1. Forceful advocacy of the classical mode of ethical theorizing over the modern is the purpose of Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1981); Richard Taylor, Ethics, Faith, and Reason (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1985); and Edmund L. Pincoffs, Quandaries and Virtues (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1986). Some favor for the classical mode appears in Bernard Williams, Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985), and Robert Nozick, Philosophical Explanations (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981), pt. 5. My own Personal Destinies (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976) was, I think, the first book-length effort to demonstrate the continued viability today of eudaimonistic ethical theory; it is lately joined in this endeavor by John Kekes, The Examined Life (Lewisburg, Pa.: Bucknell University Press, 1988). It will be recognized that philosophical re-interest in "the virtues" has been mounting rapidly for more than a decade, beginning with Philippa Foot, Virtues and Vices (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1978). Consolidation of this focus is afforded by Peter A. French, Theodore E. Uehling, Jr., and Howard K. Wettstein, eds ., Midwest Studies in Philosophy, vol. XIII: Ethical Theory: Character and Virtue (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1988).

Opposition to the recent turn toward classical "virtues ethics" and away from modem "rules ethics" already takes a number of forms, of which I will here mention three.

In an article entitled "Human Flourishing, Ethics, and Liberty" (Philosophy and Public Affairs 12(4):307-322 (Fail 1983), Gilbert Harman contends that an ethics of "flourishing" (perfectionism) must be either a form of utilitarianism, or else centered in "imitation of excellence," which is deficient because it requires an antecedent idea of excellence that must be imported into the theory from somewhere else and is not justified by the theory. I have counterargued that eudaimonism's teleological tenet divorces it from utilitarianism, whereas its insistence upon individual autonomy precludes "imitation of excellence" (Reason Papers, no. 10, Spring 1985, pp. 101-105).

Kurt Baier argues that attention to moral virtues is appropriate within the mainstream ethics of today (Kantianism, utilitarianism, contractarianism), but goes awry when it mistakes itself for an alternative kind of ethics. In his terms, he supports "moderate" virtues ethics, but opposes "radical" virtues ethics. (See his essay, "Radical Virtue Ethics," in French et al., Midwest Studies in Philosophy, vol. XIII, pp. 126-135.) My counterargument is suggested in preceding pages of the preface of this book. Modem ethics, as rules ethics, can accommodate only the measure of moral character that rules-obedience requires. Because rules must be applicable alike to everyone, rules-obedience can demand only minimal development of moral character. By contrast virtues ethics is an ethics of ideals, and it is characteristic of ideals that they can enlist the full measure of human aspiration. To merely add virtues considerations within rules frameworks dilutes moral thought and moral life by eliminating the higher moral conduct and character that are outcomes of extended moral development in individuals.

Gisela Striker is a Greek scholar and friend of eudaimonism who nevertheless believes that it is not moral theory because it neglects "what we have learned to consider as the most fundamental question—the justification of moral decisions or the foundation of moral rules." (She appends her belief that eudaimonism is, however, incorrectly regarded as a rival to moral theory, and instead "we should probably see them as complementing one another.") But eudaimonism is teleological value-theory that lodges justification of moral decisions in the values they actualize, and it locates the foundation of moral rules in the development of moral character that it is their purpose to support. Striker appears to identify "moral theory" with modem rules morality, which prevents her from recognizing eudaimonism as an alternative mode of moral theory. In this light she regards Stoicism as an improvement upon eudaimonism because it considered morality and moral theory "to be a question of rules.' See Gisela Striker, "Greek Ethics and Moral Theory," in Grethe B. Peterson, ed., The Tanner Lectures on Human Values (Salt Lake City: The University of Utah Press, and Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1988), vol. IX, pp. 183-202.

1. My impression over the years has been that few Anglo-American scholars fully recognize the depth, subtlety, and richness of the Greek concept of Eros. A stunning exception is Anne Carson, Eros, the Bittersweet (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986).

In the myth, the interpretation I have offered of fire as spiritual fire, that is, Eros, gives the myth broader and deeper meaning than does the more common reading as literal fire. By the latter, Prometheus is the father of technology. But Eros is creativity, understood as apprehension and actualization of possibilities. Technology is an important mode of human creation, but the more profound role for creativity lies in the unfinished condition of humankind—human beings are obliged to fashion themselves: Eros equips them to do this. When Herakles unchains Prometheus in Shelley's Prometheus Unbound, it is love (Eros) that spreads over the world.

2. Behind the brief depiction of eudaimonism in the introduction of this book is my book-length treatment, Personal Destinies (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976). Today growing numbers of American philosophers are working in closely related, Greek-based "virtues ethics." I mention a number of them in the endnote to the preface.

3. Friedrich Nietzsche, On the Genealogy of Morals, trans. Walter Kaufmann (New York: Random House Vintage Books, 1969).

4. Henry D. Thoreau, Walden, ed. J. Lyndon Shanley (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971), p. 97.

5. See John Kekes, Facing Evil (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). As I write, the book has yet to be published. I have read it in typescript and regrettably cannot supply page references.

6. W. E R. Hardie, "The Final Good in Aristotle's Ethics," in Aristotle, ed. J. M. E. Moravcsik (New York: Doubleday, 1967), pp. 297-322.

7. A good analysis of kinds of individualism is Steven Lukes, Individualism (New York: Harper & Row, 1973).

8. Michael Oakeshott, On Human Conduct (London: Oxford University Press, 1975), pt. II.

9. Michael Oakeshott, "On Being Conservative," in Rationalism in Polities (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman & Littlefield, 1977), p. 188.

10. John Stuart Mill, On Liberty (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Library of Liberal Arts, 1956), p. 80.

11. John Dewey, Reconstruction in Philosophy (Boston: Beacon Press, 1957), p. 186.

1. Aristotle, Physics IV, 223 b -224 a .

2. J. G. A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), e.g.p. 155.

3. Albert O. Hirschman, The Passions and the Interests: Palitical Arguments for Capitalism Before Its Triumph (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977), p. 11.

4. Francis Bacon, Novum Organum (London & New York: George Routledge & Sons, n.d.), p. 77.

5. Ibid., p. 79.

6. Jacob Burckhardt, "The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy," in Western Political Heritage, ed. William Y. Elliott and Neil A. McDonald (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1949), pp. 456, 452, 451.

7. Johan Huizinga, The Waning of the Middle Ages, trans. F Hopman (London: Edward Arnold, 1924), pp. 9, 18, 19, 20.

8. Pocock Machiavellian Moment, p. 165.

9. Bacon, Novum Organum, p. 18.

10. Ibid., p. 6.

11. Thomas Hobbes, English Works (London: Molesworth, 1839), vol. 1, p. ix.

12. Peter Laslett, intro, to John Locke, Two Treatises of Government, rev. ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1963), p. 91.

13. John Dewey, The Quest for Certainty (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons Capricorn Books, 1960), p. 35.

14. Eugenio Garin, Italian Humanism: Philosophy and Civic Lift in the Renaissance, trans. Peter Munz (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965), p. 61.

15. Pocock, Machiavellian Moment, p. 160.

16. John Smart Mill, Considerations on Representative Government (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Library of Liberal Arts, 1958), p. 98.

17. Niccolo Machiavelli, The Prince, trans. George Bull (London: Harmondsworth, 1961), p. 91.

18. See Quentin Skinner, The Foundations of Modern Political Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), vol. 2, pp. 114-123.

19. Ibid., e.g. pp. 118, 179.

20. Niccolo Machiavelli, The Discourses, trans. Leslie J. Walker, ed. Bernard Crick (London: Harmondsworth, 1970), pp. 278-279.

21. Emile Durkheim, Elementary Forms of the Religious Lift, trans. Joseph Ward Swain (Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, n.d.), e.g. pp. 230-231.

22. Pocock, Machiavellian Moment, p. 166.

23. Ibid., p. 37.

24. Ibid., pp. 38-42.

25. Ibid., p. 162.

26. J. O. Urmson, "Saints and Heroes," in Joel Feinberg, ed., Reason and Responsibility (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1985), p. 520.

27. Machiavelli, The Prince, p. 96.

28. Machiavelli, Discourses, pp. 97, 111-112.

29. Henry Osborn Taylor, Thought and Expression in the Sixteenth Century (New York: Macmillan, 1920), vol. 1, pp. 83, 93.

30. Giovanni Botero, The Reason of State, trans. P. J. and D. P. Waley (London: 1965), p. 41. Cited in Skinner, Foundations of Modern Political Thought, vol. 1, p. 249.

31. Aristotle, Nichomachean Ethics, 1102b.

32. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (Indianapolis: Bobbs Merrill Library of Liberal Arts, 1958), p. 86.

33. Jeremy Bentham, The Rationale of Reward (London: Hunt, 1825), p. 206.

34. Gregory S. Kavka, Hobbesian moral and Political Theory (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986), p. 289.

35. Ibid., pp. 46-51.

36. Thomas Hobbes, Human Nature, in Kavka, Hobbesian Moral and Political Theory, pp. 46-47.

37. Hobbes, Leviathan, p. 125.

38. Ibid ., pp. 80, 83.

39. Richard Taylor, Ethics, Faith, and Reason (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1985), p. 4.

40. Hobbes, Leviathan, ch. 14; Kavka, Hobbesian Moral and Political Theory, p. 345.

41. Kavka, Hobbesian Moral and Political Theory, p. 347.

42. Ibid., p. 64.

43. Ibid ., p. 65.

44. Ibid ., pp. 66-67.

45. Hobbes, Levoathan , p. 86.

46. Aristotle, Nichomachean Ethics, 1168b.

47. Hobbes, Leviathan , p. 107.

48. Louis Dumont, From Mandeville to Marx: The Genesis and Triumph of Economic Ideology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977), p. 81.

49. R. H. Tawney, Religion and the Rise of Capitalism (New York: Harcourt, Brace &Co., 1926), pp. 179-180.

50. Hirschman, The Passions and the Interests, p. 37.

51. Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, ed. E. Cannan (New York: Random House Modem Library, 1937), p. 325.

52. Machiavelli, Discourses , p. 132.

53. Montesquieu, “Esprit des lois," cited in Hirschman, The Passions and the Interest, p. 60.

54. Tawney, Religion and the Rise of Capitalism; Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, trans. Talcott Parsons (New York: Scribner's, 1958).

55. See F B. Kaye, Commentary, Bernard Mandeville, The Fable of the Bees: Or, Privates Vices, Publick Benefits (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1924), pp. xxxix-cxi..

56. Smith, Wealth of Nations, bk. IV, ch. 2.

57. Mandeville, The Fable of the Bees, vol. 1, pp. 411-412.

58. Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, Edwin Cannan text, abridged Richard E. Teichgraeber, III (New York: Modem Library, 1985), pp. 240-241.

59. John Locke, The Second Treatise of Government, ed. with intro. Thomas P. Peardon (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Library of Liberal Arts, 1952), ch. 5 "Of Property," p. 17.

60. Ibid., pp. 19, 23.

61. Ibid., p. 17.

62. Ibid ., p. 29.

63. C. B. MacPherson, The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism, Hobbes to Locke (London, New York: Oxford University Press, 1962), pp. 208-210 and passim.

64. Locke, Second Treatise, pp. 22-23.

65. MacPherson, The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism, p. 212.

66. Richard Ashcraft, Locke's Two Treatises of Government (London: Allen & Unwin, 1987). James Tully, A Discourse on Property: John Locke and His Advesaries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980). John Dunn, The Political Thought of John Locke (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969).

67. Ashcraft, Lockes's Two Treatises of Government, p. 170.

68. Ibid ., pp. 127-128.

69. Ibid ., p. 135.

70. Ibid ., p. 127.

71. Ibid., p. 134.

72. Ibid ., p. 136.

73. Ibid., p. 132.

74. Ibid., pp. I33-134.

75. Locke, Second Treatise, p. 29.

76. Ibid ., p. 29.

77. Ashcraft, Locke's Two Treatises of Government, p. 141.

78. Ibid., p. 126.

79. Ibid. , pp. 141-142.

80. Ibid., p. 146.

81. Ibid., p. 147.

82. Hobbes, Leviathan, p. 79.

83. Tawney, Religion and the Rise of Capitalism, p. 185.

84. John Smart Mill, Utilitarianism (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Library of Liberal Arts, 1957), p. 23.

85. Neil W. Chamberlain, The Limits of Corporate Responsibility (New York: Basic Books, 1973), p. 92.

86. Robert Nozick, Philosophical Explanations (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 436-444.

87. P. F Strawson, "Social Morality and Individual Ideal," Philosophy , XXXVI (1961), p. 8.

88. See R. M. Hare, Freedom and Reason (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965), p. 176 and passim. In his subsequent Moral Thinking, Hare believes he solves the problem that fanaticism poses to his universal prescriptivisrn, but he retains the definition of the fanatic that is offered in Freedom and Reason, and it is the definition I am questioning.

89. This criticism is one of several directed against moralities centering in “the self-conscious pursuit of moral ideals" by Michael Oakeshott in "The Tower of Babel," Rationalism in Politics (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman & Littlefield, 1977), pp. 59-79.

90. Urmson, "Saints and Heroes," in Feinberg, ed., Reason and Responsibility, p. 517.

91. Nozick, Philosophical Explanations , p. 438.

1. I borrow the term from C. B. Macpherson, The Life and Times of Liheral Demoracy (London: Oxford University Press, 1977), ch. 3.

2. John Dewey, Individualism Old and New (New York: Minton, Balch & Co., 1930).

3. John Stuart Mill, On Liberty, ed. Currin V. Shields (Indianapolis & New York: Bobbs-Merrill Library of Liberal Arts, 1956), pp. 6, 68, 76.

4. Ibid., p. 72.

5. Ibid., p. 76.

6. Ibid., ., p. 71.

7. John Smart Mill, Considerations on Representative Government , ed. Currin V. Shields (Indianapolis & New York: Bobbs-Merrill Library of Liberal Arts, 1958), p. 25.

8. Ibid., ., pp. 47-48.

9. Ibid., p. 50.

10. Ibid., p. 54.

11. Ibid., p. 53.

12. Ibid., pp. 54-55.

13. Ibid., p. 86.

14. Ibid., p. 180.

15. Ibid., p. 58.

16. A detailed description of Hare's system is to be found in Dennis F. Thompson, John Stuart Mill and Representative Government (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976), pp. 102-103.

17. As presented in P. E Lazarsfield, B. Berelson, and H. Gaudet, The Peoples Choice (New York: Duell, Sloan, & Pearce, 1954); B. Berelson, P. F. Lazarsfield, and W. McPhee, Voting (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1954); H. Campbell, G. Gurin, and W. E. Miller, The Voter Decides (Evansville: Row, Peterson & Co., 1954); M. Benney, A. P. Gray, and R. H. Pear, How People Vote (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1956).

18. See Bernard Berelson, "Democratic Theory and Public Opinion," in H. Eulau, J. G. Eldersveld, and M. Janowitz, eds., Political Behavior: A Reader in Theory and Research (Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1956), pp. 107-115.

19. Herbert Tingsten, Political Behavior (London: P. S. King & Son, 1937), cited in Steven Lukes, "The New Democracy," in Lukes, Essays in Social Theory (London: Macmillan, 1977), pp. 46-47.

20. Macpherson, The Life and Times of Liberal Democracy, pp. 78-79.

21. Several of its illogicalities and insufficiencies are exposed by Steven Lukes in his "The New Democracy," Essays in Social Theory.

22. Dewey, Individualism Old and New, pp. 80-81.

23. John Dewey, Liberalism ant Social Action (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1935), p. 34.

24. John Dewey, Reconstruction in Philosophy, enlarged edition (Boston: Beacon Press, 1957), p. 194.

25. Dewey , Liberalism and Social Action, p. 40.

26. John Dewey, Democracy and Education (New York: The Free Press, 1966), p. 122.

27. Dewey, Liberalism and Social Action, p. 31.

28. Dewey, Democracy and Education, p. 100.

29. Ibid., pp. 102-103.

30. Ibid., p. 154.

31. Ibid., pp. 161-162.

32. Ibid., p. 161.

33. Ibid., p. 141.

34. John Dewey, The Quest for Certainty (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons Capricorn Books, 1960), ch. 10.

35. A notable example is Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1981), pp. 54-57.

36. Dewey, Individualism Old and New, p. 159.

1. John Smart Mill, On Liberty (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Library of Liberal Arts, 1956). Mill credits the phrase to Heinrich von Humboldt.

2. Aristotle, Rhetoric, bk. II, ch. 12.

3. Shakespeare, As You Like It, Act 2, Scene 7.

4. Robert Louis Stevenson, “Letter to a Young Gentleman," in Across the Plains (New York: Scribner's, 1904). He develops the theme that "youth is wholly experimental."

5. James S. Coleman, “The School to Work Transition," in U.S. Congressional Budget Office, The Teenage Employment Problem: What Are the Options? (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976), pp. 35-40.

6. Margaret Mead, "A National Service System as a Solution to a Variety of National Problems," in The Draft: A Handbook of Facts and Alternatives, ed. Sol Tax (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967), p. 105.

7. The National Commission on Excellence in Education, A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983). William J. Bennett, First Lessons: A Report on Elementary Education in America (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1986).

8. Carnegie Council Report, Giving Youth a Better Chance: Options for Education, Work, and Service (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1979), pp. 94-95.

9. Willard Wirtz and the National Manpower Institute, The Boundless Resource: A Prospectus for an Education-Work Policy (Washington, D.C.: New Republic Books, 1975), p. 9.

10. Quoted in Michael W. Sherraden and Donald Eberley, National Service: Social, Economic, and Military Impacts (New York: Pergamon Press, 1981), p. 35.

11. William James, "The Moral Equivalent of War,' in Essays in Religion and Morality, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982), p. 172.

12. Quoted in Sherraden and Eberley, National Service, p. 35.

13. Estimate collated from surveys by governmental and private agencies, reported widely in national news media in September, 1982. See, e.g., U.S. News and World Report , Sept. 27, 1982, pp. 57-61.

14. Cited in Sherraden and Eberley, National Service, pp. 17, 164.

15. See Stephen J. Pyne, Fire in America: A Cultural History of Wildland and Rural Fire (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982).

16. Walter Shapiro, "The Gap Between Will and Wallet: Should Students Perform National Service to Pay for College?", Time, Feb. 6, 1989, p. 32.

17. Ibid. , p. 32.

18. Sherraden and Eberley, National Service, p. 166.

19. Ibid. , p. 147.

20. Mead, "A National Service System," p. 106.

21. Wirtz, The Boundless Resource, p. 64.

22. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971), p. 426.

23. Robert Goldmann, "Six Automobile Workers Abroad," in American Workers Abroad, ed. Robert Schrank (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1979), p. 42.

24. John W. Gardner, Excellence (New York: Harper & Row Perennial Library, 1961), p. 80.

25. Harold L. Hodgkinson, All One System: Demographics of Education, Kindergarten through Graduate School (Washington, D.C.: Institute for Educational Leadership, 1985), pt. 1, p. 3.

26. Barbara Kantrowitz and Pat Wingert, “How Kids Learn," Newsweek, April 17, 1989, pp. 50-57.

27. Nell Noddings, Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1984).

1. See Stephen G. Salkever, "Virtue, Obligation, and Politics," The American Political Science Review 68(1):78-92 (Mar. 1974).

2. Aristotle, Nichomachean Ethics, 1105a,b.

3. Ibid ., 1127a 19-20, 27-28.

4. F.H. Bradley, Ethical Studies, cited in Peter Singer, Practical Ethics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), p. 209.

5. Robert Nozick, Philosophical Explanations (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981), p. 410.

6. John Cowper Powys, The Meaning of Culture (New York: W. W. Norton, 1929), pp. 260-261.

7. Lester H. Hunt, "Courage and Principle," Canadian Journal of Philosophy 10(2):289 (June 1980).

8. Philippa Foot, Virtues and Vices and Other Essays in Moral Philosophy (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1978), p. 129.

9. Arthur Schopenhauer, "On Genius," in The World as Will and Idea, trans. R. B. Haldane and J. Kemp (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1948), vol. III, pp. 138-166; Ralph Waldo Emerson, "Gifts," in Essays First and Second Series (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, n.d.), pp. 154-159, second series.

10. Carol Gilligan, In a Different Voice, Psychological Theory and Women's Development (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982), ch. 3, e.g. pp. 74, 85.

11. Henry D. Thoreau, Journal , gen. ed. John C. Broderick (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981), vol. 1, p. 222.

12. Ralph Waldo Emerson, Self-Reliance (Mount Vernon, N.Y.: Peter Pauper Press, 1967), p. 7.

13. Aristotle, Nichomachean Ethies, 1120 a, 25-27.

14. See, e.g., Lester H. Hunt, "Generosity," American Philosophical Quarterly 12(3):241 (July 1975).

15. Emerson, Self-Reliance, p. 40.

16. Gilligan, In a Different Voice, e.g., p. 76.

17. E.g. Paul Friedlander, Plato (New York: Bollingen Series LIX, 1964), vol. 2, pp. 19-20, 26-28, and notes; Lester H. Hunt, "Generosity and the Diversity of the Virtues"; O. Gignon, "Studien zu Platons Protagoras ," in Phyllobia fur Peter von der Muhl (Basel, 1946), p. 139 et seq.; D. Gallop, "Justice and Holiness in Prot . 330-331," Phronesis vol. 6, 1961, pp. 88-89.

18. Gregory Vlastos, “The Unity of the Virtues," in Platonic Studies (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1973), p. 227.

19. Ibid., pp. 227-228.

20. Plato, Protagoras 349 d, 2-8.

1. A. I. Meldin, Rights and Persons (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1977), p. 231.

2. Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia (New York: Basic Books, 1974), p. 33.

3. Ronald Dworkin, Taking Rights Seriously (London: Duckworth, 1977), p. 181 and passim.

4. Ibid., pp. xiv, 181.

5. Leo Strauss, Natural Right and History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953), p. 182.

6. H. L. A. Hart, "Between Utility and Rights," in The Idea of Freedom, ed. Alan Ryan (London: Oxford University Press, 1979), p. 77.

7. Jeremy Bentham, Pannomial Fragments, in Works, gen. sup. John Bowting (Edinburgh: 1834-1843), vol. III, p. 293.

8. J. M. E. McTaggart, Studies in Hegelian Cosmology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1918), p. 72.

9. Joel Feinberg, "The Nature and Value of Rights," in Rights, Justice, and the Bounds of Liberty: Essays in Social Philosophy ( Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980), p. 151.

10. Wesley Newcomb Hohfeld, Fundamental Legal Conceptions (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1919)

11. I am indebted to George Mavrodes and Gilbert Harman for criticisms of an earlier version of my argument that rights derive from responsibilities by "ought implies can." Responsibility for the present version is, however, wholly mine.

12. H. J. McCloskey, "Rights," Philosophical Quarterly, 15(1965): 118.

13. Carl Wellman, A Theory of Rights: Persons Under Laws, Institutions, and Morals (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman & Allanheld, 1985), p. 105

14. Ibid ., p. 6.

15. United Nations Bulletin, vol. VI, no. 1 (January 1, 1949).

16. Bertrand de Jouvenel, Sovereignty: An Inquiry Into the Political Good, trans. J. F. Huntington (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957), p. 261.

17. H. B. Acton, The Morals of Markets (London: Longman, 1971), p. 71.

18. Iredell Jenkins, Social Order and the Limits of Law (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980), p. 263.

19. Henry Shoe, Basic Rights: Subsistence, Affluence, and U. S. Foreign Policy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980), p. 19.

20. Ibid ., pp. 37-39.

21. Martin P. Golding, "Towards a Theory of Human Rights," The Monist 52(1968): 546.

22. Joel Feinberg, "Voluntary Euthanasia and the Inalienable Right to Life, Philosophy and Public Affairs, 7(2):105 (1978).

23. Ibid ., p. 105.

24. Ibid ., p. 105.

25. H. L. A. Hart, "Are There Any Natural Rights?" in Rights , ed. David Lyons (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1979), pp. 14-25.

26. Shue, Bask Rights , pp. 73-74.

27. Harry Frankfurt, "Freedom of the Will and the Concept of a Person," Journal of Philosophy 68(Jan. 14, 1971): 5-20.

28. Isaiah Berlin, "Two Concepts of Liberty," in Four Essays on Liberty (London: Oxford University Press, 1969).

29. See the discussion of "dominant end" versus "inclusive end" interpretations in chapter 4.

30. R. Avery, G. Elliehausen, G. Canner, and T. Gustafson, “Survey of Consumer Finances, 1983: Second Report," Federal Reserve Bulletin 70 (December 1984): 865. Cited in D. W. Haslett, "Is Inheritance Justified?" Philosophy and Public Affairs 15(2): 123-124 (Spring 1986).

31. John Locke, The Seared Treatise of Civil Government (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Library of Liberal Arts, 1952), p. 17.

32. Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia, p. 57.

33. Ralph Waldo Emerson, Self-Reliance, (Mt. Vernon, N.Y.: Peter Pauper Press, 1967), p. 7.

34. Abraham Maslow, in conversations, 1963-1964.

35. House of Commons speech, date unknown: Oxford English Dictionary of Quotations (1966). Cited in Tibor R. Machan, Individuals and Thcir Rights (Peru, Ill.: Open Court Press, 1989).

36. Examples of extended lists are to be found in Edmund L. Pincoffs, Quandaries and Virtues (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1986).

37. Jane English, "Abortion and the Concept of a Person," in Social Ethics: Morality and Social Policy, ed. Thomas A. Mappes and Jane S. Zembaty (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1987), p. 36.

38. Locke, Second Treatise, p. 19.

1. A useful study of varieties of individualism is Steven Lukes, Individualism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1973).

2. Immanuel Kant, Foundations of the Mctaphysics of Morals, trans. Lewis White Beck (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Library of Liberal Arts, 1959), p. 47.

3. Robert N. Bellah, Richard Madsen, William M. Sullivan, Ann Swindler, Steven M. Tipton, Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1985), p. 107.

4. Ibid ., p. 114.

5. Alasdair Maclntyre, Whose Justice? Which Rationality? (Notre Dafne: University of Notre Dame Press, 1988), p. 367.

6. Erik H. Erikson, Childhood and Society, 2d ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1963), pp. 262-263.

7. Michael J. Sandel, Liberalism and the Limits of Justice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982).

8. Sandel, Liberalism and the Limits of Justice, p. 175.

9. Ibid ., p. 183.

10. Ibid ., p. 152.

11. Martin Buber, I and Thou, trans. Walter Kaufmann (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1970).

12. E.g., “Thus the time of human life is formed into an abundance of actuality; and although human life cannot and ought not to overcome the It-relation, it then becomes so permeated by relation that this gains a radiant and penetrating constancy in it." Buber, I and Thou, p. 163, my emphasis.

13. Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness, trans. Hazel E. Barnes (New York: Philosophical Library, 1956), p. 568.

14. MacIntyre, Whose Justice? Which Rationality?, p. 383.

15. Michael Walzer, Spheres of Justice: A Defense of Pluralism and Equality (New York: Basic Books, 1983), p. 30.

16. Bellah et al., Habits of the Heart, pp. 65-71.

17. Walzcr, Spheres of Justice, ch. 2, "Membership," e.g.p. 51.

18. An insightful discussion of Rousseau's concepts of "denaturing" and "second nature" appears in Roger D. Masters, The Political Philosophy of Rousseau (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968), pp. 297-299. Rousseau's promeneur solitaire, exemplified in Emile, undergoes no such denaturing, but is presented by Rousseau as a rare exception.

19. Jean Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract, in Social Contract, ed. Ernest Barker (New York: Oxford University Press Galaxy Books, 1962), p. 180.

20. Rousseau, The Social Contract. Because it is clearer, I have used Manheim's translation, in Emil Durkheim, Montesquieu and Rousseau (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1960), p. 105. Barker reads "... the general will, if it be deserving of its name, must be general, not in its origins only, but in its objects, applicable to all as well as operated by all..." Social Contract, p. 196.

21. Durkheim, Montesquieu and Rousseau, p. 112.

22. Jose Ortega y Gasser, Man and People, trans. Willard Trask (New York: W. W. Norton, 1957), p. 174.

23. Ralph Waldo Emerson, Self-Reliance (Mt. Vernon, N.Y.: Peter Pauper Press, 1967), p. 13.

24. Ibid .,p. 40.

25. C. B. MacPherson, The Life and Times of Liberal Democracy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977), p. 43.

26. Philip Eliot Slater, The Pursuit of Loneliness: American Culture at the Breaking Point, rev. ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1976), p. 11. Carol Gilligan, In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982), p. 142. Christopher Lasch, The Culture of Narcissism: American Life in an Age of Diminishing Expectations (New York: W. W. Norton, 1978), p. xv.

27. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America , ed. J. P. Mayer, trans. George Lawrence (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1969).

28. Christopher Lasch, The Culture of Nareissism: American Life in an Age of Diminishing Expectations (New York: W. W. Norton, 1978).

29. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, p. 506.

30. Cited in James T. Schleifer, The Making of Tocqueville's Democracy in America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980), pp. 250-251.

31. lbid .,p. 253.

32. Tocqueville, Democracy, p. 676.

33. Lasch, The Culture of Narcissism, p. xv.

34. Maclntyre, Whose Justice? Which Rationality?, e.g., and notably, ch. XX, "Contested Justices, Contested Rationalities."

35. Cited in William James, "The Dilemma of Determinism," in The Will to Believe and Other Essays in Popular Philosophy, ed. Fredson Bowers (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1979), p. 134.

36. This is a central intent of Dworkin's major works, including Taking Rights Seriously (London: 1977) and A Matter of Principle (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985).

37. Robert Nisbet, Community and Power (formerly The Quest for Community ) (New York: Oxford University Press Galaxy Books, 1962), p. 256.

38. lbid ., p. 134 (cited).

39. Ibid ., pp. 219-220.

40. John Locke, The Second Treatise of Government, ed. Thomas P. Peardo (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Library of Liberal Arts, 1952), p. 50 "... the end of civil society being to avoid and remedy these inconveniences of the state of nature which necessarily follow from every man being judge in his own case, by setting up a known authority to which everyone of that society may appeal upon any injury received or controversy that may arise, and which everyone of the society ought to obey."

41. Edmund L. Pincoffs, Quandaries and Virtues: Against Reductivism in Ethics (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1986), p. 58.

42. J.O. Urmson, "Saints and Heroes," in Reason and Responsibility, ed. Joel Feinberg (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1985), pp. 515-522.

43. Michael Oakeshott, "Rationalism in Politics," in Rationalism in Politics and Other Essays (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman & Littlefield, 1977), p. 24.

44. Francis Bacon, Novum Organum, cited in Oakeshott, Rationalism in Polities, p. 14.

45. Bellah et al., Habits of the Heart, p. 45.

46. The term and its underlying thesis have considerable currency in social thought and criticism. With express indebtedness to William H. Whyte, Jr., The Organization Man (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1956), it first appears, I believe, in William G. Scott and David K. Hart, Organizational Amcrica (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1979). The thesis of the book is: "The modem organization... has produced vast transformation of the traditional American value system. We term this new value system, and the new society it has produced, respectively 'the organizational imperative' and organizational America" (p. 2).

47. From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, ed. and trans. H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills (London: Oxford University Press Galaxy Books, 1946), p. 214.

48. Ibid ., pp. 219-220.

49. Max Weber on Law in Economy and Society, ed. Max Rheinstein, trans. Max Rheinstein and Edward Shils (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1954), p. 351.

50. Neil W. Chamberlain, The Limits of Corporate Responsibility (New York: Basic Books, 1973), p. 92. My thanks to David K. Hart for this reference.

51. William G. Scott and David K. Hart, Organizational Values in America (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1989).

52. Correspondence, Raymond Schonholtz.

53. Peter Lovenheim, Mediate, Don't Litigate (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1989).

1. John Dewey, Democracy and Education (New York: The Free Press, 1966), p. 88.

2. Robert Paul Wolff, In Defense of Anarchism (New York: Harper & Row, 1970), p. 19.3.

3. Plato, The Republic, 456.

4. Karl Popper, The Open Society and Its Enemies, 5th ed. (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1966), vol. I, pp. 90-91.

5. Plato, The Republic, 416.

6. Popper, The Open Society and Its Enemies, p. 90.

7. Ibid., p. 92.

8. Plato, The Republic, 369.

9. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Library of Liberal Arts, 1958), p. 86.

10. Popper, The Open Society and Its Enemies, p. 171.

11. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract, in Social Contract, ed. Ernest Barker (New York: Oxford University Press, 1962), p. 196. In the composite translation used by Barker, Rousseau's prescription for the General Will reads: "... the general will, if it be deserving of its name, must be general, not in its origins only, but in its objects, applicable to all as well as operated by all..."

12. A description of Pullman, Illinois, appears in Michael Walzer, Spheres of Justice (New York: Basic Books, 1983), pp. 295-299. Kohler, Wisconsin, is described in Walter H. Uphoff, Kohler On Strike: Thirty Years of Confiict (Boston: Beacon Press, 1966), ch. 1, "The 'Model Village'—Dreams, Realities and Myths."

13. William G. Scott, "The Concentric Circles of Management Thought," in Papers in the Ethics of Administration, ed. N. Dale Wright (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988), p. 28.

14. Chester I. Barnard, The Functions of the Executive (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1938), p. 15.

15. Herbert A. Simon, Administrative Behavior (New York: Macmillan, 1954) p. 223.

16. Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital, The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1974), p. 90.

17. Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, ed. Richard E Teichgraeber, III (New York: Modem Library, 1985), pp. 6-7.

18. William G. Scott and David K. Hart, Organizational Values in America (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1989), p. 117. McGregor's influential treatment of Theory Y is Douglas McGregor, The Human Side of Enterprise (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959.)

19. Raymond E. Callahan, Education and the Cult of Efficiency: A Study of the Social Forces that Have Shaped the Administration of the Public Schools (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962).

20. John Rohr, Ethics for Bureaucrats (New York: Marcel Dekker, 1978).

21. Walzer, Spheres of Justice, pp. 17-20.

22. Scott and Hart, Organizational Values in America, pp. 97, 147-150.

23. Max De Pree, Leadership is an Art (New York: Doubleday, 1989).

24. John Dewey, Liberalism and Social Action (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons Perigee Books, 1980), p. 39.

25. Michael Oakeshott, On Human Conduct (London: Oxford University Press, 1975), p. 118.

26. Ibid., p. 313.

27. Ibid ., pp. 157-158.

28. Ibid ., p. 242.

29. Michael Oakeshott, "On Misunderstanding Human Conduct: A Reply to My Critics," in Political Theory 4(3):367 (Aug. 1976).

30. Michael Oakeshott, "The Tower of Babel," in Rationalism in Politics and Other Essays (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1977), p. 62.

31. Ibid ., p. 62.

32. Oakeshott, On Human Conduct, p. 275.

33. Michael Oakeshott, "The Masses in Representative Democracy," in American Conservative Thought in the Twentieth Century, ed. William F. Buckley, ed. (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1970).

34. Ralph Barton Perry, Puritanism and Democracy (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1944), p. 453.