1. Richard Wright and Edwin Rosskam, Twelve Million Black Voices: A Folk History of the Negro in the United States (New York, 1941), p. 5.

2. Ibid.

3. Ibid.

4. The late Professor Elizabeth Parker, Ethnic Studies, University of San Francisco, interviewed Black San Franciscans. The San Francisco African-American Cultural and Historical Society has also undertaken an oral history project. In addition, the Oakland Museum interviewed a number of Bay Area Afro-Americans. Mary Perry Smith and the Cultural and Ethnic Affairs Guild of the Oakland Museum were kind enough to allow me to listen to the tapes, which broadened the bases of my insights and conclusions. I also consulted the interviews that are a part of the Earl Warren Oral History Project of the University of California, Berkeley. E. A. Daly, publisher of the California Voice (Oakland), C. L. Dellums, an officer in the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters for several decades, Tarea Hall Pittman, an activist in the women's clubs, and California Assemblyman Byron Rumford were among the informants. One of the problems with incorporating material from other interviews, however, is the fact that different researchers have their own objectives and therefore ask different kinds of questions.

Recently historians have utilized the Works Project Administration's slave narratives, which have been published in George P. Rawick, ed., The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography (19 vols.; Westport, Conn., 1972-). Examples are: Eugene Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made (New York, [1974]); and Lawrence Levine, Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought From Slavery to Freedom (New York, 1977). Theodore Rosengarten, All God's Dangers: The Life of Nate Shaw (New York, 1974); Alex Haley, ed., The Autobiography of Malcolm X (New York, 1965); and William L. Montell, The Saga of Coe Ridge: A Study of Oral History (Knoxville, Tenn., [1970]) are other examples of what scholars might accomplish through interviewing.

Some of the methods and problems involved in oral history are discussed in Lewis L. Langness, The Life History in Anthropological Science (New York, [1965]); Willa Baum, Oral History for the Local Historical Society (Nashville, Tenn., 1971); Ramon I. Harris, et al., The Practice of Oral History: A Handbook (Glen Rock, N.J., 1975), pp. 1-4 discusses oral history's place in scholarship; Montell, The Saga of Coe Ridge , pp. vii-xxi, treats oral history, folklore, and the oral tradition; William W. Moss, "The Future of Oral History," The Oral History Review (1975), pp. 5-15 is also valuable.

5. Karen Becker Ohrn, "The Photoflow of Family Life: A Family's Photograph Collection," Saying Cheese: Studies in Folk Photography No. 12 (1975), p. 27. I would like to thank Professor John Vlach, Ethnic Studies and the Department of Anthropology, The

University of Texas at Austin, for informing me of this publication. Examples of scholars' contributions to the study of society and culture through photography are: Gregory Bateson and Margaret Mead, Balinese Character: A Photographic Analysis (New York, 1942); and Margaret Mead and Paul Byers, The Small Conference: An Innovation in Communication (Paris, 1968).

6. John Collier, "Photography in Anthropology," American Anthropologist LVIX (Oct. 1957), 849, 853, 857-58; John Collier, Visual Anthropology: Photography As A Research Method (Stanford, Calif., 1967). Also, see Richard Rudisill, Mirror Image: The Influence of the Daguerreotype on American Society (Albuquerque, N.M., 1971); William Stott, Documentary Expression and Thirties America (New York, 1973). On the history of photography, see Robert Taft, Photography and the American Scene: A Social History, 1839-1899 (New York, 1938), and Michel F. Braive, The Photograph: A Social History (New York, 1966). On the snapshot as a genre, Jonathan Green, ed., The Snapshot in Aperture (Millertown, N.Y., 1974). Particularly significant is Studies in the Anthropology of Visual Communication (SAVICOM) I (Fall 1974), which is a publication of the Society for the Anthropology of Visual Communication.

7. Ohrn, "Photoflow of Family Life," p. 31.

8. Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: the Making of a Ghetto, Negro New York, 1890-1930 (New York, 1966); and Allan H. Spear, Black Chicago: the Making of a Negro Ghetto (Chicago, 1967). For a classic which uses photographs to document the history and living conditions of Black folk, see Wright and Rosskam, 12 Million Black Voices. For an excellent photographic record of Black urbanites in an eastern city, see Liliane De Cock and Reginald McGhee, James Van Der Zee (Dobbs Ferry, N.Y., 1973). Edith M. Dabbs, Face of An Island: Leigh Richmond Miner's Photographs of Saint Helena Islanders (New York, 1971) focuses on southern rural Blacks. Examples of how photography aided the conclusions of scholars on Black non-verbal communication are: Benjamin G. Cooke, "Nonverbal Communication Among Afro-Americans: An Initial Classification"; and Annette Powell Williams, "Dynamics of A Black Audience," in Thomas Kochman, ed., Rappin' and Stylin' Out: Communication in Urban Black America (Urbana, Ill., [1972]), pp. 32-64, 101-8. Richard Chalfen, "Introduction to the Study of Non-Professional Photography As Visual Communication," Saying Cheese No. 13 (1975), 19.

9. Richard Chalfen, review of Robert U. Akeret, Photoanalysis , in Studies in the Anthropology of Visual Communication I (Fall 1974), 58.

10. Ibid.

11. Howard S. Becker, "Photography and Sociology," Studies in the Anthropology of Visual Communication I (Fall 1974), 21.

1. For demographic and social changes in western towns and cities, see: Ralph Mann, "The Decade After the Gold Rush: Social Structure in Grass Valley and Nevada City, California, 1850-1860," Pacific Historical Review XLI (November 1972), 484-504; and Richard H. Peterson, "The Frontier Thesis and Social Mobility on the Mining Frontier," Pacific Historical Review XLIV (Feb. 1975), 52-67. On Seattle during the World War I years, see Horace Cayton, Long Old Road: An Autobiography (Seattle, 1963). On Los Angeles, see J. Max Bond, "The Negro in Los Angeles" (Ph.D. diss., University of Southern California; reprinted by R&E Research Associates, San Francisco, 1972); and Lawrence B. de Graaf, "The City of Black Angels: The Emergence of the Los Angeles Ghetto, 1890-1930," Pacific Historical Review XXXIX (Aug. 1970), 323-52. On the Bay Area, see the San Francisco Chronicle , Nov. 11, 1943, p. 5 on the housing and health of World War II migrants, and Dec.

10, 1944, p. 12 on the future of the Black San Francisco population; see also Charles S. Johnson, The Negro War Worker in San Francisco (San Francisco, 1944); Davis McEntire and Julia R. Tarnopol, "Postwar Status of Negro Workers in San Francisco Area," Monthly Labor Review LXX (June 1950), 612-17; Ottole Krebs, "The Post-War Negro in San Francisco," American Communities II (1948-49), 549-86; Barbara Sawyer, "Negroes in West Oakland," Immigration and Race Problems (1949-53), pp. 844-64; and Edward Everett France, "Some Aspects of the Migration of the Negro to the San Francisco Bay Area Since 1940" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, 1962). On the Great Migration, see Emmett J. Scott, Negro Migration During the War (New York, 1920); Louise V. Kennedy, The Negro Peasant Turns Cityward: Effects of Recent Migrations to Northern Cities (New York, 1930); and Florette Henri, Black Migration: Movement North, 1900-1920 (Garden City, N.Y., 1976).

2. Frank Soulé, John H. Gihon, and James Nisbet, The Annals of San Francisco (New York, 1855), and Roger W. Lotchin, San Francisco, 1846-1856: From Hamlet to City (New York, 1974) for the city's early history. On the uniqueness of San Francisco and Denver, see Gunther Barth, Instant Cities: Urbanization and the Rise of San Francisco and Denver (New York, 1975). On San Francisco's population growth, see United States Census Office, Twelfth Census, 1900: Population (Washington, D.C., 1901) I: cxix, 430-33.

3. Lotchin, San Francisco, 1846-1856 , pp. 45-46; Twelfth Census, 1900: Population , I: 430-33; John P. Young, San Francisco: A History of the Pacific Coast Metropolis , 2 vols. (San Francisco, [1912]), I: 322; II: 487, 670, 932, 976-77.

4. Young, San Francisco , I: 322; II: 939; "The City and Port of San Francisco, California," San Francisco Descriptive Pamphlets (San Francisco, 1896), pp. 2-3; United States Census Office, Manufacturers of the United States in 1860 (Washington, D.C. 1865), p. 36.

5. Young, San Francisco , I: 272-73; II: 605, 716, 760; San Francisco Call , Jan. 16, 1887, p. 1; "City and Port," Descriptive Pamphlets , pp. 2-3; United States Census Office, Negro Population in the United States, 1790-1915 (Washington, D.C., 1918), p. 93.

6. On the role of shipping in the city's development and economy, see Lotchin, San Francisco, 1846-1856 , pp. 31-33, 45-48, 67-69. [United States Census Bureau], Original Schedule of the Eighth Census, 1860, San Francisco, California (hereafter cited, with the appropriate year, as Manuscript Census), lists Black crew members aboard ships in Ward One; Elevator , Aug. 18, 1865, p. 3, June 30, 1865, p. 3.

7. E. Berkeley Tompkins, "Black Ahab: William T. Shorey, Whaling Master," California Historical Quarterly LI (Spring 1972), 75-84; Delilah L. Beasley, The Negro Trail Blazers of California (New York, 1969 ed.), pp. 125-27; interviews, Eugene Lasartemay, July 23, 1976, Aurelious Alberga, July 27, 1976.

8. Manuscript Census, 1870. San Francisco Call , Aug. 5, 1893, p. 4; Oakland Western Outlook , July 22, 1916, p. 2; "Oakland Business Men," The Colored American Magazine IX (Nov. 1905), 648-50, and XII (Oct., 1907), 269-72.

9. Pacific Appeal , May 16, 1863, p. 4; Philip Durham and Everett L. Jones, The Negro Cowboy (New York, [1965]), pp. 170-71.

10. New York Weekly Anglo-African , Dec. 17, 1859, p. 3, Dec. 31, 1859, p. 3; Elevator , Jan. 12, 1866, p. 3; Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers , pp. 206-7.

11. Ann Charters, Nobody: The Story of "Bert" Williams (New York, 1970), pp. 20-25 discusses Williams and Walker's early years in San Francisco; Alan Lomax, Mister Jelly Roll: The Fortunes of Jelly Roll Morton, New Orleans Creole and "Inventor of Jazz" (New York, [1950]), pp. 167-69.

12. Call , April 8, 1899, p. 7, June 23, 1899, p. 7, Jan. 13, 1903, p. 10; Chronicle , Dec. 3, 1902, p. 5, Aug. 4, 1916, p. 9, Jan. 15, 1920, p. 8; San Francisco Alta California , Oct. 11, 1889,

p. 8; Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers , 278-300, discusses the military careers of a number of Black pioneers.

13. San Francisco Pacific Appeal , Jan. 27, 1872, p. 2; interview with Alfred J. Butler, July 29, 1976; San Francisco Elevator , April 7, 1865, p. 4, July 10, 1868, p. 2; ''The Palace Hotel," The Overland Monthly XV (Sept. 1875), 298-99.

14. The Manuscript Census and published censuses give details on occupations. On the competition of whites and Blacks for hotel and restaurant positions, see Call , July 14, 1883, p. 1, July 18, 1883, p. 1, Nov. 3, 1896, p. 1; Alta California , Nov. 9, 1889, p. 1, Nov. 10, 1889, p. 10; Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers , p. 149.

15. Chronicle , Feb. 7, 1904, p. 7, glorifies the opportunities in San Francisco and the achievements of its Black citizens; Oakland Sunshine , April 28, 1906, p. 1; Twelfth Census, 1900: Population , I: 18, II: 71-72; Negro Population , p. 140; Sixteenth Census, 1940: Population (Washington, D.C., 1943), part 1, pp. 599, 637, 657; Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers , p. 149. Informants invariably recalled narrow job opportunities for Black workers, and in the San Francisco Examiner , Aug. 2, 1968, p. 52, labor leader C. L. Dellums mentioned some of the difficulties of the 1920s.

16. Tenth Census, 1880: Population (Washington, D.C., 1883), I: 498, 538; conclusions on the origins and percentage of foreign-born Blacks were based on the Manuscript Census, 1860 and 1900, and the Twelfth Census, 1900; Population , II: 72. Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto (New York, [1963]), p. 3.

17. Based on the Manuscript Census, 1860.

18. Based on the Manuscript Census, 1900. The Manuscript Censuses of 1860 and 1900 give residents' place of birth; the 1900 gives that of their parents, as well.

19. Elevator , Jan. 26, 1866, p. 2 indicates that two-thirds of all Pacific slope Negroes were literate; Tenth Census, 1880: Population , I: 919, 924-25; Monroe Work, Negro Year Book, An Encyclopedia of the Negro, 1918-1919 (Tuskegee, Ala., 1919), pp. 80, 277; Thirteenth Census, 1910: Population (Washington, D.C., 1913), II: 181.

20. Pacific Appeal , June 7, 1862, p. 2 notes that a number of Blacks were educated "by the liberal school system of the Free States."

21. Henry G. Langley, comp., The San Francisco Directory, 1871 , p. 11 provided figures for analysis of age distribution.

22. Computations based on Manuscript Census, 1860; Eventh Census, 1890: Population (Washington, D.C., 1897), II: part I, p. 890; Twelfth Census, 1900: Population , II: 142-43; Thirteenth Census, 1910: Population , II: 180; and Fifteenth Census, 1930: Population , III: part 1, pp. 245, 248. For age/sex ratios of Blacks in other cities between 1890 and 1910, see United States Census Office, Negro Population , p. 156; San Francisco's proportion of males was uncommonly high among urban Black centers. Denver's was comparable in 1890, but only in that year. The only major cities that approached Black San Francisco's ratio (166 males/100 females) in 1910 were Oakland (112/100), Detroit (108/100), and Chicago (106/100). Also, other cities' female populations grew from 1920 to 1930; see Fifteenth Census, 1930: Population , II: 115.

23. Based on the Manuscript Census, 1860. Compare the changes in social structure in other California towns, as described in Mann, "The Decade After the Gold Rush." See notes 21 and 22. Fifteenth Census, 1930: Population , III: part 1, p. 248; W. E. B. Du Bois, The Black North in 1901: A Social Study (New York, rpt. 1969), p. 5.

24. Based on the Manuscript Census, 1860. Eleventh Census, 1890: Population , II: part 1, p. 890; Twelfth Census, 1900: Population , II: 344; Fifteenth Census, 1930: Population , II: 968; III: part 1, p. 248.

25. Fifteenth Census, 1930: Population , VI: 64.

26. Ibid., 59.

27. Fifteenth Census, 1930: Population, IV: 21, 38, 39.

28. Ibid.

29. Charles S. Johnson, "The New Frontage on American Life," Alain Locke, ed., The New Negro (New York, 1969 ed.), pp. 288-89.

30. Pacific Appeal, July 5, 1862, p. 2, Oct. 3, 1863, p. 2. See the account of a lecture, "Battleships of the U.S. Navy," in Elevator, June 11, 1898, p. 2. The lecture described in detail the construction and armaments of vessels, using a five-foot model of the Oregon, electric torpedoes, and the destruction of a miniature vessel by electric mines.

1. Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New York, [1944]), p. 186.

2. San Francisco Pacific Appeal, June 21, 1862, p. 3.

3. Proceedings of the First State Convention of the Colored Citizens of the State of California (San Francisco, 1855), p. 18; San Francisco Elevator, Feb. 21, 1874, p. 3; on Jonas Townsend, Elevator, Oct. 26, 1872, p. 2; and Pacific Appeal, Nov. 9, 1872, p. 2.

4. [United States Census Bureau], Original Schedule of the Eighth Census, San Francisco, 1860 and 1870 (hereafter cited, with the appropriate year, as Manuscript Census).

5. Quoted in Julia Cooley Altrocchi, The Spectacular San Franciscans (New York, 1949), p. 70.

6. San Francisco Examiner, June 16, 1889, p. 10; San Francisco Chronicle, Feb. 7, 1904, p. 7.

7. Pacific Appeal, July 12, 1862, p. 2.

8. Gunther Barth, Instant Cities: Urbanization and the Rise of San Francisco and Denver (New York, 1975); Oscar Lewis, Silver Kings: The Lives and Times of Mackay, Fair, Flood, and O'Brien, Lords of the Nevada Comstock Lode (New York, [1971]); and Neil Larry Shumsky, "Tar Flat and Nob Hill: A Social History of Industrial San Francisco During the 1870s" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, 1972) for the city's early economic history.

9. John S. Hittell, A History of the City of San Francisco and Incidentally of the State of California (San Francisco, 1878), p. 456; Frederick Douglass' Paper (Rochester, N.Y.), April 1, 1852, p. 3.

10. Hittell, History of San Francisco, p. 429.

11. On Phillips's life, see San Francisco Pacific Coast Appeal, May 3, 1902, pp. 4-5.

12. Mifflin W. Gibbs, Shadow and Light: An Autobiography (New York, 1968 ed.), p. 40.

13. Lucius Beebe and Charles M. Clegg, eds., Dreadful California, by Hinton Rowan Helper (New York, [1948]), p.59. Frank Soulè, John H. Gihon, and James Nisbet, The Annals of San Francisco (New York, 1855), p. 216. Delilah L. Beasley, The Negro Trail Blazers of California (New York, [1969] ed.), pp. 119-21; and Examiner, June 16, 1889, p. 10. William F. Rae, Westward by Rail: The New Route to the East (New York, 1871), p. 287.

14. Andrew S. Hallidie, "Manufacturing in San Francisco," The Overland Monthly XI (June 1888), 641; Oscar Lewis, ed., This Was San Francisco (New York, [1962]), pp. 180-81. Gibbs, Shadow and Light, pp. 43-44; Ira Berlin, Slaves Without Masters: The Free Negro in the Antebellum South (New York, 1974), p. 67.

15. Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers, p. 286; Manuscript Census, 1860, 1870.

16. Oscar Lewis and Carroll D. Hall, Bonanza Inn: America's First Luxury Hotel (New York, [1971]); "The Palace Hotel," The Overland Monthly XV (Sept. 1875), 298-99.

17. Oakland Sunshine, July 21, 1907, p. 2, at the East Bay Negro Historical Society.

18. Lucille Eaves, A History of California Labor Legislation (Berkeley, 1910), pp. 94-96, 90; Clyde Duniway, "Slavery in California After 1848," Annual Report of the American

Historical Association for the Year 1905 I (Washington, D.C., 1906), 241-48; Delilah L. Beasley, "Slavery in California," The Journal of Negro History III (Jan. 1918), 33-34; Rudolph M. Lapp, Blacks in Gold Rush California (New Haven, Conn., 1977), pp. 130-35; Paul Finkelman, "Slavery and Law in California" (unpublished essay in the author's possession) discusses bondage in what was technically a free state; in the Elevator, Feb. 2, 1866, p. 3, William H. Hall reported that southerners were taking slaves through Mexico to isolated regions of the west.

19. Pacific Appeal, July 12, 1862, p. 2; Examiner, June 16, 1889, p. 10; Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers, pp. 119-21, 145.

20. Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers, pp. 119-21.

21. Ibid.; Examiner, June 16, 1889, p. 10; Manuscript Census, 1860, 1870, 1880; San Francisco Spokesman, Jan. 4, 1932, p. 2; Pacific Coast Appeal, Dec. 19, 1903, p. 4; Sue Bailey Thurman, Pioneers of Negro Origin in California (San Francisco, 1949) also provides information on Dennis; Elevator, June 20, 1874, p. 3, June 27, 1874, p. 2; on Daniel Seales, the "colored millionaire of San Francisco," Oct. 18, 1890, p. 3; March 17, 1877, p. 2.

22. United States Census Office, Sixteenth Census, 1940: Population (Washington, D.C., 1943), II: 114.

23. Manuscript Census, 1860, 1870, 1880, 1900 give job patterns; the Manuscript Census, 1870 provides information on personal and property wealth for that year.

24. Thirteenth Census, 1910: Population (Washington, D.C., 1914), IV: 600-601; Fifteenth Census, 1930: Population, IV: 209-11.

25. Ibid.

26. Ibid.; Fourteenth Census, 1920: Population (Washington, D.C., 1921), IV: 1227-30.

27. Elevator, July 21, 1865, p. 2. On the difficulties of recruiting white laborers for the railroad, see Oscar Lewis, The Big Four (New York, [1966] ed.), pp. 48-51.

28. Elevator, July 21, 1865, p. 2, Nov. 29, 1865, p. 2. The use of freedmen was first proposed by William H. Hall, a Black pioneer.

29. Doris Marion Wright, "The Making of Cosmopolitan California: An Analysis of Immigration, 1848-1870," California Historical Society Quarterly X (March 1941), 65-68.

30. Elevator, May 12, 1865, p. 2.

31. Ibid.

32. Oakland Times, Nov. 5, 1879, p. 2; and Chapter 4 of this work. Eaves, History, pp. 126-27; Lewis, Big Four, pp. 148-51; Alexander Saxton, The Indispensable Enemy: Labor and the Anti-Chinese Movement in California (Berkeley, 1971), pp. 60-66.

33. Occasionally Black residents (for example, Dawson Thomas and John Woodis) worked as ship caulkers. Woodis reported $15,000 in property in 1870 and ranked among the ten wealthiest Afro-San Franciscans. Such cases were exceptions. Chronicle, July 24, 1883, p. 7; Pacific Appeal, Dec. 19, 1863, p. 3; Manuscript Census, 1870; Elevator, March 18, 1870, p. 2. See Frederick Douglass on the prejudice of white workers, Life and Times of Frederick Douglass (London, [1969 ed.]), p. 287. Based on Manuscript Census, 1860.

34. Elevator, March 16, 1865, p. 2.

35. Pacific Appeal, Jan. 2, 1864, p. 3.

36. Gibbs, Shadow and Light, pp. 43-44; Elevator, March 7, 1874, p. 2.

37. Elevator, March 25, 1870, p. 2, June 4, 1869, p. 2.

38. Chronicle, June 6, 1894, p. 5.

39. William E. B. Du Bois, The American Negro Artisan (Atlanta, Ga., 1912), p. 108; "Colored California," Crisis VI (Aug. 1913), 194.

40. Elevator, May 15, 1868, p. 2; William M. Camp, San Francisco, Port of Gold (Garden City, N.Y., 1947), pp. 317-18. For background on the white workingmen's ideology and their struggles with the Chinese, see Saxton, Indispensable Enemy .

41. Elevator, March 16, 1866, pp. 2-3, Aug. 17, 1868, pp. 2-3.

42. Soulé, Gihon, and Nisbet, Annals, p. 369.

43. Pacific Appeal, May 6, 1872, p. 2, Jan. 29, 1876, p. 1; "Palace Hotel," pp. 298-99; Pacific Appeal, Dec. 28, 1878, p. 2, Jan. 29, 1876, p. 1.

44. San Francisco Call, Nov. 15, 1875, p. 3.

45. Henry G. Langley, comp., The San Francisco Directory, 1886, 1893, 1895, 1905 (hereafter cited as City Directory ); Chronicle, Feb. 7, 1904, p. 7; Harr Wagner, ed., Notable Speeches by Notable Speakers (San Francisco, 1902), p. 322.

46. City Directory, 1876, 1878, 1895; Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers, p. 127.

47. Chronicle, Jan. 18, 1878, p. 3; City Directory, 1887; Edward Paul Eaves, "A History of the Cooks' and Waiters' Union of San Francisco" (M.A. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1930), pp. iii-iv; Chronicle, Jan. 16, 1888, p. 8; on anti-coolie organizations, see Saxton, Indispensable Enemy, pp. 175-76.

48. Call, Aug. 13, 1883, p. 4, April 27, 1887, p. 2, Jan. 31, 1887, p. 1, Jan. 30, 1887, p. 6; Chronicle, June 15, 1886, p. 5.

49. Chronicle, Jan. 17, 1888, p. 8, Jan. 19, 1888, p. 8, Jan. 16, 1888, p. 8, Jan. 27, 1888, p. 8.

50. Ibid., April 20, 1889, p. 8; Call, June 27, 1889, p. 7, June 29, 1889, p. 8, May 3, 1889, p. 7; Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers, p. 149.

51. Chronicle, Nov. 9, 1889, p. 6. Lewis and Hall, Bonanza Inn, p. 51; Lewis and Hall discuss the strike (pp. 47-48) and quote a Black worker (p. 48). I was not able to discover the source of the quotation.

52. City Directory, 1884, 1885; San Francisco Alta California, Oct. 27, 1889, p. 1.

53. Alta California, Nov. 9, 1889, p. 1.

54. Quoted in Chronicle, Nov. 10, 1889, p. 16.

55. Ibid.

56. Call, Nov. 3, 1896, p. 14.

57. John C. Kirkpatrick to Francis G. Newlands, Sept. 9, 1896, Sharon Papers, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.

58. Call, Nov. 3, 1896, p. 14.

59. Chronicle, Nov. 10, 1889, p. 16.

60. Elevator, July 3, 1886, p. 3, and Sept. 11, 1886, p. 3; San Francisco Sentinel, Sept. 20, 1890, p. 2 discusses the decline of Black artisans in the south; see Pacific Coast Appeal, Jan. 3, 1903 on mistreatment by unions; Herbert G. Gutman discusses the narrowing job opportunities in other cities in "Persistent Myths about the Afro-American Family," The Journal of Interdisciplinary History VI (Autumn 1975), 205-7; a similar decline is noted by Robert A. Warner in New Haven Negroes: A Social History (New Haven, 1940), pp. 240, 250: "When eating places have been 'modernized,' the colored service has disappeared." On the other hand, progress was noted in Boston; see John Daniels, In Freedom's Birthplace: A Study of the Boston Negroes (Boston, 1914), pp. 328-29, 355-56.

61. Peter R. Decker, Fortunes and Failures: White-Collar Mobility in Nineteenth-Century San Francisco (Cambridge, Mass., 1978).

62. Chronicle, Aug. 3, 1916, p. 1 and Aug. 16, 1916, p. 3.

63. Ibid., Aug. 9, 1916, p. 9, Aug. 16, 1916, p. 3.

64. Ibid., July 14, 1916, p. 4 and July 19, 1916, p. 6; for the strike's settlement, see July 15, 1916, p. 1.

65. Ibid., Aug. 6, 1916, p. 3.

66. Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers, p. 149.

67. Judd Lewis Kahn, "Imperial San Francisco: History of a Vision" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, 1971), pp. 21-22, mentions an occasion in which Blacks were brought to work on the waterfront. For 1916, see Robert C. Francis, "A History of Labor

on the San Francisco Waterfront" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, 1934), pp. 115, 152; Chronicle, Jan. 15, 1920, p. 8, Jan. 16, 1920, p. 22, Jan. 17, 1920, p. 11.

1. San Francisco Pacific Appeal, Sept. 20, 1862, p. 2.

2. Interview, Matt Crawford, Aug. 3, 1976.

3. Shadrack Howard was a sailmaker, a seamen, and a "victualer" in New Bedford before migrating west. He also had a reputation as an inventor. San Francisco Elevator, Dec. 1, 1865, p. 2, and Pacific Appeal, Sept. 19, 1863, p. 3. James Abajian was kind enough to provide information on Howard's early years. On Dyer, Elevator, April 7, 1865, p. 4, April 5, 1867, p. 4, June 18, 1869, p. 2; Pacific Appeal, Sept. 19, 1863, p. 3. Henry G. Langley, comp., San Francisco Directory, 1868 (hereafter referred to, with the appropriate year, as City Directory ). Another noteworthy business, the Cocoanut Pulverizing Company, was formed in 1874. Elevator, May 16, 1874, p. 3, Aug. 22, 1874, p. 2, Nov. 14, 1874, p. 3; Articles of Incorporation of the California Cocoanut Pulverizing Company, Office of the Secretary of State, California State Archives, Sacramento.

4. City Directory, 1860 lists Peter Anderson as a tailor. According to his newspaper, the Pacific Appeal (April 19, 1862, p. 4), he was a "coat renovator" and "steam scourer"; [United States Census Bureau], Original Schedule of the Eighth Census, 1860, San Francisco, California (hereafter cited as Manuscript Census, with the appropriate year), lists Anderson as the proprietor of a clothing store; it also gives the occupations of Brown, Smith, and Cornish.

5. San Francisco Examiner, June 16, 1889, p. 10.

6. Elevator, May 14, 1869, pp. 2-3; New York Weekly Anglo-African, Nov. 19, 1859, p. 1, and June 23, 1860, p. 2. James A. Fisher, "A Social History of the Negro in California, 1860-1900" (M.A. thesis, Sacramento State College, 1966), ch. 4; Delilah L. Beasley, "Slavery in California," Journal of Negro History III (Jan. 1918), 44; Elevator, April 17, 1868, pp. 2-3; John Hope Franklin, From Slavery to Freedom: A History of Negro Americans (New York, [1969] ed.), pp. 240-41, 267-68.

7. Neil Larry Shumsky, "Tar Flat and Nob Hill: A Social History of Industrial San Francisco During the 1870's" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, 1972); and Oscar Lewis, Silver Kings: The Lives and Times of Mackay, Fair, Flood, and O'Brien, Lords of the Nevada Comstock Lode (New York, [1971]) analyze these developments.

8. The "Madame" prefixed to Mrs. Phillips's name indicates the high esteem in which she was held. Elevator, June 11, 1898, p. 1 notes that she won a gold medal at the California Midwinter Exposition; San Francisco Pacific Coast Appeal, Jan. 17, 1902, p. 1, and May 3, 1902, p. 4; Oakland California Voice, Dec. 18, 1925, p. 6; San Francisco Spokesman, March 16, 1933, p. 1.

9. Pacific Coast Appeal, Jan. 17, 1902, p. 1; Robert C. Francis, "A Survey of Negro Business in the San Francisco Bay Region" (M.A. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1928).

10. Elevator, May 2, 1885, p. 2; Pacific Coast Appeal, Jan. 17, 1902, p. 4; Peter R. Decker, Fortunes and Failures: White-Collar Mobility in Nineteenth-Century San Francisco (Cambridge, Mass., 1978).

11. Francis, "Survey," pp. 4, 40; Ivan H. Light, Ethnic Enterprise in America: Business and Welfare Among Chinese, Japanese, and Blacks (Berkeley, 1972), analyzes reasons for business failures among Blacks and compares them with other non-white groups.

12. California Voice, Aug. 6, 1926, p. 2; Francis, "Survey," pp. 18-19.

13. William E. B. Du Bois, The Black North: A Social Survey (Atlanta, Ga., 1901), p. 44; Crisis VI (Aug. 1913), 194.

14. Pacific Coast Appeal, Jan. 17, 1902, p. 4; on the growth in Fresno, see San Francisco Sentinel, Dec. 13, 1890, p. 2; and in Seattle, Sentinel, Sept. 29, 1890, p. 2.

15. The Colored American Magazine IX (Nov. 1905), 648-50, and XII (Oct. 1907), 269-72.

16. Oakland Western Outlook, Jan. 2, 1915, p. 2.

17. Delilah L. Beasley, The Negro Trail Blazers of California (New York, [1969] ed.), p. 54; and Pacific Appeal, April 5, 1862, p. 2; Rudolph M. Lapp, "Negro Rights Activities in Gold Rush California," California Historical Society Quarterly XLV (March 1966), 8-10; Mifflin W. Gibbs, Shadow and Light: An Autobiography (New York, 1969 ed.), p. 46.

18. Gibbs, Shadow and Light, p. 54; San Francisco Chronicle, Feb. 2, 1895, p. 7; the Pacific Appeal and the Elevator chronicle the civil rights and political struggles, summarized in subsequent paragraphs, of the 1860s and 1870s.

19. San Francisco Daily Evening Post, June 25, 1873, p. 1.

20. William H. Blake to Governor George B. Stoneman, Jan. 1883, California State Archives.

21. Petition of William H. Blake, March 25, 1903, California State Archives.

22. Brochure of the first meeting of Afro-American League, in the California Historical Society Library, gives this information.

Racist government officials were an obstacle to employment for Blacks. In 1894 the mayor of San Francisco attempted to fire the Black clerk in City Hall solely because of his race. Chronicle, Aug. 11, 1894, p. 5; Aug. 12, 1894, p. 15; a complaint on job patronage was also voiced by the Elevator, Feb. 21, 1874.

23. Clipping, "Appeal to Reason," dated late 1906, in Negro Pamphlet Box, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley; Elevator, June 28, 1873, p. 2.

24. Interviews, Vivian Osborn Marsh, Aug. 16, 1976, Royal Towns, Aug. 30, 1973. Information on Ruth Acty is in the East Bay Negro Historical Society, Oakland. Maya Angelou, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings (New York, 1971 ed.), pp. 256-63; Patricia Myers Davidson informed me of this book's section on San Francisco.

25. Interview, Royal Towns, Aug. 30, 1973.

26. Ibid.; Lillian Dixon expressed the same opinion in a conversation with me (April 3, 1975), as did Tarea Hall Pittman and other activists in the Oral History Collection of the Oakland Museum and in the Earl Warren Oral History Project of the University of California, Berkeley. I would like to thank Mary Perry Smith and the Cultural and Ethnic Affairs Guild of the Oakland Museum for permitting me to listen to its tapes.

27. Interview, Ed Johnson, Aug. 14, 1973.

28. Interview, Eleanor Carroll Watkins, July 30, 1976.

29. Interview, Royal Towns, Aug. 30, 1973.

30. Interview, Alfred Butler, July 29, 1976. Nat Love, The Life and Adventures of Nat Love, Better Known in the Cattle Country as "Deadwood Dick" by Himself (New York, 1968 ed.), p. 135; interviews, Ed Johnson, Aug. 14, 1973, Aurelious Alberga, July 27, 1976; Western Outlook, July 22, 1916, p. 2.

31. Elevator, March 16, 1866, p. 2, June 30, 1865, p. 3.

32. Oakland Sunshine, June 21, 1902, p. 6; Western Outlook, Nov. 28, 1914, p. 2.

33. Several informants said that passing was common, and at least one was so light-complected that I mistook his race on our first encounter. See Fannie Barrier Williams, "Perils of the White Negro," The Colored American Magazine XIII (Dec. 1907), 21-23, for a contemporary opinion on passing. Family albums and photographs at the East Bay Negro Historical Society reveal the wide variation in skin tones among Black pioneers.

34. Alex Haley, ed., The Autobiography of Malcolm X (New York, 1965) abounds with examples of hustling and "street smarts."

35. "Oakland Business Men," The Colored American Magazine IX (Nov. 1905), 648-49; interview, Ed Johnson, Aug. 14, 1973.

36. Pacific Appeal, April 26, 1862, p. 4; Elevator, July 5, 1867, p. 1.

37. City Directory, 1869; Sunshine, June 21, 1902, p. 5; Elevator, Feb. 12, 1869, p. 3, Feb. 19, 1869, pp. 2-3, Feb. 26, 1869, p. 3; Sentinel, Sept. 20, 1890, p. 3, Dec. 6, 1890, p. 1; Sunshine, June 21, 1902, p. 8; Pacific Coast Appeal, Jan. 4, 1902, p. 8, Jan. 18, 1902, p. 7, Dec. 19, 1903, pp. 6-7.

38. Elevator, June 22, 1872, p. 3; Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers, pp. 121, 194-95; Chronicle, Jan. 18, 1922, p. 14; Oakland Western American, Oct. 12, 1928, p. 1. Interviews, Royal Towns, Aug. 30, 1973, Eugene Lasartemay, July 23, 1976, Claudia Cheltenham, April 17, 1973.

39. City Directory, 1865; Pacific Appeal, Aug. 1, 1863, pp. 2-3. Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers, p. 54; Rudolph M. Lapp, "Jeremiah B. Sanderson, Early California Negro Leader," Journal of Negro History LII (Oct. 1968), 321; interview, Martel Meneweather, June 13, 1975.

40. Interview, Ed Johnson, Aug. 14, 1973. In times of financial hardship, his clientele was generous: "After they found out I had that trouble, my dad dying and everything, they . . . . people gave me, I think they gave me just because they heard I'd had my troubles . . . . I made $300 in November just before Christmas. . . . Every night they'd hand me something." Ibid.

41. United States Census Office, Fifteenth Census, 1930: Population (Washington, D.C., 1931), IV: 21, 38, 39; VI: 67; Amelia Neville, The Fantastic City: Memoirs of the Social and Romantic Life of Old San Francisco (Boston, 1932), p. 148. Anne Pindell, a music teacher, gave concert performances, did fancy needlework, and was an example of a versatile woman of the mid-nineteenth century; Weekly Anglo-African, Dec. 17, 1859. p. 3; Elevator, July 28, 1865, p. 3, Dec. 18, 1865, p. 4, Jan. 12, 1866, p. 3. Other women, such as Mrs. Irwin Johnson and Mrs. John A. Barber, at the turn of the century, and Ethel Terrell, in the 1920s, took in boarders; Elevator, June 18, 1892, p. 3; Western Outlook, Jan. 27, 1900, p. 3; and interview, Ethel Terrell, April 20, 1973.

42. Fifteenth Census, 1930, VI: 50, 64-65.

1. Rudolph M. Lapp, Blacks in Gold Rush California (New Haven, Conn., 1977), pp. 12-48; San Francisco Pacific Appeal, March 21, 1863, p. 2; San Francisco Elevator, April 26, 1863, p. 3, Feb. 17, 1873, p. 3. Harold Cruse has claimed modern scholars do not recognize migration's central role in Black history; see "Black and White: Outlines of the Next Stage" (parts 1, 2, and 3), Black World XX (Jan., March, May 1971). Stephan Thernstrom and other scholars regard mobile urbanites differently from me. Thernstrom's Men in Motion: Some Data and Speculation About Urban Population Mobility in Nineteenth-Century America (Los Angeles, 1970) stresses the impersonal forces that cause workers to drift from city to city.

2. Pacific Appeal, Jan. 9, 1864, p. 3, Jan. 23, 1864, p. 3; Elevator, June 1, 1872, p. 2; also, see June 22, 1872, p. 1, Sept. 14, 1872, p. 2, Dec. 6, 1873, p. 3.

3. Elevator, Dec. 21, 1872, p. 3, Aug. 25, 1865, p. 3.

4. Theodore Hershberg, "Free Blacks in Antebellum Philadelphia: A Study of Ex-Slaves, Freeborn, and Socioeconomic Decline," Journal of Social History V (Winter 1971-72), 183-209, emphasizes the destructive impact of urbanization.

5. Elevator, June 20, 1874, p. 3, June 27, 1874, pp. 1-2, May 18, 1872, p. 2; San Francisco Examiner, June 16, 1889, p. 10; see Elevator, July 3, 1868, p. 2, June 26, 1868, p. 2 for other instances of their travels.

6. Elevator, March 19, 1869, p. 3.

7. Mifflin W. Gibbs, Shadow and Light: An Autobiography (New York, 1969 ed.), pp. 37-69; San Francisco Chronicle, Feb. 2, 1895, p. 7.

8. Elevator, April 16, 1869, p. 1.

9. Ibid., March 19, 1869, p. 3, April 12, 1873, p. 3, May 17, 1876, p. 3; Delilah L. Beasley, The Negro Trail Blazers of California (New York, [1969] ed.), pp. 191-97; Examiner, June 16, 1889, p. 10.

10. John Hope Franklin, From Slavery to Freedom: A History of Negro Americans (New York, [1969] ed.) and August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, From Plantation to Ghetto: An Interpretative History of American Negroes (New York, [1968]) are two standard texts by contemporary historians. On slavery, see John W. Blassingame, The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Old South (New York, 1972) and Kenneth M. Stampp, The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Antebellum South (New York, [1956]). For Black life in the north, see Leon F. Litwack, North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790-1860 (Chicago, 1961) and Lorenzo J. Greene, The Negro in Colonial New England, 1620-1776 (New York, 1942). On the origins of racism and race relations, see Winthrop P. Jordan, White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550-1812 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1968), pp. 116-22. See also Ira Berlin, Slaves Without Masters: The Free Negro in the Antebellum South (New York, 1974), for the situation of southern freedmen.

11. Christopher Fyfe, History of Sierra Leone (London, 1962); Hollis R. Lynch, Edward W. Blyden (1832-1912), Pan-Negro Patriot (London, 1966); Ellen Gibson Wilson, The Loyal Blacks (New York, [1976]).

12. Frederick Douglass' Paper (Rochester, N.Y.), April 1, 1852, p. 3.

13. Elevator, Nov. 29, 1867, p. 2; Pacific Appeal, July 12, 1862, p. 2.

14. Pacific Appeal, Nov. 8, 1862, p. 1, Nov. 29, 1862, p. 1, Dec. 13. 1862, pp. 1, 3, Dec. 27, 1862, p. 1, Nov. 29, 1862, p. 3, Aug. 30, 1862, p. 2, April 25, 1863, p. 1.

15. Ibid., March 7, 1863, p. 1, Aug. 30, 1862, p. 2, July 12, 1862, p. 2, July 19, 1862, p. 1, July 26, 1862, p. 1, Aug. 2, 1862, p. 1.

16. Ibid., Aug. 9, 1862, p. 1.

17. Ibid., June 7, 1862, p. 3.

18. F. W. Howay, "The Negro Immigration into Vancouver Island in 1858," British Columbia Historical Quarterly III (April, 1959), 101-13; Pacific Appeal, June 14, 1862, p. 2, April 18, 1863, p. 2, June 11, 1863, p. 2, Sept. 25, 1863, p. 3. On John Jamison Moore, see his History of the A.M.E. Zion Church, 2 vols. (York, Pa., 1884), pp. 367-73. See also Pacific Appeal, April 2, 1863, p. 3.

19. Pacific Appeal, Jan. 24, 1863, p. 2, Feb. 6, 1864, p. 2.

20. Elevator, April 2, 1869, p. 2; also, Aug. 30, 1867, pp. 2-3.

21. Pacific Appeal, Sept. 6, 1862, p. 2; Elevator, Oct. 30, 1868, p. 2, Sept. 25, 1868, p. 2.

22. Elevator, Sept. 22, 1865, p. 3.

23. Pacific Appeal, April 18, 1863, p. 2; Elevator, Aug. 4, 1865, p. 3, June 30, 1865, p. 3.

24. Elevator, April 24, 1868, p. 2, Dec. 25, 1868, p. 2.

25. Elevator, Oct. 24, 1874, p. 2; also, see New York Weekly Anglo-African, Nov. 5, 1859, p. 1; Elevator, March 13, 1868, p. 2; Frederick Douglass' Paper, April 13, 1855, p. 3.

26. Philadelphia Christian Recorder, Dec. 24, 1864, p. 206; Frederick Douglass' Paper, May 27, 1852, p. 1; Pacific Appeal, Jan. 30, 1864, p. 3; Elevator, Nov. 29, 1873, p. 3, Jan. 17, 1874, p. 2.

27. Pacific Appeal, June 14, 1862, p. 2; see also July 11, 1863, p. 2, Aug. 8, 1863, p. 3.

28. Frederick Douglass' Paper, May 27, 1852, p. 1; Elevator, Sept. 25, 1868, p. 2, April 24, 1868, p. 2, Sept. 25, 1868, p. 2. For discrimination in a mountain community, see Elevator, June 9, 1867, p. 2. On discrimination in San Francisco's hotels, see Chronicle, Sept. 28, 1897, p. 1; and San Francisco Call, Sept. 29, 1897, p. 4. Rudolph M. Lapp, "The Negro in Gold Rush California," The Journal of Negro History XIX (April 1964), 82 argues that the overland journey was especially grueling for Black travelers "because of their subordinate status." This

contention could be extended to include Afro-Americans who took other routes, as well.

29. United States Census Office, Tenth Census, 1880: Population (Washington, D.C., 1883), I: 538. Doris Marion Wright, "The Making of Cosmopolitan California: An Analysis of Immigration, 1848-1870," California Historical Society Quarterly XIX (Dec. 1940), 323-43 and XX (March 1941), 65-79. On the Chinese migration, see Gunther Barth, Bitter Strength: A History of the Chinese in the United States, 1850-1870 (Cambridge, Mass., 1964), pp. 50-76. Elevator, Oct. 24, 1874, p. 2; Petition of Executive Committee of the Colored Citizens California State Union to General George Stoneman, Governor, Concerning the Appointment of William H. Blake to Notary Public, March 3, 1883, San Francisco, California State archives, Sacramento, California; Elevator, June 19, 1868, p. 2, encourages the formation of an emigration association for Blacks. San Francisco Vindicator, Nov. 17, 1888, p. 2, mentions the end of a fraudulent migration scheme.

30. J. B. Sanderson to Catherine Sanderson, Feb. 27, 1857, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley; Rudolph M. Lapp, "Jeremiah B. Sanderson, Early California Negro Leader," Journal of Negro History LIII (Oct. 1968), 321-33; and William Wells Brown, The Black Man, His Antecedents, His Genius, and His Achievements (New York, 1969 ed.), pp. 91-92.

31. J. B. Sanderson to Catherine Sanderson, Feb. 27, 1857, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.

32. Elevator, Feb. 26, 1869, p. 2. Mifflin Gibbs landed nearly penniless after the Gold Rush. He explained he obtained accommodations, a job, and tools for his trade by dint of his perseverance and powers of persuasion: "Never disclose your poverty until the last gleam of hope has sunk beneath the horizon of your best effort, remembering that invincible determination holds the key to success." Gibbs, Shadow and Light, p. 42. In the 1920s a prospective southern migrant disregarded his wife's advice that he should purchase a round-trip ticket to California. Exhibiting the determination typical of westward-bound Blacks, he responded, "No, I'm going to sink or swim, live or die, but I am going to stay." Interview, E. A. Daly, Aug. 2, 1976.

33. Elevator, June 22, 1872, p. 1.

34. Ibid., May 8, 1868, p. 2.

35. Horace R. Cayton, "America's 10 Best Cities for Negroes," Negro Digest V (Oct. 1947), p. 4. Virginia Yans-McLaughlin, Family and Community: Italian Immigrants in Buffalo, 1880-1930 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977), ch. 3 discusses similar ways in which Italian kinship networks functioned, aiding migration and easing adjustment to the New World.

36. Pacific Appeal, July 18, 1863, p. 3. Having given copies to several whites, the correspondent reported: "They expressed great surprise at the amount of intelligence contained in its columns."

37. Pacific Appeal, Oct. 4, 1862, p. 1.

38. Elevator, Nov. 16, 1872, p. 3.

39. Ibid., Nov. 10, 1865, p. 3; San Francisco Sentinel, Sept. 10, 1890, p. 3, Sept. 20, 1890, p. 3.

40. Call, March 5, 1895, p. 7; for her life, see Alfreda M. Duster, ed., Crusade for Justice: The Autobiography of Ida B. Wells (Chicago, 1970); see the lectures advertised in Pacific Appeal, Feb. 6, 1864, p. 2; Elevator, Jan. 17, 1874, p. 2; Sentinel, Sept. 20, 1890, p. 3, for other topics; Adam Clayton Powell, Against the Tide: An Autobiography by A. Clayton Powell, Sr. (New York, 1938), p. 39; James Weldon Johnson, Along This Way: The Autobiography of James Weldon Johnson (New York, [1961]), pp. 207-8; Chronicle, Feb. 23, 1976, p. 6.

41. Oakland Directory, 1872. Original Schedule of the Ninth Census, 1870, California, San Francisco (hereafter cited as Manuscript Census, with the appropriate years); Elevator, March 22, 1873, p. 2; Studs Terkel, Hard Times: An Oral History of the Great Depression

(New York, [1970]), as quoted in Jervis Anderson, A. Philip Randolph, a Biographical Portrait (New York, [1973]), p. 160.

42. Cayton, "10 Best Cities."

43. Pacific Appeal, Oct. 31, 1863, p. 2; Elevator, Dec. 6, 1873, p. 3, May 18, 1872, p. 2, May 31, 1872, p. 3. Interview, Alfred Butler, July 29, 1976.

44. New York Times, Jan. 17, 1886, p. 10; Chronicle, Sept. 11, 1904, p. 20; San Francisco Pacific Coast Appeal, March 14, 1903, p. 4; Chronicle, Oct. 12, 1882, p. 3.

45. Tenth Census, 1880: Population, I: 416; Twelfth Census, 1990: Population (Washington, D.C., 1901), I: cxix; Fifteenth Census, 1930: Population (Washington, D.C., 1931), 1: 18, 11: 72. On the changes of the 1940s, see Charles S. Johnson, The Negro War Worker in San Francisco, A Local Self-Survey (San Francisco, 1944) and Edward Everett France, "Some Aspects of the Migration of the Negro to the San Francisco Bay Area Since 1940" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, 1962).

46. "Research suggests that selective processes were at work that brought a larger group of energetic and educated Negroes to California during the Gold Rush than might have been found in the Negro populations of the East and South." Lapp, "The Negro in Gold Rush California," p. 98. I believe these processes shaped the character of Black westerners throughout the nineteenth century. Proceedings of the Second Annual Convention of the Colored Citizens of California, 1856 (San Francisco, 1856), p. 53. Pacific Appeal, Aug. 8, 1863, p. 2.

47. "The World in California," Hutching's Illustrated California Magazine I (July 1856-June 1857), 344.

48. Nat Love, The Life and Adventures of Nat Love, Better Known in the Cattle Country as "Deadwood Dick" by Himself (New York, 1968 ed.), p. 135. Examiner, Oct. 13, 1895, p. 17; "The World in California," p. 344.

49. Elevator, June 24, 1870, p. 1.

50. Charles Grier and Price M. Cobbs, Black Rage (New York, 1968); Elevator, Aug. 8, 1863, p. 3.

1. On northern residential patterns in the nineteenth century, see James Weldon Johnson, Black Manhattan (New York, 1968 ed.), pp. 58-59; and W. E. B. Du Bois, The Philadelphia Negro (New York, [1969 ed.]). On New York at the turn of the century, see Mary White Ovington, Half A Man: The Status of the Negro in New York (New York, 1911), pp. 18-26. On the midwest, see: Allan H. Spear, Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto, 1890-1920 (Chicago, 1967); David Vassar Taylor, "Pilgrim's Progress: Black St. Paul and the Making of an Urban Ghetto, 1870-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1977); and David M. Katzman, Before the Ghetto: Black Detroit in the Nineteenth Century (Urbana, Ill., 1973). Kenneth L. Kusmer argues: "It seems doubtful that anything even remotely resembling a real black ghetto existed in American cities north or south, prior to the 1890s," A Ghetto Takes Shape: Black Cleveland, 1870-1930 (Urbana, Ill., 1976), p. 12. See also Paul J. Lammermeir, ''Cincinnati's Black Community: The Origins of a Ghetto, 1870-1880," in John H. Bracey, August Meier, and Elliot Rudwick, eds., The Rise of the Ghetto (Belmont, Calif., 1971). Historians of the south concur; for example, see: John W. Blassingame, Black New Orleans: 1860-1880 (Chicago, 1973), p. 16; Ira Berlin, Slaves Without Masters: The Free Negro in the Antebellum South (New York, 1974), p. 253.

2. For the city's growth, see: John P. Young, San Francisco: A History of the Pacific Coast Metropolis, 2 vols. (San Francisco, [1912]); Roger W. Lotchin, San Francisco, 1845-1856: From Hamlet to City (New York, 1974), pp. 3-30; Bion J. Arnold, Report on the Improvement and Development of the Transportation Facilities of San Francisco (San

Francisco, 1913); Frank Soulé, John H. Gihon, and James Nisbet, The Annals of San Francisco (New York, 1855), map opposite p. 22; Margaret G. King, "The Growth of San Francisco, Illustrated by Shifts in the Density of Population" (M.A. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1928); and Martyn J. Bowden, "Dynamics of City Growth: An Historical Geography of the San Francisco Central District, 1850-1921" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, 1967).

3. Locations of Black residents were determined with the United States Census, beginning with the Eighth, in its published and manuscript versions. Henry G. Langley, comp., The San Francisco Directory (hereafter referred to, with the appropriate year, as City Directory ) also gives addresses of Blacks and locations of institutions and businesses.

4. Richard H. Dillon, Shanghaiing Days (New York, [1961]); Benjamin Lloyd, Lights and Shades of San Francisco (San Francisco, 1876); William F. Rae, Westward by Rail: The New Route to the East (New York, 1871), p. 260; San Francisco Chronicle, March 17, 1889, p. 8, Feb. 7, 1904, p. 7; Herbert Asbury, The Barbary Coast: An Informal History of the San Francisco Underworld (New York, 1933), pp. 198-231; William M. Camp, San Francisco, Port of Gold (Garden City, N.Y., 1947), pp. 197-388; Young, San Francisco, II: 660-61; Andrew S. Hallidie, "Manufacturing in San Francisco," The Overland Monthly XI (June 1888), 637. Two useful views of the cityscape are: George H. Goddard, "Bird's Eye View of the City of San Francisco" (1868); and William R. Wheaton, "Index Map of the City of San Francisco" (1867); both are in the Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.

5. [United States Census Bureau], Original Schedule of the Eighth Census, 1860, San Francisco, California (hereafter cited as Manuscript Census, with the appropriate year). City Directory, 1860 gives the address of the Golden Gate Boarding House; San Francisco Elevator, June 30, 1865, p. 3; Delilah L. Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers of California (New York, [1969] ed.), p. 122; on Callender's boarders, Manuscript Census, 1880, and Elevator, March 17, 1877, p. 2; on Callender's career, San Francisco Examiner, June 16, 1889, p. 10; for problems of an old Black seaman, Elevator, Oct. 25, 1873, p. 2. San Francisco Daily Alta California, Nov. 29, 1889, p. 1.

6. San Francisco Call, Nov. 8, 1897, p. 32; Soulé, Gihon, and Nisbet, Annals, p. 472; Harold Langley, "The Negro in the Navy and the Merchant Marine," Journal of Negro History LII (Oct. 1967), 273-86; and Frederick Harrod, Manning the New Navy (Westport, Conn., 1978) discuss Blacks in the late nineteenth-century U.S. Navy. Asbury, Barbary Coast, pp. 104-5; for a romantic depiction of this environment in the 1920s, see the tale of the Jazz King in Oakland Western Outlook, Feb. 25, 1927, p. 7; Charles Keeler, San Francisco and Thereabout (San Francisco, 1902), pp. 14-15 gives a similar portrait.

7. Dillon, Shanghaiing Days, p. 180; Daily Alta California, Nov. 29, 1888, p. 1, Dec. 15, 1886, p. 1; Young, San Francisco, II: 623; Edwin S. Morby, trans. and ed., San Francisco in the Seventies: The City As Viewed by a Mexican Political Exile, by Guillermo Prieto (San Francisco, 1938), p. 75; Walton Bean, California: An Interpretive History (San Francisco, [1968]), pp. 287-88. Interview, Aurelious Alberga, July 27, 1976.

8. Bean, California, pp. 287-88; Arnold, Report, p. xvii.

9. Horace R. Cayton, Long Old Road (Seattle, [1967]), pp. 124-26. Aurelious P. Alberga, J. C. Rivers and John Taylor ran bootblack stands near the terminal building; San Francisco Western Appeal, April 1, 1927, p. 3; City Directory, 1900; Western Appeal, May 3, 1922, p. 1.

10. Interview, Royal Towns, Aug. 30, 1973.

11. Call, Nov. 8, 1897, p. 32; Soulé, Gihon, and Nisbet, Annals, p. 472; Asbury, Barbary Coast, pp. 104-5; Workers of the Writers' Program of the Works Project Administration in Northern California, San Francisco: The Bay and its Cities (New York, 1947), pp. 214-16.

12. San Francisco Vindicator, March 16, 1887, p. 1, June 11, 1887, p. 2; Call, July 10, 1900, p. 12, April 7, 1900, p. 7.

13. Vindicator, May 16, 1887, p. 1; Workers of the Writers' Program, San Francisco, pp. 106-7; Clifton Rather, Here's How: An Autobiography (Oakland, 1968-70), pp. 21-23; Asbury, Barbary Coast, pp. 105, 130, 235, 255; Sally Stanford, The Lady of the House: The Autobiography of Sally Stanford (New York, 1966), pp. 46-47, 66-69; Western Appeal, Jan. 13, 1928, p. 8, tells of the dispersal of resorts after the closing of vice districts. Elizabeth Anne Brown, "The Enforcement of Prohibition in San Francisco, California" (M.A. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1948), pp. 20, 22, 31-39; San Francisco Spokesman, Sept. 23, 1932, p. 1 tells of a Black social "club" in the Western Addition.

14. Manuscript Census, 1880.

15. Asbury, Barbary Coast, p. 130; Alta California, Jan. 30, 1873, p. 1; San Francisco Evening Bulletin, Jan. 30, 1873, p. 3; Chronicle, Jan. 30, 1873, p. 3, Oct. 22, 1875, p. 3. ( Daily Alta California, Jan. 31, 1873, p. 1 gives details of Tuers's trials.) Contrast this case with that reported in the Daily Alta California, Sept. 6, 1888, p. 2.

16. Elevator, Dec. 29, 1865, p. 2, Jan. 7, 1874, p. 3, Oct. 24, 1874, p. 2.

17. San Francisco Pacific Appeal, March 5, 1864, p. 4, Jan. 7, 1871, p. 2; City Directory, 1860, p. 152; Elevator, Oct. 18, 1871, p. 2.

18. Elevator, June 11, 1898, p. 3, Oct. 18, 1890, p. 3, June 16, 1892, p. 3.

19. Ibid., June 11, 1898, p. 3; City Directory, 1900 and 1970 ; Marshall and Jean Stearns, Jazz Dance: The Story of American Vernacular Dance (New York, [1968]), p. 128; Western Appeal, Oct. 19, 1921; Oakland Pacific Times, July 19, 1912, p. 2; Samuel Dickson, San Francisco Kaleidoscope (Stanford, Calif., 1949), pp. 254-55; Examiner, Dec. 26, 1921, p. 1.

20. This world is depicted in: Ann Charters, Nobody: The Story of "Bert" Williams (London, [1970]); Rudi Blesh and Harriet Janis, They All Played Ragtime (New York, 1971 ed.); Alan Lomax, Mister Jelly Roll: The Fortunes of Jelly Roll Morton, New Orleans Creole and "Inventor of Jazz" (New York, [1950]); James Weldon Johnson, Along This Way (New York, [1961] ed.), and Johnson, Black Manhattan.

21. Quote is from Oscar Lewis, ed., This Was San Francisco (New York, 1962), pp. 174-75. Bowden, Dynamics, p. 57; Samuel Williams, "The City of the Golden Gate," Scribners' Monthly X (July 1875), 270; the Manuscript Censuses of 1880 and 1900 were helpful for analyzing locations of different citizens and groups because they give street addresses. Lloyd, Lights and Shades, p. 79, and the account of Chinatown, is valuable; on the Latin Quarter, see Call, March 6, 1895, p. 4.

22. Lotchin, San Francisco, pp. 100-135 is a good discussion of ethnicity in San Francisco.

23. Manuscript Census, 1880.

24. Ibid. Cloverdale Reveille, April 8, 1882, p. 2; Roberto Daughters brought this article to my attention.

25. Spokesman, Sept. 20, 1934, p. 1; James Abajian informed me of Jean Ng. Also ibid., Jan. 20, 1933, p. 1.

26. Interviews, Ethel Terrell, April 20, 1973, Claudia Cheltenham, April 17, 1973. Mrs. Cheltenham could give no reason for being presumed Spanish; her granddaughter, Jewel Cooper, pointed out that it would have been easy for her to assume a Spanish identity, as the aged informant spent several years in Panama as a young girl and knew Spanish.

27. Manuscript Census, 1880.

28. Sanborn Fire Insurance Maps, Department of Geography, California State University, Northridge, California.

29. City Directory, 1865, p. 599; City Directory, 1872, pp. 870, 875-76. Elevator, March 18, 1870, p. 2, Nov. 29, 1873, p. 2, Dec. 27, 1863, p. 2, May 2, 1885, p. 3, June 18, 1892, p. 3, June 11, 1898, p. 3; San Francisco Pacific Coast Appeal, May 3, 1902, p. 8. See King, "Growth of San Francisco"; Bowden, "Dynamics"; Arnold, Report; and Judd Lewis Kahn,

"Imperial San Francisco: History of a Vision" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, 1971) on the rebuilding of the metropolis. Charles S. Johnson, The Negro War Worker in San Francisco; A Local Self-Survey (San Francisco, 1944), p. 3.

30. Manuscript Census.

31. Chronicle, Feb. 7, 1904, p. 7.

32. Johnson, Negro War Worker, p. 3; Spokesman, July 6, 1933, p. 6; Maya Angelou, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings (New York, 1971 ed.) describes the city in the 1940s (Patricia Myers Davidson informed me of this); Chronicle, Sept. 19, 1945, p. 13. The City Directory, 1860 and 1870, the Manuscript Censuses of 1880 and 1900, and Charles F. Tilghman, comp., Colored Directory of the Leading Cities of Northern California, 1916-1917 (Oakland, 1916) all indicated widespread distribution of Afro-Americans in San Francisco and the East Bay.

33. Interview, Royal Towns, Aug. 30, 1973. Towns's father spoke Spanish and some Chinese.

34. Gunther Barth, "Metropolism and Urban Elites in the Far West," in Frederic Cople Jaher, ed., The Age of Industrialism in America: Essays in Social Structure and Cultural Values (New York, 1968), pp. 158-87; Gilbert Osofsky, "The Enduring Ghetto," Journal of American History LV (Sept. 1968), 243; Allan Spear, "The Origins of the Urban Ghetto, 1870-1915," in Nathan I. Huggins, et al., eds., Key Issues in the Afro-American Experience, 2 vols. (New York, [1971]), II: 153-56.

35. Young, San Francisco, II: 618 (on the growth of Oakland) and II: 939 (on its manufacturing increase). Arnold, Report, pp. xvii, 13; Young, San Francisco, II: 575-76; Edgar M. Kahn, Cable Car Days in San Francisco (Stanford, Calif., [1944]), pp. 27-70.

36. Young, San Francisco, II: 862, 864; Arnold, Report, table 3 and plate 5 for data on the shift of the San Francisco population; also King, "Growth of San Francisco," pp. 119-23, 142-45.

37. United States Census Office, Fifteenth Census, 1930: Population (Washington, D.C., 1931), I: 165, II: 72 for the number of Blacks in Oakland in 1930 and in previous decades; Fourteenth Census, 1920: Population, III: 127 indicates the move of Black folk to the Western Addition and shows that few lived in the city center.

38. Young, San Francisco, II: 618; Tenth Census, 1880: Population (Washington, D.C., 1883), I: 416; Fifteenth Census, II: 72; Sixteenth Census, 1940: Population (Washington, D.C., 1943), part 1, pp. 599, 637, 657. Arnold, Report, plate 5.

39. In Chronicle, June 6, 1894, p. 5, a Black minister mentions union discrimination. Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers, p. 159.

40. Chronicle, June 16, 1947, p. 10.

41. Daily Alta California, Oct. 21, 1889, p. 8; Spokesman, March 19, 1932, p. 3; Oakland Sunshine, Dec. 21, 1907, p. 2; interview, Claudia Cheltenham, April 17, 1973.

42. Fifteenth Census, VI: 61; higher rents were charged in San Francisco after 1906; see Young, San Francisco, II: 864; Chronicle, Feb. 7, 1904, p. 3; on Black Oaklanders, see "A Successful Business Venture," The Colored American Magazine XIII (Dec. 1907), 269-72. See the pictures of Bay Area homes throughout Tilghman, Directory .

43. Chronicle, Nov. 17, 1947, p. 24, June 16, 1947, p. 10. See also ibid., Sept. 19, 1945, p. 13, in which a National Urban League spokesman compares San Francisco's Black district of the 1940s to Harlem a generation earlier: "San Francisco's Negro district is today right where the New York and Chicago districts were forty years ago." Thomas Lee Philpott, The Slum and the Ghetto: Neighborhood Deterioration and Middle-Class Reform, Chicago, 1880-1930 (New York, 1978) is an excellent comparative analysis of the neighborhoods and housing of Blacks and white ethnic groups.

44. Interview, Ed Johnson, Aug. 14, 1973. See also Cayton, Long Old Road, pp. 1-40, for an account of his childhood in the Pacific Northwest; and Elmer R. Rusco, "Good Time

Coming?": Black Nevadans in the Nineteenth Century (Westport, Conn., [1975]). Los Angeles's Black population was also distributed before the 1920s; see Lawrence B. de Graaf, "The City of Black Angels: Emergence of the Los Angeles Ghetto, 1890-1930," Pacific Historical Review XXXIX (Aug. 1970), 333.

45. John Daniels, In Freedom's Birthplace: A Study of the Boston Negroes (Boston, 1914), pp. 150, 459-60. Sam B. Warner, Jr., Streetcar Suburbs: The Process of Growth in Boston, 1870-1900 (New York, 1971).

1. Eugene Berwanger, The Frontier Against Slavery: Western Anti-Negro Prejudice and the Slavery Extension Controversy (Urbana, Ill., 1967), p. 60; Leonard Pitt, The Decline of the Californios: A Social History of the Spanish-Speaking Californians, 1846-1890 (Berkeley, 1966); Clyde Duniway, "Slavery in California After 1848," Annual Report of the American Historical Association for the Year 1905, I (Washington, D.C., 1906), 241-48; James Fisher, "The Struggle for Negro Testimony in California, 1851-1863," Southern California Quarterly LI (Dec. 1969), 313-24; Rudolph M. Lapp, Blacks in Gold Rush California (New Haven, Conn., 1977), pp. 126-58, 210-38; Philip M. Montesano, "The San Francisco Black Community, 1849-1890; The Quest for 'Equality Before the Law'" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Santa Barbara, 1974); Gerald Stanley, "Racism and the Early Republican Party: The 1856 Presidential Election in California," Pacific Historical Review XLIII (May 1974), 171-87; Charles Wollenburg, ed., Ethnic Conflict in California History (Los Angeles, 1970); Wollenburg, All Deliberate Speed: Segregation and Exclusion in California Schools (Berkeley, 1976).

William A. Leidesdorff, a West Indian of African descent, came to Yerba Buena in the 1840s and enjoyed the non-racist climate. He prospered and became a member of the city council. Afro-Americans have claimed him as a member of their group, even though he did not represent himself as a Black person in California. Frank Soulé, John H. Gihon, and James Nisbet, The Annals of San Francisco (New York, 1855), p. 201; Delilah L. Beasley, The Negro Trail Blazers of California (New York, [1969]), pp. 107-9.

2. Duniway, "Slavery in California"; Fisher, "Struggle for Negro Testimony"; Paul Finkelman, "Slavery and Law in California" (unpublished essay in the author's possession); on intermarriage, San Francisco Spokesman, April 30, 1932, p. 3.

3. J. D. Brotherwick, Three Years in California (London, 1867), p. 163; cited in Berwanger, Frontier Against Slavery, p. 61; see Chapters 3 and 4.

4. San Francisco Pacific Appeal, Jan. 15, 1876, p. 1; San Francisco Call, April 7, 1897, p. 11, Sept. 29, 1897, p. 4; San Francisco Chronicle, Jan. 19, 1876, p. 2; Herbert Aptheker, A Documentary History of the Negro, I (New York, 1967 ed.), 373-74; Oakland Western Outlook, March 6, 1915, p. 2, March 13, 1915, p. 2.

5. Call, Sept. 29, 1897, p. 4, Sept. 28, 1897, p. 1.

6. Call, Sept. 28, 1897, p. 1, Sept. 29, 1897, p. 4; despite Jackson's claims, the San Francisco Vindicator, Nov. 17, 1888, p. 2, mentioned an incident in which he experienced discrimination; Call, Aug. 1, 1897, p. 16.

7. Alexander Saxton, The Indispensable Enemy: Labor and the Anti-Chinese Movement in California (Berkeley, 1971); Gunther Barth, Bitter Strength, A History of the Chinese in the United States, 1850-1870 (Cambridge, Mass., 1964); and Roger Daniels, The Politics of Prejudice: The Anti-Japanese Movement in California, and the Struggle for Japanese Exclusion (Berkeley, 1962).

8. James Weldon Johnson, Along This Way: The Autobiography of James Weldon

Johnson (New York, 1968 ed.), pp. 207-8; Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New York, [1944]), p. 186, used Johnson's views to publicize the favorable racial climate of California.

9. Incidents on streetcars are reported in the San Francisco Daily Alta California , Oct. 18, 1866, p. 1, involving Mary Ellen "Mammy" Pleasant; in the Pacific Appeal , Nov. 21, 1863, p. 2; and in the San Francisco Elevator , Feb. 18, 1870, p. 2. Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers, p. 65; Elevator, May 14, 1869, p. 2; Western Outlook, March 6, 1915, p. 2; and San Francisco Sun, June 11, 1948, p. 4, refer to other kinds of discrimination.

10. For discussions of Black institutions in two other cities, see Daniel Perlman, "Organizations of the Free Negro in New York City, 1800-1860," The Journal of Negro History LVI (July 1971), 181-97, and John Blassingame, Black New Orleans: 1860-1880 (Chicago, 1973).

11. Pacific Appeal, Sept. 20, 1862, p. 2.

12. Ibid., June 7, 1862, p. 2; August Meier, Negro Thought in America, 1880-1915: Racial Ideologies in the Age of Booker T. Washington (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1963) traces developments in Black social thought following Reconstruction.

13. Pacific Appeal, June 7, 1862, p. 2.

14. Elevator, June 10, 1870, p. 2. Until modern times, California law permitted separate but equal educational facilities; Wollenburg, All Deliberate Speed, pp. 26-27, 179; much of the scholarly literature focuses on nineteenth-century antislavery and civil rights struggles; see Chapter 7, note 1.

15. Pacific Appeal, June 7, 1862, p. 2.

16. Ibid. On the founding of the Mirror, see Proceedings of the Second Annual Convention of the Colored Citizens of the State of California, December 10, 1856 (San Francisco, 1855).

17. Pacific Appeal, Aug. 29, 1863, p. 2, June 6, 1863, p. 3, June 20, 1863, p. 3, May 23, 1863, p. 3.

18. Proceedings of the First State Convention of the Colored Citizens of the State of California (San Francisco, 1855); to view the conventions in historical perspective, see Howard Holman Bell, ed., Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions, 1830-1864 (New York, 1969 ed.), and A Survey of the Negro Convention Movement, 1830-1861 (New York, 1969 ed.); and Lapp, Blacks in Gold Rush California, pp. 186-209; Pacific Appeal, Aug. 1, 1863, pp. 2-3; Elevator, Sept. 11, 1868, p. 2, Oct. 16, 1868, p. 2, and, on Yates, Nov. 27, 1868, p. 3.

19. Elevator, Sept. 11, 1868, p. 2, Oct. 16, 1868, p. 2.

20. Elevator, Sept. 11, 1868, p. 2.

21. Elevator, Nov. 3, 1865, p. 2, April 7, 1865, p. 1, Dec. 1, 1865, p. 2, June 25, 1867, p. 3; Pacific Appeal, Aug. 31, 1867, p. 3; African Methodist Episcopal Church, A.M.E. Church Proceedings (San Francisco, 1863), p. 24.

22. Pacific Appeal, May 30, 1863, pp. 2-3, Sept. 2, 1863, p. 1. Sept. 19, 1863, p. 3; Henry G. Langley, comp., The San Francisco Directory, 1865 (hereafter referred to as City Directory, with the appropriate year); Elevator, Nov. 3, 1865, p. 2, March 30, 1866, p. 2, June 17, 1870, p. 2. James R. Starkey, from Newbern, North Carolina, obtained the funds for his freedom by writing northern abolitionists; Carter G. Woodson, The Mind of the Negro as Reflected in Letters Written During the Crisis (Washington, D.C., 1926), pp. 76-82, reprints Starkey's letters. San Francisco Pacific Coast Appeal, April 23, 1904, p. 2; Chronicle, Feb. 7, 1904, p. 7 discusses Theophilus B. Morton and J. C. Rivers, though not by name; also, see the Oakland Independent, Dec. 14, 1929, p. 1.

23. Elevator, Nov. 3, 1865, p. 2, June 25, 1863, p. 3; Pacific Appeal, June 20, 1863, p. 3; Martin Robison Delany, The Condition, Elevation, Emigration, and Destiny of the Colored People of the United States (New York, 1968 ed.), p. 104.

24. New York Weekly Anglo-African, Nov. 26, 1859, p. 1; Pacific Appeal, April 12, 1862, p. 2; Elevator, June 25, 1869, p. 3, June 20, 1874, p. 3, June 27, 1874, p. 2; Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers, pp. 134, 146, 190-91, 194-97; Chronicle, Jan. 18, 1922, p. 14.

25. The classic critique of Black middle-class life is, of course, E. Franklin Frazier, Black Bourgeoisie (Glencoe, Ill., 1957). James M. McPherson, The Abolitionist Legacy: From Reconstruction to the NAACP (Princeton, [1975]) discusses the postbellum activities of these humanitarians, including some Black reformers, but does not mention San Franciscans.

26. Richard Robert Wright, The Bishops of the African Methodist Episcopal Church (Nashville, Tenn., 1963), pp. 350-52; Pacific Appeal, June 6, 1863, p. 3.

27. Wright, Bishops, pp. 350-52, 551, quoted in Larry George Murphy, "Equality Before the Law: The Struggle of Nineteenth-Century Black Californians for Social and Political Justice" (Ph.D. diss., Graduate Theological Union, 1973), p. 67; Christian Recorder (Philadelphia), Jan. 21, 1864, p. 10, Sept. 24, 1864, p. 153; Pacific Appeal, June 6, 1863, p. 3. The Weekly Anglo-African, Jan. 14, 1860, p. 3, claimed Ward had "but few equals in the A.M.E. pulpit." See Elevator, Sept. 11, 1868, p. 2, for the steamboat passenger's letter.

28. Weekly Anglo-African, Jan. 14, 1860, p. 3; Wright, Bishops, pp. 350-52; Pacific Appeal, June 6, 1863, p. 3.

29. Sue Bailey Thurman, Pioneers of Negro Origin in California (San Francisco, 1949); David Henry Bradley, Sr., A History of the A.M.E. Zion Church, 2 vols. (Nashville, Tenn., [1956 and 1957]), I: 162-67, II: 38; on John Jamison Moore, see Moore's History of the A.M.E. Zion Church (York, Pa., 1884), pp. 367-73; Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers, p. 160; City Directory, 1862, p. 599 and 1865, p. 552; Christian Recorder, Jan. 21, 1864, p. 10. A copy of the Lunar Visitor (San Francisco), I (Feb. 1862) is in the Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.

30. Alexander Walters, My Life and Work (New York, [1917]), pp. 45-49. Walters claimed: "The three years I spent in San Francisco were the happiest and most devoted of all my life." He there met Mary E. Pleasants, who donated two hundred dollars for him to attend a church conference in New York City in 1884 (p. 46).

31. Call, April 27, 1889, p. 5; and New York Age, May 18, 1889, p. 41; see also Weekly Anglo-African, June 23, 1860, p. 2, and July 7, 1860, p. 1; Delany, Condition, pp. 102-4; Irving Garland Penn, The Afro-American Press and Its Editors (Springfield, Mass., 1891), p. 91-99; Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers, pp. 252-53; Aptheker, Documentary History, 1:99, 109, 133, 163-64, 238, 235, 11:624, 651; for an account of Bell's character, Elevator, July 3, 1868, p. 2; Dec. 21, 1872, p. 2, Dec. 29, 1872, p. 2 for a possible recounting of Bell's childhood. Benjamin Quarles, Black Abolitionists (New York, [1969]), pp. 20, 31, 95, 106-7, 123, 171; Howard Holman Bell, "The Negro Convention Movement, 1830-1860, New Perspectives," Negro History Bulletin XIV (Feb. 1951), 103-5; Bell, "National Negro Conventions of the Middle 1840s: Moral Suasion vs. Political Action," The Journal of Negro History XLII (Oct. 1957), 247-60; Philip M. Montesano, "Philip Alexander Bell, San Francisco Black Community Politician of the 1860s" (Typed manuscript, Special Collections, San Francisco Public Library); William Wells Brown, The Rising Sun, or The Antecedents and Advancement of the Colored Race (Boston, 1876), pp. 470-72; Sally Garey, "Some Aspects of Mid-Nineteenth Century Black Uplift: Philip A. Bell and the San Francisco Elevator " (Seminar paper, University of California, Berkeley, 1967) introduced me to the journalist and his newspapers.

32. Aptheker, Documentary History, I: 109, 133, 163, 164, 238; Age, May 11, 1889, p. 4, May 18, 1889, p. 1; Call, April 27, 1889, p. 5; Elevator, July 14, 1865, p. 2, Dec. 21, 1872, p. 2, Dec. 29, 1872, p. 2; Quarles, Black Abolitionists, p. 20; Bell, "Negro Conventions," p. 258; Delany, Condition, pp. 102-3.

33. Bell, "Negro Conventions," pp. 257-60; Age, May 11, 1889, p. 4, May 18, 1889, p. 1; see Martin R. Delany's depiction of Bell in Blake, or The Huts of America (Boston, [1970]), pp. 157, 188, 318-19.

34. Weekly Anglo-African, June 23, 1860, p. 2, July 7, 1860, p. 1; on the famous case of the California slave, Rudolph M. Lapp, Archy Lee, A California Fugitive Slave (San Francisco, 1969); Elevator, May 6, 1879, p. 3; Alta California, Dec. 4, 1879, p. 1, cited in Montesano, "Philip Alexander Bell," p. 17.

35. George P. Rowell and Co., American Newspaper Directory (New York, 1869) gives circulations of 800 each for the Pacific Appeal and the Elevator . The San Francisco Executive Committee claimed it cost $150 per month to support a "first-class weekly paper" like the Mirror of the Times: Elevator, May 26, 1865, p. 3; Pacific Appeal , March 6, 1876, on the hardships Bell endured in his old age; Call , April 27, 1889, p. 5.

36. Frederick Douglass, Life and Times of Frederick Douglass (Hartford, Conn., 1881); The Colored American, Pacific Appeal, and Elevator are available for the interested reader. William M. Trotter, editor of the Boston Guardian and opponent of Booker T. Washington, also suffered a tragic end; see Stephen R. Fox, The Guardian of Boston: William Monroe Trotter (New York, 1971).

37. Francis N. Lortie, Jr., "San Francisco's Black Community, 1870-1890: Dilemma in the Struggle for Equality" (M.A. thesis, San Francisco State College, 1970), pp. 32-39; Elevator, Sept. 8, 1888, p. 2; Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers, pp. 253-56, 260-61; Pacific Coast Appeal, Dec. 5, 1903, p. 2.

38. Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers, p. 253; San Francisco Examiner, June 16, 1889, p. 10; William J. Simmons, Men of Mark (Chicago, 1970 ed.), pp. 711-12; Emma Lou Thornbrough, "American Negro Newspapers, 1880-1914," Business History Review XL (Winter 1966), 467-90 analyzes the successes and failures of Black journals. Only a few issues of the Vindicator and the Sentinel remain.

39. Quoted in Robert C. Francis, "A History of Negro Business in the San Francisco Bay Region" (M.A. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1928), pp. 35-36. Interview, E. A. Daly, Aug. 2, 1976; Oakland California Voice, March 4, 1927, p. 2.

40. San Francisco Western Appeal, Aug. 20, 1926, p. 4; Independent, Dec. 14, 1929, p. 11; Oakland Tribune, Oct. 14, 1934.

41. Pacific Appeal, June 7, 1862, p. 2, April 5, 1862, p. 2; Elevator, Aug. 18, 1865, p. 2, Nov. 10, 1865, p. 3, Nov. 15, 1873, pp. 2-3; Chronicle, Sept. 1, 1881, p. 3, Oct. 12, 1882, p. 3; Call, Oct. 11, 1882, p. 3.

42. Pacific Appeal, March 7, 1863, p. 4, Sept. 20, 1862, p. 4; Daily Alta California, Sept. 17, 1889, p. 4; Chronicle, Oct. 29, 1889, pp. 7-8; Articles of Incorporation of the Afro-American State League of California, Office of the Secretary of State, California State Archives; T. B. Morton, Vindication of Honorable M. M. Estee. Address delivered by T. B. Morton, president of the Afro-American League of San Francisco at its regular Monthly meeting, July 2, 1894 (San Francisco, 1894); Chronicle, Jan. 9, 1903, p. 9, Aug. 7, 1903, p. 7, Jan. 12, 1903, p. 10, Sept. 17, 1904, p. 5; Western Outlook, Dec. 10, 1927, p. 1, June 11, 1927, p. 1. See also Emma Lou Thornbrough, "The National Afro-American League, 1887-1908," The Journal of Southern History XVII (Nov. 1961), 494-512.

43. Articles of Incorporation of the Afro-American State League of California, Office of the Secretary of State, California State Archives.

44. Pacific Appeal, June 21, 1862, p. 3; Elevator, Nov. 10, 1865, p. 3, Nov. 17, 1865, p. 3; April 22, 1870, p. 3; Call, July 3, 1898, p. 71.

45. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Negro Church (Atlanta, Ga., 1903); E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro Family in the United States (Chicago, 1966 rev. and abridged ed.); Melvin D. Williams, Community in a Black Pentecostal Church: An Anthropological Study (Pittsburgh, 1974) is an excellent analysis of the role of the church in the life of poor and working-class Black urbanites.

46. Pacific Appeal, May 5, 1862, p. 1, June 6, 1863, p. 3; Frederick Douglass' Paper

(Rochester, N.Y.), Sept. 22, 1854, p. 4; City Directory, 1862, p. 552; 1865, p. 599; Christian Recorder , Aug. 29, 1863, p. 137; Weekly Anglo-African , Nov. 19, 1859, p. 1.

47. Christian Recorder, Sept. 24, 1864, p. 153, Jan. 21, 1864, p. 10; Pacific Appeal, Nov. 7, 1863, p. 3, March 5, 1864, p. 3; Elevator, April 7, 1865, p. 2; City Directory, 1865, p. 599.

48. City Directory, 1872, pp. 875-76; Elevator, April 18, 1874, p. 2.

49. Christian Recorder, Sept. 24, 1864, p. 153; City Directory, 1872 , p. 876; Elevator , Sept. 17, 1869, p. 2. Bishop John Jamison Moore described the San Francisco A.M.E. Zion Church in 1884 as "worth fifty thousand dollars, the colored people in this country having none which excell it." Moore, History , p. 370.

50. City Directory, 1865, p. 599; Elevator, March 18, 1869, p. 2, April 25, 1874, p. 2.

51. A.M.E. Church, A.M.E. Church Proceedings, 1904, tables following p. 34; for the Oakland churches of the 1930s, see Spokesman, Feb. 16, 1933, p. 4. Third Baptist Church, Through His Power, at the California Historical Society.

52. Pacific Appeal, May 24, 1862, p. 2, June 7, 1862, p. 2, April 5, 1862, p. 2; Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers . Articles and histories of special interest for Negroes were also published, as well as articles on Mohammed the prophet, the customs of Abyssinians, the underground railroad in New York, and the history of the Negro race; Elevator, Jan. 18, 1873, p. 2, March 2, 1866, p. 1, March 9, 1866, p. 2, March 12, 1869, p. 1; Pacific Appeal, Nov. 18, 25, 1871, p. 1.

53. Daily Alta California, Nov. 29, 1889, p. 8; Elevator, Jan. 5, 1866, p. 2. Edwin S. Redkey, Black Exodus: Black Nationalist and Back to Africa Movements, 1890-1910 (New Haven, Conn., 1969) discusses Negroes and Africa at the turn of the century.

54. Elevator, July 7, 1865, p. 2, May 14, 1869, p. 2; Pacific Appeal, July 6, 1872, p. 2; Pacific Coast Appeal, May 3, 1902, pp. 4-5; Call, June 6, 1894, p. 3; Elevator, Jan. 8, 1869, p. 3, July 3, 1886, p. 2; Pacific Appeal, Dec. 12, 1863, p. 4, Aug. 15, 1863, p. 1, Feb. 27, 1864, p. 2; Western Outlook, Jan. 8, 1927, p. 2; Call, Sept. 15, 1896, p. 4; see the use of the expression "of African descent" in Elevator, Nov. 29, 1873, p. 2; and another use of "African" for American Blacks in Pacific Appeal, Sept. 6, 1862. Of course the word is also used in the name of the African Methodist Episcopal Churches; California Voice, Dec. 18, 1925, p. 2.

55. Vindicator, July 30, 1887, p. 1; Daily Alta California, Sept. 17, 1889, p. 4.

56. John A. Barber was elected Most Worshipful Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of F. and A.A.Y. Masons for the State of California, Elevator, July 7, 1865, p. 3; and Examiner, June 16, 1889, p. 10; Pacific Appeal, Nov. 5, 1870, p. 2.

57. Pacific Appeal, Sept. 19, 1863, p. 4, Dec. 26, 1863, p. 4; Christian Recorder, Sept. 24, 1864, p. 153, Oct. 22, 1864; Age, Dec. 14, 1890, p. 4.

58. Elevator, March 25, 1870, p. 2; Stockton Evening Mail, May 9, 1892, p. 5; I would like to thank Professor Howard Dodson for bringing the Stockton article to my attention.

59. Chronicle, Feb. 7, 1904, p. 7. Clipping in Afro-American file of George C. Pardee Papers, Banoroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.

60. Elevator, Nov. 24, 1865, p. 2.

1. John Blassingame, Black New Orleans, 1860-1880 (Chicago, [1973]), pp. 174-75; Barbara Ann Richardson, "A History of Blacks in Jacksonville, Florida, 1860-1895; A Socio-Economic and Political Study" (Ph.D. diss., Carnegie-Mellon University, 1975), p. 99; George M. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817-1914 (New York, 1971), ch. 8-10; and Thomas F. Gossett, Race: The History of an Idea in America (Dallas, 1963), ch. 4, 7, 8, 11, 14, treat race theories at the turn of the last century. The classic examples of Negrophobic literature are Thomas Dixon, The Leopard's Spots: A Romance of the White Man's Burden (New York, 1902), and The

Clansman: An Historical Romance of the Ku Klux Klan (New York, 1905). D. W. Griffith based his film The Birth of a Nation on The Clansman .

2. Frank Soulé, John H. Gihon, and James Nishbet, The Annals of San Francisco (New York, 1855), pp. 257-58; Amelia Neville, The Fantastic City: Memoirs of the Social and Romantic Life of Old San Francisco (Boston, 1932), pp. 179-80; Evelyn Wells, Champagne Days of San Francisco (New York, 1947), pp. 117, 173-74.

3. Julia Cooley Altrocchi, The Spectacular San Franciscans (New York, 1949), p. 69; Edwin S. Morby, trans. and ed., San Francisco in the Seventies: The City As Viewed By A Mexican Political Exile, by Guillermo Prieto (San Francisco, 1938), sketch opposite p. 70; San Francisco Call, Jan. 16, 1887, p. 1; Wells, Champagne Days, p. 112; also, San Francisco Examiner, Nov. 8, 1896, p. 29, for mention of a Negro bard in the article "Round the World Via Cable Car," which gave a romantic view of the many representatives of the world in San Francisco.

4. Call, March 13, 1895, p. 5; see also Morby, San Francisco, p. 112.

5. Call, May 7, 1889, p. 17, Dec. 29, 1901, p. 2; Wells, Champagne Days, pp. 173-74; The Overland Monthly XV (Sept. 1875), p. 299. San Francisco Chronicle, Nov. 2, 1904, p. 13; San Francisco Spokesman, March 26, 1932, p. 1.

6. Chronicle, June 6, 1894, p. 5; Call, June 6, 1894, p. 3.

7. Clipping in John Daggett Scrapbook, I: 100 in California State Archives, Sacramento, California. The reference to high life is from Robert Austin Warner, New Haven Negroes: A Social History (New Haven, Conn., 1940), p. 218; see also ibid, pp. 255-56; Hinton Rowan Helper, Land of Gold: Reality versus Fiction (Baltimore, 1855), p. 275; Soulé, Gihon, and Nisbet, Annals, p. 472; for unflattering descriptions, Call, Nov. 8, 1897, p. 32.

8. Robert Toll, Blacking Up: The Minstrel Show in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1974); and Carl Wittke, Tambo and Bones: A History of the American Minstrel Stage (Durham, N.C., 1930), are good introductions to minstrelsy. Nathan I. Huggins, Harlem Renaissance (New York, 1971), ch. 6, provides an excellent understanding of minstrelsy's functions and offers a superb discussion of the psychological undercurrents in this and other popular forms of entertainment; San Francisco Pacific Appeal, May 24, 1862, p. 2; New York Weekly Anglo-African, Nov. 5, 1859, p. 1.

9. Call, Nov. 4, 1908, p. 7; Oakland Western American, June 8, 1929, p. 1, June 22, 1921, p. 4.

10. Chronicle, Aug. 5, 1914, p. 7.

11. San Francisco Pacific Coast Appeal, Nov. 26, 1904, p. 2; Oakland Western Outlook, Jan. 23, 1915, p. 1.

12. John P. Young, San Francisco: A History of the Pacific Coast Metropolis, 2 vols. (San Francisco, 1912), II: 595, quoted from James Bryce, American Commonwealth . Typical social events of the Civil War years included an Old Folks Supper in which a string and brass band played "favorite operatic airs, fashionable waltzes, polkas, [and] marches," and dances featuring polkas, mazourkas, and schottisches--derived from European sources; occasionally the suppers were attended by Black women in eighteenth-century costumes and men in "citizen's dress" of the revolutionary era; San Francisco Elevator, April 2, 1869, p. 2, June 1, 1872, p. 3; Pacific Appeal, Oct. 17, 1873, p. 4, Oct. 25, 1863, p. 2; Elevator, June 1, 1872, p. 3.

13. Altrocchi, Spectacular San Franciscans, pp. 179-80; Foster Rhea Dulles, A History of Recreation: America Learns to Play (New York, 1965 ed.), pp. 182, 193-94; Pacific Appeal, Sept. 30, 1871, p. 3, Sept. 2, 1871, p. 3.

14. Pacific Appeal, Sept. 30, 1871, p. 3.

15. Ibid., August 26, 1871, p. 3.

16. Elevator, Oct. 16, 1868, pp. 2-3; Delilah L. Beasley, The Negro Trail Blazers of California (New York, [1969]) gives the ancestry of some Black Californians; Pacific Appeal, Aug. 1, 1863, pp. 2-3, June 6, 1863, p. 3.

17. Elevator, Dec. 21, 1872, as quoted in Sally Garey, ''Some Aspects of Mid-Nineteenth Century Black Uplift: Philip A. Bell and the San Francisco Elevator " (seminar paper, University of California, Berkeley, 1967), p. 4; Pacific Appeal, April 19, 1862, p. 2.

18. Call, Aug. 2, 1864, p. 2, as quoted in Edgar M. Branch, ed., Clemens of the Call: Mark Twain in San Francisco (Berkeley, [1969]), pp. 56-57; Elevator, May 2, 1874, p. 2.

19. Fannie Barrier Williams, "Perils of the White Negro," The Colored American Magazine XIII (Dec. 1907), pp. 21-23. Interviews, Dr. Earl Lenear, Jan. 11, 1973, Royal Towns, Aug. 30, 1973.

20. "The World in California," Hutchings' Illustrated California Magazine I (July 1856-June 1857), 387; quoted in Elevator, Oct. 27, 1865, p. 2; Charles Keeler, San Francisco and Thereabout (San Francisco, 1902), pp. 14-15.

21. Pacific Appeal, April 5, 1862, p. 2; Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers, p. 54.

22. Ann Charters, Nobody: The Story of "Bert" Williams (London, 1970), pp. 18, 25. For other instances of residents switching their racial identity, see San Francisco Daily Alta California, Nov. 5, 1888, p. 4, and Western American, Dec. 2, 1927, p. 1, in which policemen don blackface; Oakland Sunshine, Dec. 7, 1918, p. 2, in which an "Indian" cohabiting with a white woman in Oakland became a Negro after her death--presumably it was safer for an Indian to live with a white woman than for a Black; in Spokesman, May 17, 1934, p. 1, an apparently white waiter, accused of discriminating against a Black patron, claimed he himself was of North African descent and consequently could not possibly be prejudiced against Blacks.

23. W. E. B. Du Bois, Souls of Black Folk, in John Hope Franklin, ed., Three Negro Classics (New York, 1968 ed.), pp. 214-15. Du Bois contrasted older urban dwellers with newcomers from the south, helping me to understand how exclusive social functions perpetuated differences among Blacks; see W. E. B. Du Bois, The Black North in 1901: A Social Study (New York, 1969 ed.), p. 39.

24. Frederick Douglass' Paper (Rochester, N.Y.), April 1, 1852, p. 3.

25. Weekly Anglo-African, March 3, 1860, p. 3.

26. Pacific Appeal, Sept. 28, 1867, p. 2.

27. Pacific Appeal, Jan. 20, 1876, p. 1, May 6, 1876, p. 2.

28. Elevator, Oct. 31, 1874, p. 3, Dec. 29, 1871, pp. 2-3.

29. Western Outlook, Jan. 9, 1915, p. 2; Western Appeal, Nov. 16, 1921, p. 1, March 8, 1922, p. 2; Oakland California Voice, March 4, 1927, p. 1; see the wedding of David Ruggles, Western Outlook, Jan. 2, 1915, p. 3, which seems to have had all the trappings of a major society affair.

30. California Voice, March 4, 1927, p. 1; San Francisco Western Appeal, Feb. 25, 1927, p. 5.

31. San Francisco Sentinel, Dec. 6, 1890, p. 2.

32. Pacific Appeal, May 9, 1863, p. 2.

33. John Alexander Somerville, Man of Color: An Autobiography (Los Angeles, 1949), pp. 49-55.

34. Call, July 5, 1898, p. 6.

35. Elevator, Dec. 27, 1867, p. 3, Jan. 3, 1868, pp. 2-3.

36. Pacific Coast Appeal, May 3, 1902, p. 4; Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers, p. 280; Henry G. Langley, comp., The San Francisco Directory, 1869, p. 450 (hereafter cited as City Directory, with the appropriate year); City Directory, 1872, p. 913; Elevator, June 25, 1869, p. 3, Jan. 1, 1869, p. 2, June 25, 1869, p. 3.

37. Elevator, Jan. 5, 1866, p. 3. During or after the World War I years Oscar Hudson, the Black lawyer and consul for Liberia, organized a drum corps of approximately two dozen Black youths. A photograph of Mr. and Mrs. Hudson and the youngsters can be found in the East Bay Negro Historical Society, Oakland.

38. Elevator, May 16, 1874, p. 3, May 30, 1874, p. 3.

39. Ibid., May 4, 1872, p. 3.

40. Western Appeal, Dec. 21, 1921, p. 4; on Black soldiers, see: William H. Leckie, The Buffalo Soldiers, A Narrative of the Negro Cavalry in the West (Norman, Okla., 1967); Arlen L. Fowler, The Black Infantry in the West, 1869-1901 (Westport, Conn., 1971); Joseph T. Wilson, The Black Phalanx: A History of the Negro Soldiers of the United States in the Wars of 1775-1812 and 1861-65 (New York, 1868 ed.); Theophilus G. Steward, The Colored Regulars in the United States Army (Philadelphia, 1904); Willard B. Gatewood, Jr., "Smoked Yankees" and the Struggle for Empire: Letters From Negro Soldiers (Chicago, [1971]); and William Wells Brown, The Negro in the American Rebellion (Boston, 1867).

41. Call, April 8, 1899, p. 7. See Chronicle, Nov. 24, 1903, p. 13, Dec. 2, 1903, p. 8, for brief accounts of fights between Black soldiers and whites.

42. Call, April 8, 1899, p. 7.

43. Call, June 23, 1899, p. 7, June 24, 1899, p. 12.

44. William Muraskin, Middle-Class Blacks in a White Society: Prince Hall Freemasonry in America (Berkeley, 1975).

45. See the portraits in: Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers; the Black newspapers (after 1900); the Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley; the California Historical Society Library; and the East Bay Negro Historical Society. A number of families, such as those of Walter L. Gibson and Royal E. Towns, also have quite a few nineteenth-century photographs.

46. Elevator, Aug. 9, 1873, p. 2; see Aug. 30, 1873, p. 2 on Edmonia Lewis; Oakland Independent, Dec. 14, 1929, p.4; California Voice, March 4, 1927, p. 1; Pacific Appeal, March 28, 1863, p. 4; Elevator, Oct. 19, 1872, p. 3. See the cruel stereotyping of Blacks on ragtime music sheets reproduced in William J. Schafer and Johannes Riedel, The Art of Ragtime: Form and Meaning of An Original Black American Art (Baton Rouge, La., [1973]). Pacific Coast Appeal, Feb. 13, 1904, p. 1, March 5, 1904, pp. 1, 2; Western Outlook, Jan. 23, 1915, p. 3, Feb. 13, 1915, p. 3; City Directory, 1895, 1904, 1905 .

47. City Directory, 1862; Pacific Appeal, Sept. 13, 1862, pp. 2, 4, Nov. 8, 1862, p. 3; Elevator, May 12, 1865, p. 3; see the comments of J. G. Wilson and J. H. Townsend on the rules of gentlemen, Proceedings of the First State Convention of the Colored Citizens of the State of California, 1855 (Sacramento, 1855), p. 4.

48. Sentinel, Sept. 20, 1890, p. 2, on the need for Blacks to become citizens of the world.

49. Sentinel, Dec. 13, 1890, p. 2; Elevator, Nov. 8, 1867, p. 2.

50. Elevator, Aug. 9, 1873, p. 2, Dec. 13, 1890, p. 2.

51. Call, March 22, 1900, p. 4; see also Nov. 4, 1897, p. 4, March 7, 1898, p. 12, Nov. 13, 1889, p. 1, Sept. 22, 1897, p. 12, and March 17, 1900, p. 1; interview, Aurelious P. Alberga, July 27, 1976. Professor Barry Higman, Department of History, University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica kindly provided information on Jackson's early life and career in Australia.

52. Examiner, Nov. 11, 1889, p. 1; Call, March 17, 1898, p. 5, May 22, 1891, p. 8; Chronicle, Dec. 6, 1903, p. 30, Dec. 11, 1903, p. 4; John Rickard Betts, America's Sporting Heritage: 1850-1950 (Reading, Mass., [1974]) on the development of sports in the U.S.

53. Call, Sept. 22, 1897, p. 12, March 10, 1894, p. 1, March 22, 1900, p. 4, March 7, 1898, p. 12; Nat Fleischer, Black Dynamite: The Story of the Negro in the Prize Ring from 1782 to 1938, vol. 1 (New York, [1938]), pp. 123-72.

54. Call, Nov. 3, 1896, p. 14.

55. Chronicle, Dec. 10, 1903, p. 4; see also Dec. 6, 1903, p. 30. Call, June 9, 1900, pp. 5, 11. Finis Farr, Black Champion: The Life and Times of Jack Johnson (Greenwich, Conn. [1969 ed.]), p. 184, on the boxer praised by Ring magazine editor Nat Fleischer, who "after years devoted to the study of heavyweight fighters" could, without hesitation, name Jack Johnson as "the greatest of them all."

56. Call, March 22, 1891, p. 8 on the Jackson-Corbett fight; March 22, 1900, p. 4.

57. Call, March 17, 1898, p. 5; on his ill health in Australia, April 17, 1901, p. 1; on the color line, Examiner, Nov. 13, 1889, p. 1; Call , Sept. 28, 1897, p. 1.

58. Aurelious Alberga, born in San Francisco in 1884, boxed for a period in his youth; he also claimed he knew Peter Jackson and spoke very highly of him. Alfred Butler and Royal Towns, both Bay Area natives, also admired Jackson and Jack Johnson when they were youngsters. See Lawrence Levine's discussion of Johnson as a hero in Black Culture and Black Consciousness (New York, 1977), pp. 430-33.

59. Pacific Appeal, May 23, 1863, p. 1-2.

60. Stanley M. Elkins, Slavery: A Problem in American Institutional and Intellectual Life (New York, [1963] ed.) presents a classic statement of the belief that plantation slavery turned most Afro-Americans into docile and child-like creatures. Recent scholarship, such as John Blassingame, The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South (New York, 1972); Eugene Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made (New York, 1974); and Levine, Black Culture, disputes this interpretation.

1. Abraham Lincoln Dennis, son of the pioneer George Washington Dennis, was proprietor of the Vestibule Cafe at the turn of the century; San Francisco Pacific Coast Appeal, Dec. 19, 1903, p. 4; San Francisco Spokesman, Feb. 16, 1933, p. 6, Feb. 23, 1933, p. 2.

2. Oakland Western Outlook, Jan. 2, 1915, p. 3. On the night life, see: Herbert Asbury, The Barbary Coast: An Informal History of the San Francisco Underworld (New York, 1933); Evelyn Wells, Champagne Days of San Francisco (New York, 1947); Ann Charters, Nobody: The Story of "Bert" Williams (New York, 1970), pp. 20-25; Sally Stanford, The Lady of the House: The Autobiography of Sally Stanford (New York, 1966).

3. Spokesman, May 25, 1933, p. 6.

4. [Noah Brooks], "Restaurant Life in San Francisco," The Overland Monthly I (Nov. 1868), 467.

5. Harriet Lane Levy, 920 O'Farrell Street (Garden City, N.Y., 1947), and Wells, Champagne Days provide a look at late nineteenth-century customs, attitudes, and morals in San Francisco. San Francisco Examiner, Sept. 12, 1913, p. 20, and Sept. 15, 1913, p. 2, discusses recreation and morality. Workers of the Writers' Program of the Works Project Administration in Northern California, San Francisco: the Bay and Its Cities (New York, 1947), p. 107. Amelia Neville, The Fantastic City: Memoirs of the Social and Romantic Life of Old San Francisco (Boston, 1932), p. 210.

6. Examiner, Jan. 14, 1917, p. 4.

7. Stanford, Lady, p. 66; Elizabeth A. Brown, "The Enforcement of Prohibition in San Francisco" (M.A. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1948), pp. 20, 22; John P. Young, San Francisco: A History of the Pacific Coast Metropolis, 2 vols. (San Francisco, [1912]), II: 62; Examiner, Sept. 12, 1913, p. 20, Jan. 15, 1917, p. 1, Jan. 20, 1917, p. 1.

8. Examiner, Jan. 20, 1917, p. 1; Stanford, Lady, pp. 46-47; Liston F. Sabran, "Mayor James Rolph, Jr. and the End of the Barbary Coast" (M.A. thesis, San Francisco State University, 1961).

9. San Francisco Western Appeal, Feb. 18, 1922, p. 1, Feb. 25, 1927, p. 5.

10. New York Weekly Anglo-African, Nov. 5, 1859, p. 1; San Francisco Elevator, Nov. 1, 1869, p. 2; San Francisco Pacific Appeal, May 24, 1862, p. 2.

11. Elevator, Feb. 7, 1868, p. 2, Aug. 16, 1873, p. 2; Pacific Appeal, Nov. 5, 1870, p. 2; Christian Recorder (Philadelphia), March 11, 1864, p. 38; Oakland Western American, Jan. 4, 1929, p. 1.

12. Pacific Appeal, Jan. 2, 1864, p. 2; Elevator, July 7, 1868, p. 2; Edgar M. Branch, ed., Clemens of the Call: Mark Twain in San Francisco (Berkeley, 1969), pp. 56-57.

13. Elevator, July 7, 1868, p. 2, April 28, 1865, p. 4; Western Outlook, April 10, 1915, p. 2; Oakland Sunshine, June 12, 1915, p. 2; Oakland California Voice, Aug. 6, 1926, p. 12.

14. Pacific Appeal, Nov. 5, 1870, p. 2; Western Appeal, Feb. 25, 1927, p. 2, April 1, 1927, p. 3; Western Outlook, March 17, 1928, p. 4; Western Appeal, March 8, 1922, p. 1.

15. Elevator, July 5, 1867, p. 4, Jan. 15, 1869, pp. 2-3, Oct. 18, 1890, p. 3, July 3, 1886, p. 3, June 11, 1898, p. 3; Henry G. Langley, comp., The San Francisco Directory, 1907 (hereafter cited as City Directory, with the appropriate year), entry for Louis V. Purcell.

16. Workers of the Writers' Program, San Francisco, p. 216; Marshall and Jean Stearns, Jazz Dance: the Story of American Vernacular Dance (New York, 1968), p. 128; Asbury, Barbary Coast, pp. 292-93.

17. Los Angeles Eagle, July 24, 1915, p. 3; Western Outlook, Jan. 9, 1915, pp. 2-3; Western Appeal, Nov. 12, 1921, p. 2.

18. Western Appeal, Feb. 1, 1922, p. 4; Sunshine, March 20, 1915, p. 1; Arnold Genthe, As I Remember (New York, [1936]), pp. 175-76.

19. Western Outlook, Nov. 28, 1914, p. 2.

20. Ibid., Dec. 12, 1914, p. 2, Feb. 20, 1915, p. 3; on the Clef Club, Tom Fletcher, The Tom Fletcher Story: 100 Years of the Negro in Show Business (New York, 1954), p. 201.

21. San Francisco Chronicle and Examiner, weeks beginning Nov. 18 and Dec. 19, 1921; the Federal Records Center in San Bruno, California has material on the case, but no court transcript exists. Samuel Dickson, San Francisco Kaleidoscope (Stanford, Calif., 1949), pp. 254-55.

22. King Oliver and his band played at the Second Annual Grand Ball of the West Indian Cricket Club of San Francisco in 1922; Western Outlook, March 25, 1922, p. 2, Nov. 28, 1914, p. 2; Arna Bontemps, ed., Father of the Blues: An Autobiography by W. C. Handy (New York, 1970 ed.); Fletcher, Tom Fletcher Story; and James Weldon Johnson, Black Manhattan (New York, 1968) offer insiders' accounts of the evolution of Black entertainment in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Charters, Nobody; Rudi Blesh and Harriet Janis, They All Played Ragtime (New York, 1971 ed.); William J. Schafer and Johannes Riedel, The Art of Ragtime: Form and Meaning of An Original Black American Art (Baton Rouge, La., [1973]); and Stearns, Jazz Dance are valuable. Eileen Southern, The Music of Black Americans: A History (New York, [1971]) is a good overview of the development of Black music.

23. Southern, Music, pp. 105-48.

24. Ibid., pp. 112-14; Frederick Douglass' Paper (Rochester, N.Y.), April 13, 1855, p. 3.

25. Quoted in the Elevator, Dec. 4, 1868, p. 3.

26. Stockton Evening Mail, May 11, 1892, p. 1. I would like to thank Howard Dodson for bringing this article to my attention.

27. Tom Stoddard, author of a number of articles on Black musicians in the Bay Area before 1920, was kind enough to permit me to read his manuscript on this topic. He influenced my thinking in this section. Interviews with Ethel Terrell, a vaudeville musician who settled in San Francisco in the 1920s, and Freddie McWilliams also served as a basis for my ideas.

28. Charters, Nobody, p. 18; Blesh and Janis, Ragtime, p. 139. Peter Tamony, "Jazz: The Word, and Its Extension to Music," Americanisms: Content and Continuum XXIII (Dec. 1968), p. 13. See San Francisco Call-Bulletin, March 6, 1913, p. 16, for the term's first appearance in print, and ibid., Sept. 3, 1938, p. 3, for the quote concerning Purcell's.

29. Examiner, Jan. 17, 1917, p. 5. Although he may not have been particularly knowledgeable of Black music, George Schuyler, the Black journalist who passed through San Francisco as a young soldier in about 1912, heard ragtime and jazz when he visited the

Barbary Coast. This was before the general public knew of jazz. George Schuyler, Black and Conservative: The Autobiography of George S. Schuyler (New Rochelle, N.Y., [1966]), p. 49.

30. Ortiz M. Walton, Music: Black, White, and Blue (New York, 1972), pp. 46-59.

31. Charles Keeler, San Francisco and Thereabout (San Francisco, 1902), p. 54; Wells, Champagne Days, has a useful chapter entitled "Seeing the Elephant."

32. Western Outlook, Jan. 2, 1915, pp. 2-3.

33. Genthe, As I Remember, pp. 175-76; Examiner, Sept. 30, 1913, p. 1; Fred Brandt and Andrew Y. Wood, Fascinating San Francisco (San Francisco, 1924), p. 26; Wells, Champagne Days, p. 125; California Voice, Oct. 1, 1921, p. 4; Western Appeal, March 8, 1922, p. 1.

34. Chronicle, Dec. 27, 1921, p. 1, Jan. 2, 1922, p. 6; Examiner, Sept. 30, 1913, p. 1, Dec. 26, 1921, p. 1; Western American, June 25, 1926, p. 7.

35. Examiner, Jan. 22, 1917, pp. 3, 7, Jan. 26, 1917, p. 5, Jan. 14, 1917, p. 4.

36. Ibid., beginning Sept. 13, 1913 and Jan. 14, 1917, p. 4.

37. Spokesman, Nov. 17, 1932, p. 1. James Weldon Johnson noted the race issue's sexual dimension in his autobiography; see Along This Way: The Autobiography of James Weldon Johnson (New York, [1968 ed.]), p. 170.

38. Joseph R. Gusfield, "Prohibition: The Impact of Political Utopianism," in Richard M. Abrams and Lawrence Levine, The Shaping of Twentieth Century America (Boston, 2nd ed. [1971]), pp. 309-41. Also, Stanley Coben, "A Study in Nativism: The American Red Scare of 1919-20," in ibid., pp. 289-306.

39. Examiner, Dec. 26, 1921, p. 1, Dec. 28, 1921, p. 3, Dec. 29, 1921, p. 13; Western Appeal, undated, but may be Jan. 4, 1912, p. 20.

40. Examiner, Oct. 1, 1913, p. 1

41. Examiner, Feb. 15, 1917, p. 3. A coalition of reform groups successfully kept the Jack Johnson-Jim Jeffries heavyweight championship fight out of San Francisco; state and local politicians feared such a match would prevent the city from hosting the Panama-Pacific Exhibition (boxing was illegal in California). See Finis Farr, Black Champion: The Life and Times of Jack Johnson (Greenwich, Conn., [1969]), pp. 68-71.

42. Examiner, Dec. 26, 1921, p. 1, Dec. 15, 1917, p. 10, Dec. 23, 1921, p. 17; Western Appeal, Aug. 17, 1921, p. 1, Dec. 21, 1921, p. 24; Examiner, Dec. 29, 1921, p. 13, Feb. 6, 1922, p. 13; Chronicle, Dec. 27, 1921, p. 1, Dec. 28, 1921, p. 3, Dec. 30, 1921, p. 3.

43. Western American, Jan. 13, 1928, p. 8.

44. Examiner, Sept. 15, 1913, p. 2, Sept. 12, 1913, p. 20.

45. Editorial in Examiner, Jan. 13, 1917, p. 6.

46. Western Appeal, April 8, 1922, p. 1. On discrimination in a Bay Area "Y," interview, Ida Jackson, Jan. 19, 1972, Oakland Museum.

47. "Inside Facts," an article in the Pamphlet Box on Negroes in the Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley; on the founding of the community center, see: Examiner, April 19, 1920, p. 11; Chronicle, Oct. 6, 1941, p. 11; "Fifty Years in Action," Booker T. Washington Community Center Fiftieth Anniversary Program, 1920-1970, which was kindly sent to me by Mrs. Emma J. Scott Jones. Booker T. Washington Community Center, Annual Reports, 1926, p. 2, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.

48. "Inside Facts," Pamphlet Box, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.

49. See Community Center, Annual Reports, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.

50. Southern, Music, pp. 265-67. Nathan I. Huggins, Harlem Renaissance (New York, 1971), ch. 6.

51. Huggins, Harlem, ch. 6.

52. See Johnson, Along This Way, p. 87.

53. Alan Lomax, Mister Jelly Roll: The Fortunes of Jelly Roll Morton, New Orleans Creole and "Inventor of Jazz" (New York, [1950]), pp. 167-69. Chronicle, week beginning Dec. 21, 1921, p. 24.

54. Mary Goodrich, The Palace Hotel (San Francisco, 1930), p. 34.

55. Huggins, Harlem, ch. 6, brilliantly analyzes the similarities between ministrelsy and cabaret life.

56. Spokesman, March 26, 1932, p. 1, May 21, 1932, p. 1.

1. Interview, Ethel Terrell, April 20, 1973.

2. Interview, Martel Meneweather, June 13, 1975.

3. On housing discrimination, San Francisco Spokesman, March 19, 1932, p. 3. On the influx of white southerners and racial confrontations, see: interview, E. A. Daly, Earl Warren Oral History Project, University of California, Berkeley, p. 10; interview, Byron Rumford, Earl Warren Oral History Project, pp. 19, 21-22.

4. Interview, Urania Cummings, Aug. 4, 1976.

5. Ibid.

6. Margaret Johnson, "The Negroes in West Berkeley," Immigration and Race Problems (1949-53), pp. 874, 869, 871; interview, Urania Cummings, Aug. 4, 1976.

7. Interview, Eleanor Carroll Watkins, July 30, 1976. If the last few words seem to weaken the statement, some clarification should be made. Although she lived on the Pacific slope her entire life, Mrs. Watkins became acquainted with eastern ways from her mother, who came from Annapolis, Maryland. Her mother never forgot the traditions, the class and social consciousness, and the refinement of certain types of east-coast urban life. So Mrs. Watkins understood this phase of eastern society from her mother's attitudes, from the contrasting west-coast life, and from conversations with easterners.

8. Interviews, C. L. Dellums and Ida Jackson, Earl Warren Oral History Project, University of California, Berkeley; interviews, Tarea Hall Pittman and Alvin D. Nurse, Oakland Museum; interviews, Martel Meneweather, June 13, 1975, E. A. Daly, Aug. 3, 1976; conversation with Lillian Dixon, April 3, 1975.

9. Charles S. Johnson, The Negro War Worker in San Francisco: A Local Self-Survey (San Francisco, 1944), pp. 4, 5, 79-81.

10. Interview, Matt Crawford, Aug. 3, 1976.

11. Davis McEntire and Julia R. Tarnopol, "Postwar Status of Negro Workers in San Francisco Area," Monthly Labor Review LXX (June 1950), 612, and Johnson, Negro War Worker, p. 3, give some contemporary estimates of population growth. See also: San Francisco Chronicle, May 3, 1948, p. 13; United States Bureau of the Census, Sixteenth Census, 1940: Population (Washington, D.C., 1943), part 1, pp. 599, 637, 657; Negro Population in Selected Places and Selected Counties, Supplementary Report (Washington, D.C., June 1971), p. 5 for the growth of the Black population in the Bay Area between 1940 and 1970. Interview, John Watkins, Aug. 13, 1976.

12. Interview, Matt Crawford, Aug. 3, 1976.

13. Ibid. Interview, Alvin D. Nurse, Feb. 2, 1972, Oakland Museum.

14. Barbara Sawyer, "Negroes in West Oakland," Immigration and Race Problems (1949-53), p. 850 contends that in wartime, Bay Area wages rose to as much as $100 per week, compared to $20-$25 per week in the south and in the Bay Area before the war, Johnson, Negro War Worker, p. 84.

15. The project was "financed by a San Francisco citizen, administered by the Y.W.C.A., and carried out in connection with the Race Relations Program of the American Missionary

Association, Dr. Charles S. Johnson, Director, and the Julius Rosenwald Fund." A copy of the report is in the Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.

16. Johnson, Negro War Worker , pp. 16-17.

17. Ibid., pp. 61-64.

18. Ibid., p. 63.

19. Ibid., p. 80.

20. Ibid., p. 14.

21. Johnson, Negro War Worker , pp. 3-4.

22. Johnson, Negro War Worker , pp. 8, 15; McEntire and Tarnopol, "Postwar Status," p. 613.

23. Johnson, Negro War Worker , p. 8.

24. Joseph Boskin, ed., Urban Racial Violence in the Twentieth Century (Beverly Hills, 1976 ed.); Chester Himes, "Zoot Riots are Race Riots," Black on Black, Baby Sister, and Selected Writings (Garden City, N.J., 1973), pp. 220-26.

25. Johnson, Negro War Worker , p. 32.

26. Ibid., p. 29. Thomas Lee Philpott, The Slum and the Ghetto: Neighborhood Deterioration and Middle-Class Reform, Chicago, 1880-1930 (New York, 1978), pp. 162-200, 407-10, is an excellent analysis of how whites used restrictive convenants and violent means to segregate Blacks.

27. On the development of the Fillmore district, see Margaret G. King, "The Growth of San Francisco Illustrated by Shifts in the Density of Population" (M.A. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1928), p. 138; also, Spokesman , July 6, 1933, p. 6

28. Johnson, Negro War Worker , pp. 20-21.

29. Ibid., p. 21.

30. Ibid., p. 22.

31. Ibid., p. 23.

32. Ibid.

33. Ibid., p. 24.

34. Ibid., pp. 24, 27.

35. On the question of property depreciation following Negro occupancy, an official of a Fillmore District merchants' group said: "There has been no depreciation in the Fillmore property; first because its value was already down, and second, because it is impossible to estimate the true effect of the Negro migrations to the district. . . . Even in cases where merchants have scruples against Negro trade, they admit their volume of business and profit has increased." The head of an improvement club stated: "Where not affected by industrial expansion, most property depreciation is due to the inability or neglect of some owners to keep their property in good condition"; ibid., p. 31.

36. Ibid., pp. 92-93.

37. Ibid.

38. Interview, Aurelious Alberga, July 27, 1976.

39. Interview, Freddie McWilliams, Aug. 9, 1976.

40. Interview, John Watkins, Aug. 13, 1976.

41. Interviews, Freddie McWilliams, Aug. 9, 1976, and Vivian Osborn Marsh, Aug. 16, 1976.

42. Interview, Eugene Lasartemay, July 23, 1976.

43. Interview, Urania Cummings, Aug. 4, 1976.

44. This opinion is expressed in the interviews of the Earl Warren Oral History Project, University of California, Berkeley.

45. Interview, Martel Meneweather, June 13, 1975.

46. Ibid.

47. Interviews, Matt Crawford, Aug. 3, 1976, Eugene Lasartemay, July 23, 1976, and Martel Meneweather, June 13, 1975.

48. Interviews, E. A. Daly, Aug. 2, 1976, and Vivian Osborn Marsh, Aug. 16, 1976.

49. Interview, John Watkins, Aug. 13, 1976.

50. Interview, Eleanor Carroll Watkins, July 30, 1976; the Oakland Museum interviews with Black Oaklanders document the struggles.

51. Interview, Eleanor Carroll Watkins, July 30, 1976.