter of 9th century, Trier, Stadtbibliothek, Cod. 31, fol. 18v. Reproduced in John Williams, Early Spanish Manuscript Illumination (London: Chatto & Windus, 1977), 26.

27. Moralia in Iob, 945 A.D. , Madrid, Biblioteca nacional, Cod. 80, fol. 2v. Reproduced in Williams, Early Spanish Manuscript Illumination , pl. 8A. Cf. Moralia in Iob, 925 A.D. , Madrid, Biblioteca Nacional, Vit. 14-2. Reproduced in Bordona, Spanish Illumination , 1:pl. 8; Francis Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought to the End of the Middle Ages , ed. Evelyn Antal and John Harthan (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1971), 227, fig. 135. For the motif of the punctuated circle see Deonna, Symbolisme de l'oeil , 26-28.

28. Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, Bible Cod. lat. 6. Reproduced in Neuss, Buch Ezechiel , 203-17, figs. 35, 36. See also Rod. B, fol. 45, reproduced in idem, Katalonische Bibelillustration , table 30, fig. 95; cf. table 60, fig. 181. Cf. 2:fol. 129v. Reproduced in Walter Cohn, Romanesque Bible Illumination (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1982), 73; Gérard de Champeaux and Sébastien Sterckx, Introduction au monde des symboles , 2d ed. (n.p.: Zodiaque, 1972), 25. Cf. II, fol. 109. Reproduced in Neuss, Katalonische Bibelillustration , table 25, fig. 83; Ainé, ''Iconographie des anges," 11: 360, fig. 7; Gudiol, Llibres illuminats , fig. 21. Cod. Vat. lat. 5729. Neuss, Buch Ezechiel , 217-27; but incorrectly identified as the Farfa bible. Fol. 5v. Reproduced in Cohn, Romanesque Bible Illumination , 71. Cf. Fresco, S. Giovanni in Oleo, Rome. Reproduced in Stappart, Ange roman , 295, fig. 18.

29. Codex vigilianus seu albeldensis, A.D. 976, Escorial Library of the Royal Monastery, fol. 16v. Reproduced in Bordona, Spanish Illumination , 1:pl. 25; Champeaux and Sterckx, Introduction au monde des symboles , 109.

30. Beato de San Millán de la Cogolla, c. 1000, Madrid, Real academia de la historia, Cod. aemil. 33, fol. 92r. Reproduced in Williams, Early Spanish Manuscript Illumination , pl. 24; José Esteban Uranga Galdiano and Francisco Iñiguez Almech, Arte medieval navarro , 5 vols. (Pamplona: Aranzadi, 1971), 1:pl. 14; cf. fol. 209 in Bordona, Spanish Illumination , 1:pl. 19.

31. Beato de Fernando I y Sancha, Madrid, Biblioteca nacional, vit. 14-2, fol. 116v. Reproduced in Beato de Liébana , 91.

32. Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, MS latin 8878, fols. 121v-122r. Reproduced in Apocalypse de Saint-Sever ; Xavier Barral i Altet, "Repercusión de la illustración de los Beatos en la iconografía del arte monumental románico," in Actas del simposio para el estudio de los códices del "Commentario al Apocalypsis" de Beato de Liébana , 3 vols. (Madrid: Joyas, 1980), 3:12, fig. 2; François Avril, "Quelques considerations sur l'execution materielle des enluminures de l'Apocalypse de Saint-Sever," ibid., 161, fig. 1. Paris, Bibliothèque nationale,

MS lat. 8878, fol. 108v-109r. Reproduced in Apocalypse de Saint-Sever ; Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought , 235, fig. 146.

31. Beato de Fernando I y Sancha, Madrid, Biblioteca nacional, vit. 14-2, fol. 116v. Reproduced in Beato de Liébana , 91.

32. Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, MS latin 8878, fols. 121v-122r. Reproduced in Apocalypse de Saint-Sever ; Xavier Barral i Altet, "Repercusión de la illustración de los Beatos en la iconografía del arte monumental románico," in Actas del simposio para el estudio de los códices del "Commentario al Apocalypsis" de Beato de Liébana , 3 vols. (Madrid: Joyas, 1980), 3:12, fig. 2; François Avril, "Quelques considerations sur l'execution materielle des enluminures de l'Apocalypse de Saint-Sever," ibid., 161, fig. 1. Paris, Bibliothèque nationale,

MS lat. 8878, fol. 108v-109r. Reproduced in Apocalypse de Saint-Sever ; Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought , 235, fig. 146.

33. From the Liber testamentorum regium of Bishop Don Pelayo, 1126-29. Reproduced in Palol and Hirmer, Early Medieval Art in Spain , 96, fig. XXII.

34. See Josep Pijoan with Josep Gudiol i Ricart, Les pintures murals romàniques de Catalunya , Monumenta cataloniae, 4 (Barcelona: Alpha, 1948), 96-97. Reproduced as General view of apse, Seraphs with eyes on backs of hands, Sant Climent de Taüll, fig. 17; Lamb of the Apocalypse, fig 24; Decoration of the apse, St. Luke, Seraph with an eye above the wrist, St. John, Archangel, Santa Maria de Taüll, fig. 35; Esterrí de Cardós, Apse, Angels censing the eternal one, fig. 47; Estaon, Església de Santa Eulalia, Decoration of the apse, eyes on wings, hands, and feet, fig. 51. Església de Santa Maria, Decoration of main apse, Esterrí d'Àneu, fig. 57; detail, fig. 57. All are in the Museo de Arte de Cataluña, Barcelona. See also the detail of fresco of Santa María de Esterrí d'Àneu in Palol and Hirmer, Early Medieval Art in Spain , fig. XXIV, with bibliography; Sant Climent de Taüll, in L'Art de la Catalogne de la second moitié du neuvième siècle à la fin du quinzième siècle (Paris: Cahiers d'art, 1937), 122, pl. LXXX, design of a row of eyes marching down the center of uplifted wings, all over the downward wings, and on the back of the hands of the angel; Apse of Santa Eulàlia de Estaon, Seraphs with eyes on wings flanking Christ enthroned in a mandorla, Eduard Carbonell i Esteller and Jordi Gumí Cardona, L'Art romànic a Cataluyna segle XII , 2 vols. (Barcelona: Edicions 62, 1974-75), pl. 213, cf. detail of Santa María d'Esterrí d'Àneu, pl. 203; Seraph of Santa María d'Àneu in Stappart, Ange roman , 266-67, figs. c, e, f.

35. Apocalypse de Saint-Sever , fol. 108v-109r.

36. Louis Ginzberg, The Legends of the Jews , 7 vols. (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1913-67), 2:308.

37. Adolf Jacoby, "Zur Erklärung der Kerube," Archiv für Religionswissen-schaft 22 (1923-24); Uno Holmberg, "Der Todesengel," Studia orientalia 1 (1925):72-77; Pettazoni, All-Knowing God , 17, 111; Gustav Davidson, A Dictionary of Angels Including the Fallen Angels (New York: Free Press, 1967), 26, 64-65.

38. Beato de Fernando I y Sancha, Madrid, Biblioteca nacional, vit. 14-2, fol. 195. Reproduced in Beato de Liébana , 117. Consider also the beast before the temple with eyes on its body in Beato de Madrid, Madrid vit. 14-1, fol. 108v. Reproduced in P.K. Klein, "La tradición pictórica de los Beatos," in Actas del simposio para el estudio de los Códices del "Comentario al Apocalypsis" de Beato de Liébana , 3:64, fig. 16. See also the spots in Beato de Fernando I y Sancha, fol. 171v; the paisley eyes on the cavalry of beasts, fol. 171v; the spots on the adored beast, fol. 191v; the ocular scales on the dragon, fols. 186v, 187r, and on the frogs, fol. 220v. Scales like eyes may be a reminiscence of the legend of Leviathan with 365 eyes. Cf. stylized eyes on the head of the feathered and spangled serpent in Apocalypse de Saint-Sever, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, MS latin 8878, fol. 13.

39. Réau, Iconographie de l'art chrétien , 2-1:61; Didron, Christian Iconography , 2:112-14. Dante, Inferno 34.37-54. See also Antonio Orbe, "La trinidad

maléfica (A propósito de "Excerpta ex Theodoto" 80, 3)," Gregorianum 49 (1968):726-61.

40. Mestre de Glorieta, Retable of Santa Anna, Sant Minquel, and Sant Sebastian, Table of St. Michael, second third of 15th century, private collection, Barcelona. Reproduced in Núria de Dalmases and Antoni José i Pitarch, Història de l'art català , 8 vols. (Barcelona: Edicions 62, 1983-85), 3:236.

41. Pettazoni, All-Knowing God , 19. For the multiplicity of organs see Claude Kappler, Monstres, démons, et merveilles à la fin du moyen âge (Paris: Payot, 1980), esp. 123-29; for the multicephalous see the grylle in Jurgis Baltrusaitis, Le moyen âge fantastique: Antiquités et exotismes dans l'art gothique (Paris: Armand Colin, 1955), 31-36; in general, John B. Friedman, The Monstrous Races in Medieval Art and Thought (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981); Gilbert Lascault, Le monstre dans l'art occidental: Un problème esthétique (Paris: Klincksieck, 1973); Heinz Mode, Fabulous Beasts and Demons (London: Phaidon, 1971); Centre de recherches sur la Renaissance, Université de Paris-Sorbonne, Monstres et prodiges au temps de la Renaissance , ed. M. T. Jones-Davies (Paris: Jean Touzot, 1980).

42. Paul Carus, The History of the Devil and the Idea of Evil: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day (1900 reprint; La Salle, Ill.: Open Court, 1974), 444; Thomas Wright, A History of Caricature and Grotesque in Literature and Art (London, 1865), 56.

43. Baltrusaitis, Moyen âge fantastique , 151-63, with examples of Chinese bat's wings with circles by Li Long-mein ( A.D. 1081).

44. Orcagna, Detail of the Triumph of Death, Campo Santo, Pisa. In the second architectural division, the devil on the lower left beneath the inscription held by two angels. Reproduced in Raymond Régamy, Anges (Paris: P. Tisné, 1946), no. 20; Métamorphoses du diable (Paris: Hachette, 1968), 68.

45. The Last Judgment, fresco, Campo Santo, Pisa. Reproduced in Carus, History of the Devil , 485.

46. Jaume Ferrer II, Retable of St. Michael, c. 1444-47, Lleida, Paeria. Reproduced in Dalmases and José i Pitarch, Història de l'art català , 3:235. See also the ocular motif on bat's wings, 229. Bernat Martorell, Retable of Sant Jordi, central table, c. 1440, Art Institute, Chicago.

47. Bartolomé Bermejo, The Breaking of Hell, Museo Municipal del Parque, Barcelona. Reproduced in Tormo y Monzo, "Bartolomé Bermejo," 36-37, fig. 26.

48. Miguel Jiménez, Victory of St. Michael and Other Angels over the Devils, section of a retable, Gallery of Fine Arts, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. Reproduced in Chandler Rathfon Post, A History of Spanish Painting , 14 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1930-66), 8-1:fig. 47. See also the Master of St. George, Retable of St. Michael, Cathedral of Tarragona, first half of 15th century. Reproduced in Art de la Catalagne , 287, pl. CXCI, and 289, pl. CXCII.

49. "Statura quoque erat rotis, et altitudo, et horribilis aspectus; et totum corpus oculis plenum in circuitu ipsarum quatuor. . . . Et omne corpus earum, et colla, et manus, et pennae, et circuli, plena erant oculis in circuitu quatuor rotarum."

50. Neuss, Buch Ezechiel , 30, 38, 78, 54.

51. Augustine, Enarrationes in psalmos 79.2; Expositions on the Book of Psalms , trans. H. M. Wilkins, 6 vols. (Oxford, 1853), 4:102; cf.98.3.

52. Dionysius the Areopagite [pseud.], Hierarchia caelestia 6, 7, 15; The Celestial Hierarchies , trans. Editors of the Shrine of Wisdom (London: Shrine of Wisdom, 1935), 25, 26, 50 with alteration.

53. The order was accepted by Thomas Aquinas and Dante. For a comparative listing see Davidson, Dictionary of Angels , appendix: "The Orders of the Celestial Hierarchy," 336-38. See also C. A. Patrides, "Renaissance Thought on the Celestial Hierarchy: The Decline of a Tradition," Journal of the History of Ideas 20 (1959): 155-66; idem, ''Renaissance Views on the 'Unconfused Orders Angellick,'" ibid. 23 (1962):265-67.

52. Dionysius the Areopagite [pseud.], Hierarchia caelestia 6, 7, 15; The Celestial Hierarchies , trans. Editors of the Shrine of Wisdom (London: Shrine of Wisdom, 1935), 25, 26, 50 with alteration.

53. The order was accepted by Thomas Aquinas and Dante. For a comparative listing see Davidson, Dictionary of Angels , appendix: "The Orders of the Celestial Hierarchy," 336-38. See also C. A. Patrides, "Renaissance Thought on the Celestial Hierarchy: The Decline of a Tradition," Journal of the History of Ideas 20 (1959): 155-66; idem, ''Renaissance Views on the 'Unconfused Orders Angellick,'" ibid. 23 (1962):265-67.

54. Hildegard of Bingen, Scivias , between pp. 6-7. Reproduced also in Louis Baillet, "Les miniatures du Scivias de sainte Hildegarde conservé à la Bibliothèque de Wiesbaden," Fondation Eugène Piot, Monuments et mémories (Pairs: Ernest Leroux, 1911), 19:58, fig. 2; Hiltgart L. Keller, Mittelrheinische Buch-malereizur in Handschriften aus dem Kreise der Hiltgart von Bingen (Stuttgart: Ernst Surkamp, 1933), pl. 3; Scivias by Hildegard of Bingen , trans. Bruce Hozeski (Santa Fe, N.M.: Bear, 1986), 6.

55. Pettazoni, All-Knowing God , 5-10, 16-17, 19, 22, 24-25, 105-11, 145, 433-49. For multiple eyes see also Deonna, Symbolisme de l'oeil , 121-34.

56. See Caro Baroja, Los Vascos , 2 vols. (San Sebastien: Larrun, 1982), 2:376-77 without reference; but the source is Guide du pèlerin de Saint-Jacques de Compostela 7. For primitive Basque notions of the sky and sun and of rays as lightning see Caro Baroja, Sobre la religion antigua y el calendario del pueblo vasco , 3d ed., Estudios vascos, 1 (San Sebastian: Txertoa, 1973), 13-45.

57. Dante, Purgatorio 29.94-102.

58. See Jean Daniélou, "Les démons de l'air dans la Vie d'Antoine ," Studia anselmiana 38 (1956):136-47.

59. See Jeffrey Burton Russell, Satan: The Early Christian Tradition (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1981), 165-88; idem, Lucifer: The Devil in the Middle Ages (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1984), 180-81, 174 n. 36.

60. Vita Antonii 22, 23, 31, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 24. The traditional ascription of this work to Athanasius has been challenged by T. D. Barnes, "Angel of Light or Mystic Initiate? The Problem of the Life of Antony," Journal of Theological Studies 37 (1986):353-63.

61. Réau, Iconographie de l'art chrétien , 3-1:101-15. Many plates are reproduced in Enrico Castelli, Le démoniaque dans l'art: Sa signification philosophique , trans. Enrichetta Valenziani (Paris: J. Vrin, 1958); Roland Villeneuve with Josselyne Chamarat, La beauté du diable (Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1983), 102-18.

62. Reproduced in Wilhelm Fraenger, Matthias Grünewald (Munich: C. H. Beck, 1963), pl. 16.

63. Josep M. Gasol, Manresa: Panorama d'una ciutat (Manresa: Montañà, 1971), 30, fig. 26; 41. Lluis Borrassà, Internment of Christ, fragment of retable of St. Anthony Abbot, 1410, Seo, Manresa.

64. See Benjamin Rowland, Jr., Jaume Huguet: A Study in Late Gothic

Painting in Catalonia (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 133-40 and fig. 36. The lost retable, housed in the Escolapios, was burned during the semana tragica of 1909 with no fragments remaining, only poor photographs and summary descriptions. See A. Duran I Sanpere, "El desaparecido retablo de San Antonio Abad," Museum 1 (1911):1-2. The central demon with upraised club has a bat's wings with oval motifs decorating the edges. For the contemporary cult of Anthony abbot in Spain see Caro Baroja, Las formas complejas de la vida religiosa (Religión, sociedad y carácter en la España de los siglos XVI y XVII) (Madrid: Akal, 1978), 96-99.

65. Vita Antonii 6, 23, 31-35, 39, 25-27.

66. For the cycle of the devil outwitted see August Wünsche, Die Sagenkreis vom geprellten Teufel (Leipzig: Akademischer, 1905).

67. Russell, Lucifer , 62-63, 67, 161, 225.

68. Vita Antonii 7 and passim, 5, 7, 13, 21-25, 35-41, 62-64, 75, and for discernment as most important, p. 175.

69. Russell, Lucifer , 129-33, 209-12; Réau, Iconographie de l'art chrétien , 1-1:61-62; and for a recent survey, Luther Link, The Devil, a Mask without a Face (London: Reaktion, 1995), 35-78. See the winged serpent, Paris, Bibliothéque nationale, MS coll. duc d'Anjou, c. 1200. Reproduced in Didron, Christian Iconography , 2:125, fig. 176.

70. Kirschbaum, "L'Angelo rosso e l'angelo turchino," Rivista di archeologia cristiana 17 (1940):209-27. Mosaic, c. 520, S. Appollinare Nuovo, Ravenna. Reproduced ibid., 211, fig. 1.

69. Russell, Lucifer , 129-33, 209-12; Réau, Iconographie de l'art chrétien , 1-1:61-62; and for a recent survey, Luther Link, The Devil, a Mask without a Face (London: Reaktion, 1995), 35-78. See the winged serpent, Paris, Bibliothéque nationale, MS coll. duc d'Anjou, c. 1200. Reproduced in Didron, Christian Iconography , 2:125, fig. 176.

70. Kirschbaum, "L'Angelo rosso e l'angelo turchino," Rivista di archeologia cristiana 17 (1940):209-27. Mosaic, c. 520, S. Appollinare Nuovo, Ravenna. Reproduced ibid., 211, fig. 1.

71. Paris, Bibliothéque nationale, MS graec 510, fol. 165. Reproduced in Henri Auguste Omont, Les miniatures des plus anciens manuscrits grecs de la Bibliothèque nationale du 6e au 14e siècle (Paris: H. Champion, 1929), pl. 35. Henri-Irenée Marrou, "The Fallen Angel," in Satan , ed. Bruno de Jesus-Marie (New York: Sheed & Ward, 1952), 78. See also Ivory plaque of the Metz school, c. 850; Ciborium of King Arnulf, c. 890; Vysehrad Coronation Gospels of King Vratislav. Prague, National and University Library, MS XIV, fol. 24b. Reproduced in Schiller, Iconography of Christian Art , 1:144-45, figs. 391, 392, 393.

72. Russell, Lucifer , 67-91, 211; Carmelina Naselli, "Diavoli bianchi e diavoli neri nei leggendari medievali," Volkstum und Kultur der Romanen 15 (1942):233-54. For these guises of the devil in Spanish lore see John Esten Keller, Motif-Index of Mediaeval Spanish Exempla (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1949), G303.3.1.2-G303.3.3.18.4.

73. Didron, Christian Iconography , 2:127, 259-60; Schiller, Iconography of Christian Art , 1:144-45.

74. J. P. Wickersham Crawford, "The Devil as a Dramatic Figure in the Spanish Religious Drama before Lope de Vega," Romanic Review 1 (1910): 307-8, 311, 383.

75. Tempe E. Allison, "The Vice in Early Spanish Drama," Speculum 12 (1937):104-9.

76. Russell, Lucifer , 67, 211. See also Francis J. Carmody, "Le diable des bestiaires," Cahiers de l'Association internationale des études françaises , nos. 3-5 (July, 1953):79-85.

77. Augustine, De civitate Dei 3.31; Concerning the City of God against the

Pagans , trans. Henry Bettenson (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1972), 133.

78. Ulysse Aldrovandi, Serpentum, et draconum historiae . See also Charles Gould, Mythical Monsters (London, 1886), 202-4, and for Aldrovandi's etchings, 233, figs. 51 and 52.

79. Alexandre Cirici with Ramon Manent, Ceràmica catalana (Barcelona: Destino, 1977), 76, cf. 80, reproduced 78-79, and in Marçal Olivar, La ceràmica trescentista a Aragó, Catalunya i València , Monumenta cataloniae, 8 (Barcelona: Alpha, 1952), figs. 168, 169; Dalmases and José i Pitarch, Història de l'art català , 3:280. This has been named plausibly the basilisk of Manresa but implausibly its harpy, since there was a Christian iconographical tradition of the diabolical serpent with a human face, such as this has. See Henry Ansgar Kelly, "The Metamorphoses of the Eden Serpent during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance," Viator 2 (1971):301-28; John K. Bonnell, "The Serpent with a Human Head in Art and in Mystery Play," American Journal of Archaeology 21 (1917):255-91.

80. Caro Baroja, Vascos , 2:384-85; idem, "Notas de folklore vasco," Revista de dialectología y tradiciones populares 2 (1946):372-75.

81. For hybrids see Sylvia Lefevre, "Polymorphisme et métamorphose: Les mythes de la naissance dans les bestiaires," in Métamorphose et bestiaire fantastique au moyen âge , ed. Laurence Harf-Lancner (Paris: École normale supérieure de jeunes filles, 1985), 215-46.

82. Mundkur, Cult of the Serpent , 99 and 100, fig. 47.

83. Florence McCulloch, Mediaeval Latin and French Bestiaries , Studies in the Romance Languages and Literatures, 33 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1960), 153-54, citing Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae 12.7.48.

84. Albert the Great, Liber animalium 23.92.

85. Brunetto Latini, Li livres du tresor 1.168. Anonymous, Volucraires 251, 301-38.

86. Aldrovandi, Orinthologiae 1, pp. 8, 21-22. Konrad Gesner, Historiae animalium 3, 2-3:657.

87. See Pettazoni, All-Knowing God , 151-52.

88. Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.49-52.

89. Peter Paul Rubens, Juno places the eyes of decapitated Argos on the peacock, Wallraf-Richartz-Museum, Cologne. Reproduced in Ernst Thomas Reimbold, Der Pfau: Mythologie und Symbolik (Munich: Callwey, 1983), 129, Abb. 60; Gert von der Osten, Wallraf Richartz Museum Köln , 2 vols. (Cologne: M. DuMont Scauberg, 1966), 2:123.

90. Peter Paul Rubens, St. Ignatius Loyola as Worker of Miracles, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, and Dulwich College Picture Gallery, London. Reproduced in Julius S. Held, The Oil Sketches of Peter Paul Rubens: A Critical Catalogue , 2 vols. (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press for the National Gallery of Art, 1980), pls. 398 and 400.

91. E. P. Evans, Animal Symbolism in Ecclesiastical Architecture (London, 1896), 313. Miniature, reproduced at 314 from Charles Cahier, Mélanges d'archéologie , 4 vols. (Paris, 1847-57), 2:xx.AB.

92. Helmut Lother, Der Pfau in der altchristlichen Kunst: eine Studie über das Verhältnis von Ornament und Symbol (Leipzig: Dieterich, 1929).

93. Augustine, De civitate Dei 21.4, cited by McCullough, Medieval Latin and French Bestiaries , 154.

94. Fresco, 3d century, Priscilla catacomb, Rome; Early catacomb, Vatican. Reproduced in Reimbold, Pfau , 94, Abb. 14, 15.

95. Mosaic of the Vineyard, S. Costanza, Rome. Reproduced in Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought , fig. 70. Mosaic in the Church of Beligna, 5th century, Museo paleocristiano aquileia. Reproduced in Reimbold, Pfau , Abb. 16.

96. Cathedra of Bishop Maximinianus of Ravenna, 546-556, Museo arcivescovile, Ravenna. Reproduced in Reimbold, Pfau , 97, Abb. 18. See also 98-103, 105, Abb. 19-29.

97. Ibid., 57-61. Domenico Ghirlandaio, Last Supper, refectory of the cloister of Ognissanti, Florence, Museo de san Marco, Florence. Reproduced as fig. 25.

96. Cathedra of Bishop Maximinianus of Ravenna, 546-556, Museo arcivescovile, Ravenna. Reproduced in Reimbold, Pfau , 97, Abb. 18. See also 98-103, 105, Abb. 19-29.

97. Ibid., 57-61. Domenico Ghirlandaio, Last Supper, refectory of the cloister of Ognissanti, Florence, Museo de san Marco, Florence. Reproduced as fig. 25.

98. Follower of Hans Memling, Virgin and Child with angels in a summer house, c. 1490, Capilla real, Granada. Jan van Eyck, Madonna with chancellor Rollin, c. 1425, Louvre, Paris. Master of the "Virgo inter Virgines," Mystical marriage of St. Catherine, c. 1490, Museu nacional de arte antigua, Lisbon. Simon Bening, SS. Cosmas and Damien, miniature, c. 1510, Hennessy Book of Hours. Illustration, Loyset Liédet, Histoire de Charles Martel , Brussels, Bibliothèque royale, MS 6, fol. 9. Illustration, Roman de la rose , Flemish, c. 1485, British Library, Harley MS 4425, fol. 14v. Reproduced in John Hooper Harvey, Mediaeval Gardens (London: B. T. Batsford, 1961), 90; 113, pls. 43 and VIIa; 100, pl. 48; 91, pl. 44; 89, pl. 42; 137, pl. 74; 108, pl. 60. Charlemagne's garden, 28.

99. Moralia in Iob, 945 A.D. Madrid, Biblioteca nacional, Cod. 80, fol. 3v. Reproduced in Williams, Early Spanish Manuscript Illumination , pl. 7. See also the twelfth-century Spanish silk weaving with a pair of peacocks in Byzantine style. Musée de Cluny, Paris. Reproduced in Reimbold, Pfau , 105, Abb. 30.

100. Ignacio Malaxecheverría, El bestiario esculpido en Navarra (Pamplona: Institución principe de Viana, 1982), 181.

101. Reimbold, Pfau , 44, citing Ephraeum Syrus's hymn 42.11, but without bibliography.

102. Offenbarung der Schwester Mechthild von Magdeburg, oder das fliessende Licht der Gottheit 1.46; The Revelations of Mechthild of Magdeburg (1210-1297), or The Flowing Light of the Godhead , trans. Lucy Menzies (London: Longmans, Green, 1953), 26.

103. Gian Domenico Gordini and Renato Aprile, in Bibliotheca sanctorum , 2:cols. 750-67; Leander Petzoldt, in Lexikon der christlichen Ikonographie , ed. Kirschbaum, 5:cols. 304-11; Hans Aurenhammer, ed., Lexikon der christlichen Ikonographie (Vienna: Brüder Hollinek, 1959), 280-91; Réau, Iconographie de l'art chrétien , 3-1:171-73. For the original of Barbara with a peacock see 8th century, S. Maria antiqua, Rome. Reproduced in Bibliotheca sanctorum , 2:col. 750. For other examples see Woodcarving, title page of Dionysius Carthusianus, Summa fidei orthodoxi , Cologne, 1535; Altar wing from the workshop of Stefan

Lochners or by a master of the Cologne school, second half of 15th century, Wallraf-Richartz Museum, Cologne. Reproduced in Reimbold, Pfau , 113, Abb. 39, 40. For her cult see also Caro Baroja, Vascos , 2:357; Hillgarth, Spanish Kingdoms , 1:23, 141. There was a Barbara altar by the Maestro de Mart de Torres, first half of 15th century, Museum del arte de Cataluña, Barcelona. Reproduced in Lexikon der christlichten Ikonographie , 5:col. 311.

104. Erasmus, "Confessio militis," in Colloquia , in Opera omnia (Amsterdam), 1-3:156; The Colloquies of Erasmus , trans. Craig R. Thompson (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965), 14.

105. Acta 8.82; cf. 6.55.

106. See Stephen L. Wailes, "The Crane, the Peacock, and the Reading of Walther von der Vogelweide 19, 19," Modern Language Notes 88 (1973): 952.

107. Dictionnaire d'archéologie chrétienne et de liturgie , s. v. "flabellum."

108. Wolfram von Eschenbach, Parzival 11.565.7-12.; Joseph Campbell, Creative Mythology (New York: Viking, 1968), 501-3.

109. Reproduced in Reimbold, Pfau , 122-23, Abb. 51, 52.

110. George Cary, The Medieval Alexander , ed. D. J. A. Ross (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1956), 32-33. The classical subjects most in vogue in medieval Spain were the life of Alexander the Great and the history of Troy. Ian Michael, The Treatment of Classical Material in the "Libro de Alexandre " (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1970), 12-13. For the importance of the idea of fame in Libro de Alexandre see Maria Rosa Lida de Malkiel, La idea de la fama en la edad media castellana (Mexico: Fondo de cultura económica, 1952), 167-97. For the peacock see Néstor Alberto Lugones, "Los bestiarios en la literatura medieval española," Ph.D. diss., University of Texas at Austin, 1976, 187-95.

111. Jacques de Longuyon, Voeux du paon 12, 17, 21, 25. There are also more recent editions, although unpublished: Camillus Casey, " Les voeux du paon by Jacques de Longuyon: An Edition of the P Redaction," Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1956; Robert Alexander Magill, "Part I of the Voeux du paon by Jacques de Longuyon: An Edition of Manuscripts S, S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, S6," Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1964. Although the edition used does not indicate the association of Alexander with the peacock, the conqueror is said to have been so amazed in India by the beauty of these birds that he threatened the severest penalties for slaying one. See Aelian, De natura animalium 5.21.

112. See B. J. Whiting, "The Vows of the Heron," Speculum 20 (1945):261-78. For other birds and the military see Heinz Peters, " Miles christianus oder Falke und Taube: Eine ikonographische Skizze," in Festschrift für Otto von Simson zu 65. Geburtstag , ed. Lucius Grisebach and Konrad Renger (Berlin: Propyläen, 1977), 53-61.

113. Reimbold, Pfau , 57-61. Benvenuto di Giovanni, Annunciation, painted tableboard, c. 1470, Museo d'arte sacra della Val d'Arbia, Buonconvento. Carlo Crivelli, Annunciation, Maria as Juno Caelestis with Peacock, altar painting, 1486, National Gallery, London. Reproduced 116, Abb. 43; 119, Abb. 46; also in Jill Dunkerton, Susan Foister, Dillian Gordon, and Nicholas Penny, Giotto to Dürer: Early Renaissance Painting in the National Gallery (New Haven,

Conn.: Yale University Press with National Gallery Publications, London, 1991), 345, pl. 51.

114. Chaucer, Parlement of Foules 356 .

115. Alain de Lille, De sex alis cherubim , cited in Adolf Katzenellenbogen, Allegories of the Virtues and Vices in Medieval Art from Early Christian Times to the Thirteenth Century , Studies of the Warburg Institute, 10 (Nendeln, Liechtenstein: Kraus Reprint, 1968), 62. See also French MS, second half 12th century, Stadtbibliothek, Frankfurt, fig. 63.

116. Archangel Gabriel, mosaic, 7th century, Church of St. Panagra Angeloktistos, Kiti, Cyprus. Reproduced in Wilson, Angels , 170.

117. Simone Martini, Annunciation, Uffizzi, Florence. Reproduced in Raymond Régamy, Anges , with analytic notes by Reneé Zeller (Paris: Pierre Tisné, 1946), no. 21, noting that Lippo Memmi probably painted the costume and wings. Although this and following examples are frequently reproduced, reference is given to Régamy's book for ease of comparison.

118. Filippo Lippi, Annunciation, 1435, cloister church of Suore Murate, Florence, Alte Pinkothek, Bayerischen Staatsgemäldesammlungen, Munich. Reproduced in Reimbold, Pfau , 117, Abb. 44, 45. See also the angel of the Annunciation with peacock's wings, painting by an unknown master, 1380-90, Wallraf-Richartz Museum, Cologne. Reproduced 114, Abb. 41.

119. Annunciation, Chapel of the Gesù, Cortona. Two Angel Musicians, detail of the Tabernacle of the Lenaioli, Museo de san Marco, Florence. Round of the Angels and the Elect, detail of the Last Judgment, Uffizzi, Florence. Coronation of the Virgin, Louvre, Paris. Angel of the sepulchre, Museo de san Marco, Florence. Supper of St. Dominic Served by the Angels, predella of the Coronation of the Virgin, Louvre, Paris. Reproduced in Régamy, Anges , nos. 28-29, 24, 25, 26-27, 30, 23, 33. Cf. the stylized eyes in Annunciation, fresco, Museo de san Marco, Florence, no. 24.

120. Angels Chanting the Gloria, fresco, chapel, Palazzo Riccardi, Florence. Reproduced ibid., nos. 65-66.

121. Tobias and the Three Archangels, Academie des beaux-arts, Florence. Reproduced ibid., no. 88.

119. Annunciation, Chapel of the Gesù, Cortona. Two Angel Musicians, detail of the Tabernacle of the Lenaioli, Museo de san Marco, Florence. Round of the Angels and the Elect, detail of the Last Judgment, Uffizzi, Florence. Coronation of the Virgin, Louvre, Paris. Angel of the sepulchre, Museo de san Marco, Florence. Supper of St. Dominic Served by the Angels, predella of the Coronation of the Virgin, Louvre, Paris. Reproduced in Régamy, Anges , nos. 28-29, 24, 25, 26-27, 30, 23, 33. Cf. the stylized eyes in Annunciation, fresco, Museo de san Marco, Florence, no. 24.

120. Angels Chanting the Gloria, fresco, chapel, Palazzo Riccardi, Florence. Reproduced ibid., nos. 65-66.

121. Tobias and the Three Archangels, Academie des beaux-arts, Florence. Reproduced ibid., no. 88.

119. Annunciation, Chapel of the Gesù, Cortona. Two Angel Musicians, detail of the Tabernacle of the Lenaioli, Museo de san Marco, Florence. Round of the Angels and the Elect, detail of the Last Judgment, Uffizzi, Florence. Coronation of the Virgin, Louvre, Paris. Angel of the sepulchre, Museo de san Marco, Florence. Supper of St. Dominic Served by the Angels, predella of the Coronation of the Virgin, Louvre, Paris. Reproduced in Régamy, Anges , nos. 28-29, 24, 25, 26-27, 30, 23, 33. Cf. the stylized eyes in Annunciation, fresco, Museo de san Marco, Florence, no. 24.

120. Angels Chanting the Gloria, fresco, chapel, Palazzo Riccardi, Florence. Reproduced ibid., nos. 65-66.

121. Tobias and the Three Archangels, Academie des beaux-arts, Florence. Reproduced ibid., no. 88.

122. Jan van Eyck, Last Judgment, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Reproduced in Hans Belting and Dagmar Eichberger, Jan van Eyck als Erzahler: Frühe Tafelbilder im Umkreis der New Yorker Doppeltafel (Worms: Werner, 1983), frontispiece.

123. Roger van der Weyden, Detail of the Last Judgment, central part of polyptych, Hospice de Beaune. Reproduced Régamy, Anges , no. 54.

124. Hugo van der Goes, Adoration of the Shepherds, Portinari altar, Uffizi, Florence. Reproduced ibid., no. 56.

125. Angel Gabriel, detail of the retable of Gardona, 15th century, Museum of Ancient Art, Barcelona. Reproduced ibid., no. 130. See also Maestro de Rubió, Annunciation, Retable of Rubió. Reproduced in Gudiol Ricart, Pintura gótica , 69, fig. 44. Angels with peacock wings hold the cloth of honor in Ramón Destorrents, St. Anne, Retable of Almudaina, 1353, Museo das Janelas Verdes, Lisbon. Reproduced ibid., 58, fig. 40.

123. Roger van der Weyden, Detail of the Last Judgment, central part of polyptych, Hospice de Beaune. Reproduced Régamy, Anges , no. 54.

124. Hugo van der Goes, Adoration of the Shepherds, Portinari altar, Uffizi, Florence. Reproduced ibid., no. 56.

125. Angel Gabriel, detail of the retable of Gardona, 15th century, Museum of Ancient Art, Barcelona. Reproduced ibid., no. 130. See also Maestro de Rubió, Annunciation, Retable of Rubió. Reproduced in Gudiol Ricart, Pintura gótica , 69, fig. 44. Angels with peacock wings hold the cloth of honor in Ramón Destorrents, St. Anne, Retable of Almudaina, 1353, Museo das Janelas Verdes, Lisbon. Reproduced ibid., 58, fig. 40.

123. Roger van der Weyden, Detail of the Last Judgment, central part of polyptych, Hospice de Beaune. Reproduced Régamy, Anges , no. 54.

124. Hugo van der Goes, Adoration of the Shepherds, Portinari altar, Uffizi, Florence. Reproduced ibid., no. 56.

125. Angel Gabriel, detail of the retable of Gardona, 15th century, Museum of Ancient Art, Barcelona. Reproduced ibid., no. 130. See also Maestro de Rubió, Annunciation, Retable of Rubió. Reproduced in Gudiol Ricart, Pintura gótica , 69, fig. 44. Angels with peacock wings hold the cloth of honor in Ramón Destorrents, St. Anne, Retable of Almudaina, 1353, Museo das Janelas Verdes, Lisbon. Reproduced ibid., 58, fig. 40.

126. Annunciation, Bernat Martorell, Llibre d'hores , 1440-50, Institut mu-

nicipal d'història, Barcelona. Reproduced in Dalmases and José i Pitarch, Història de l'art català , 3:233.

127. Perhaps Jaume Huguet, St. Michael trampling Satan, Frau Kocherthaler, Berlin. Reproduced in Rowland, Jaume Huguet , fig. 45.

128. Reproduced in Wilson, Angels , pl. 44.

129. Hieronymus Bosch, John of Patmos, c. 1480-90, Preussische Kulturbesitz, Gëmaldegalerie, Staatliche Museum, Berlin. Reproduced in Reimbold, Pfau , 115, Abb. 42; but the detail is clearer in such reproductions as Günther Heinz, Hieronymus Bosch (Vienna: Anton Schroll, 1968), Abb. 82 and detail 83; Charles de Tolnay, Hieronymus Bosch (Baden-Baden: Holle, 1965), unnumbered.

130. Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought , 328-29. The theory that the bestiaries were mnemonic is proposed in Beryl Rowland, "The Art of Memory and the Bestiary," in Beasts and Birds of the Middle Ages: The Bestiary and Its Legacy , ed. Willene B. Clark and Meradith T. McMunn (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989), 12-25.

131. Schiller, Iconography of Christian Art , 3:177-78.

132. Aristotle, Historia animalium 1, cf. 8, 9, 9.1; Ovid, Metamorphoses 13.802; Pliny, Naturalis historia 10.22.43-44; Physiologus 12. For the peacock as a symbol of pride and vanity see Reimbold, Pfau , 51-54; Beryl Rowland, Birds with Human Souls: A Guide to Bird Symbolism (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1978), 127-30; Malaxecheverría, Bestiario esculpido en Navarra , 183; Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought , 88; Evans, Animal Symbolism in Ecclesiastical Architecture , 311-12; Morton W. Bloomfield, The Seven Deadly Sins: An Introduction to the History of a Religious Concept, with Special Reference to Medieval English Literature (n.p.: Michigan State University Press, 1952), appendix I: "The Association of Animals and Sins," 245; Réau, Iconographie de l'art chrétien , 1:130; George Ferguson, Signs and Symbols in Christian Art (New York: Oxford University Press, 1959), 9.

133. Stefano Guazzo, Civil conversatione 3.

134. Hieronymus Bosch, Garden of Delights, 1500?, Prado, Madrid. Reproduced in Reimbold, Pfau , 121, Abb. 49, 50.

135. Pieter Breughel the Elder, copper engraving of Superbia. Reproduced in ibid., 52, figs. 22, 23; Abb. 41. See also Superbia in the mirror in Bosch, Superbia from the painted tableboard with the seven deadly sins, Prado, Madrid. Reproduced in Benjamin Goldberg, The Mirror and Man (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1985), 123.

134. Hieronymus Bosch, Garden of Delights, 1500?, Prado, Madrid. Reproduced in Reimbold, Pfau , 121, Abb. 49, 50.

135. Pieter Breughel the Elder, copper engraving of Superbia. Reproduced in ibid., 52, figs. 22, 23; Abb. 41. See also Superbia in the mirror in Bosch, Superbia from the painted tableboard with the seven deadly sins, Prado, Madrid. Reproduced in Benjamin Goldberg, The Mirror and Man (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1985), 123.

136. Herbert Grabes, The Mutable Glass: Mirror-Imagery in Titles and Texts of the Middle Ages and English Renaissance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 153-58.

137. Isabel Mateo Gómez, Temas profanas en la escultura gótica española: Las sillerías de coro (Madrid: Consejo superior de investigaciones científicas, Instituto Diego Velásquez, 1979), 381-82. For the use of the peacock in the later emblem books see Emblemata , pp. 808-11.

138. Aldrovandi, Orinthologiae 1-3. See also such historical volumes as Jerome Cardano, De subtilitate , and Konrad Gesner, Historia animalium 3; and for a modern survey, Gould, Mythical Monsters , with classical references, 182-

92, classical and medieval dragons, 192-211, and references contemporary with Loyola, 202-4. Aldrovandi's etchings are reproduced, 233, figs. 51 and 52.

139. Bloomfield, Seven Deadly Sins , 138. For additional examples see Ruth Mellinkoff, The Devil at Isenheim: Reflections of Popular Belief in Grünewald's Altarpiece , Califronia Studies in the History of Art, Discovery, 1 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1988), 26. The identification of the capital vices with animals became systematic in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries according to Bloomfield, Seven Deadly Sins , 150-51. See also Mireille Vincent-Cassy, "Les animaux et les péchés capitaux: De la symbolique à l'emblematique," in Le monde animal et ses représentations au moyen-âge (XIe-XVe siècles ), Actes du XVème congrès de la Société des historiens médiévistes de l'enseignement supérieur public, Toulouse, 25-26 mai 1984, Travaux de l'Université de Toulouse-le Mirail, 31 (Toulouse: Université de Toulouse-le Mirail, 1985), 121-32.

140. Reproduced in Arthur M. Hind, Early Italian Engraving: A Critical Catalogue with Complete Reproduction of All the Prints Described , 7 vols. (New York: M. Knoedler, 1938), 4:pl. 397. Cited by Bloomfield, Seven Deadly Sins , 245.

141. Manuscript, Metten (Bavaria), 1414, with illustrations of strong Bohemian influence. Munich, Clm. Cod. lat. 8201, fol. 95r. Fritz Saxl, "A Spiritual Encyclopedia of the Later Middle Ages," Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 5 (1941):126-27. Reproduced fig. 31a, cf. pl. 31c; Angus Wilson et al., The Seven Deadly Sins (London: Sunday Times, 1962), title page.

142. Guillaume de Deguileville, Pèlerinage de vie humaine 14325-35.

143. Cited in Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought , 371. See also Alan J. Fletcher, "The Hideous Feet of Landland's Peacock," Notes and Queries 235 (1991):18-20.

144. Illustrations with woodcuts in Josse Bade's edition of La nef des folles--Stultiferae naves , cited by Carl Nordenfolk, "The Five Senses in Late Medieval and Renaissance Art," Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 48 (1985):12.T.

145. Cited in Bloomfield, Seven Deadly Sins , 245.

146. Samuel Chew, The Pilgrimage of Life (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1962), 251-52, citing its reproduction in René Fülöp-Miller, The Power and Secret of the Jesuits , trans. F. S. Flint and D. F. Tait (London: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1930), pl. 8. The description of the engraving is mine, since the peacock has been overlooked. For peacocks and vainglory see also Chew, Pilgrimage of Life , 82-83, 93, 95-98.

147. Bloomfield, Seven Deadly Sins , 44-45, 59, 60-61, 69-72, 79, 85-87. He speculates that the Jesuit preference for the saligia formula is traceable to a Spanish predilection, perhaps from great interest in canon law, for the Ostiensic (after Henry of Ostia) rather than Gregorian sequence in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, 399 n. 142. See Arthur Watson, " Saligia," Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 10 (1947):148-50. See also Wenzel, "The Seven Deadly Sins: Some Problems of Research," Speculum 43 (1968):122.

148. Exercitia spiritualia , pp. 312, 314-16.

149. Bloomfield, Seven Deadly Sins , 104, 124. The encyclopedist Vincent of Beauvais in his Speculum naturale listed inanis gloria first, 126.

150. See Pero López de Ayala, Rimado de palacio , stanzas 63-124; also E. B. Strong, "The Rimado de palacio : Lopez de Ayala's Rimed Confession," Hispanic Review 37 (1969):439-51.

151. Bloomfield, Seven Deadly Sins , 139-40; Eliezer Oyola, Los pecados capitales en la literatura medieval española (Barcelona: Puvill, 1979).

152. Gonzalo de Berceo, Libro de Alixandre , 2334-44, 2329-30, 2345-2411, with vainglory, whose exemplar is Zozimas, at 2395-2404.

153. Margherita Morreale, "Los catalogos de virtudes y vicios en las biblias romanceadas de la edad media," Nueva revista de filología hispánica 12 (1958):149-59.

154. Juan Ruiz, Libro de buen amor 217-387, with 276-85 for envy of the peacock and 304-10 for vainglory paired with wrath. See also Félix Lecoy, Recherches sur le "Libro de buen amor" de Juan Ruiz, archiprêtre de Hita (Paris: Droz, 1938), 172-86; Robert Ricard, "Les péchés capitaux dans le Libro de buen amor," Les lettres romanes 20 (1966):5-37; Ian Michael, "The Function of the Popular Tale in the Libro de buen amor ," in "Libro de buen amor" Studies , ed. G. B. Gybbon-Monypenny (London: Tamesis, 1970), 177-218.

155. Michael, "Function of the Popular Tale," 198. For the type see Stith Thompson, Motif Index of Folk-Literature , rev. ed., 6 vols. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1955-58), J951.2.

156. Juan de Mena, Coplas de los siete pecados mortales 19-20, 35, 51-58. See also for vainglory Coplas fechas por Fernan Perez de Guzman de vicios e virtudes 1299-1322, in Cancionero de Juan Fernandez de Ixar .

157. Evagrius Ponticus, Logos praktikos prol. 3, 13, 30-32.

158. Augustine, In Epistolam Joannis ad Parthos tractatus 8.9; Homilies on the Gospel according to St. John, and His First Epistles , trans. H. Browne, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1848), 2:1198. De sermone Domini in monte 2.12.41; Commentary on the Lord's Sermon on the Mount with Seventeen Related Sermons , trans. Denis J. Kavanagh (New York: Fathers of the Church, 1951), 149.

159. Françoise Joukovsky-Micha, "La notion de vaine gloire de Simund de Freine à Martin le Franc," Romania 89 (1968):1, 3, 4, 14-21.

160. The Florentine Fior di Virtu of 1491 1, 2, 30; trans. Nicholas Fersin (Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 1953), 81, 82; and see vii, xvi-xxviii. Woodcut, Fiore di virtù , 15th century, Venice. Reproduced also in Alessandro Tagliolini, Storia del giardino italiano: Gli artisti, l'invenzione, le forme dall'antichità al XIX secolo (Florence: Usher, 1988), 35, fig. 13. See also M. Casella, "La versione catalana del Fiore di virtù," Revista delle biblioteche e degli archivi 31 (1920):1-10.

161. William J. Bouwsma, John Calvin (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), 61, citing Calvin, Commentariorum 2 Cor. 10:12.

162. Pierre de Labriolle, "Le 'démon de midi,'" Bulletin Du Cange 9 (1934):46-54.

163. Rudolph Arbesmann, "The Daemonium meridianum and Greek and Latin Patristic Exegesis," Traditio 14 (1958):20-23, 25-26, citing Augustine, Enarrationes in psalmos 90, and Jerome, Tractatus sive homiliae in psalmos .

164. Richard of St. Victor, Benjamin minor 81.

165. Bernard of Clairvaux, Sermones super Cantica canticorum 33.6.13; "In Circumcisione Domini, Sermo" 3.1. For the cultural dissemination of this exegesis see Kathleen M. Ashley, "The Specter of Bernard's Noonday Demon in Medieval Drama," American Benedictine Review 30 (1979):205-21.

166. Bloomfield, Seven Deadly Sins , 81, with references to Hilton, Rolle, and the author of the Cloud .

167. Walter Hilton, The Scale of Perfection 26; Qui habitat 6.

168. "A Treatise of Discrescyon of Spirites" and "A Pistle of Discrecioun of Stirrings," pp. 85-86, 70.

169. Richard Rolle, Incendium amoris 14; The Fire of Love , trans. G. C. Heseltine (London: Burns Oates & Washbourne, 1935), 60.

170. Jean Gerson, De distinctione verarum revelationum a falsis , p. 53.

171. Marcus of Orvieto, "De pavo" 6, Liber de moralitatibus . Transcribed in Friedman, "Peacocks and Preachers: Analytic Technique in Marcus of Orvieto's Liber de moralitatibus , Vatican lat. MS 5935," in Beasts and Birds of the Middle Ages , ed. Clark and McMunn, 192.

172. Mellinkoff, Devil at Isenheim , 27, 19-31, although the argument about omniscience, and not merely pride, is mine. Reproduced Albrecht Dürer, Fall of Man, engraving, 1504, and Fall of Man, woodcut, 1511, 39, figs. 14-17. Hans Baldung Grien, Fall of Man, woodcut, c. 1515, 40, figs. 18-19. Follower of Michael Coxie, Fall of Man, painting, 16th century, Wallraf-Richartz Museum, Cologne, 40-41, figs. 20-21. Many reproductions of Grünewald's peacock angel, passim. The identification of this angel as the devil was also made independently through the research for this chapter, "The Flying Serpent," several years before the publication of Mellinkoff's monograph.

173. Acta 3.30.

174. See Nordenfalk, "Five Senses," 1-22; and for the emblem of the sense of sight as a human head before a mirror, Chew, Pilgrimage of Life , 192-94.

175. James G. Frazer, The Golden Bough , part 2, Taboo and the Perils of the Soul (London: Macmillan, 1913), 92-96; Ninck, Bedeutung des Wassers , 50-51, 70-71.

176. Plutarch, De defectu oraculorum 432d, 433e; Plutarch's Moralia , trans. Frank Cole Babbitt (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1959), 5:469, 471.

177. Ovid, Metamorphoses 3.339-510.

178. For Narcissus in Guillaume de Lorris, Roman de la rose see Larry C. Hillman, "Another Look into the Mirror Perilous: The Role of the Crystals in the Roman de la rose ," Romania 101 (1980):225-38; Jean Rychner, "Le mythe de la fontaine de Narcisse dans le Roman de la rose de Guillaume de Lorris," in Y. Bonnefoy et al., Le lieu et la formule: Hommage à Marc Eigeldinger (Neuchâtel: Baconnière, 1978), 33-46; Patricia J. Eberle, "The Lovers' Glass: Nature's Discourse on Optics and the Optical Design of the Romance of the Rose ," University of Toronto Quarterly 46 (1976-77):241-62; Thomas D. Hill, "Narcissus, Pygmalion, and the Castration of Saturn: Two Mythographical Themes in the Roman de la rose ," Studies in Philology 71 (1974):404-26; Daniel Poirion, "Narcisse et Pygmalion dans le Roman de la rose ,'' in Essays in Honor of

Louis Francis Solano , ed. Raymond J. Cormier and Urban T. Holmes, Studies in the Romance Languages and Literatures, 92 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1970), 153-65; Erich Köhler, "Narcisse, la fontaine d'amour, et Guillaume de Lorris," in L'Humanisme médiéval dans les littératures romanes du XIIe au XIVe siècles , ed. A. Fourrier (Paris: C. Klincksieck, 1964), 147-66; Jean Frappier, "Variations sur le thème du miroir, de Bernard de Ventadour à Maurice Scève," Cahiers de l'Association internationale des études françaises 11 (1959):134-58; and see also Sarah Kay, "Love in a Mirror: An Aspect of the Imagery of Bernart de Ventadorn," Medium aevum 52 (1983):272-85.

179. Louise Vinge, The Narcissus Theme in Western European Literature up to the Early Nineteenth Century , trans. Robert Dewsnap et al. (Lund: Gleerups, 1967), 1-178; Frederick Goldin, The Mirror of Narcissus in the Courtly Love Lyric (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1967); Kenneth J. Knoespel, Narcissus and the Invention of Personal History (New York: Garland, 1985); and for Narcissus in Spain, José Marío, Fábulas mitológicas en España (Madrid: Espasa-Colpe, 1952), 884-85, and in general, Rudolph Schevill, Ovid and the Renasence in Spain , University of California Publications in Modern Philology, 4 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1913).

180. Xenophon, Memorabilia 2.1.22; Memorabilia , trans. E. C. Marchant in Xenophon , 7 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968), 4:95.

181. Ruiz, Libro de buen amor 1486.

182. Erasmus, De civilitate 2, in Opera omnia (Leiden), 1:1037.

183. Ephemeris , p. 122.

184. For autofascination see S. Seligmann, Der Böse Blick und Verwandtes: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Aberglaubens aller Zeitenund Völker , 2 vols. (Berlin: Hermann Boresdorf, 1910), 1:178-88.

185. For the double in the eye of the other see Eugène Monseur, "L'Ame pupilline," Revue de l'histoire des religions 51 (1905):1-23; and for the reflections of windows on eyeballs, Jan Bialostocki, "The Eye and the Window: Realism and Symbolism of Light-Reflections in the Art of Albrecht Dürer and His Predecessors," in Festschrift für Gert von der Osten (Cologne: DuMont Schauberg, 1970), 159-76. For Dürer's self-portraits in the mirror see John Pope Hennessy, The Portrait in the Renaissance , Bollingen Series, 35-12 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1979), 126-29.

186. Leonardo da Vinci, Paris, Institut de France, MS A, fol. 37b, in Literary Works , 1:134.

187. For the motif see Robert Baldwin, "'Gates Pure and Shining and Serene': Mutual Gazing as an Amatory Motif in Western Literature and Art," Renaissance and Reformation 10 (1986):23-48; for the eyes and love see also M. B. Ogle, "The Classical Origin and Tradition of Literary Conceits," American Journal of Philology 34 (1913):135-40.

188. Grabes, Mutable Glass , 119.

189. J. H. Waszink, " Pompa diaboli ," Vigiliae christianae 1 (1947):13-41; Hugo Rahner, " Pompa diaboli : Ein Beitrag zur Bedeutungsgeschichte des Wortes pompe-pompa in der urchistlichen Taufliturgie," Zeitschrift für Katholische Theologie 55 (1931):239-73, citing at 272 Théodolphe d'Orleans, De ordine baptismi 1.

190. Christian, Apparitions in Late Medieval and Renaissance Spain (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981), 221.

191. See Bloomfield, Seven Deadly Sins , 167-68, 189, 224.

192. Grabes, Mutable Glass , 75-76.

193. Ferguson, Signs and Symbols , 22.

194. Les lapidaires français du moyen âge des XIIe, XIIIe, et XIVe siècles , 52, 95-96, 134; Le lapidaire du quatorzieme siècle , 3-4; Anglo-Norman Lapidaries , 49, 175.

195. Petrarch, Africa 3.101-5.

196. Roman de la rose 19931-20026.

197. See J. S. Ackerman, "Early Renaissance Color Theory and Practice," in Studies in Italian Art and Architecture , ed. Henry A. Milton, Studies in Italian Art History, 1 (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1980), 21. Piero della Francesca, Stigmatization of St. Francis, Predella from altarpiece, 1460s?, Gallery, Perugia, reproduced fig. 3. The seraph wears a loincloth of peacock's feathers.

198. Réau, Iconographie de l'art chrétien , 2-2:476.

199. Schiller, Iconography of Christian Art , 2:119, figs. 367, 397, 398, 406, 401, 400.

200. Augustine, Sermo 234; see also In epistolam Iohannis ad Parthos 119.2. For his professorial chair in heaven see ibid. 3.13; Bernard of Clairvaux, Sermones super Cantica canticorum 19.2.4. For the school of Christ see Adalbert de Vogüé, "L'École du Christ: Des disciples de Jésus au monastère du Maître et de Benoît," Collectanea cisterciensia 46 (1984):3-12. For Christ as the interior teacher in the school of the breast see Augustine, De magistro 12.40; cf. 14.46; Confessiones 9.9.21; cf. 11.3.5.

199. Schiller, Iconography of Christian Art , 2:119, figs. 367, 397, 398, 406, 401, 400.

200. Augustine, Sermo 234; see also In epistolam Iohannis ad Parthos 119.2. For his professorial chair in heaven see ibid. 3.13; Bernard of Clairvaux, Sermones super Cantica canticorum 19.2.4. For the school of Christ see Adalbert de Vogüé, "L'École du Christ: Des disciples de Jésus au monastère du Maître et de Benoît," Collectanea cisterciensia 46 (1984):3-12. For Christ as the interior teacher in the school of the breast see Augustine, De magistro 12.40; cf. 14.46; Confessiones 9.9.21; cf. 11.3.5.

201. Augustine, Ennarationes in psalmos (1)33.9; cf. 33.7; (2)33.2; 149.8; 147.23.

202. Jacopone da Todi, Laude 27.42-44; The Lauds , trans. Serge and Elizabeth Hughes (New York: Paulist, 1982), 141.

203. Angela of Foligno, Liber de vere fidelium experientia 130, 174.

204. Patrick S. Diehl, The Medieval European Religious Lyric: An "Ars poetica" (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985), 216.

205. Mary Caroline Spalding, The Middle English Charters of Christ , Bryn Mawr College Monographs, 15 (Bryn Mawr. Pa.: Bryn Mawr College Press, 1914), xliiff.

206. John Whiterig, "Meditation Addressed to Christ Crucified" 53, cited by Richard Kieckhefer, Unquiet Souls: Fourteenth-Century Saints and Their Religious Milieu (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), 103. See also his reference to Richard Rolle's meditation on the body of the crucified as a book with red ink, 104.

207. Henry Suso, Büchlein der ewigen Weisheit 3, 14, 7; Little Book of Eternal Wisdom and Little Book of Truth , trans. James M. Clark (London: Faber & Faber, 1953), 56, 102, 76.

208. Domenico Cavalca, Mirall de la creu 8, 13, 16, 18, 25, 36; prol., pp. 11-12.

209. Catherine of Siena, Lettere 11, 25, 101, 177, 235, 242; 318 trans. in Johannes Jorgensen, Saint Catherine of Siena , trans. Ingebord Lund (London:

Longmans, Green, 1939), 165; Lettere 316 trans. in I, Catherine, Selected Writings of St Catherine of Siena , trans. Kenelm Foster and MaryJohn Ronayne (London: Collins, 1980), 203; Lettere 69. See also Il Dialogo della divina Provvidenza, ovvero Libro della divina dottrina 77, 145, 154. For continuation of the topic in the sixteenth century see Vittoria Colonna's poetic prayer that Christ's nails become her quills, his blood her ink, and his body her writing paper so that she might inscribe his suffering in herself interiorly, Rime spirituali disperse 1.

210. Catherine of Siena, Lettere 226; trans. Foster and Ronayne, 171.

211. Legenda 1.10.6-10, in Acta sanctorum , 3:862-967; The Life of Catherine of Siena by Raymond of Capua , trans. Conleth Kearns (Wilmington, Del.: Michael Glazier, 1980), 105. For the hagiographical topic of the illiterate woman who can miraculously read scripture by sight see Vita Theclae 45.8, cited by Peter R. L. Brown, The Body and Society: Men, Women, and Sexual Renunciation in Early Christianity , Lectures on the History of Religions, n.s. 13 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 277.

212. The locus classicus is Gregory the Great, Registrum epistularum 9.209; 11.10.

213. Erasmus, Antibarbari , in Opera omnia (Amsterdam), 1-1:130; The Antibarbari , trans. Margaret Mann Phillips, in The Collected Works of Erasmus (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1978), 23:113.

214. Exercitia spiritualia , p. 410.

215. See Eugene F. Rice, Jr., Saint Jerome in the Renaissance (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985), 49-83, 19, 46, 147. See since Rosemarie Muliahy, "Federico Zuccaro and Philip II: The Reliquary Altars for the Basilica of San Lorenzo de El Escorial," Burlington Magazine 129 (1987):502-9.

216. Rice, Saint Jerome in the Renaissance , 55-58, and now Stephen F. Ostrow, "The Sistine Chapel at S. Maria Maggiore: Sixtus V and the Art of the Counter Reformation," Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1987, 11, 13; and on the Presepio idem, Art and Spirituality in Counter-Reformation Rome: The Sistine and Pauline Chapels in S. Maria Maggiore (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 23-62.

217. Epistolae 19.

218. Rice, Saint Jerome in the Renaissance , 57.

219. Howard Hibbard, " Ut picturae sermones : The First Painted Decorations of the Gesù," in Baroque Art: The Jesuit Contribution , ed. Rudolf Wittkower and Irma B. Jaffe (New York: Fordham University Press, 1976), 35.

220. Rice, St. Jerome in the Renaissance , 14, 17.

221. For Jerome penitent in the wilderness before a crucifix see ibid., 75-83. For numerous examples of Jerome with the cross and the book see Herbert Friedmann, A Bestiary for Saint Jerome: Animal Symbolism in European Religious Art (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1980), figs. 29, 30, 32, 35, 36, 37, 40, 42, 44, 45, 50, 59, 60, 64, 69, 70, 76, 77, 89, 102, 108, 131, 145, 158, 160, 167, 170, 172, 175, 176, 178, 185, 187, and for the cross and the book in his study, figs. 2, 17, 20, 83, 88, 91, 103, 104, 119, and 21 (pietà). See also School of Botticelli, St. Jerome in Penitence, Hermitage, Leningrad; and

a seventeenth-century example in which a manuscript is open directly behind the crucifix, Guercino, St. Jerome Hearing the Trumpet of the Last Judgment, S. Girolamo, Rimini. Reproduced in Bernhard Ridderbos, Saint and Symbol: Images of Saint Jerome in Early Italian Art (Groningen: Bouma, 1984), 80, fig. 37; 81, fig. 39; 72, fig. 33. Piero della Francesca, St. Jerome and a Donor, Galleria dell'accademia, Venice. Reproduced in Kenneth Clark, Piero della Francesca: Complete Edition , 2d rev. ed. (London: Phaidon, 1969), pl. 14.

220. Rice, St. Jerome in the Renaissance , 14, 17.

221. For Jerome penitent in the wilderness before a crucifix see ibid., 75-83. For numerous examples of Jerome with the cross and the book see Herbert Friedmann, A Bestiary for Saint Jerome: Animal Symbolism in European Religious Art (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1980), figs. 29, 30, 32, 35, 36, 37, 40, 42, 44, 45, 50, 59, 60, 64, 69, 70, 76, 77, 89, 102, 108, 131, 145, 158, 160, 167, 170, 172, 175, 176, 178, 185, 187, and for the cross and the book in his study, figs. 2, 17, 20, 83, 88, 91, 103, 104, 119, and 21 (pietà). See also School of Botticelli, St. Jerome in Penitence, Hermitage, Leningrad; and

a seventeenth-century example in which a manuscript is open directly behind the crucifix, Guercino, St. Jerome Hearing the Trumpet of the Last Judgment, S. Girolamo, Rimini. Reproduced in Bernhard Ridderbos, Saint and Symbol: Images of Saint Jerome in Early Italian Art (Groningen: Bouma, 1984), 80, fig. 37; 81, fig. 39; 72, fig. 33. Piero della Francesca, St. Jerome and a Donor, Galleria dell'accademia, Venice. Reproduced in Kenneth Clark, Piero della Francesca: Complete Edition , 2d rev. ed. (London: Phaidon, 1969), pl. 14.

222. Maestro of the Seo of Urgel, Saint Jerome praying before crucifix, Museo de Barcelona. Reproduced in Gudiol Ricart, Pintura gótica , 293, fig. 250.

223. See Paolo Veronese, Saint Jerome in the Wilderness, Samuel H. Kress Collection, National Gallery, Washington, D.C. Reproduced in Friedmann, Bestiary for Saint Jerome , 81, fig. 60.

224. Antonello da Messina, Saint Jerome in His Study, National Gallery, London; Gentile Bellini, Saint Jerome in Penitence, Toledo Museum of Art Toledo, Ohio; and Bartolomeo Montagna, Saint Jerome in Meditation, Accademia Carrara, Bergamo; Basaiti school, Saint Jerome in Penitence, Musée Hongrois des Beaux-Arts, Budapest. Reproduced in ibid., 158, fig. 119; 52, fig. 26, and detail of peacock fig. 27; 61, fig. 37; 206, fig. 145. Friedmann also mentions a peacock in a triptych by Jerome Patinir, Saint Jerome in the Wilderness, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 284. For the painting by Messina see also Dunkerton et al., Giotto to Dürer , 319, pl. 41.

223. See Paolo Veronese, Saint Jerome in the Wilderness, Samuel H. Kress Collection, National Gallery, Washington, D.C. Reproduced in Friedmann, Bestiary for Saint Jerome , 81, fig. 60.

224. Antonello da Messina, Saint Jerome in His Study, National Gallery, London; Gentile Bellini, Saint Jerome in Penitence, Toledo Museum of Art Toledo, Ohio; and Bartolomeo Montagna, Saint Jerome in Meditation, Accademia Carrara, Bergamo; Basaiti school, Saint Jerome in Penitence, Musée Hongrois des Beaux-Arts, Budapest. Reproduced in ibid., 158, fig. 119; 52, fig. 26, and detail of peacock fig. 27; 61, fig. 37; 206, fig. 145. Friedmann also mentions a peacock in a triptych by Jerome Patinir, Saint Jerome in the Wilderness, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 284. For the painting by Messina see also Dunkerton et al., Giotto to Dürer , 319, pl. 41.

225. Acta 1.5.

226. Moshe Barasch, Light and Color in the Italian Renaissance Theory of Art (New York: New York University Press, 1978), 53, 55, 64.

227. Plato, Respublica 7.532b; The Dialogues of Plato , trans. Benjamin Jowett, 2 vols. (New York: Random House, 1937), 1:791, 792.

228. Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 6.2.32.

229. Plato, Respublica 505a; Plotinus, Enneads 6.36; 4.3.9.

230. Hans-Georg Gadamer, The Idea of the Good in Platonic-Aristotelian Philosophy , trans. P. Christopher Smith (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1986), 20, 23, 35, 66, 121, 136.

231. See Plato, Phaedo 99d-100a, cited by Grabes, Mutable Glass , 72.

232. Heath Dillard, Daughters of the Reconquest: Women in Castillian Town Society, 1100-1300 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 150-51.

233. See Jeanne Battesti-Pelegrin, "Eaux douces, eaux amères dans la lyrique hispanique médiévale traditionelle," in L'Eau au moyen âge (Marseille: Jeanne Laffitte, 1985), 48-51, citing Jose María Alín, El cancionero español de tipo tradicional (Madrid: Taurus, 1968), 208, 226, 461.

234. Maria Rosa Lida de Malkiel, Juan de Mena: Poeta del prerenacimiento español (Mexico: Colegio de Mexico, 1950), 307-8; see also Alicia C. de Ferraresi, " Locus amoenus y vergel visionario en Razón de amor," Hispanic Review 42 (1974):173-83.

235. Joseph E. Gillet, "El mediodía y el demonio meridiano en España," Nueva rivista di filologia hispanica 7 (1953):307-15.

236. See Historia de la linda Melosina and Jean d'Arras, Mélusine . Cf. Walter Map, De nugis curialium 4.11.

237. Micer Francisco Imperial, El dezir a las syete virtudes 17.51-52, 301-52. For their interpretation as heresies see ARcher Woodford, "Edición crítica del Dezir a las syete virtudes," Nueva revista de filología hispánica 8 (1954):285-89nn.; idem, "Francisco Imperial's Dantesque Dezir a las syete virtudes : A Study of Certain Aspects of the Poem," Italica 27 (1950):88-100. See also Dorothy Clotelle Clark, "The Passage on Sins in the Decir a las siete virtudes," Studies in Philology 59 (1962):18-30. The identification of the flying serpents as basilisks, because they have crowns, is mine.

238. See Lida de Malkiel, Idea de la fama , 261-65.

239. Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo, Amadís de Gaula 2.56; cf. 2.48; Amadis of Gaul: Books I and II , trans. Edwin B. Place and Herbert C. Behm (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1974), 544.

240. Ibid.

239. Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo, Amadís de Gaula 2.56; cf. 2.48; Amadis of Gaul: Books I and II , trans. Edwin B. Place and Herbert C. Behm (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1974), 544.

240. Ibid.

241. Acta 3.30.

242. Grabes, Mutable Glass , 39, 48-60, 137-39. Artists also employed mirrors in their workshops as aids. See Heinrich Schwarz, "The Mirror of the Artist and the Mirror of the Devout: Observations on Some Paintings, Drawings, and Prints of the Fifteenth Century," in Studies in the History of Art Dedicated to William E. Suida on his Eightieth Birthday (London: Phaidon for the Samuel H. Kress Foundation, 1959), 90-100; Bialostocki, "Man and Mirror in Painting: Reality and Transience," in Studies in Late Medieval and Renaissance Painting in Honor of Millard Meiss , ed. Irving Lavin and John Plummer, 2 vols. (New York: New York University Press, 1977), 1:61-72. For the iconography of mirrors see also François Garnier, Le langage de l'image au moyen âge: Signification et symbolique , 2 vols. (Paris: Léopard d'or, 1982-89), 2:223-28.

243. Shakespeare, King Richard II , act 4, scene 1, cited by Goldberg, Mirror and Man , 145; Grabes, Mutable Glass , 111, 214-16. See also Peter Ure, "The Looking-Glass of Richard II," Philological Quarterly 34 (1955):219-24.

244. Aristotle, Historia animalium 488b, cited by Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought , 88; Historia animalium , trans. A. L. Peck, 2 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965-70), 1:19.

245. Augustine, De Genesi ad litteram 12.15.52.

246. Richart de Fournival, Li bestiaires d'amours , p. 48. See also for amorous vigilance the tableau attributed to Jan Van Eyck, The Sorcery of Love, tableau, Museum of Leipzig. Reproduced in Villeneuve with Chamarat, Beauté du diable , 145.

247. Katzenellenbogen, Allegories of the Virtues and Vices , 55.

248. Ibid., 56.

247. Katzenellenbogen, Allegories of the Virtues and Vices , 55.

248. Ibid., 56.

249. Michel Colombe, Prudence at the mirror, Tombeau de Nantes. Hans Baldung Grien, Munich. Reproduced in Baltrusaitis, Le miroir: Essai sur une légende scientifique (Paris: Elmayan and le Seuil for Centre national des lettres, 1978), 8, fig. 2; 13, fig. 4. For prudence with the mirror see also Grabes, Mutable Glass , 158-60.

250. See Chew, Pilgrimage of Life , 97; Grabes, Mutable Glass , 153-58.

251. Bestaris , B 24. Cf. Il bestiario toscano 23. For background see Michel Salvat, "Notes sur les bestiaire catalans," in Epopée animale, fable, fabliau , Actes du IVe colloque de la Société internationale renardienne, Evreux, 7-11

septembre 1981, ed. Gabriel Bianciotto and Salvat, Publications de l'Université de Rouen, 83 (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1984), 499-508.

252. Grabes, Mutable Glass , 76, citing Dionysius the Areopagite [pseud.], Hierarchia caelestia 3.2; De divinis nominibus 4.2.2 (correction); and other medieval writings; Dante, Purgatorio 15.16-24; Paradiso 29.142-44.

253. For the eye of the peacock as a mirror having the ambivalence of viewer and viewed see Gaston Bachelard, L'Eau et les rêves: Essai sur l'imagination de la matière (Paris: José Corti, 1942), 42-44. This is in the context of the pool of Narcissus, 31-45. Although the sources Bachelard cites are later than Loyola, their affinity is significant. For mirrors as deceptive see Grabes, Mutable Glass , 131-32.

254. Reimbold, Pfau , 26-27, 45-47, 54-57. See also Campbell, Creative Mythology , 501-3. For the mythology see also Julius Schwabe, "Lebenswasser der Pfau, zwei Symbole der Wiedergeburt," Symbolon: Jabrbuch für Symbol-forschung 1 (1959):138-72. For the evil eye see Tobin Siebers, The Mirror of Medusa (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1983); Matthew W. Dickie, "Heliodorus and Plutarch on the Evil Eye," Classical Philology 86 (1991):17-29.

255. See Barbara Nolan, The Gothic Visionary Perspective (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1977), 141.

256. Augustine, De genesi contra Manichaeos 1.23.40.

257. Augustine, In epistolam Iohannis ad Parthos 2.13; Enarrationes in psalmos 9.8.

258. Augustine, Confessiones 1.10.16; 6.8.13.

259. Augustine, Enarrationes in psalmos 135.20; Expositions on the Book of Psalms , trans. Wilkins, 6:143.

260. Augustine, De libero arbitrio 3.9.28.

261. Augustine, De civitate Dei 14.28.

262. See David Summers, " Maniera and Movement: The figura serpentinata," Art Quarterly 35 (1972):269-301; idem, " Contrapposto : Style and Meaning in Renaissance Art," Art Bulletin 59 (1977):336-61, citing Aristotle, Rhetorica 1410a; The "Art" of Rhetoric , trans. John Henry Freese (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1926), 393; Leonardo da Vinci, Trattato della pintura 271; Treatise on Painting (Codex urbinas latinus 1270) , trans. Amos Philip McMahon (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1956), 348.

263. See Michael Baxandall, Painting and Experience in Fifteenth-Century Italy: A Primer in the Social History of Pictorial Style , 2d ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), 1-27. Blue for the Virgin's drapery was not a liturgical, but a humanist, convention. Barasch, "Renaissance Color Conventions: Liturgy, Humanism, Workshops," in idem, " Imago homininis": Studies in the Language of Art (Vienna: IRSA, 1991), 176-77; rpt. from Color and Technique in Renaissance Painting: Italy and the North , ed. Marcia B. Hall (New York: n.p., 1987), 135-50.

264. Acta 3.30.

265. Barasch, Light and Color , 20, citing Alberti, Della pittura , p. 64; Barasch, Light and Color , 64, citing in n. 86 from da Vinci many references. For color see also Martin Kemp, The Science of Art: Optical Themes in Western Art

from Brunelleschi to Seurat (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1990), 264-74; and for technical discussion, Hall, Color and Meaning: Practice and Theory in Renaissance Painting (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).

266. Acta 3.29. For white as a ritual color for light and splendor see Barasch, "Renaissance Color Conventions," 174.

267. De coloribus 2.792a28-30; 3.793a15-16; 3.793b8-12. See H. B. Gottschalk, "The De coloribus and Its Author," Hermes 92 (1964):59-85. References to De coloribus and De rerum natura are cited in David E. Hahm, "Early Hellenistic Theories of Vision and the Perception of Colour," in Studies in Perception: Interrelations in the History of Philosophy and Science , ed. Peter K. Maehammer and Robert G. Turnbull (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1978), 83. For the tradition about feathers see also H. Guerlac, "Can There Be Colors in the Dark? Physical Color Theory before Newton," Journal of the History of Ideas 47 (1986):3-20.

268. Lucretius, De rerum natura 2.799-809; De rerum natura , trans. W. H. D. Rouse, rev. Martin Ferguson Smith (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1975), 159.

269. Mary Luella Trowbridge, Philological Studies in Ancient Glass , University of Illinois Studies in Language and Literature, 13 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1928), 16-17.

270. Kemp, Science of Art , 269.

271. Stella Mary Newton, The Dress of the Venetians, 1495-1525 , Pasold Studies in Textile History, 7 (Brookfield, Vt.: Scolar, 1988), 19-20, 178.

272. See Jacqueline Herald, Renaissance Dress in Italy, 1400-1500 , History of Dress, 2 (New Jersey: Humanities, 1981), 73-75, without reference to peacocks. The comparison of shot fabrics to the peacock's feathers is mentioned by John Gage, Colour and Culture: The Practice and Meaning from Antiquity to Abstraction (London: Thames & Hudson, 1993), 140. He also discusses the peacock and alchemy, since its tail equaled all colors, 139-52.

273. Gage, "Color in Western Art: An Issue?" Art Bulletin 72 (1990):533.

274. Guazzo, Civil conversatione 2; Alessandro Piccolomini, Dialogo de la bella creanza de le donne , 20.

275. See Samuel Y. Edgerton, Jr., "Alberti's Colour Theory: A Medieval Bottle without Renaissance Wine," Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 32 (1969):128-29.

276. Gage, "Color in Western Art," 533 n. 145.

277. Lucretius, De rerum natura 2.826-33.

278. Ackerman, "On Early Renaissance Color Theory and Practice," 13-14.

279. Summers, The Judgment of Sense: Renaissance Naturalism and the Rise of Aesthetics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 46.

280. Pseudo-Longinus, De sublimitate 17.3.

281. Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism 1.91-92; Outlines of Pyrrhonism , trans. R. G. Bury (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1933), 120.

282. For perspective see Kemp, Science of Art , 9-98; Michael Kubovy, The Psychology of Perspective and Renaissance Art (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-

versity Press, 1986); Edgerton, The Renaissance Rediscovery of Linear Perspective (New York: Basic Books, 1975); James Elkins, "Renaissance Perspectives," Journal of the History of Ideas 53 (1992):209-29.

283. Leonardo da Vinci, Windsor, Royal Library, MS W, fol. 19150a, in Literary Works , 1:288.

284. Peter of Limoges, Liber de oculo morali , fols. Aiiiv, Bvii, cited by Baxandall, Painting and Experience , 104-5, with text at 173.

285. Summers, " Maniera and Movement," 269-301.

286. Katherine Morris Lester and Bess Viola Oerke, Accessories of Dress (Peoria, Ill.: Chas. A. Bennett, 1954), 390-91.

287. Deguileville, Pèlerinage de vie humaine 6687-6723, cited by Susan K. Hagen, Allegorical Remembrance: A Study of "The Pilgrimage of the Life of Man" as a Medieval Treatise on Seeing and Remembering (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1990), 70-71.

288. Schwarz, "Mirrors," 100-5, without the above example. His speculation about the use of mirrors by pilgrims seems plausible. Relics were compared with mirrors in Gregory of Nyssa's dream of his sister as precious relic that flashed in his eyes like a mirror reflecting sunlight, Vita Macrinae 15.12-22, cited by Brown, Body and Society , 300; and in Victricius of Rouen, De laudes sanctorum , on relics shining more brightly than the sun with a single invisible light to the universal faithful, cited by Eugene Vance, "Relics, Images, and the Mind of Guibert de Nogent," Semiotica 85 (1991):338.

289. Romain Roussel, Les pèlerinages à travers les siècles (Paris: Payot, 1954), 30; J. G. Davies, Pilgrimage Yesterday and Today: Why? Where? How? (London: SCM, 1988), 43; Freddy Raphaël, "Le pèlerinage: Approache sociologique," in idem et al., Les pèlerinages de l'antiquité biblique et classique à l'occident médiévale (Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1973), 17; Jonathan Sumption, Pilgrimage: An Image of Mediaeval Religion (London: Faber & Faber, 1975), 171.

290. Sumption, Pilgrimage , 172-73.

291. "Veneranda dies" in Liber s. Jacobi 1.17, cited by Sumption, Pilgrimage , 173.

292. Naselli, "Diavoli bianchi e neri," 243-44.

293. Acta sanctorum , February 16; Didron, Christian Iconography , 2:129-32.

294. Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 11.3.66.

295. Mark Franko, The Dancing Body in Renaissance Choreography (c. 1416-1589) (Birmingham, Ala.: Summa, 1986), 14-17.

296. See Anna Ivanova, The Dancing Spaniards (London: John Baker, 1970), 62-63; Reimbold, Pfau , 47-48.

297. Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 11.2.20-21; trans. Butler, 4:223.

298. Jean de Meun, Roman de la rose 21346-21780; with pilgrim at 21347, bourdon at 21605, Hercules at 21632.

299. See Caro Baroja, "Honour and Shame," 91.

1. See Ernst R. Curtius, European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages , trans. Willard R. Trask (New York: Pantheon, 1953), 515, 517. For an example

of medieval literary distance see Steven Shurtleff, "The Archpoet as Poet, Persona, and Self: The Problem of Individuality in the 'Confession,'" Philological Quarterly 73 (1994):373-84.

2. Salvian, Epistolae 9.3, 13-14.

3. Sulpicius Severus, Vita s. Martinii praef.

4. Gerhart B. Ladner, " Homo viator : Mediaeval Ideas of Alienation and Order," Speculum 42 (1967):237 n. 17.

5. Roger Dragonetti, Le mirage des sources: L'Art du faux dans le roman médiévale (Paris: Seuil, 1987), 17-55, esp. 45-48, citing Alain de Lille, De fide catholica 1.30. See also Paul Klopsch, "Anonymität und Selbstnennung mittellateinischer Autoren," Mittellateinisches Jahrbuch 4 (1967):9-25.

6. Evelyn Birge Vitz, Medieval Narrative and Modern Narratology: Subjects and Objects of Desire (New York: New York University Press, 1989), 2-3.

7. Dante, Vita nuova 40. For the semantics of peregrinación see Juergen Hahn, The Origins of the Baroque Concept of "peregrinatio" (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1973), 17-20, 28.

8. See Ladner, " Homo viator ," 237.

9. Donald Roy Howard, Writers and Pilgrims: Medieval Pilgrimage Narratives and Their Posterity (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1980), 85-87, 34. For recent study of Kempe as author see Diana R. Uhlman, "The Comfort of Voice: The Solace of Script: Orality and Literacy in The Book of Margery Kempe ," Studies in Philology 91(1994):50-69; Lynn Staley, Margery Kempe's Dissenting Fictions (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994). For the genre in general see Paul Zumthor, "The Medieval Travel Narrative," trans. Catherine Peebles, New Literary History 25 (1994):809-24.

10. Anne Barton, The Names of Comedy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1990), 153-54, citing Herodotus, Historiae 4. For a renaissance example see Marvin Spevack, "Beyond Individualism: Names and Namelessness in Shakespeare," Huntington Library Quarterly 56 (1993):383-98.

11. Acta 4.40.

12. Acta 5.52; 6.63.

13. See Peter Burke, The Historical Anthropology of Early Modern Italy: Essays on Perception and Communication (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 88, 92.

14. Acta 1-4.39, with last reference at 3.34.

15. Identified by Ignacio Iparraguire, S.J., and Candido de Dalmases, S.J., eds., Obras completas (Madrid: Biblioteca de autores cristianos, 1963), 106 n. 20.

16. See Gerardo López de Guereñu, Devoción popular en España a la Virgen blanca y a nuestra Señora de las nieves (Vitoria: Obra cultural de la caja de ahorras municipal de la ciudad de Vitoria, 1967), passim.

17. Robert L. Hathaway, "The Art of the Epic Epithets in the Cantar de mío Cid ," Hispanic Review 42 (1974):311-21; Thomas R. Hart, "The Rhetoric of (Epic) Fiction: Narrative Technique in the Cantar de mío Cid ," Philological Quarterly 51 (1972):23-35; Rita Hamilton, "Epic Epithets in the Poema de mío Cid ," Revue de littérature comparée 36 (1962):161-78; Edmund de Chasca, "El

epíteto,'' in El arte juglaresco en el "Cantar de mío Cid," (Madrid: Gredos, 1967), 173-93.

18. Marjorie O'Rourke Boyle, "The Prudential Augustine: The Virtuous Structure and Sense of his Confessions ," Recherches augustiniennes 22 (1987):137-49.

19. Augustine, Sermo 169.15, cited by Victorino Capágna, "Augustín, guía de peregrinos: Hacia una teología augustiniana de la peregrinación," Helmantica 26 (1975):73.

20. F. C. Gardiner, The Pilgrimage of Desire: A Study of Theme and Genre in Medieval Literature (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1971), 11-14, 53-85, 86-156. For the plays about Emmaus see also Julia Bolton Holloway, The Pilgrim and the Book: A Study of Dante, Langland, and Chaucer , American University Studies, ser. 4, 42 (New York: Peter Lang, 1987), 19-43. For Christ as a pilgrim see also Hahn, "Peregrinatio," 22, 29, 131-33.

21. Justo Pérez de Urbel, El claustro de Silos (Burgos: Aldecoa, 1930), 131-38, pls. at 133, 135, and reference to the Ripoll bible; Sixten Ringbom, "Some Pictorial Conventions for the Recounting of Thoughts and Experiences in Late Medieval Art," in Medieval Iconography and Narrative: A Symposium (Odense: Odense University Press, 1980), 50-51.

22. Barbara Nolan, The Gothic Visionary Perspective (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1977), 124-34.

23. Ibid., 136-39.

22. Barbara Nolan, The Gothic Visionary Perspective (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1977), 124-34.

23. Ibid., 136-39.

24. See Elisabeth MacDougall, " Ars hortulorum : Sixteenth-Century Garden Iconography and Literary Theory in Italy," in The Italian Garden: First Dumbarton Oaks Colloquium on the History of Landscape Architecture , ed. David R. Coffin (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, 1972), 46, 50.

25. See A. Bartlett Giamatti, The Earthly Paradise and the Renaissance Epic (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1966), 39.

26. Dante, Convivio 2.14.

27. Guillaume de Deguileville, Pèlerinage de vie humaine 9-11, cited by Susan K. Hagen, Allegorical Remembrance: A Study of "The Pilgrimage of the Life of Man" as a Medieval Treatise on Seeing and Remembering (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1990), 51. See also the illustration of the Pilgrim in Bed and his Vision of Jerusalem in the Spanish translation by Vincente de Maçuelo in El pelerinage de la vida humana , 65, fig. 2. See also Steven Wright, "Deguileville's Pèlerinage de vie humaine as "contrepartie edifiante" of the Roman de la rose ," Philological Quarterly 68 (1987):399-422.

28. See Raoul de Houdenc, Songe d'enfer 1-7, cited by Nolan, Gothic Visionary Perspective , 153.

29. See Nolan, Gothic Visionary Perspective , 142-43.

30. Acta 3.35, 37.

31. Bernard of Clairvaux, De gradibus humilitatis et superbiae 22.56.

32. Erasmus, Ratio verae theologiae , pp. 178, 177, cited in Boyle, Erasmus on Language and Method in Theology , Erasmus Studies, 2 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1977), 66, 60.

33. Giovanni della Casa, Galateo 267; Galateo , trans. Konrad Eisenbichler

and Kenneth R. Bartlett, Reformation and Renaissance Texts in Translation, 2 (Toronto: Centre for Reformation and Renaissance Studies, 1986), 49.

34. Evagrius Ponticus, Logos praktikos 13, 30-33.

35. Augustine, Confessiones 10.36.59; 10.37.60, 62; trans. Vernon J. Bourke, Confessions (New York: Fathers of the Church, 1953), 317.

36. Fiore di virtù 30.

37. Leonardo da Vinci, "Studies on the Life and Habits of Animals" 1230 in Notebooks .

38. Erasmus, Colloquia , in Opera omnia (Amsterdam), 1-3:668; The Colloquies of Erasmus , trans. Craig R. Thompson (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965), 481.

39. Acta 3.30.

40. Voie de paradis 542.

41. Jean de Courcy, Chemin de vaillance , MS Royal 14.E.ii, cited by Siegfried Wenzel, "The Pilgrimage of Life as a Late Mediaeval Genre," Mediaeval Studies 35 (1973): 375.

42. Acta 1.9; 4.40.

43. Christian Zacher, Curiosity and Pilgrimage: The Literature of Discovery in Fourteenth-Century England (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976), 4-5, 6, 16, 53. See also Giles Constable, "The Opposition to Pilgrimage in the Middle Ages," Studia gratiana 19 (1976):123-46.

44. Acta 3.36; cf. "Praefatio scriptoris" 1.

45. Romain Roussel, Le pèlerinage à travers les siècles (Paris: Payot, 1954), 30.

46. Acta 3.36.

47. Kenneth Hurlstone Jackson, A Celtic Miscellany: Translations from the Celtic Literature (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1951), 148, cited by Zacher, Curiosity and Pilgrimage , 55 n. 61; Jonathan Sumption, Pilgrimage: An Image of Mediaeval Religion (London: Faber & Faber, 1975), 96, and on Rome as not availing, 289-90. The original is in Thesaurus palaeohibernicus , 2:296, cited by Constable, "Opposition to Pilgrimage," 129.

48. Zacher, Curiosity and Pilgrimage , 54; J. G. Davies, Pilgrimage Yesterday and Today: Why? Where? How? (London: SCM, 1988), 85-86, 46; Sumption, Pilgrimage , 256-61.

49. Gaudenzio Boccazzi, "La curiosité du voyageur au XVIe siècle: Ou l'art d'apprendre et de se parfaire par les voyages," in La curiosité à la Renaissance , ed. Jean Céard (Paris: Société d'édition et d'enseignement supérieur, 1986), 49-62 on Rabelais and Montaigne.

50. Bartolomé Cairosco de Figueroa, "Peregrinación," cited by Hahn, " Peregrinatio ," 15.

51. Acta 4.38; 3.35-36.

52. Ibid. 2.13.

51. Acta 4.38; 3.35-36.

52. Ibid. 2.13.

53. See Sumption, Pilgrimage , 168.

54. Acta 3.19; 2.18; 3.35-36; 4.38-39; 4.40; 4.42; 4.42-43.

55. See Sumption, Pilgrimage , 185.

56. Acta 5.49, 50.

57. See Sumption, Pilgrimage , 208.

58. Acta 5.53; 6.54; 6.56; 6.57; 6.63; 8.73-75.

59. Raymond of Capua, Vita 1.4, in Acta sanctorum .

60. Acta 8.76-77; 8.84.

61. See Piero Boitani, Chaucer and the Imaginary World of Fame , Chaucer Studies, 10 (London: D. S. Brewer, 1984), 97-98, 131-34 passim.

62. Acta 9.87; 9.89; 9.90; 9.91; 10.93; 10.95; 11.100; "Deliberatio de paupertate."

63. Petrarch, Epistolae familiares 13.4.20, 23, 25.

64. Sumption, Pilgrimage , 122-25, citing "Veneranda dies" in Liber s. Jacobi 1.17; 208, 168, 265, 160.

65. Peter Burke, The Historical Anthropology of Early Modern Europe: Essays on Perception and Communication (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 72-73.

66. Acta 6.56.

67. Exercitia spiritualia , pp. 148, 260-62.

68. Lester K. Little, "Pride Goes before Avarice: Social Change and the Vices in Latin Christendom," American Historical Review 76 (1971):16-49.

69. Howard, The Three Temptations: Medieval Man in Search of the World (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1966), 54, citing at 45 Gregory the Great, Homiliae 1.16.2. Since medieval allegory was not empirically discrete, Christ's temptation to jump from the pinnacle of the temple not only could be related to vainglory, but also to avarice, as a curiosity about corporeal abilities, 50.

70. Origen, In Matthaeum 15.18.

71. Vita Antonii 40.

72. Exercitia spiritualia , p. 246.

73. Acta 4.38.

74. Jerome, Epistolae 22.25; Select Letters of St. Jerome , trans. F. A. Wright (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1933), 109.

75. Bernard of Clairvaux, De gradibus humilitatis et superbiae 10, cited by Zacher, Curiosity and Pilgrimage , 25. See also Ancrene Riwle 2. For a Spanish example of the rape of Dinah see detail, Pamplona bible, 12th century, Amiens, Bibliothèque municipale, MS lat. 108, fol. 20v; reproduced in Diane Wolfthal, "'A Hue and a Cry': Medieval Rape Imagery and Its Transformation," Art Bulletin 75 (1993):44, fig. 5.

76. Thomas J. Heffernan, Sacred Biography: Saints and Their Biographers in the Middle Ages (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), 142.

77. See Guido Ruggiero, The Boundaries of Eros: Sex Crime and Sexuality in Renaissance Venice (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 89-108, without reference to Loyola.

78. Ladner, " Homo viator ," 236 n. 14, citing Augustine, Sermo 14.4.6; 80.7; 177.2; 178.8; Tractatus in evangelium Iohannis 40.10; Gregory the Great, Moralia in Iob 8.54.92.

79. Acta 9.91.

80. Fabri, Evagatorium , 2:68-69.

81. See also the Hill of Virtue in Jan David, S.J., Veridicus christianus , Antwerp, 1601. Reproduced in Samuel Chew, The Pilgrimage of Life (New Haven,

Conn.: Yale University Press, 1962), fig. 138. Three men ascend on hands and knees, while a fourth tumbles down, a hill crowned with the seven virtues.

82. See Chew, Pilgrimage of Life , 147-48.

83. Howard Rollin Patch, The Other World According to Descriptions in Medieval Literature (New York: Octagon, 1970), 7-10, 34-35, passim.

84. Gregory the Great, Dialogi 4.37-38. For the bridge in Dante's pilgrimage see Theodore Silverstein, "Dante and the Legend of the Mi'raj: The Problem of Islamic Influence on the Christian Literature of the Otherworld," Journal of Near Eastern Studies 11 (1952):89-112, 187-97.

85. Acta 9.91.

86. Gregory the Great, Dialogi 4.37; Dialogues , trans. Odo John Zimmerman (New York: Fathers of the Church, 1959), 241.

87. Françoise Joukovsky, La gloire dans la poésie française et néolatine du XVIe siécle (Des rhétoriquers a Agrippa d'Aubigné) , Travaux d'humanisme et Renaissance, 102 (Geneva: Droz, 1969), 343-47.

88. Acta 4.42.

89. Detail of the Creation mosaics, 13th century, vestibule, S. Marco, Venice. Reproduced in Francis Klingender, Animals in Art and Thought to the End of the Middle Ages , ed. Evelyn Antal and John Harthan (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1971), 255, fig. 159.

90. Guillaume de Deguileville, Pèlerinage de vie humaine 19069-232, cited by Hagen, Allegorical Remembrance , 92-93. The pilgrim and the sea of the world, London, British Library, MS Cotton Tiberius A.7, fol. 52v, cf. fol. 58, reproduced, figs. 41, 42. Also reproduced from the Spanish translation by Vinçente de Maçuelo in Pelerinage de la vida humana , 309, fig. 12.

91. Holloway, Pilgrim and the Book , 61.

92. Augustine, Confessiones 7.5.7; trans. Bourke, 168. For other patristic literature on the topic see Hugo Rahner, Symbole der Kirche: Die Ekklesiologie der Väter (Salzburg: Muller, 1964), 239-564. For development of this topic see Boyle, "Cusanus at Sea: The Topicality of Illuminative Discourse," Journal of Religion 71 (1991):180-201.

93. Boyle, "Prudential Augustine," 137-41, 144-48. For the comparison of life to a voyage at sea see Campbell Bonner, "Desired Haven," Harvard Theological Review 34 (1941):49-67; and for the development of the topic, Boyle, "Cusanus at Sea."

94. Acta 4.43-44.

95. Fabri, Evagatorium , 1:144; Felix Fabri (Circa 1480-1483 A.D. ) trans. Aubrey Stewart, The Library of the Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society, vol. 7-10, 2 vols. in 4 (London, 1893-97), 1:160.

96. Acta 4.44.

97. John Demaray, The Invention of Dante's "Commedia" (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1974), 11-14.

98. Acta 4.44-45

99. See Holloway, Pilgrim and the Book , 129, 141, citing Mandeville's Travels , 71-72.

100. Acta 4.45; cf. Fabri, Evagatorium , 1:237.

101. Acta 4.45.

102. Roussel, Pèlerinages , 31-32.

103. Acta 4.47.

104. Fabri, Evagatorium , 1:64; trans. Stewart, 1:49.

105. Acta 4.47-48

106. Victor Turner and Edith Turner, Image and Pilgrimage in Christian Culture: Anthropological Perspectives (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978), 11.

107. For the Mount of Olives as the site of the ascension see among many sources Jerome, Epistolae 108.12.1; Fabri, Evagatorium , 1:387-89, cf. pp. 382-83.

108. See G. W. Pigman III, "Versions of Imitation in the Renaissance," Renaissance Quarterly 33 (1980):9-22.

109. Fabri, The Wanderings of Felix Fabri , 2 vols. (New York, 1975), 1:4, cited by Davies, Pilgrimage Yesterday and Today , 67.

110. Fabri, Evagatorium , 1:402-4.

111. Exercitia spiritualia , p. 372.

112. Paulinus of Nola, Epistolae 49.14; 31.4, cited by Sumption, Pilgrimage , 91; The Letters of Paulinus of Nola , trans. P. G. Walsh, Ancient Christian Writers, 35, 36, 2 vols. (Westminster, Md.: Newman, 1966; New York: Newman, 1967), 2:273, 129-30.

113. Jerome, Epistolae 47.2; 58.3, cited by Davies, Pilgrimage Yesterday and Today , 80; Epistolae 58.2, cited by Zacher, Curiosity and Pilgrimage , 54; Constable, "Opposition to Pilgrimage," 126.

114. Erasmus, Enchiridion militis christianae , in Opera omnia (Leiden), 5:38; The Handbook of the Christian Soldier , trans. Charles Fantazzi in The Collected Works of Erasmus (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1988), 66:82.

115. Pico della Mirandola, Oratio de dignitate hominis 11; The Renaissance Philosophy of Man , ed. and trans. Ernst Cassirer et al. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948), 229.

116. Robert Southwell, S. J., Mary Magdalens Funeral Teares , p. 67. See in general Marjory E. Lange, Telling Tears in the English Renaissance , Studies in the History of Christian Thought, 70 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1996).

117. Davies, Pilgrimage Yesterday and Today , 67.

118. Eugene F. Rice, Jr., Saint Jerome in the Renaissance , Johns Hopkins Symposia in Comparative History, 13 (Baltimore, Md.: John Hopkins University Press, 1985), 103-4, citing Laudivio, Vita beati Hieronymi , fol. 4v; Fabri, Evagatorium , 1:237-40.

119. Exercitia spiritualia , pp. 352-53.

120. St. Peter's Denial, mosaic, S. Apollinare nuovo, Ravenna. Rembrandt, St. Peter's Denial, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam. Reproduced in E. H. Gombrich, "Action and Expression in Western Art," in Non-Verbal Communication , ed. R. A. Hinde (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972), 383, figs. 7a, 7b.

121. Fabri, Evagatorium , 1:261.

122. First published in 1560, but manuscript copies were widely circulating in Roman ecclesiastical circles by 1559, according to Mario Praz, "Robert

Southwell's 'Saint Peter's Complaint' and its Italian Source," Modern Language Review , 19 (1924):287.

123. For the poetry of tears see Terence Cave, Devotional Poetry in France, c. 1570-1613 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969), 249-66.

124. Nancy Pollard Brown, "The Structure of Southwell's 'Saint Peter's Complaint,'" Modern Language Review 61 (1966):3-11; Praz, "Southwell's 'Saint Peter's Complaint,'" 273-90.

125. Brown, "Structure of 'Saint Peter's Complaint,'" 5, citing G. J. Spykman, "Attrition and Contrition at the Council of Trent," Ph.D. diss., University of Amsterdam, 1955, 161, with reference to Canons and Decrees of the Sacred and Oecumenical Council of Trent 14.4.

126. Acta 6.54-57; 8.73.

127. Boyle, "Fools and Schools: Scholastic Dialectic, Humanist Rhetoric: from Anselm to Erasmus," Medievalia et humanistica 13 (1985):173-79.

128. See Howard, Three Temptations , 54-55.

129. Vergil, Aeneid 173-97, citing 180-3; Virgil , trans. H. Rushton Fairclough, 2 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1947), 1:409.

130. Chaucer, House of Fame 1376-85.

131. Joukovsky, Gloire dans la poésie , 498-515, 601-5, citing at 603 Cesare Ripa, Iconologia, overo Descrittione dell'imagini universale cavate dall'antichità et da altri luggi (Rome: Gio. Giogliotti, 1593), p. 73; and see for glory as flight, Joukovsky, Gloire dans la poésie , 330-32. Chew, Pilgrimage of Life , 181-83, citing Bocace de la Genealogie des dieux (Paris: Verard, 1498), fol. Xiiv. For surveys of fame see Boitani, Chaucer and Fame ; Achatz Freiherr von Müller, " Gloria bona fama bonorum": Studien zur sittlichen Bedeutung des Ruhmes in der frühchristlichen und mittelalterlichen Welt , Historische Studien, 428 (Husum: Matthiesen, 1977).

132. Acta 1.10. Italics mine.

133. Acta 4.45, 47.

134. Acta 6.54; 4.41.

135. "Praefatio scriptoris" 3.

136. See Ernstpeter Ruhe, "'Les plumes du paon et le mouton assimile': Zum Problem der Originalität im Mittelalter," in Mittelalterbilder aus neuer Perspective: Diskussionsanstösse zu "amour courtois," Subjectivität in der Dichtung, und Strategien des Erzählens , ed. idem and Rudolf Behrens, Beiträge zur romanischen Philologie des Mittelalters, 14 (Munich: Wilhelm Fink, 1985), 194-209.

137. Epistolae 15; The Collected Works of Erasmus , trans. R. A. B. Mynors and D. F. S. Thomson (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1974), 1:20-21; cited in Boyle, Erasmus on Language and Method in Theology , 50.

138. Helen Nader, The Mendoza Family in the Spanish Renaissance, 1350 to 1550 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1979), 138-39.

139. Acta 4.41.

140. See Sumption, Pilgrimage , 185-86.

141. Acta 4.41; 5.49; 5.51; 6.55. For stripping a man of his clothes as divesting him of honor see Thomas V. Cohen, "The Lay Liturgy of Affront in Sixteenth-Century Italy," Journal of Social History 25 (1992):857-62.

142. Fabri, Evagatorium , 2:475.

143. Acta 6.57; 6.59; 6.62; 7.64, citing Terence, Andria 635.

144. Acta 5.50; 8.84.

145. General examen, Constitutiones 2.3.44.

146. Exercitia spiritualia , pp. 294-98.

147. Acta 8.83. Cf. Raymond of Capua, Vita 2.4; 2.2; Fabri, Evagatorium , 1:246-47.

148. Acta 4.41-42, 43.

149. Fabri, Evagatorium , 1:114.

150. Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 8.6.67-68; 9.4.30; 9.4.44; 8.4.8; The "Institutio oratoria" of Quintilian , trans. H. E. Butler, 4 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1933-1936), 3:267.

151. Acta 7.72; 5.51; 6.60; 7.67; 7.79.

152. Sumption, Pilgrimage , 67, 102.

153. Acta 7.71.

154. For the phenomenon see A. Y. Syrkin, "On the Behavior of the 'Fool for Christ's Sake,'" History of Religions 22 (1982):150-72.

155. Exercitia spiritualia , pp. 260-62.

156. Acta 7.65.

157. Aristotle, Rhetorica 1410a; The "Art" of Rhetoric , trans. John Henry Freese (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1926), 393.

158. David Summers, " Contrapposto : Style and Meaning in Renaissance Art," Art Bulletin 59 (1977):336-61, citing Aristotle, Rhetorica 1410a, and Leonardo da Vinci, Trattato della pintura 271.

159. Martin Luther, De servo arbitrio , p. 287, cited by Boyle, Rhetoric and Reform: Erasmus' Civil Dispute with Luther , Harvard Historical Monographs, 71 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983), 46-47.

160. Acta 6.58-62; 7.64-71; 9.86; 10.93; 11.98.

161. Julio Caro Baroja, "Honour and Shame," in Honour and Shame: The Values of Mediterranean Society , ed. J. G. Peristiany (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), 101-3.

162. Acta 6.59.

163. Cited by Julian Pitt-Rivers, "Honour and Social Status," in Honour and Shame , 35.

164. Acta 10.96.

165. Turner and Turner, Image and Pilgrimage , 11. The theological foundation of this book is not "orthodox Catholic," as stated, but Pelagian: "On the one hand, the believer is plied with graces by God; on the other, he continually exerts his free will by accepting [ sic ] or rejecting them," 30. See also Edmond-René Labande, " Ad limina : Le pèlerin médiéval au terme de sa démarche," in Mélanges offerts à René Crozet , ed. Pierre Gallais and Yves-Jean Riou, 2 vols. (Poitiers: Société d'études médiévales, 1966), 1:283-91.

166. Ephemeris , passim; Exercitia spiritualia , pp. 218-20.

167. See A. J. Vermeulen, The Semantic Development of "Gloria" in Early-Christian Latin , Latinitas christianorum primaeva, 12 (Nijmegen: Dekker & van de Vegt, 1956), 110-14; on virginity, 96-97, 99, 100.

168. Maurice Carrez, "La gloire de Dieu: Etude des diverses notions de glo-

ire dans les écrits de l'ancien testament et du judaisme," Lic. thesis, Faculté libre de théologie, Paris, 1957, 11, 13, 19, 197-98. See also idem, De la souffrance à la gloire: De la "doxa" dans la pensée paulinienne (Neuchatel: Delachaux & Niestlé, 1964); Mauritius Steinheimer, " Doxa tou Theou": Die "doxa tou Theou" in der römischen Liturgie , Münchener theologische Studien, 2, systematische Abteilung, 4, (Munich: Karl Zink, 1951), 33-59.

169. See G. Celio, Glory of the Cross. Reproduced in Howard Hibbard, " Ut picturae sermones : The First Painted Decorations of the Gesù," in Baroque Art: The Jesuit Contribution , ed. Rudolf Wittkower and Irma B. Jaffe (New York: Fordham University Press, 1976), pl. 26; Mary, queen of martyrs, and SS. Andrew, Peter, Paul, Catherine, and Stephen in martyrdom, pls. 18a-21b. The interpretation is mine. For glory as a winged goddess see Jourkovsky, Gloire dans la poésie , 601. Cf. the painting of Glory as a nude young girl on the ceiling at the Villa d'Este. Reproduced in David Coffin, The Villa d'Este at Tivoli , Princeton Monographs in Art and Archaeology, 34 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1960), 58-60 and fig. 72.

170. Vermeulen, Semantic Development of "Gloria," 54-95.

171. Acta 10.98-99.

172. Acta 12.101.

173. Exercitia spiritualia , e.g., pp. 200-2.

174. Acta 2.27; 4.44; 4.48; 11.98.

175. Acta 4.44.

176. For the equator see Dante, Purgatorio 4.79-84, and Demaray, Invention of Dante's "Commedia," 82.

177. Jerome, Epistolae 108.12.5. For the importance of symbolic baptism in the Jordan during pilgrimage, and as imitated at Compostela, see Sumption, Pilgrimage , 128-30. See also Exercitia spiritualia , pp. 254, 462.

178. Ambrose, "Splendor paternae gloriae" 3.5, Hymni and passim. See also Vermeulen, Semantic Development of "Gloria," 156-63; Franz J. Dolger, "Sol salutis": Gebet und Gesang im christlichen Altertum (1925, rpt.; Münster: Aschendorff, 1972), 379-410.

179. Speculum perfectionis 119, in The Little Flowers of St. Francis, The Mirror of Perfection, St. Bonaventure's Life of St. Francis , trans. Hugh McKay (New York: Dutton, 1910), 294. See Francis of Assisi, "Canticum fratris solis vel laudes creaturarum" 3-4.

180. Dante, Paradiso 23.28-39.

181. Boyle, Petrarch's Genius: Pentimento and Prophecy (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1991).

182. E.g. Richard of St. Victor, In Apocalypsim Joannis libri 1.4.

183. See Joukovsky, Gloire dans la poésie , 328-30, 347-63.

184. Acta 10.93

185. Stephen F. Ostrow, "The Sistine Chapel at S. Maria Maggiore: Sixtus V and the Art of the Counter Reformation," Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1987, 26; idem, Art and Spirituality in Counter-Reformation Rome: The Sistine and Pauline Chapels in S. Maria Maggiore (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).

186. Acta 10.94

187. Francis Rapp, "Les pèlerinages dans la vie religieuse de l'occident médiéval au XIVe et XVe siècles," in Freddy Raphaël et al., Les pèlerinages de l'antiquité biblique et classique à l'occident médiéval (Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1973), 120-38.

188. See Demaray, Invention of Dante's "Commedia," 22, 86.

189. Jean Gagé, Apollon romain: Essai sur le culte d'Apollon et le développement du "ritus graecus" à Rome des origines à Auguste (Paris: E. de Boccard, 1955), esp. 426-27, 499-516, 585-94, 673-74.

190. Dolger, " Sol salutis ," esp. 336-79; idem, Die Sonne der Gerechtigkeit und der Schwarze: Eine Religionsgeschichtliche Studie zum Taufgelöbnis (1919; rpt. Münster: Aschendorff, 1970), esp. 100-41, citing at 2 Jerome, Commentariorum in Amos prophetam libri 3.6.14.

191. André Grabar, Early Christian Art: From the Rise of Christianity to the Death of Theodosius, trans. Stuart Gilbert and James Emmons (New York: Odyssey, 1968), 92-93.

192. Adolphe N. Didron, Christian Iconography: The History of Christian Art in the Middle Ages , trans. E. J. Millington, 2 vols. (New York: Frederick Ungar, 1965), 1:35.

193. Ibid., 80-81 and pl. 74; B. M. A. Ghetti et al., Esplorazioni sotto la confessione di S. Pietro in Vaticano , 2 vols. (Vatican City: n.p., 1951), 1:38-42. and pls. 10-12; Jocelyn Toynbee and John W. Perkins, The Shrine of St. Peter and the Vatican Excavations (London: Longmans, Green, 1957), 72-74, 116-17, pl. 32.

192. Adolphe N. Didron, Christian Iconography: The History of Christian Art in the Middle Ages , trans. E. J. Millington, 2 vols. (New York: Frederick Ungar, 1965), 1:35.

193. Ibid., 80-81 and pl. 74; B. M. A. Ghetti et al., Esplorazioni sotto la confessione di S. Pietro in Vaticano , 2 vols. (Vatican City: n.p., 1951), 1:38-42. and pls. 10-12; Jocelyn Toynbee and John W. Perkins, The Shrine of St. Peter and the Vatican Excavations (London: Longmans, Green, 1957), 72-74, 116-17, pl. 32.

194. Hans Henrik Brummer, The Statue Court in the Vatican Belvedere (Stockholm: Almquist & Wiksell, 1970), 222-26. For another Apolline image see the fresco in the second Tiburtine room in the Villa d'Este at Tivoli. Coffin, Villa d'Este at Tivoli , 63-64 and fig. 80. For the continuity of solar imagery later in the papacy of Pope Sixtus V (1585-90) see Corinne Mandel, "Starry Leo, the Sun, and the Astrological Foundations of Sixtine Rome," Revue d'art canadienne/Canadian Art Review 17 (1990):17-39.

195. Plato, Respublica 7.532; The Dialogues of Plato , trans. Benjamin Jowett, 2 vols. (New York: Random House, 1937), 1:791.

196. At Delphi the Pythia drank from the Castalian springs before uttering Apollo's oracles, and they became a sacred font of poetic and prophetic inspiration. Pierre Amandry, La mantique apollinienne à Delphes: Essai sur le fonctionnement de l'oracle (Paris: E. de Boccard, 1950), 134-39; and for the spring Cassotis, Georges Roux, Delphes: Son oracle et ses dieux (Paris: Belles lettres, 1976), 136-45. It was characteristic of the Apolline sanctuaries that all were important hydraulic installations. René Ginouves, Balaneutike: Recherches sur le bain dans l'antiquité grecque (Paris: E. de Boccard, 1962), 327-44.

197. Plato, Phaedo 99d-100a.

198. Exercitia spiritualia , p. 186.

199. See Louis Réau, L'iconographie de l'art chrétien , 6 vols. (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1955-59), 3-2:673; F. Werner in Lexikon der christlichen Ikonographie , ed. Engelbert Kirschbaum, 8 vols. (Rome: Herder, 1968-76), 6:569-71; Ricardo García Villoslada, in Biblioteca sanctorum , 12 vols.

(Rome: Istituto Giovanni XXIII nella Pontificia università lateranense, 1961-68), 6:674-705.

200. See Adolf Katzenzellenbogen, Allegories of the Virtues and Vices in Mediaeval Art: From Early Christian Times to the Thirteenth Century (London: Warburg Institute, 1939), 55.

201. Herrad of Hohenbourg, Hortus deliciarum , fol. 201v, pl. 114.

202. See Réau, Iconographie de l'art chrétien , 3-2:673; Lexikon der christlichen Ikonographie , 6:569-71; Biblioteca sanctorum , 6:702.

203. Chew, Pilgrimage of Life , 251-52, citing its reproduction in René Fülöp-Miller, The Power and Secret of the Jesuits , trans. F. S. Flint and D. F. Tait (London: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1930), pl. 8. The description of the engraving is mine, for the peacock has been overlooked. On peacocks and vainglory see also Chew, Pilgrimage of Life , 82-83, 93, 95-98.

204. Reproduced in Joseph M. Gasol, Manresa: Panorama d'una ciutat (Manresa: Montañà, 1971), 49. Also reproduced from J. de Mesa/A. Collaert, Vita beati patris Ignatii (Antwerp: C. Galle, 1610), nr. 3 in Ursula König-Nordhoff, Ignatius von Loyola: Studien zur Entwicklung einer neuen Heiligen-Ikonographie im Rhamen einer Kanonisationskampagne um 1600 (Berlin: Gebr. Mann, 1982), Abb. 85.

205. Cornelius I. Galle, Ignatius in solitude tormented by serpents, Etterbeek, Biblioteca della Società dei P. P. Bollandisti, 17th century. Reproduced in Biblioteca sanctorum , 7:683. Also reproduced from Rubens/Barbé, Vita beati p. Ignatii (Rome, 1609), nr. 12 in König-Nordhoff, Ignatius von Loyola , Abb. 411. See also Abb. 432 and 520, in which the snake has a woman's head, while Loyola in Jesuit garb grips a rosary and a staff--the attibutes of St. Anthony the hermit in Matthias Grünewald's painting for the Isenheim altar--but without anguish. In Abb. 521 and 522 the serpent is an ordinary snake.

206. Several scenes of Mary thus appearing to him in a grotto were portrayed. Gerard Seghers, Vision of St. Ignatius of Loyola, Wallraf-Richartz Museum, Cologne. Reproduced in Horst Vey, "Gerard Seghers: A Vision of St. Ignatius Loyola during the Writing of the Rules of the Jesuits," Master Drawings , 2 (1964):pl. 17 and see 268-71. Gerard Seghers, Tableau painted for the Jesuit College at Gand, engraved by Schelte at Bolswert; Jeronimo Espinosa, 1653, Provincial Museum, Valencia; Valdès Leal, 1674, Provincial Museum, Seville. Réau, Iconographie de l'art chrétien , 3-2:675.

207. Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 5.10.20, 21-22; trans. Bulter, 2:213.

208. See David Carrasco, Quetzalcoatl and the Irony of Empire (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), 60; as morning star, 30-32, and other celestial phenomena. Carrasco does not consider Pettazoni's fundamental research.

209. Exercitia spiritualia , p. 194.

210. For the classical comparison see Michael O'Loughlin, The Garlands of Repose: The Literary Celebration of Civic and Retired Leisure: The Traditions of Homer and Vergil, Horace and Montaigne (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), 87-88.

211. Acta 10.99.

212. Cicero, De oratore 2.39.162.

213. Quintilian, Institutiones oratoriae 7.10.14-15, trans. Butler, 3:171; 8. pr.28-30, trans., 193.

214. See Michael Baxandall, Painting and Experience in Fifteenth-Century Italy: A Primer in the Social History of Pictorial Style , 2d ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), 145-47, citing Leon Battista Alberti, De pictura .

215. Summers, Michelangelo and the Language of Art (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981), 60-64.

216. Walter Kaiser, Praisers of Folly: Erasmus, Rabelais, Shakespeare (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1963), 3.

217. Deguileville, Pèlerinage de vie humaine 22510-18, cited in Hagen, Allegorical Remembrance , 110.

218. Augustine, De civitate Dei 11.23; The City of God , trans. Gerald G. Walsh and Grace Monahan (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 1952), 222.

219. Anne Bradstreet, ''The Author to her Book."