1. Mrs. H. C. DeMille to C. B. DeMille, 2 December 1914, DMA, BYU.

2. Neil Harris, "Iconography and Intellectual History: The Halftone Effect," in Cultural Excursions: Marketing Appetites and Cultural Tastes in Modern America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 304-317. Admittedly, Americanists who ventured into film studies have been criticized by film specialists for faulty readings or lack of readings. See, for example, Jeanne Allen on Lary May in "Palaces of Consumption as Women's Club: En-countering Women's Labor History and Feminist Film Criticism,'' Camera Obscura 22 (January 1990): 151; or Andy Medhurst on Charles J. Maland in Screen 31 (Winter 1990): 458-461.

3. Karen Halttunen, Confidence Men and Painted Women: A Study of Middle-Class Culture in America, 1830-1870 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982).

4. See Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Random House, 1978); Michael Rogin, "Making America Home: Racial Masquerade and Ethnic Assimilation in the Transition to Talking Pictures," Journal of American History 79 (December 1993): 1050-1077.

5. Georg Lukács, History and Consciousness: Studies in Marxist Dialectics , trans. Rodney Livingstone (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1971), 83; Guy Debord, The Society of the Spectacle (Detroit: Black & Red, 1977), 36.

6. As this book was going to press, the DeMille Estate and James V. D'Arc secured for the DeMille Archives missing documents, including DeMille's handwritten telegraph messages and copies of letters addressed by DeMille and Jesse L. Lasky to Samuel Goldfish (Goldwyn) in 1914-1915. I am grateful to D'Arc for copies of some correspondence relevant to my study.

7. See my Cecil B. DeMille: A Guide to References and Resources (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1985); James V. D'Arc, ed., The Register of the Cecil B. DeMille Archives (Provo: Brigham Young University, 1991); Property from the Estate of Cecil B. DeMille (New York: Christie's East, 1988).

8. David Bordwell, Making Meaning: Inference and Rhetoric in the Interpretation of Cinema (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989), 82, 151-165, passim. For a theoretical reformulation of auteurism, see Tom Gunning, D. W. Griffith and the Origins of American Narrative Film: The Early Years at Biograph (Urbana: University of Illinois, 1991), 49-52; Tony Bennett and Janet Woollacott, Bond and Beyond: The Political Career of a Popular Hero (New York: Methuen, 1987), 46-47, 65, 233. On the "turn toward textuality" in cultural history, see the introduction in T. J. Jackson Lears and Richard Wightman Fox, The Power of Culture: Critical Essays in American History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 1-10. On the ahistorical nature of poststructuralist models in cinema studies, see my "Ethnicity, Class, and Gender in Film: Cecil B. DeMille's The Cheat, " in Lester D. Friedman, ed., Unspeakable Images: Ethnicity and the American Cinema (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991), 112-139.

9. See Jay Leyda and Charles Musser, Before Hollywood: Turn-of-the-Century Film from American Archives (New York: American Federation of Arts, 1986). For discussions about DeMille by social and cultural historians, see especially Lary May, Screening Out the Past: The Birth of Mass Culture and the Motion Picture Industry (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), 205-214; Robert Sklar, Movie-Made America: A Cultural History of American Movies (New York: Random House, 1975), 91-95. May and Sklar disagree regarding the extent to which DeMille set cultural trends in the postwar period. Although the director's vision was rooted in sentimental culture, as Sklar argues, his films did influence consumer behavior, as May contends. See chapter 1, note 10 in this volume. See also Elizabeth Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars: Life and Culture on the Lower East Side, 1890-1925 (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1985), 222-223; Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986), 157; Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 198; T. J. Jackson Lears, "From Salvation to Self-Realization: Advertising and the Therapeutic Roots of the Consumer Culture, 1880-1930," in Lears and Richard Wightman Fox, eds., The Culture of Consumption: Critical Essays in American History 1880-1980 (New York: Pantheon, 1983), 28.

10. Bennett and Woollacott, Bond and Beyond , 44-45, 86, 260-269. The authors differentiate their concept by hyphenating the term inter-textuality . On intertextuality, see also John Frow, Marxism and Literary History (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986), chap. 6; Janet Staiger, Interpreting Films: Studies in the Historical Reception of American Cinema (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), part 1; William Uricchio and Roberta E. Pearson, "'Films of Quality,' 'High Art Films' and 'Films de Luxe': Intertextuality and Reading Positions in the Vitagraph Films," Journal of Film and Video 41 (Winter 1989): 15-31; Uricchio and Pearson, Reframing Culture: The Case of the Vitagraph Films (forthcoming, Princeton University Press).

11. Henry F. May captures this moment in the title of his work, The End of American Innocence: A Study of the First Years of Our Own Time 1912-1917 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1959).

12. Dana Polan, "History of the American Cinema," Film Quarterly 45 (Spring 1992): 56. For a study that incorporates historical literature on class and gender relations in a reading of silent melodrama rather than subsuming a problematic notion of history in a theoretical construct, see Richard Abel, "Scenes from Domestic Life in Early French Cinema," Screen 39 (Summer 1989): 3-28.

1. William deMille to Cecil B. DeMille, 3 September 1913, and William deMille to David Belasco, 25 July 1911, William deMille Papers, New York Public Library, Manuscripts and Archives Division; William deMille, Hollywood Saga (New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1939), 18. William, unlike Cecil, signed his last name with a lower case d.

2. Adolph Zukor, "Famous Players in Famous Plays," MPW , 11 July 1914, 186.

3. See A. Nicholas Vardac, Stage to Screen: Theatrical Origins of Early Film: David Garrick to D. W. Griffith (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1949; New York: DaCapo, 1987); Rick Altman, "Dickens, Griffith, and Film Theory Today," South Atlantic Quarterly 88 (Spring 1988): 321-359. See also Tom Gunning, D. W. Griffith and the Origins of American Narrative Film (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991); Gunning, "Weaving a Narrative: Style and Economic Background in Griffith's Biograph Films," Quarterly Review of Film Studies 6 (Winter 1981): 11-26. Charles Musser contests Gunning's argument regarding the industry's attempt to woo the middle class in "The Nickelodeon Era Begins: Establishing the Framework for Hollywood's Mode of Representation," Framework 22/23 (Autumn 1983): 4-11. See also Musser, The Emergence of Cinema: The American Screen to 1907 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1990); Musser with Carol Nelson, High-Class Moving Pictures: Lyman H. Howe and the Forgotten Era of Traveling Exhibition, 1880-1920 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991). On the class composition of early film audiences, see Janet Staiger, Interpreting Films: Studies in the Historical Reception of American Cinema (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), chap. 5; Miriam Hansen, Babel and Babylon: Spectatorship and Silent Cinema (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991); Judith Mayne, "Immigrants and Spectators," Wide Angle 5, no. 2: 32-40; Mayne, Private Novels, Public Films (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1988); Charlie Keil, "Reframing the Italian: Questions of Audience Address in Early Cinema," Journal of Film and Video 42 (Spring 1990): 36-48; William Uricchio and Roberta E. Pearson, "'Films of Quality,' 'High Art Films' and 'Films de Luxe': Intertextuality and Reading Positions in the Vitagraph Films," Journal of Film and Video 41 (Winter 1989): 15-31; Uricchio and Pearson, Reframing Culture: The Case of the Vitagraph Quality Films (forthcoming, Princeton University Press); Roberta Pearson, "Cultivated Folks and the Better Classes: Class Conflict and Representation in Early American Film,'' Journal of Popular Film and Television 15 (Fall 1987): 120-128; Douglas Gomery, "Movie Audiences, Urban Geography, and the History of the American Film," Velvet Light Trap 19 (1982): 23-29; Robert C. Allen, ''Motion Picture Exhibition in Manhattan, 1906-1912: Beyond the Nickelodeon," Cinema Journal 17 (Spring 1979): 2-15; reprinted in John L. Fell, ed., Film Before Griffith (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), 144-152; Allen, Vaudeville and Film 1895-1915: A Study in Media Interaction (New York: Arno Press, 1980); Russell Merritt, "Nickelodeon Theaters 1905-1914: Building an Audience for the Movies," in Tino Balio, ed., The American Film Industry (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1975), 59-82; Garth S. Jowett, "The First Motion Picture Audiences," in John L. Fell, ed., Film Before Griffith , 196-206; Ben Singer, "The Embourgeoisement Thesis and Silent American Cinema: Revising the Revisionists" (Paper delivered at Society for Cinema Studies Conference, New Orleans, 1993).

4. Jesse L. Lasky with Cecil B. DeMille, Agreement, 16 October 1913, DMA, BYU.

5. Lawrence W. Levine, Highbrow/Lowbrow: The Emergence of Cultural Hierarchy in America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988), 86, 23, 76, parts 1 and 2. Levine's argument is anticipated by Neil Harris (see note 6 below) and David Grimsted, Melodrama Unveiled: American Theater and Culture, 1800-1850 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960; Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987, with an introduction by Levine). See also Paul Dimaggio, "Cultural Entrepreneurship in Nineteenth-Century Boston: The Creation of an Organizational Base for High Culture in America," Media, Culture and Society 4 (January 1982): 33-50.

6. Neil Harris, "Four Stages of Cultural Growth: The American City," in Arthur Mann, Neil Harris, and Sam Bass Warner, Jr., History and Role of the City in American Life (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1972), 25-49; reprinted in Harris, Cultural Excursions: Marketing Appetites and Cultural Tastes in Modern America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 12-28. See also Dale A. Somers, "The Leisure Revolution: Recreation in the American City, 1820-1920," Journal of Popular Culture 5 (Summer 1971): 125-145.

7. Levine, Highbrow/Lowbrow , 76, part 3; Daniel Czitrom, Media and the American Mind (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982), chap. 2; Joan Shelley Rubin, The Making of Middlebrow Culture (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), chap. 1; John S. Gilkeson, Jr., Middle-Class Providence, 1820-1940 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986), chap. 6; Levine has been criticized for not taking into account the pervasive influence of Protestantism on American culture. See David D. Hall, "A World Turned Upside Down?" Reviews in American History , March 1990, 11-13.

8. Levine, Highbrow/Lowbrow , 221-222, part 3; John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism 1860-1925 (1963; reprint, New York: Atheneum, 1981), 113-157. See also Barbara Miller Solomon, Ancestors and Immigrants: A Changing New England Tradition (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956; Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1989); David H. Bennett, The Party of Fear: From Nativist Movements to the New Right in American History (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988).

9. See Robert Sklar, Movie-Made America: A Cultural History of American Movies (New York: Random House, 1975). Sklar argues that his work is still relevant in "Oh! Althusser!: Historiography and the Rise of Cinema Studies," Radical History Review 41 (Spring 1988): 10-35, reprinted in Sklar and Charles Musser, eds., Resisting Images: Essays on Cinema and History (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990), 12-35. Donald Crafton and Janet Staiger disagree in a special issue of Iris , on early cinema audiences (Summer 1990): 1, 24. See also Lary May, Screening Out the Past: The Birth of Mass Culture and the Motion Picture Industry (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980); Garth Jowett, Film: Tile Democratic Art (Boston: Little, Brown, 1976); Roy Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City, 1870-1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); Francis G. Couvares, The Remaking of Pittsburgh (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1984); Elizabeth Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars: Life and Culture on the Lower East Side 1890-1925 (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1985); Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986). For an exchange between Sklar and May, see American Historical Review 86 (October 1981): 945-946; and 87 (June 1982): 913-915. Among other issues, they disagree about the argument in Screening Out the Past that the film industry was the "handmaiden of Progressivism." Rosenzweig and Couvares argue that far from exerting control over mass communications, upper- and middle-class reformers were displaced by the leisure industry. See also Nancy J. Rosenbloom, "Between Reform and Regulation: The Struggle over Film Censorship in Progressive America, 1909-1922," Film History 1 (1987): 307-325, and "Progressive Reform, Censorship, and the Motion Picture Industry, 1909-1917,'' in Ronald Edsforth and Larry Bennett, eds., Popular Culture and Political Change in Modern America (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991), 41-60. On the issue of Progressivism, see Richard L. McCormick's assertion, "we cannot avoid the concept of progressivism—or even a progressive movement—because. . . after 1910, the terms were deeply embedded in the language of reformers,'' in his Party Period and Public Policy: American Politics firm the Age of Jackson to the Progressive Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 269. See also Peter G. Filene, "An Obituary for the Progressive Movement," American Quarterly 22 (Spring 1970): 20-34; David M. Kennedy, "The Progressive Era," The Historian 37 (1975): 453-468; Daniel T. Rogers, "In Search of Progressivism," Reviews in American History 10 (December 1982): 113-132. Standard works on the Progressive Era include Richard Hofstadter, The Age of Reform: From Bryan to F. D. R . (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1955); Robert Wiebe, The Search for Order 1877-1920 (New York: Hill & Wang, 1967).

10. See Deborah Anne Federhen, Bradley C. Brooks, Lynn A. Brocklebank, Kenneth L. Ames, and E. Richard McKinstry, Accumulation and Display: Mass Marketing Household Goods in America, 1880-1920 (Wilmington: Union Press, 1986).

11. "Lasky and DeMille Enter Picture Field," MPN , 20 December 1913, 15.

12. Interview with Adolph Zukor, 3 April 1957, in Executives, Adolph Zukor folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU. Because box and folder numbers have been rearranged since I completed most of my research, I have not included that information. See James V. D'Arc, ed., The Register of the Cecil B. DeMille Archives (Provo: Brigham Young University, 1991). As for citations of interviews with DeMille, these sessions were tape-recorded for an autobiography that was prepared by Art Arthur and Donald Hayne and that was published posthumously. Unlike the publication, the interviews provide more insight into the director's personality. Unfortunately, the transcripts were cut up and filed according to topics and therefore do not exist in their entirety. See James v. D'Arc, "'So Let It Be Written. . .': The Creation of Cecil B. DeMille's Autobiography," Literature/Film Quarterly 14 (1986): 1-9.

13. K. Owen, "The Kick-In Prophets," Photoplay , October 1915, in Cecil B. DeMille scrapbook, RLC, LMPA.

14. On auteurism, see John Caughie, ed., Theories of Authorship (London: Rout-ledge & Kegan Paul, 1981); David Bordwell, Making Meaning: Inference and Rhetoric in the Interpretation of Cinema (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989), 151-165, passim; Roland Barthes, "The Death of an Author," in Image-Music-Text , trans. Stephen Heath (New York: Hill & Wang, 1977), 142-148; Michel Foucault, "What Is an Author?" in Donald F. Bouchard, ed., Language, Counter-Memory, Practice , trans. Donald F. Bouchard and Sherry Simon (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1977), 113-138; Andrew Sarris, The American Cinema: Directors and Directions, 1929-1968 (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1968). Sarris ranks DeMille as a metteur en scène , as do French critics, rather than an auteur. See Jacques Second, "Les Livres,'' Positif 167 (March 1975): 86-87.

15. K. Owen, "Dustin Farnum," Photoplay , July 1915, 123; Johnson Briscoe, "Photoplays vs Personality: How the Identity of the Players is Fast Becoming Known," Photoplay , March 1914, 39.

16. "Lasky Films Coming Oscar Apfel to Direct Company Leaving for Pacific Coast Soon," NYDM , 10 December 1913, 27; "Organize Lasky Forces," NYDM , 17 December 1913, 26; Robert Grau, The Theatre of Science (New York: Benjamin Blom, 1914), 165-166.

17. David Bordwell, Janet Staiger, and Kristin Thompson differentiate between cross-cutting and parallel editing in The Classical Hollywood Cinema: Film Style and Mode of Production to 1960 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), 48. Eileen Bowser gives a history of editing terms in The Transformation of Cinema 1907-1915 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1990), 58-59.

18. "The Squaw Man," MPW , 28 February 1914, 1068; "The Squaw Man," NYDM , 25 February 1914, 37; Kenneth Macgowan, Behind the Screen: The History and Techniques of the Motion Picture (New York: Delacorte Press, 1965), 163. The photo by J. A. Ramsey is reproduced in Paolo Cherchi Usai and Lorenzo Codelli, eds., The DeMille Legacy (Pordenone: Edizioni Biblioteca dell'Immagine, 1991), 36-37. According to James V. D'Arc, studio correspondence in the DeMille Archives attests that Apfel was highly valued in 1914 but posed unspecified "problems" in 1915.

19. Interview with DeMille, 25 April 1957, in Biography folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU; Beatrice DeMille, "The DeMille Family in Motion Pictures," NYDM , 4 August 1917, 4.

20. Feet of Clay folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU.

21. "Getting Belasco Atmosphere," MPW , 30 May 1914, 1271. Detailed descrip- tions of the staging of Belasco plays are in A. Nicholas Vardac, Stage to Screen ; Lise-Lone Marker, David Belasco: Naturalism in the American Theatre (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975). Significantly, Belasco does not acknowledge Buckland, who had been his pupil at the Lyceum Theatre School of Acting, later the American Academy of Dramatic Arts, either in his own writing, The Theatre through Its Stage Door (New York: Benjamin Blom, 1919), or in William Winter's two-volume biography, The Life of David Belasco (1918; reprint, Fairport: Books for Libraries Press, 1970).

22. Script of The Cheat , USC; Interview with DeMille, 5 June 1957, in Lighting folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU. See Rudolf Arnheim, Film as Art (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1957), 65-73; Peter Baxter, "On the History and Ideology of Film Lighting," Screen 16 (Autumn 1975): 96-97; Bordwell, Staiger, and Thompson, The Classical Hollywood Cinema , 224-225; Lea Jacobs, "Lasky Lighting," in Cherchi Usai and Codelli, eds., The DeMille Legacy , 250-261. For a discussion of color tinting and toning, see Paolo Cherchi Usai, "The Color of Nitrate," Image 34 (Spring/Summer 1991): 29-38. Fittingly, when DeMille was made an honorary member of the Society of Motion Picture Art Directors, he claimed that his contribution lay in securing Buckland's talent for film production. (Wilfred Buckland folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU.)

23. DeMille to Lasky, 7 June 1916, in Jesse Lasky 1916 folder; DeMille to Arthur S. Friend, 28 October 1916, in Arthur S. Friend 1916 folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU.

24. Interview with DeMille, 25 April 1957, in Biography folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU.

25. "Lasky Gets Belasco Plays," MPW, 6 June 1914, 1412; "Lasky's First Year," MPW 9 January 1915, 674; Interview with DeMille, 25 April 1957, in Biography folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU.

26. "A New Outlet for Genius," NYDM , 17 February 1915, 23; The Autobiography of Cecil B. DeMille , ed. Donald Hayne (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1959), 106.

27. See cover, MPN , 20 February 1915; "More Belasco Plays by Lasky," MPW , 25 March 1916, 2035; "Close-Ups," Photoplay , July 1918, 75.

28. DeMille to Goldfish, 23 July 1914, DMA, BYU (Although Goldfish had not yet changed his name, I refer to him in the text as Goldwyn, as he was known for most of his career.); "Men Who Owe Success to the Movies," Los Angeles Examiner , 2 July 1916, in Cecil B. DeMille scrapbook, RLC, LMPA; "Lasky Views the Future," MPW , 27 March 1915, 1911.

29. "William C. DeMille with Lasky," NYDM , 30 September 1914, 25; William deMille to Anna DeMille, 16 October 1914, William deMille cage file, LMPA.

30. "Lasky Scholarship for College Scenario Course," MPN 6 November 1915, 76; "Lasky Company Offers Scholarship to Columbia Students," MPW , 30 October 1915, 765; William deMille to Anna DeMille, 16 October 1914, William deMille cage file, LMPA; Lasky to Goldfish, 11 October 1915, and 2 October 1915, DMA, BYU. Although William deMille wrote satisfactory scripts, apparently he was not an able administrator. Lasky wrote to Goldfish, "We are preparing to let Billy direct. . . and if he doesn't make us a first class picture, we will put him back to writing but not to head the Department." Later, he stated more bluntly, ''William was useless as head of the Scenario Department.'' (Lasky to Goldfish, 11 October 1915, and 25 October 1915, DMA, BYU.)

31. DeMille to Arthur S. Friend, 13 September 1916, in Arthur S. Friend 1916 folder; Lasky to DeMille, 14 September 1916, in Jesse Lasky 1916 folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU; Julian Johnson wrote in "The Shadow Stage" ( Photoplay , December 1916, 83), "for months this fine studio . . . has sent out the dullest, most conventional plays." Johnson's observation supports Lasky's contention, "The real reason why Famous Players finally gave in to coming in with us on an even 50-50 basis was because they finally realized that they were in a hole regarding scenarios, stories and productions and could not keep up pace'' (Lasky to DeMille, 27 June 1916, in Jesse Lasky 1916 folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU); Jesse L. Lasky, I Blow My Own Horn (London: Victor Gallanez, 1957), 102; DeMille to Goldfish, 17 September 1914, DMA, BYU.

32. "Lasky Makes Radical Move," NYDM , 1 July 1916, 46; Lasky to DeMille, 21 July 1916, in Jesse Lasky 1916 folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU.

33. Lasky to Goldfish, 6 July 1915, DMA, BYU.

34. Program for Chimmie Fadden , Strand Theatre, New York, 27 June 1915, Chimmie Fadden clipping file, LMPA.

35. R. Grau, "A New Invasion of Filmdom," Motion Pictures , September 1915, in Geraldine Farrar scrapbook, RLC, LMPA; Lasky to DeMille, 9 June 1916, in Jesse Lasky 1916 folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU. As company correspondence shows, Farrar was regarded as a major asset during negotiations for the merger.

36. "Geraldine Farrar for the Screen," MPW , 8 May 1915, 879; "Lasky Signs Farrar," NYDM , 5 May 1915, 22; Geraldine Farrar, "Why I Went into Motion Pictures," in Geraldine Farrar scrapbook, RLC, LMPA.

37. "Miss Farrar Confers with Belasco," Musical America , 14 November 1908, in Geraldine Farrar scrapbook, RLC, LMPA; Girl of the Golden West folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU; DeMille claimed that Puccini "borrowed" musical themes in Butterfly from William Furst, who was Belasco's composer before he wrote orchestral music for silent film.

38. Irving Kolodin, The Metropolitan Opera 1883-1966 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967), 285. Although she expressed doubts about marriage, Farrar married Lou Tellegen in 1916. DeMille gave Tellegen an opportunity to direct that he did not wish to repeat. As a result, Farrar broke with Lasky and signed with Goldwyn (who had formed his own company after Zukor ousted him from Famous Players-Lasky) and subsequently with Pathé; her later films never won the acclaim that she enjoyed in Lasky films. Scripts of Farrar films, DeMille and Goldwyn Collections, USC. See Far-rat autobiography, Such Sweet Compulsion (New York: Greystone Press, 1938).

39. Although Carmen was distributed first, DeMille decided to test Farrar before the camera in Maria Rosa , released as her third film; he needn't have worried. Farrar's acting in Maria Rosa was impressive, especially in the final sequence when she stabs her husband, who dies while clutching her hair on their wedding day. Julian Johnson wrote in Photoplay , July 1916: "Farrar performs such a symphony of glowing love, purple hate, and magnificent murder as our screens have seldom reflected."

40. "New York Papers Praise Carmen," MPW , 6 November 1915, 116; "Two Carmens Create Keen Rivalry in Terre Haute," MPN , 20 November 1915, 49; "Lasky Co. Expanding," NYDM , 30 June 1915, 21; The Opera Magazine , October 1915, in Geraldine Farrar scrapbook, RLC, LMPA; MPN cover, 9 November 1915.

41. I am describing the George Eastman House nitrate print of Carmen , which is tinted, as was the original, but was reedited as a reissue in 1918. After comparing scripts of Carmen , including the original by William deMille and a later version, dated May 18, 1918, with instructions for editing the reissued film, I doubt that the original print exits. Apparently, the extant DeMille silents, preserved in a specially built vault on the director's estate before they were deposited at George Eastman House, are not all original releases. Scripts, Paramount Collection, AMPAS.

42. "Lasky Takes 'Carmen' Fight with Censors to Court," MPN , 23 October 1915, 77; "Geraldine Farrar Seen but Not Heard," New York Times , 1 November 1915, 11; "Grand Opera's Wildest Sensation since Salome," in Geraldine Farrar scrapbook, RLC, LMPA; Kolodin, The Metropolitan Opera , 262; "Hodkinson Ideas Realized in Paramount Films,'' MPN , 27 November 1915, 80; Chicago Strand Theatre Program, Carmen clipping file, LMPA. Compared with other Lasky Company pictures distributed by Paramount, ticket prices for Carmen were higher.

43. "Geraldine Farrar Scores," MPN , 16 October 1915, 43; "Stubbornness of Geraldine," NYDM , 1 April 1916, 32; "Miss Farrar as a Movie Carmen," Hartford Daily , 4 October 1915, in Geraldine Farrar scrapbook, RLC, LMPA; "Geraldine Farrar's 'Carmen' a Splendid Performance,'' NYDM , 6 November 1915, 28.

44. Kirk Bond, "Eastman House Journal," Film Culture 47 (Summer 1969): 45. William deMille was less than charitable when he saw a print of Carmen during the sound era: "Looked at with 1935 eyes, our picture was badly photographed, the lighting was childish, the acting was awful, the writing atrocious and—may Allah be merciful—the direction terrible." By the 1930s, however, the DeMille brothers' earlier camaraderie had been superceded by personal, financial, and ideological disagreements. See William deMille, Hollywood Saga , 155.

45. Jesse L. Lasky, I Blow My Own Horn , 116.

46. "Feature Film," MPN , 25 October 1913, 17; Leslie T. Peacocke, "The Practical Side of Scenario Writing," Photoplay , May 1914, 132.

47. Jesse L. Lasky, "Accomplishments of the Feature," MPW , 11 July 1914, 214. Garth Jowett argues in Film: The Democratic Art that "the development of film criticism, and the prominence given to film journalism of all types, was a major factor in the expansion of the industry by attracting a class of patrons curious to see this 'new art' "(98). See also Myron O. Lounsbury, The Origins of American Film Criticism 1909-1939 (New York: Arno Press, 1973).

48. "The Squaw Man," MPW , 28 February 1914, 1068; William A. Johnston, "The Rose of the Rancho," MPN , 28 November 1914, 41; "What's His Name," MPN , 7 November 1914, 39; "Feature Films of the Week," NYDM , 24 February 1915, 29; MPW , 1 May 1915, 743; DeMille to Goldfish, 23 July 1914, DMA, BYU.

49. Vachel Lindsay, The Art of the Moving Picture (New York: Liveright, 1915). See Nick Browne, "Orientalism as an Ideological Form: American Film Theory in the Silent Period," Wide Angle 11 (October 1989): 23-31.

50. W. Stephen Bush, "Kindling," MPW , 24 July 1915, 655; "The Golden Chance," MPW , 8 January 1916, 255; New York Dramatic News , 6 November 1915, in Geraldine Farrar scrapbook, RLC, LMPA; Interview with DeMille, 5 June 1957, in Lighting folder; Interview with DeMille, 3 July 1957, in The Warrens of Virginia folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU; Margaret I. MacDonald, "The Director as a Painter and the Players His Colors," NYDM , 14 January 1914, 50.

51. Robert M. Crunden, Ministers of Reform: The Progressives' Achievement in American Civilization, 1889-1920 (New York: Basic Books, 1972), chap. 4; James Lincoln Collier, The Rise of Selfishness in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), chap. 2.

52. Boston Transcript , 28 December 1912; William deMille, "Speech before the Drama League at the Plymouth Theater," unidentified clipping; "You Can't Uplift the Drama," New York Sun , 28 October 1911, in William deMille scrapbook, RLC, LMPA; ''The Heart and Soul of Motion Pictures," NYDM , 12 June 1920, in Cecil B. DeMille scrapbook, RLC, LMPA.

53. "Moving Pictures a Social Force," MPN , 6 September 1913, 15; MacDonald, "The Director as a Painter and the Players His Colors," 50; "Call of the North," MPW , 22 August 1914, 1080; ''Close-Ups," Photoplay , June 1916, 63-64.

54. "Jesse L. Lasky in Pictures," MPW , 3 January 1914, 35; Lasky to Goldfish, 14 January 1915, DMA, BYU; Kenneth Macgowan, Behind the Screen , 166; Lasky, I Blow My Own Horn , 112. Interestingly, Lasky wrote to Goldwyn, "We have just decided to take Hector Turnbull off all writing entirely as his scenarios are not proving satisfactory, and instead, we are going to have him supply original ideas so that we will have plenty to choose from when we want plays for the other writers to prepare." (Lasky to Goldfish, 19 October 1915, DMA, BYU.)

55. Barbara Beach, "The Literary Dynamo," MPM , July 1921: 54-55, 81.

56. William Ressman Andrews, "The Cheat," MPN , 25 December 1915, 127; "The Golden Chance," NYDM , 29 January 1915, 50; William deMille, Hollywood Saga , 139; Samuel Goldwyn, Behind the Screen (New York: George H. Doran, 1939), 82; Interview with DeMille, 23 July 1957, in The Cheat, Chimmie Fadden, Chimmie Fadden Out West folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU. According to DeMille, "Up to this time, foreign receipts would be $10,000 or $4,000—that sort of thing . . . . The Cheat did $41,000 foreign."

57. Cecil B. DeMille with Famous Players-Lasky Corporation, Cecil B. DeMille cage file, LMPA.

58. "The Motion Picture News Hall of Fame," MPN , 30 December 1922, 32. Also inducted were Adolph Zukor, Samuel Rothapfel, Mary Pickford, Charles Chaplin, Douglas Fairbanks, George Eastman, Thomas Edison, John D. Williams, Will Hays, and Carl Laemmle.

59. Staiger, Interpreting Films , chap. 5, Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will , chap. 8, Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars , chap. 12, Peiss, Cheap Amusements , chap. 6; Hansen, Babel and Babylon , chap. 2, Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), chap. 3; Gunning, D. W. Griffith and the Origins of American Narrative , 256-257. On working-class cinema, see Kay Sloan, The Loud Silents: Origins of the Social Problem Film (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988); Steven J. Ross, "Struggles for the Screen: Workers, Radicals, and the Political Uses of Film," American Historical Review 96 (April 1991): 336-367; Ross, "Cinema and Class Conflict: Labor, Capital, the State and American Silent Film," in Robert Sklar and Charles Musser, eds., Resisting Images , 68-107. Ben Singer argues that cinema audiences remained working class during the 1910s in "The Embourgeoisement Thesis and Silent American Cinema: Revising the Revisionists." On modes of production and representation in relation to class, see note 3 above.

60. Douglas Gomery, "The Picture Palace: Economic Sense or Hollywood Nonsense?" Quarterly Review of Film Studies 3 (Winter 1978): 24-25. See also Gomery, Shared Pleasures: A History of Movie Presentation in the United States (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992), part 1.

61. Cincinnati Inquirer , 6 December 1908; The Bookman , 1911, in William deMille scrapbook, RLC, LMPA.

62. See Lise-Lone Marker, David Belasco , Introduction.

63. Photoplay , May 1918, 20-39; November 1914, 55-75; January 1915, 39-56.

64. Charles Musser challenges A. Nicholas Vardac's argument that stage melodrama could easily be adapted without dialogue for the screen in "The Nickelodeon Era Begins," 6.

65. See Rubin, The Making of Middlebrow Culture ; Janice Radway, "The Scandal of the Middlebrow: The Book-of-the-Month Club, Class Fracture, and Cultural Authority," South Atlantic Quarterly 89 (Fall 1990): 703-736. See also Rubin, "Between Culture and Consumption: Mediations of the Middlebrow," in Richard Wightman Fox and T. J. Jackson Lears, eds., The Power of Culture: Critical Essays in American History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993): 163-194. Radway differentiates her study from Rubin's by asserting that middlebrow culture was ''a separate aesthetic and ideological production constructed by a particular fraction of the middle class."

66. See Jowett's discussion of the rise of the star system, features, and movie palaces in Film: The Democratic Art , chap. 3; Richard deCordova, Picture Personalities: The Emergence of the Star System in America (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990).

67. See Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will , chap. 8; Couvares, The Remaking of Pittsburgh , chap. 8; Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars , chap. 12; Peiss, Cheap Amusements , chap. 6; Gilkeson, Jr., Middle-Class Providence , chap. 6. See also note 3 above.

68. "William DeMille Talks on the Drama," MPW , 9 October 1915, 258; "Close-Ups," Photoplay , August 1915, 121.

69. L. C. Moon, "Statistics of the Motion Picture Industry," MPN , 16 December 1922, 3024. Exhibition statistics during the period 1916-1922 were considered relatively unchanged.

70. See Richard Koszarski, An Evening's Entertainment: The Age of the Silent Feature Picture, 1915-1928 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1990).

1. Script of What's His Name , USC. George Bart McCutcheon, the author of the novel, also wrote the best-seller, Brewster's Millions , adapted successfully for the stage, and for film by DeMille and Apfel as the Lasky Company's second release.

2. Daniel Horowitz, The Morality of Spending: Attitudes toward the Consumer Society in America, 1875-1940 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985), 88; these figures are for the year 1912.

3. I refer to private, or domestic, and public spheres as concepts that have informed American women's history. See Linda K. Kerber, "Separate Spheres, Female Worlds, Woman's Place: The Rhetoric of Women's History," Journal of American History 75 (June 1988): 9-39. For a reconsideration of Habermas's concept of the public sphere in Enlightenment France with respect to American working-class film attendance, see Miriam Hansen's Babel and Babylon: Spectatorship in American Silent Film (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991). On women's political practice in relation to Habermas's theory, see Mary P. Ryan, "Gender and Public Access: Women's Politics in Nineteenth-Century America," in Craig Calhoun, ed., Habermas and the Public Sphere (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1992), 259-288; Ryan, Women in Public: Between Banners and Ballots, 1825-1880 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990).

4. Henry F. May, The End of American Innocence: A Study of the First Years of Our Time (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1959), 24.

5. On the social history of the middle class, see Mary P. Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790-1865 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), chaps. 4, 5; Stuart Blumin, The Emergence of the Middle Class: Social Experience in the American City, 1760-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Horowitz, The Morality of Spending ; John S. Gilkeson, Jr., Middle-Class Providence, 1820-1940 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); Sam Bass Warner, Jr., Streetcar Suburbs: The Process of Growth in Boston, 1870-1900 , 2d ed. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978); Cindy Sondik Aron, Ladies and Gentlemen of the Civil Service: Middle-Class Workers in Victorian America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); Olivier Zunz, Making America Corporate, 1870-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990); Peter Stearns, "The Middle Class: Toward a Precise Definition," Comparative Studies in Society and History 21 (July 1979): 392-393; Arno J. Mayer, "The Lower Middle Class as Historical Problem," Journal of Modern History 47 (September 1975): 417-418. See also C. Wright Mills, White Collar: The American Middle Classes (New York: Oxford University Press, 1956), xvi-xvii; Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1974), chap. 13.

6. New York Telegraph clipping, 10 April 1913, in Cecil B. DeMille scrapbook, RLC, LMPA; Beatrice DeMille, "The DeMille Family in Motion Pictures," NYDM , 4 August 1917, 4; Agreement. . . between the John W. Rumsey Co . . . . Cecil B. DeMille and M. Beatrice DeMille, Cecil B. DeMille cage file, LMPA. Beatrice DeMille was Jewish, a lineage her son de-emphasized, but she converted to her husband's Episcopalian faith.

7. Interview with DeMille, 24 September 1957, in Mother folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU.

8. Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class , 51.

9. Ann Douglas, The Feminization of American Culture (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977), 1-13; T. J. Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture 1880-1920 (New York: Pantheon, 1981), chap. 3, part 3; John Higham, "The Reorientation of American Culture in the 1890s," in John Weiss, ed., The Origins of Modern Consciousness (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1965), 25-48; Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class , chap. 4; Blumin, The Emergence of the Middle Class , chap. 5; Richard Sennett, Families against the City: Middle Class Homes of Industrial Chicago 1872-1880 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1970).

10. See Douglas, The Feminization of American Culture ; Lears, No Place of Grace .

11. See Karen Halttunen, Confidence Men and Painted Women: A Study of Middle-Class Culture in America, 1830-1870 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982); John F. Kasson, Rudeness and Civility: Manners in Nineteenth-Century Urban America (New York: Hill & Wang, 1990); Katherine C. Grier, Culture and Comfort: People, Parlors, and Upholstery, 1850-1930 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1988); Kenneth L.

12. Martha Banta, Imaging American Women: Idea and Ideals in Cultural History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987), chap. 15; David Glassberg, American Historical Pageantry: The Uses of Tradition in the Early Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990), 33-34; Henry C. DeMille, in Diary folder, Family, DMA, BYU; The Autobiography of Cecil B. DeMille , ed. Donald Hayne (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1959), 24; A. Nicholas Vardac, Stage to Screen: Theatrical Origins of Early Film: David Garrick to D. W. Griffith (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1949; New York: DaCapo, 1987), 144; Bernard Hewitt, Theatre U.S.A. 1665 to 1957 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959), 253; Oscar G. Brockett and Robert R. Findlay, Century of Innovation: A History of European and American Theatre and Drama since 1870 (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1973), 51.

13. Halttunen, Confidence Men and Painted Women , chaps. 3-6; Erving Goffman, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (Garden City: Doubleday & Co., 1959), Conclusion. See also Jean-Christophe Agnew, Worlds Apart: The Market and the Theater in Anglo-American Thought, 1550-1750 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); Richard Sennett, The Fall of Public Man: On the Social Psychology of Capitalism (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977). On character versus personality, see Warren Susman, "'Personality' and the Making of Twentieth-Century Culture," in Culture as History (New York: Pantheon, 1984), 271-285. Richard Wightman Fox argues that Susman is too schematic because personality was informed by nineteenth-century, concepts of character, in "Character and Personality: The Cult of Liberal Protestantism 1850-1930" (Paper delivered at SUNY Brockport, April, 1988). I focus on character and personality as constituting polarities in order to interpret a specific DeMille text.

14. Gilkeson, Jr., Middle-Class Providence , 219-220: Francis G. Couvares, The Remaking of Pittsburgh: Class and Culture in an Industrializing City, 1877-1919 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1984), 101.

15. For a discussion of inattention to novels and theatrical work in studies of film adaptations, see Rick Altman, "Dickens, Griffith, and Film Theory Today," South Atlantic Quarterly 88 (Spring 1988): 321-359.

16. See Alfred Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge: Belknap Press, 1977).

17. Brockett and Findlay, Century of Innovation , chaps. 1-6.

18. David Grimsted, Melodrama Unveiled: American Theater and Culture 1800-1850 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968), 65.

19. Programs for The Wife and Lord Chumley , in scrapbook, Theater and Business, DMA, BYU.

20. Brockett and Findlay, Century of Innovation , 183; Hewitt, Theatre U.S.A ., 257.

21. On melodrama as working-class entertainment, see Vardac, Stage to Screen , 1-2; Michael Booth, English Melodrama (London: Herbert Jenkins, 1965), 13, 52, 187; Peter Brooks, The Melodramatic Imagination: Balzac, Henry James, Melodrama, and the Mode of Excess (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), xii. On melodrama, see John G. Cawelti, Adventure, Mystery, and Romance: Formula Stories as Art and Popular

22. Frank Rahill, The World of Melodrama (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1967), 268.

23. Rahill, The World of Melodrama , chap. 28, 261-263; James Smith, Melodrama (London: Methuen, 1973), 43.

24. Robert Heilman, Tragedy and Melodrama (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1968), 94-97.

25. Lise Lone-Marker, David Belasco: Naturalism in the American Theatre (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), 78-114; Vardac, Stage to Screen , 129-135; Brockett and Findlay, Century of Innovation , 12.

26. "Review of the Week," New York Clipper , 1 September 1888, 393.

27. Henry C. DeMille, The Wife , in Robert Hamilton Ball, ed., The Plays of Henry C. DeMille Written in Collaboration with David Belasco (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1940; Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1965), 117. This collection of plays is volume 17 in the series, America's Lost Plays , which also includes William C. deMille's The Warrens of Virginia .

28. Nym Crinkle, "The Charity' Ball," Theatre , November 1889, in scrapbook, Theater and Business, DMA, BYU.

29. Peter Brooks, The Melodramatic Imagination , 16, 20.

30. See Halttunen, Confidence Men and Painted Women ; Kasson, Rudeness and Civility ; Sennett, The Fall of Public Man .

31. "About a Certain School of Plays," The Illustrated American , 4 March 1893, Henry C. DeMille clipping file, LMPA.

32. Ibid.

33. Henry C. DeMille, The Wife , 59.

34. New York Sun , 20 November 1889, in scrapbook, Theater and Business, DMA, BYU.

35. "About a Certain School of Plays," LMPA.

36. New York Daily Tribune , 2 November 1887, in scrapbook, Theater and Business, DMA, BYU.

37. The Spirit of the Times , 25 August 1888, in scrapbook, Theater and Business, DMA, BYU.

38. Tid Bits , 12 November 1887, in scrapbook, Theater and Business, DMA, BYU.

39. Craig Timberlake, The Bishop of Broadway: The Life and Work of David Belasco (New York: Library Publishers, 1954), 133.

40. Brockett and Findlay, Century of Innovation , 8; Vardac, Stage to Screen , xx. On realism represented in a romantic mode, see also Lone-Marker, David Belasco , 76, and Michael R. Booth, Victorian Spectacular Theatre, 1850-1910 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1981), 74; Gledhill, "Speculations on the Relationship between Soap Opera and Melodrama," 103-109. On realism and representation, see Roland Barthes, "The Reality Effect," in Tzvetan Todorov, ed., French Literary Theory Today , trans. R. Carter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 11-17.

41. The Spirit of the Times , 25 August 1888; The World 20 November 1889, in scrapbook, Theater and Business, DMA, BYU.

42. Graphic , 25 August 1888, in scrapbook, Theater and Business, DMA, BYU; Brockett and Findlay, Century of Innovation , 183; Hewitt, Theatre U.S.A ., 261.

43. New York World , 24 November 1889, in scrapbook, Theater and Business, DMA, BYU.

44. Jane Tompkins, Sensational Designs: The Cultural Work of American Fiction, 1790-1860 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 126.

45. New York Mirror , 30 November 1889, in scrapbook, Theater and Business, DMA, BYU.

46. Once a Week , 17 December 1889, in scrapbook, Theater and Business, DMA, BYU.

47. Minnie Maddern Fiske was courted by Lasky's rival, the Famous Players Company. Unfortunately, DeMille's adaptation is the only silent film extant about the theatrical life that was his family legacy. Wild Goose Chase , based on William deMille's play about rebellious young lovers who join a traveling troupe, has not survived.

48. "Max Figman in 'What's His Name,'" MPW , 26 September 1914, 1778.

49. Hanford C. Judson, "What's His Name," MPW , 7 November 1914, 792.

50. Script of What's His Name , USC.

51. Henry Seidel Canby, The Age of Confidence: Life in the Nineties (New York: Farrar & Rinehart, 1934), 50; see also Lary May, Screening Out the Past: The Birth of Mass Culture and the Motion Picture Industry (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), 7.

52. Paul Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820-1920 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978), chap. 13.

53. Ruth Rosen, The Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1900-1918 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982), 42.

54. Acting became a more respectable profession for women in the late nineteenth century. See Christoper Kent, "Image and Reality: The Actress and Society," in Martha Vicinus, ed., A Widening Sphere: Changing Roles of Victorian Women (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1977), 94-116.

55. "Lasky at Los Angeles," MPW , 10 July 1915, 239. In 1918, DeMille trained Anne Bauchens to be his editor, and she worked in that capacity until the end of the director's decades-long career.

56. Hanford C. Judson credits Buckland "for having made the scenes" in his review, "What's His Name," in MPW ; the art director is not credited in the film.

57. Interview with DeMille, 28 June 1957, in The Squaw Man folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU.

58. See Rudolf Arnheim, Film as Art (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1957), 65-73. Arnheim titles this section "Artistic Uses of Lighting and of the Absence of Color," but Lasky releases were all color tinted. See also Peter Baxter, "On the History and Ideology of Film Lighting," Screen 16 (Autumn 1975): 96-98; David Bordwell, Janet Staiger, and Kristin Thompson, The Classical Hollywood Cinema: Film Style and Mode of Production (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), 223-227; Lea Jacobs, ''Lasky Lighting," in Paolo Cherchi Usai and Lorenzo Codelli, eds., The DeMille Legacy (Pordenone: Edizioni Biblioteca dell'Immagine, 1991), 250-261.

59. Interview with DeMille, 3 July 1957, in What's His Name folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU.

60. Script of What's His Name , USC.

61. See Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class , chap. 4; Sennett, Families against the City , part 3.

62. The Henry C. DeMille School for Girls Founded in 1893, Henry C. DeMille clipping file, LMPA.

63. "What's His Name," NYDM , 28 October 1914, 32; untitled Hartford Current review, 30 October 1914, What's His Name clipping file, LMPA.

64. See Susman, "'Personality' and the Making of Twentieth-Century Culture."

65. Clyde Griffin, "The Progressive Ethos," in Stanley Coben and Lorman Ratner, eds., The Development of an American Culture (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1970), 129. See Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class , chap. 4; Blumin, The Emergence of the Middle Class , chap. 5; Sennett, Families against the City , part 3.

66. Horowitz, The Morality of Spending , chaps. 5, 6; Blumin, The Emergence of the Middle Class , 185-186; Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class , 200-201.

67. Judson, "What's His Name," 792.

1. Money Land and Transportation folder, Family, DMA, BYU.

2. See Albert Habegger, Gender, Fantasy and Realism in American Literature (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), chaps. 7, 11; Alan Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (New York: Hill & Wang, 1982), chap. 4; Henry F. May, The End of American Innocence: A Study of the First Years of Our Time 1912-1917 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1959), 48-50.

3. Quoted in Miles Orvell, The Real Thing: Imitation and Authenticity in American Culture, 1880-1940 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989), 106.

4. See Habegger, Gender; Fantasy and Realism in American Literature , chap. 11; Jane Tompkins, Sensational Designs: The Cultural Work of American Fiction, 1790-1860 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), chap. 5; Christine Gledhill, "Speculations on the Relationship between Soap Opera and Melodrama," Quarterly Review of Film and Video 14 (1992): 107-108; Neil Harris, "Iconography and Intellectual History: The Halftone Effect," in Cultural Excursions: Marketing Appetites and Cultural Tastes in Modern America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 304-317.

5. Peter B. Hales, Silver Cities: The Photography of American Urbanization (Phila-

6. See Paul Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820-1920 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978); Warren Susman, "The City in 'American Culture," in Culture as History: The Transformation of American Society in the Twentieth Century (New York: Pantheon, 1984); Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America , chap. 4; William H. Wilson, The City Beautiful Movement (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989).

7. See Wilson, The City Beautiful Movement , chap. 3; Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America , chap. 7. According to Trachtenberg, the exhibition excluded African Americans and stereotyped other ethnic groups and women.

8. On fiction, see Eugene Arden, "The Evil City in American Fiction," New York History 35 (July 1954): 259-279.

9. Thomas Bender, Toward an Urban Vision: Ideas and Institutions in Nineteenth Century America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975), 193.

10. George G. Foster, New York by Gaslight and Other Urban Sketches , edited and with an introduction by Stuart Blumin (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 93.

11. David Ward, Poverty, Ethnicity, and the American City, 1840-1925: Changing Conceptions of the Slum and the Ghetto (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 12.

12. A quote attributed to Gilles Deleuze in Craig Owens, "The Discourse of Others: Feminists and Postmodernism," in Hal Foster, ed., The Anti-Aesthetic (Port Townsend: Bay Press, 1983), 80.

13. Quoted in Ward, Poverty, Ethnicity, and the American City , 78.

14. See Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish , trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Pantheon, 1978). See also M. Christine Boyer, Dreaming the Rational City: The Myth of American City Planning (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1983).

15. Habegger, Gender, Fantasy and Realism in American Literature , preface, chap. 11; Daniel H. Borus, Writing Realism: Howells, James, and Norris in the Mass Market (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989), chap. 5. See also Amy Kaplan, The Social Construction of American Realism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), Introduction; Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America , chap. 6.

16. May, The End of American Innocence , 66.

17. Tompkins, Sensational Designs , chap. 5.

18. Orvell, The Real Thing , Introduction, part 2; Oscar G. Brockett and Robert R. Findlay, Century of Innovation: A History of European and American Theatre and Drama Since 1870 (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1973), 8. Orvell differentiates between the middle-class culture of imitation and the culture of authenticity , a modernist and intellectual response to the former.

19. Lise-Lone Marker, David Belasco: Naturalism in the American Theatre (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), chap. 6.

20. See Kaplan, The Social Construction of American Realism , Introduction.

21. Habegger, Gender, Fantasy and Realism in American Literature , 11.

22. Apparently, sketches about characters who commented on New York immigrant life were not uncommon. "This was about the same time that 'Bill' Young, prominent magazine authority of the day, discovered 'Chuck' Connors, Mayor of

23. Edward B. Watson, New York Then and Now: 88 Manhattan Sites Photographed in the Past and the Present (Mineola: Dover Publications, 1976), 16. Although this photo is dated 1893, the play was not, in fact, premiered in New York until 1896.

24. Unidentified clipping, in Victor Moore scrapbook, RLC, LMPA; The Cheat folder, Personal, Autobiography files, DMA, BYU. The star of the initial Broadway production in 1896 was Charles H. Hooper.

25. Edward W. Townsend, Chimmie Fadden, Major Max, and Other Stories (New York: Lovell, Coryell & Co., 1895), 72, 47-48.

26. Typed script of E. W. Townsend's stage play, in Chimmie Fadden folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU. Although the film script credits the play to Thomas, the film appears to be based on the Townsend play in the DeMille Archives.

27. See Kay Sloan, The Loud Silents: Origins of the Social Problem Film (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988).

28. Script of the film Chimmie Fadden , USC. Tom Gunning refers to this type of editing as contrast edit in D. W. Griffith and the Origins of American Narrative: The Early Years at Biograph (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991), 77.

29. Typed script of E. W. Townsend's stage play, in Chimmie Fadden folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU.

30. " Chimmie Fadden Out West," Variety Film Reviews, 1907-1980 (New York: Garland, 1983), 2 July 1915. See Douglas Gilbert, American Vaudeville: Its Life and Times (New York; Dover Publications, 1940); Joe Laurie, Jr., Vaudeville: From the Honky-tonks to the Palace (New York: Henry Holt, 1953); Albert F. McLean, Jr., American Vaudeville as Ritual (University of Kentucky Press, 1965); Robert W. Snyder, The Voice of the City: Vaudeville and Popular Culture in New York (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989).

31. Script of the film, Chimmie Fadden , USC.

32. "Garden—Chimmie Fadden," NYDM , 18 January 1896, 16.

33. "Chimmie Fadden," NYDM , 7 July 1915, 28.

34. W. Stephen Bush, "Chimmie Fadden," MPW , 10 July 1915, 322.

35. "More 'Chimmie Fadden' Plays with Moore Coming," MPN , 17 July 1915, 190. DeMille constructed his own filmography. Although only two Chimmie Fadden films were listed in it, a third title, "The Detective," was produced before the series was cancelled. (Lasky to Goldfish, 29 November 1915, DMA, BYU.)

36. Poster for Chimmie Fadden Out West, Chimmie Fadden Out West clipping file, AMPAS.

37. Significantly, Paul West, author of an early adaptation of the Townsend play for the first Chimmie Fadden film, was not credited, nor was Jeanie Macpherson, who worked on a number of scenarios for which DeMille alone is credited in bound copies of his scripts. Papers in the DeMille Archives indicate, however, that Macpher-

38. Story treatment of Chimmie Fadden Out West , in Chimmie Fadden Out West folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU.

39. "Put Chimmie Fadden into a Movie Play," New York Times , 22 November 1915, 12; "Chimmie Fadden Out West," NYDM , 4 December 1915, 281.

40. Lasky to Goldfish, 29 November 1915, DMA, BYU. Since the Townsend stories represented "a gold mine for ideas," Lasky was disappointed about having to abandon the series. Yet DeMille's figures show that receipts for Chimmie Fadden Out West were comparable to Chimmie Fadden , if not to box-office figures for Geraldine Farrar vehicles. See David Pierce, "Success with a Dollar Sign: Cost and Grosses for the Early Films of Cecil B. DeMille," in Paolo Cherchi Usai and Lorenzo Codelli, eds., The DeMille Legacy (Pordenone: Edizioni Biblioteca dell'Immagine), 316.

41. See Francis G. Couvares, The Remaking of Pittsburgh: Class and Culture in an Industrializing City 1877-1919 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1984); Roy Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City, 1870-1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). See also Michael Rogin, "Making America Home: Racial Masquerade and Ethnic Assimilation in the Transition to Talking Pictures," Journal of American History 79 (December 1992): 1050-1077.

42. Arthur Hornblow also wrote A History of the Theatre in America from Its Beginnings to the Present Time , 2 vols. (New York: J. B. Lippincott, 1919).

43. Colliers , 17 February 1912, in Margaret Illington scrapbook, RLC, LMPA.

44. See Barth, City People , chap. 3.

45. Toledo Blade , 15 July 1911; New York Telegraph , 29 January 1912; Chicago Record Herald , 13 February 1912; New York Review , 9 December 1909; New York Times , 10 December 1911; Green Book , May 1911, in Margaret Illington scrapbook, RLC, LMPA.

46. See Harris, "Iconography and Intellectual History"; Charles Musser, "Rethinking Cinema's Beginnings: Images, Projection, and Editing" (Paper delivered at George Eastman House, Rochester, September, 1992).

47. John A. Kouwenhoven, Adventures of America 1857-1900: A Pictorial Record from Harper's Weekly (New York: Harper & Bros., 1938), 133. See also John Grafton, New York in the Nineteenth Century: 317 Engravings from Harper's Weekly and Other Contemporary Sources (Mineola: Dover Publications, 1977); Sally Lorensen Gross, Toward an Urban View: The Nineteenth-Century American City in Prints (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989).

48. Ward, Poverty, Ethnicity, and the American City , 17-18.

49. Barbara Novak, American Painting of the Nineteenth Century: Realism, Idealism, and the American Experience (New York: Praeger, 1969), 263.

50. William Innes Homer, Robert Henri and His Circle (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1969), chap. 8; Martin Green, New York. 1913: The Armory Show and the Paterson Strike Pageant (New York: Macmillan, 1988); James Lincoln Collier, The Rise of Selfishness in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 111-155; Robert M. Crunden, Ministers of Reform: The Progressives' Achievement in American Civilization 1889-1920 (New York: Basic Books, 1972), 102-115.

51. Alan Trachtenberg, Reading American Photographs: Images as History: Matthew Brady to Walker Evans (New York: Hill & Wang, 1989), chap. 4.

52. Collier, The Rise of Selfishness in America , 12; Crunden, Ministers of Reform , 91.

53. Jacob Riis, How the Other Half Lives: Studies Among the Tenements of New York (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1890; Mineola: Dover Publications, 1971). Interestingly, Riis titles one of his chapters "The Street Arab." See also Riis's The Making of an American (New York: Macmillan, 1916); Emma Louise Ware, Jacob Riis: Police Reporter, Reformer, Useful Citizen (New York: D. Appleton-Century, 1939); James B. Lane, Jacob Riis and the American City (Port Washington: Kennikat Press, 1974); Lewis Fried and John Fierst, Jacob A. Riis: A Reference Guide (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1977). See also note 59 below.

54. Script of Kindling , USC.

55. Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986), 13. See also Elizabeth Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars: Life and Culture on the Lower East Side, 1890-1925 (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1985).

56. W. Stephen Bush, "Kindling," MPW , 24 July 1924, 655.

57. Eileen Bowser, The Transformation of Cinema 1907-1915 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1990), 267. According to Bowser, critics saw a relationship between Griffith's lighting effects and the Photo-Secessionists.

58. Carol Schloss, In Visible Light: Photography and the American Writer 1840-1940 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 107; Trachtenberg, Reading American Photographs , chap. 4. On Stieglitz, see Sue Davidson Lowe, Stieglitz: A Memoir/Biography (New York: Farrar, Strauss & Giroux, 1983); Waldo Frank et al., eds., America and Alfred Stieglitz (New York: The Literary Guild, 1934); Beaumont Newhall, The History of Photography from 1839 to the Present , rev. ed. (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1982).

59. Maren Stange, Symbols of Ideal Life: Social Documentary Photography in America 1890-1950 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), chap. 1. Stange updated her revisionist interpretation of Riis in "Narrative Strategies in the Documentary Tradition" (Paper delivered at Columbia Film Seminar, New York, February 1992). See also Alexander Alland, Sr., Jacob A. Riis: Photographer and Citizen (Millerton: Aperture, 1974); Hales, Silver Cities , chap. 4; Ward, Poverty, Ethnicity, and the American City , 71-75; Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America , 126-128; Harris, "Iconography and Intellectual History," 314; Kaplan, The Social Construction of American Realism , 46.

60. Script of Kindling , USC.

61. Grace Kingsley, "Where the Babies Come From," Photoplay , December 1915, 80.

62. Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars , 136-139.

63. Alland, Jacob A. Riis , 28.

64. Ibid., 152-153.

65. New York American , 7 December 1911; Bloomington Telegraph , 14 February 1912; Chicago Herald Record , 13 February 1912; New York Review , 9 December 1909; Vancouver World , 8 July 1912, in Margaret Illington scrapbook, RLC, LMPA.

66. "Kindling," MPN , 24 July 1915, 71; "Reviews of Current Productions," MPW , 24 July 1915, 665; " Kindling," Variety Film Reviews , 16 July 1915.

67. See Russell Merritt, "Nickelodeon Theaters 1905-1914: Building an Audience for the Movies," in Tino Balio, ed., The American Film Industry (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1976), 72; Richard deCordova, Picture Personalities: The Emergence of the Star System in America (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990).

68. Charles Kenyon, "Kindling," in Thomas H. Dickinson and Jack R. Crawford, eds., Contemporary Plays: Sixteen Plays from the Recent Drama of England and America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1925), 260.

69. Script of Kindling , USC.

70. Boston Transcript , 16 November 1911, in Margaret Illington scrapbook, RLC, LMPA.

71. Script of Kindling , USC.

72. Conversation with James V. D'Arc, November 1993. I am grateful to James Card for a screening of this film.

73. " Kindling," Variety Film Reviews , 16 July 1915.

74. Script of Kindling , USC.

75. Kevin Brownlow offers a more progressive interpretation of this film in Behind the Mask of Innocence (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1990), 285-287.

76. Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America , 21-22.

77. Nina Baym, Woman's Fiction: A Guide to Novels by and about Women in America, 1820-1870 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1978), 45; Susman, "The City in American Culture," 245.

78. See Ruth Perlmutter, "For God, Country, and Whoopee," Film Comment 12 (January/February 1976): 24-28.

79. Script of The Dream Girl , USC.

80. See Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will ; Couvares, The Remaking of Pittsburgh ; Cohen, Making a New Deal ; Peiss, Cheap Amusements ; Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars .

1. Margaret Gibbons Wilson, The American Woman in Transition: The Urban Influence, 1870-1929 (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1979), 8. See also James R. McGovern, "The American Woman's Pre-World War I Freedom in Manners and Morals," Journal of American History 60 (September 1968): 315-333; Kenneth A. Yellis, "Prosperity's Child: Some Thoughts on the Flapper," American Quarterly 21 (March 1969): 44-64; Nancy Woloch, Women and the American Experience (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1984), chaps. 12, 16; Lois W. Banner, American Beauty (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1983), chaps. 12, 13; Martha Banta, Imaging American Women: Idea and Ideals in Cultural History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987); Ellen Wiley Todd, The "New Woman" Revised: Painting and Gender Politics on Fourteenth Street (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), chap. 1; Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, ''The New Woman as Androgyne: Social Disorder and Gender Crisis, 1870-1936," in Disorderly Conduct :

2. Interview with DeMille, 14 May 1957, Biography folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU; "Playwrights All," Philadelphia Record , 28 January 1906, in Cecil B. DeMille scrapbook, RLC, LMPA.

3. "Mrs. H. C. DeMille, Champion of the New Dramatist," NYDM , 10 July 1912, 12.

4. William Leach, "Transformations in a Culture of Consumptions: Women and Department Stores, 1890-1925," Journal of American History 71 (September 1984): 333; John F. Kasson, Rudeness and Civility: Manners in Nineteenth-Century Life (New York: Hill & Wang, 1990), 117. See also Leach, True Love and Perfect Union: The Feminist Reform of Sex and Society (New York: Basic Books, 1980), chap. 9.

5. Hugh Dalziel Duncan, Culture and Democracy: The Struggle for Form in Society and Architecture in Chicago and the Middle West during the Life and Times of Louis H. Sullivan (Totowa: Bedminster Press, 1965), chap. 11; Robert W. Twyman, History of Marshall Field and Co., 1852-1906 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1954), 152-153. On film and consumption, see Charles Eckert, "The Carole Lombard in Macy's Window," Quarterly Review of Film Studies 3 (Winter 1978): 1-21; Jeanne Allen, "The Film Viewer as Consumer," Quarterly Review of Film Studies 5 (Fall 1980): 481-499; Allen, "Palaces of Consumption as Women's Club: En-countering Women's Labor History and Feminist Film Criticism," Camera Obscura 22 (January 1990): 150-158; Mary Ann Doane, The Desire to Desire: The Woman's Film of the 1940s (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), chap. 1; Jane Gaines and Michael Renov, eds., "Female Representation and Consumer Culture," Quarterly Review of Film and Video 11 (1989); Anne Friedberg, Window Shopping: Cinema and the Postmodern (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993). Eckert rightly focuses on DeMille in his discussion of Los Angeles as the center of merchandising tie-ups, but the director was publicizing the life-style of the "smart set" well before his postwar cycle of sex comedies and melodramas.

6. Karen Halttunen, Confidence Men and Painted Women: A Study of Middle-Class Culture in America, 1830-1870 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982), 101-105;

7. Georg Lukács, History and Class Consciousness: Studies in Marxist Dialectics , trans. Rodney Livingstone (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1971), 91.

8. See Michael B. Miller, The Bon Marché: Bourgeois Culture and the Department Store, 1869-1920 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981). See also Ralph M. Hower, History of Macy's of New York 1858-1919: Changes in the Evolution of the Department Store (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1943).

9. Leach, "Transformations in a Culture of Consumption," 326; Rosalind H. Williams, Dream Worlds: Mass Consumption in Late Nineteenth-Century France (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982), 59.

10. Rémy G. Saisselin, The Bourgeois and the Bibelot (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1984), 37-39. See also Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures: Saleswomen, Managers, and Customers in American Department Stores, 1890-1940 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986), 67; Miller, The Bon Marché , 169-173, 186.

11. Quoted in Saisselin, The Bourgeois and the Bibelot , 41.

12. Elaine Abelson, When Ladies Go A-Thieving: Middle-Class Shoplifters in the Victorian Department Store (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 52; Saisselin, The Bourgeois and the Bibelot , 47; Neil Harris, "Museums, Merchandising, and Popular Taste: The Struggle for Influence," in Cultural Excursions: Marketing Appetites and Cultural Tastes in Modern America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 64-65; Stuart Blumin, The Emergence of the Middle Class: Social Experience in the American City, 1760-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 238-240.

13. Jean-Christophe Agnew, "The Consuming Vision of Henry James," in Richard Wightman Fox and T. J. Jackson Lears, eds., The Culture of Consumption (New York: Pantheon, 1983), 77; Amy Kaplan, The Social Construction of American Realism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 77-78.

14. Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Pantheon, 1978), 95, 123; John L. Fell, Film and the Narrative Tradition (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1974; Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), 131-140; Neil Harris, "Pictorial Perils: The Rise of American Illustration," in Cultural Excursions , 344; Charles Musser, The Emergence of Cinema: The American Screen to 1907 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1990), chap. 1, 429-430. See also Musser with Carol Nelson, High-Class Moving Pictures: Lyman H. Howe and the Forgotten Era of Traveling Exhibition, 1880-1929 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991).

15. Edith Wharton, The Age of Innocence (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1968; New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1920), 45.

16. Vachel Lindsay, The Art of the Moving Picture (New York: Macmillan, 1915; New York: Liveright, 1970); Warren Susman, Culture as History: The Transformation of American Society in the Twentieth Century (New York: Pantheon, 1973), xxv-xxvi; Miriam Hansen, Babel and Babylon: Spectatorship in American Silent Film (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991); Nick Browne, "American Film Theory in the Silent Period: Orientalism as an Ideological Form," Wide Angle 11 (October 1989): 23-31.

17. Emile Zola, The Ladies' Paradise: A Realistic Novel [Au bonheur des dames ] (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 79. For a discussion of the novel, see Rachel Bowlby, Just, Looking: Consumer Culture in Dreiser, Gissing and Zola (New York: Methuen, 1985), chap. 5.

18. Williams, Dream Worlds , 64-78; Said, Orientalism , 63; Harris, "Great American Fairs and American Cities: The Role of Chicago's Columbian Exposition," in

19. Zola, The Ladies' Paradise , 47.

20. Quoted in Harris, "The Drama of Consumer Desire," in Cultural Excursions , 178.

21. Abelson, When Ladies Go A-Thieving , chaps. 6, 7; Miller, The Bon Marché , 197-206.

22. On the "hysterization of women" and "psychiatrization of perversions," see Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality , vol. 1, trans. Robert Hurley (New York: Pantheon, 1978), 146-147; see also Louise J. Kaplan, Female Perversions: The Last Temptations of Emma Bovary (New York: Doubleday, 1991), chap. 9. On reification, see Lukács, History and Class Consciousness ; Guy Debord, Society of the Spectacle (Detroit: Black & Red, 1977); Martin Jay, Marxism and Totality: The Adventures of a Concept from Lukács to Habermas (Berkeley: University, of California Press, 1984); Fredric Jameson, "Reification and Utopia in Mass Culture," Social Text 1 (1979): 130-148.

23. Kindling and The Golden Chance , Paramount Collection, AMPAS.

24. Interview with DeMille, 24 September 1957, in The Girl of the Golden West, The Godless Girl, The Golden Bed, The Golden Chance folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU. DeMille's claim may not be unfounded as he dispensed with Macpherson during the sound era. But Lasky wrote to Goldwyn, "Cecil actually does little writing himself as Miss Macpherson does all the continuity while Cecil advises and changes the important points or situations in the scenario." (Lasky to Goldfish, 5 October 1915, DMA, BYU.)

25. Scripts of The Golden Chance and The Cheat , USC; The Autobiography of Cecil B. DeMille , ed. Donald Hayne (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1959), 149-150; Lasky to Goldfish, 25 October 1915 and 4 November 1915, DMA, BYU.

26. The Golden Chance folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU.

27. Script of The Golden Chance , USC.

28. See Karen Halttunen, "From Parlor to Living Room: Domestic Space, Interior Decoration, and the Culture of Personality," in Bronner, ed., Consuming Visions , 158.

29. Stuart Culver, "What Manikins Want: The Wonderful Wizard of Oz and The Art of Decorating Dry Goods Windows, "Representations 21 (Winter 1988): 107-111.

30. Script of The Golden Chance , USC.

31. Ibid .

30. Script of The Golden Chance , USC.

31. Ibid .

32. Quoted in Brook Thomas, "The New Historicism and other Old-Fashioned Topics," in H. Aram Veeser, ed., The New Historicism (London: Routledge, 1989), 187.

33. Peter Milne, Motion Picture Directing (New York: Falk Publishing Co., 1922), 48; "The Golden Chance," MPN , 15 January 1916, 252. See Katherine DiGiulio, "The Representation of Women in 19th and Early 20th Century Narrative Stereographs," Ideas about Images , Rochester Film & Photo Consortium Occasional Papers 4 (January 1990): 2-18.

34. W. Stephen Bush, "The Golden Chance," MPW , 8 January 1916, 255.

35. Quoted in William Leuchtenberg, The Perils of Prosperity, 1914-32 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958), 172.

36. Banta, Imaging American Women , 216.

37. Quoted from Raymond Williams in Stuart Ewen and Elizabeth Ewen, Channels of Desire: Mass Images and the Shaping of American Consciousness (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982), 51; Williams, Dream Worlds , 6-7.

38. See Saisselin, The Bourgeois and the Bibelot , chap. 4. See also Ben Singer, "Female Power in the Serial-Queen Melodrama: The Etiology of an Anomaly," Camera Obscura 22 (1990): 90-129.

39. Script of The Golden. Chance , USC.

40. Woloch, Women and the American Experience , 287-293.

41. Turnbull also succeeded Samuel Goldwyn as Jesse L. Lasky's brother-in-law or the husband of Blanche Lasky, who also worked in the scenario department and exercised considerable leverage.

42. A number of Lasky Company features were reissued in 1918. I have not been able to ascertain if this print of The Cheat was reedited as was Carmen .

43. Script of The Cheat , USC.

44. Thorstein Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899; reprint, New York: Penguin, 1979), 81-82.

45. Duncan, Culture and Democracy , chap. 9. See Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, "The Female World of Love and Ritual: Relations between Women in Nineteenth-Century America," Signs 1 (1975): 1-29; reprinted in Rosenberg, Disorderly Conduct , 53-76.

46. Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class , 84.

47. See Faye E. Dudden, Serving Women: Household Service in Nineteenth-Century America (Middletown: Wesleyan University Press, 1983).

48. "From a London Home of Fashion to the Stage," unidentified clipping, 21 November 1909; Theatre, July 1907; New York Journal , 3 February 1907; Theatre , August 1914; "Fannie Ward's New Home," Photoplay, January 1919; Fannie Ward, "The Well-Dressed Girl," New York Journal , 2 October 1913, in Fannie Ward scrapbook, RLC, LMPA.

49. Richard Wightman Fox, "Character and Personality in the Protestant Republic 1850-1930" (Paper delivered at SUNY Brockport, April 1988). See also Warren Susman, "Personality and the Making of Twentieth-Century Culture," in Culture as History , 271-285.

50. Williams, Dream Worlds , 69-71; Said, Orientalism , 123.

51. See Robert Hamilton Ball, ed., The Plays of Henry C. DeMille Written in Collaboration with David Belasco (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1940; Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1965).

52. J. C. Jensen, "In and Out of West Coast Studios," MPN , 20 November 1915, 74.

53. Script of The Cheat , USC.

54. Harris, "All the World a Melting Pot? Japan at American Fairs, 1876-1904," in Cultural Excursions , 29-55. On antimodernist fascination with Japan as "oceanic withdrawal," see T. J. Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture, 1880-1920 (New York: Pantheon, 1981), chap. 6.

55. In 1907 Theodore Roosevelt negotiated the Gentlemen's Agreement with the Japanese government to specify restriction of the immigration of Japanese laborers. See Yuji Ichioka, The Issei: The World of the First Generation Japanese-American Immigrants, 1885-1924 (New York: The Free Press, 1988), 71-72, 159-164; Harry L. Kitano, Japanese American: The Evolution of a Subculture (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1969), chap. 2; Roger Daniels, Concentration Camps USA (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1971), chap. 1. Although Said's concept of Orientalism is an expression of a form of colonialism that Japan escaped (at least until its post-World War II occupation), Japanese immigrants suffered a fate similar to that of the Chinese who preceded them.

56. Script of The Cheat , USC.

57. "Two Lasky Features," MPW , 25 December 1915, 2384; "Feature Films of the Week," NYDM , 25 December 1915, 40.

58. John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism (1963; reprint, New York: Atheneum, 1981), 113-157; Higham, Send These to Me: Immigrants in Urban America , rev. ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984), 50-53. See also Barbara Miller Solomon, Ancestors and Immigrants: A Changing New England Tradition (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956; Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1989). See also Foucault, The History of Sexuality , 147-150. In 1916 a serial tided The Yellow Menace was very popular at the box office and novelized for publication in daily installments in newspapers. A Chinese villain named Ali Singh (a name that conflates the Far East with the Middle East), played by a white actor, leads a conspiracy against antialien legislation in episodes with such titles as "The Mutilated Hand" and "The Poisonous Tarantula." See NYDM , 12 August 1916, 25. Publicity stories about Margaret Gale, the featured actress, emphasized themes of miscegenation by describing a Chinese prince who courted her while she was filming in Hong Kong. Margaret Gale scrapbook, RLC, LMPA.

59. See Judith Mayne's discussion of The Cheat in "The Limits of Spectacle," Wide Angle 5 (1983): 6-9, and in The Woman at the Keyhole: Feminism and Women's Cinema (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990), 33-36. See also Gina Marchetti, Romance and the "Yellow Peril": Race, Sex, and Discursive Strategies in Hollywood Fiction (forthcoming, University of California Press).

60. Script of The Cheat , USC.

61. The phrase was attributed to Edward A. Filene. See Benson, Counter Cultures , 76.

62. Mary P. Ryan, Women in Public: Between Banners and Ballots, 1825-1880 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), chap. 2.; Smith-Rosenberg, "The New Woman as Androgyne"; Foucault, The History of Sexuality , 145-150; Abelson, When Ladies Go A-Thieving , 56; Benson, Counter Cultures , chap. 3. On advertisers' increasing appeal to the irrational, see T. J. Jackson Lears, "Some Versions of Fantasy: Toward a Cultural History of American Advertising, 1880-1930," Prospects 9 (1984): 349-405.

63. Grant McCracken, Culture and Consumption: New Approaches to the Symbolic

64. On the meaning(lessness) of consumption, see Saisselin, The Bourgeois and the Bibelot , chap. 4; McCracken, Culture and Consumption , 109-115.

65. On the role of department stores and museums in the process of bibelotization, see Saisselin, The Bourgeois and the Bibelot , chap. 4. See also Harris, "Museums, Merchandising and Popular Taste" and "A Historical Perspective on Museum Advocacy," in Cultural Excursions , 56-95. On the relationship of museums and department stores today, see Debora Silverman, Selling Culture: Bloomingdale's Diana Vreeland, and the New Aristocracy of Taste in Reagan's America (New York: Pantheon, 1986).

66. "Hayakawa Names First Two Productions," unidentified clipping, 6 July 1918, in Sessue Hayakawa scrapbook, RLC, LMPA; Harry Carr Easterfield, "The Japanese Way of Expressing Emotion. As seen through the Oriental eyes of Sessue Haya [ sic ]," Motion Picture , April 1918, 34; Script of The Cheat , USC.

67. "The Lasky Studio," NYDM , 28 October 1916, 35-36; Stephen Gong, "Zen and the Art of Motion Picture Making," Asian-American International Film Festival Program, 1982, 13. On Valentino, see Miriam Hansen, "Pleasure, Ambivalence, Identification: Valentino and Female Spectatorship," Cinema Journal 25 (Summer 1986): 6-32; Hansen, Babel and Babylon , part 3; Gaylyn Studlar, "Discourses of Gender and Ethnicity: The Construction and De (con) struction of Rudolph Valentino as Other," Film Criticism 13 (1989): 18-35.

68. Pearl Gaddio, "A Romance of Nippon Land," MPC , December 1916; "Mr. and Mrs. Hayakawa in Their New Shop," Photoplay , November 1917; Untitled article, Photo-Play Journal , May 1918; Harry C. Carr, "Sessue of the Samurai," MPC, January 1919, in Sessue Hayakawa scrapbook, RLC, LMPA. Hayakawa left Famous Players-Lasky in 1918 to organize his own production company, Haworth, but his career declined in the early 1920s. In 1957, he returned to public attention by winning an Academy Award nomination for his role as a Japanese officer in Bridge on the River Kwai . Donald Kirihara's study of Hayakawa's American silent film career is forthcoming.

69. A deconstruction of Puccini's Madama Butterfly (adapted by the composer from a turn-of-the-century Belasco play in which sets with shoji screens were used), David Henry Hwang's award-winning M. Butterfly emphasizes the West's characterization of the East as feminine and rape as a Western ritual. For a discussion of the effeminacy of the Asian hero, see Julia Lesage, "Artful Racism, Artful Rape," Jump Cut 26 (1981): 51-55; reprinted in Christine Gledhill, ed., Home Is Where the Heart Is (London: British Film Institute, 1987), 235-254.

70. See Barry Salt, Film Style and Technology: History and Analysis (London: Starword, 1983), 138, 146, 148. Salt attributes the film's effectiveness to its high ratio of medium shots, though some of the film's most dramatic scenes are in long shot.

71. "Two Lasky Features," MPW , 25 December 1915, 2384; "Miss Ward Puts Mirth Aside for Screen Emotion," MPN , 25 December 1915, 69; Julian Johnson, "The Shadow Stage," Photoplay , March 1916, 102.

72. Paramount remakes increasingly vitiated the issue of miscegenation so that the villain became first an Indian (not Native American) and then a white man. See The Cheat , Paramount Collection, AMPAS.

73. William deMille, Hollywood Saga (New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1939), 139;

74. New York Times , 24 April 1916, Kindling, Heart of Nora Flynn folder, Personal: Autobiography files; DeMille to Lasky, 17 June 1916, Jesse Lasky 1916 folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU.

75. Script of The Heart of Nora Flynn , USC.

76. Notes in Kindling and Heart of Nora Flynn folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU; The Autobiography of Cecil B. DeMille , 158.

77. "Feature Film of the Week," NYDM , 29 April 1916, 28; " Heart of Nora Flynn," Variety Film Reviews, 1907-1980 (New York: Garland, 1983), 21 April 1916; "The Heart of Nora Flynn," MPN , 6 May 1916, 2721; MPW , 6 May 1916, 984.

78. Debord, Society of the Spectacle , 18.

79. Edward Weitzel, "Talking It Over with DeMille," MPW , 21 December 1918.

1. DeMille to Lasky, 17 June 1916, Jesse Lasky 1916 folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU.

2. Memo, 23 February 1956, in David Belasco folder and Joan the Woman folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU. DeMille associates the color process in Joan with Handschiegl but credits Wilfred Buckland with using Belasco's method of dimming arc lights to produce some of the effects; there is also mention of a lawsuit initiated by Handschiegl.

3. DeMille to Lasky, 21 November 1916, in Jesse Lasky 1916 folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky; Interview with DeMille, 12 July 1957, Joan the Woman folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU.

4. Telegram, Friend to DeMille, 23 November 1916; Friend to DeMille, 27 November 1916; in Arthur S. Friend 1916 folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU.

5. "Live Wire Exhibitions," MPN , 24 February 1917, 1208; New York Evening Journal clipping, in Geraldine Farrar scrapbook, RLC, LMPA.

6. Lasky to DeMille, 6 January 1917, in Jesse Lasky 1917 folder, Lasky Co./ Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU.

7. B. Barnett to Lasky, Cardinal Film Corporation, 25 May 1917, in Folder B, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU.

8. H. Whitman Bennett to DeMille, 25 May 1917; DeMille to H. Whitman Bennett, 2 June 1917; in Folder B, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU.

9. Interview with DeMille, 8 July 1957, in Joan the Woman folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU.

10. DeMille kept a list, dated April 27, 1928, of figures identified as cost and gross for each of his films. For Joan , the sums are $302,976.26 and $605,731.30, respectively, compared to $23,429.97 and $147,599.81, respectively, for Carmen , both specials for which ticket prices were higher than average. A number of questions arise, however, such as whether these figures included reissues and international as well as domestic distribution. Also pertinent to interpreting these figures, which were most likely not adjusted for inflation, is DeMille's lengthy dispute with the Internal Revenue Service. For a reproduction of the chart, see David Pierce, who also raises questions, in "Success with a Dollar Sign: Cost and Grosses for the Early Films of Cecil B. DeMille," in Paolo Cherchi Usai and Lorenzo Codelli, eds., The DeMille Legacy (Pordenone: Edizioni Biblioteca dell'Immagine, 1991), 316-317.

11. Lasky to DeMille, 6 January 1917, in Jesse Lasky 1917 folder, Lasky Co./ Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU.

12. On antimodernism, see T. J. Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture 1880-1920 (New York: Pantheon, 1981), xix. Lears points out that his use of the term, antimodernism , is equivalent to the way in which literary critics employ modernism . Yet some critics use the term, modernism , to describe characteristics ascribed to postmodernism. See Marshall Berman, All That Is Solid Melts Into Air: The Experience of Modernity (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982), Introduction. Lears and Berman both stress continuity rather than rupture in defining these terms.

13. Linda Nochlin, "The Paterson Strike Pageant of 1913," Art in America 62 (May/June 1974): 68.

14. David Glassberg, "History and the Public: Legacies of the Progressive Era," Journal of American History 73 (March 1987): 957-980; Glassberg, American Historical Pageantry: The Uses of Tradition in the Early Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990); Naima Prevots, American Pageantry: A Movement for Art and Democracy (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1990); Michael Kammen, Mystic Chords of Memory: The Transformation of Tradition in American Culture (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991); Paul Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820-1920 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978), 256-260. Glassberg describes D. W. Griffith's The Birth of a Nation in terms of pageantry (155). See also Robert M. Crunden, "Thick Description in the Progressive Era," Reviews in American History 19 (1991): 463-467. On Progressive historiography, see Richard Hofstadter, Progressive Historians: Turner; Beard, Parrington (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1968); John Higham, History: Professional Scholarship in America (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1965), chaps. 2, 3; David Gross, "The 'New History': A Note of Reappraisal," History and Theory 13 (1974): 53-58; Peter Novick, That Noble Dream: The "Objectivity Question" and the American Historical Profession (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), chap. 4; Brook Thomas, ''The New Historicism and other Old-Fashioned Topics," in H. Aram Veeser, ed., The New Historicism (London: Routledge, 1989), 182-203; Thomas, The New Historicism and Other Old-Fashioned Topics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991).

15. Roger N. Baldwin, "The St. Louis Pageant and Masque: Its Civic Meaning,"

16. For a description of the pageant, see Nochlin, "The Paterson Strike Pageant of 1913"; Martin Green, New York 1913: The Armory Show and the Paterson Strike Pageant (New York: Macmillan, 1988), chap. 7; Anne Huber Tripp, The I.W.W. and the Paterson Silk Strike (Urbana: Universit y of Illinois Press, 1987), chap. 6; Steve Golin, The Fragile Bridge: The Paterson Silk Strike 1913 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988), chap. 6. Glassberg thinks that Percy MacKaye may have been involved in the preparations of the Paterson pageant (172).

17. Glassberg, American Historical Pageantry , chap. 6.

18. See David M. Kennedy, Over Here: The First Worm War and American Society (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), chap. 1. See also Stephen Vaughn, Holding Fast the Inner Lines: Democracy, Nationalism, and the Committee on Public Information (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980).

19. Quoted from Frederick Jackson Turner, in Novick, That Noble Dream , 99.

20. Glassberg, American Historical Pageantry , 136-137.

21. Lois W. Banner, American Beauty (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1983), chap. 8. Banner points out that Gibson's creation was only partially a reform figure.

22. Vaughn, Holding Fast the Inner Lines , 149.

23. Interview with DeMille, 8 July 1957, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU.

24. Christine Gledhill, "Speculations on the Relationship between Soap Opera and Melodrama," Quarterly Review of Film and Video 14 (1992): 107-108; John L. Fell, Film and the Narrative Tradition (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1974; Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), 52.

25. Glassberg, American Historical Pageantry , 155.

26. Wid's , 4 January 1917, 9, Joan the Woman clipping file, AMPAS; George Blaisdell, "Joan the Woman," MPW , 13 January 1917, 239.

27. DeMille to Lasky, 21 November 1916, in Jesse Lasky 1916 folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU.

28. Technicolor's two-color process was first used, not coincidentally, in Toll of the Sea in 1922, a Madame Butterfly scenario starring Anna May, Wong.

29. Hofstadter, Progressive Historians , 7, part 1; Novick, That Noble Dream , chap. 3.

30. Script of Joan the Woman , USC.

31. Dorothy Donnell, "Joan of Arc. A Short Story Written from the DeMille Photo-Spectacle Featuring Geraldine Farrar, Wallace Reid, Hobart Bosworth, and Theodore Roberts," Motion Picture Story , December 1916, 102-103.

32. Descriptions of this scene are in reviews of the film. Unfortunately, the George Eastman House print has two-color footage only in the last reel.

33. Script of Joan the Woman , USC.

34. Conversation with James Card, October 1992.

35. Interview with DeMille, 3 July 1957, in Joan the Woman folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU.

36. Program of Joan the Woman , Geraldine Farrar clipping file, LMPA.

37. "'Joan the Woman' a Triumph," NYDM , 30 December 1916, 28; Wid's , 4 January 1917, 9, Joan the Woman clipping file, AMPAS; Peter Milne, "Joan the

38. "One of the Most Artistic and Satisfying Pictures That Ever Has Been Shown," New York Evening Sun , undated clipping, in Geraldine Farrar scrapbook, RLC, LMPA. For interpretations of recent historical film, see Vivian Sobchack, "'Surge and Splendor': A Phenomenology of the Hollywood Historical Epic," Representations 29 (Winter 1990): 24-49; Janet Staiger, "Securing the Fictional Narrative as a Tale of the Historical Real," South Atlantic Quarterly 88 (Spring 1989): 393-413.

39. Blaisdell, "Joan the Woman," 239; Julian Johnson, "The Shadow Stage," Photoplay , March 1917, 113; "Production Easily Ranks with the Greatest Known," New York Review , undated clipping, in Geraldine Farrar scrapbook, RLC, LMPA; ''Mme. Farrar's Joan of Arc in the New Spectacle of the Screen," Boston Evening Transcript , 5 February 1917, in Joan the Woman folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU; "'Joan' Opens in Chicago on March 28," NYDM, 24 March 1917, 29; Ad for Joan the Woman, MPN , 3 February 1917, 638-639; ''Zukor Absorbs Artcraft," MPN , 5 May 1917, 2811; Lasky to DeMille, 10 March 1917; DeMille to Lasky, 25 January 1917; in Jesse Lasky 1917 folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU.

40. Script of Joan the Woman , USC.

41. Johnson, "The Shadow Stage," 115; Blaisdell, "Joan the Woman," 239.

42. Martha Banta, Imaging American Women (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987), 139.

43. Ellen Carol DuBois, "Working Women, Class Relations, and Suffrage Militance: Harriot Stanton Blatch and the New York Woman Suffrage Movement, 1894-1909," Journal of American History 74 (June 1987): 34-58; William R. Leach, "Transformations in a Culture of Consumption: Women and Department Stores, 1890-1925," Journal of American History 71 (September 1984): 338-340; Nancy Woloch, Women and the American Experience (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1984), chaps. 10, 12; William H. Chafe, The American Woman: Her Changing Social, Economic, and Political Roles, 1920-1970 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972), chap. 2.

44. On the reinvention of the saint through the centuries, see Marina Warner, Joan of Arc: The Image of Female Heroism (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1981).

45. "One of the Most Artistic and Satisfying Pictures That Ever Has Been Shown," New York Evening Sun , in Geraldine Farrar scrapbook, RLC, LMPA.

46. Reverend Thomas B. Gregory, New York American , undated clipping, in Geraldine Farrar scrapbook, RLC, LMPA.

47. "Our Fashion Department," Theatre , December 1910; "'I Shall Stay Single' Says Miss Farrar," Boston Herald , undated clipping; Vogue , l April 1913; McClures , December 1913; Boston Daily Advertiser , 30 August 1915, in Geraldine Farrar scrapbook, RLC, LMPA.

48. William A. Page, "Farrar's Real Romance," Photoplay , April 1916, 28-31.

49. DeMille to Lasky, 12 July 1916, in Jesse Lasky 1916 folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky; Interview with DeMille, 24 July 1957, in Directors General folder; Interview with DeMille, 23 July 1957, in Joan the Woman folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU.

50. See Warner, Joan of Arc , chap. 7.

51. See Jay P. Dolan, The American Catholic Experience: A History from Colonial Times to the Present (Garden City: Doubleday, 1985), chap. 5.

52. Program of Joan the Woman , Geraldine Farrar clipping file, LMPA.

53. Milne, "Joan the Woman."

54. Unidentified clipping, in Geraldine Farrar scrapbook, RLC, LMPA.

55. B. Barnett to Lasky, Cardinal Film Corporation, 25 May, 1917; H. Whitman Bennett to DeMille, 25 May 1917; in Folder B, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU.

56. DeMille to H. Whitman Bennett, 2 June 1917, in Folder B, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU.

57. Gregory, New York American ; Frederick James Smith, New York Evening Mail , undated clipping, in Geraldine Farrar scrapbook, RLC, LMPA; "Joan at $5 a Seat Has Unusual Premiere at Bradley House in Washington," NYDM , 17 February 1917, 30, Joan the Woman ad, MPN , 20 January 1917, 343.

58. Henry F. May, The End of American Innocence: A Study of the First Years of Our Own Time, 1912-1917 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1959), 364.

59. Unidentified newspaper ad, in Geraldine Farrar scrapbook, RLC, LMPA; Joan the Woman ad, MPN , 20 January 1917, 343; "'I am American First, Last and Always,' She Says," NYDM , 24 March 1917, 30;" Officials Praise 'Joan the Woman' at Albany," NYDM , 3 February 1917, 40; "'Joan' Emphasizes Sunday Opening," MPW , 10 February 1917, 859; "Kansas Solons Witness 'Joan,'" NYDM , 17 February 1917, 23.

60. Vaughn, Holding Fast the Inner Lines , 204; see also James R. Mock and Cedric Larson, Words That Won the War: The Story of the Committee on Public Information, 1917-1919 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1939), chap. 6.

61. Lasky to DeMille, 10 March 1917, in Jesse Lasky 1917 folder, Lasky Co./ Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU.

1. Ad in MPN , 14 January 1922, 455.

2. Script of Old Wives for New , USC.

3. See Karen Halttunen, "From Parlor to Living Room: Domestic Space, Interior Decoration, and the Culture of Personality," in Simon J. Bronner, ed., Consuming Visions: Accumulation and Display of Goods in America, 1880-1920 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1989), 157-190.

4. Theatre , February 1919, in Cecil B. DeMille scrapbook, RLC, LMPA.

5. See Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985).

6. The Autobiography of Cecil B. DeMille , ed. Donald Hayne (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1959), 212-213. Since DeMille himself did not write his autobiography, I refer to it only when I have corroborating evidence from other sources. Donald Hayne, the only compiler to receive credit, stated in a memo to the director, "The difficulty—or should I say impossibility . . . is in trying to write autobiographically about things that I have neither witnessed nor discussed with you in sufficient detail." See James V. D'Arc, "'So Let It Be Written . . .': The Creation of Cecil B. DeMille's Autobiography," Literature/Film Quarterly 14 (1986): 1-9. William deMille gives his brother more credit than he deserves for starting the cycle of sex comedies and

7. Lasky to DeMille, 6 January 1917; Carl H. Pierce to Lasky, memo attached to Lasky's letter; Lasky to DeMille, 5 March 1917; Lasky to DeMille, 10 August 1917; Lasky to DeMille, 27 November 1917; Lasky to DeMille, 27 December 1917; in Jesse Lasky 1917 folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU.

8. Lasky to DeMille, 26 March 1918; Lasky to DeMille, 6 November 1918; DeMille to Lasky, 23 January 1919; Lasky to DeMille, 23 May 1919; in Jesse Lasky 1918 and 1919 folders, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU.

9. David Graham Phillips, Old Wives for New (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1908), 100.

10. Script of Old Wives for New , USC.

11. Robert S. Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd, Middletown: A Study in American Culture (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1929), 256. According to the Lynds, twenty-one out of twenty-six families who owned a car were without bathtubs. See also Siegfried Giedion, Mechanization Takes Command (New York: Oxford University Press, 1948), part 7.

12. See Thomas Elsaesser, "Tales of Sound and Fury: Observations on the Family Melodrama," Monogram 4 (1972): 2-15; reprinted in Christine Gledhill, ed., Home Is Where the Heart Is: Studies in Melodrama and the Woman's Film (London: British Film Institute, 1987), 43-69.

13. Kenneth McGaffey, "The Excellent Elliott," Motion Picture , January 1919, 35; W. K. Hollander, untitled article, Chicago News , 21 January 1919, in Gloria Swanson scrapbook, RLC, LMPA.

14. Phillips, Old Wives for New , 43.

15. See John F. Kasson, Rudeness and Civility: Manners in Nineteenth-Century America (New York: Hill & Wang, 1990), 166.

16. On cosmetics, prostitutes, and changing styles, see Kathy Peiss, "Making Faces: The Cosmetics Industry and the Cultural Construction of Gender, 1890-1930," Genders 7 (Spring 1990): 143-169.

17. Script of Don't Change Your Husband , USC.

18. See Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (New York: Praeger, 1966), chaps. 7-9.

19. Guy Debord, Society of the Spectacle (Detroit: Black & Red, 1977), 5; T. J. Jackson Lears and Richard Wightman Fox, The Culture of Consumption (New York: Pantheon, 1983), x. On hegemony, see Raymond Williams, "Base and Superstructure in Marxist Cultural Theory," Problems in Materialism and Culture (London: Verso, 1980), 31-49; Williams, Marxism and Literature (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), chap. 8.

20. See Roy Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Industry in an Industrial City, 1870-1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); Francis G. Couvares, The Remaking of Pittsburgh (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1984); Elizabeth Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars: Life and Culture on the Lower East Side, 1890-1925 (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1985); Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986); John S. Gilkeson, Jr., Middle-Class Providence, 1820-1940 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985); Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).

21. DeMille to Lasky, 12 January 1924, in Jesse Lasky 1924 folder, Lasky Co./ Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU.

22. DeMille was allegedly a foot fetishist; his vision of the consumer culture included an extraordinary number of close-ups of women's footwear.

23. Why Change Your Wife? script, USC; Why Change Your Wife? stills file, AMPAS.

24. Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, "The Female World of Love and Ritual: Relations between Women in Nineteenth-Century America," Signs 1 (1975): 1-29; reprinted in Smith-Rosenberg, Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America . (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1985), 53-76.

25. On reification, see Georg Lukács, History and Consciousness: Studies in Marxist Dialectics , trans. Rodney Livingstone (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1971).

26. For further discussion of these films, see Charles Musser, "DeMille, Divorce, and the Comedy of Remarriage," in Paolo Cherchi Usai and Lorenzo Codelli, eds., The DeMille Legacy (Pordenone: Edizioni Biblioteca dell'Immagine, 1991), 262-283; Lary May, Screening Out the Past: The Birth of Mass Culture and the Motion Picture Industry (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), 205-214; Robert Sklar, Movie-Made America: A Cultural History of American Movies (New York: Random House, 1975), 91-97. An expanded version of Musser's article will appear as "Divorce, DeMille, and the Comedy of Remarriage," in Henry Jenkins and Kristine Karnick, eds., Classical Film Comedy: Narrative, Performance, Ideology (forthcoming, Routledge/AFI). Musser's research has shown that DeMille invented a genre that later became popular not only in film but on stage, further proof of my argument that the director became a trendsetter in the 1920s.

27. William deMille, Hollywood Saga , 242; Garth Jowett, Film: The Democratic Art (Boston: Little, Broaden, 1976), 188; Richard Koszarski, An Evening's Entertainment: The Age of the Silent Feature Picture 1915-1928 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1990), 30; Gaylyn Studlar also cites the latter statistic, touted in fan magazines and trade journals, in "The Perils of Pleasure? Fan Magazine Discourse as Women's Commodified Culture in the 1920s," Wide Angle 19 (January 1991): 7.

28. The Autobiography of Cecil B. DeMille , 214-215; the quote is from a memo by Berenice Mosk, in Northwest Mounted, Old Wives for New, Plainsman folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU. DeMille claimed during a court case years later that Lasky attempted to block release of the film and to write it off as a loss. Although Lasky received in-house instructions to cut the film, I doubt he would have prevented the release of a project that was initially his idea and that he persuaded DeMille to undertake. See United States Circuit Court of Appeals for the North Circuit. Commissioner of Internal Revenues, Petitioner, vs Cecil B. DeMille Productions, Inc., Respondent. Transcript of the Record. In Three Volumes. Upon Petition to Review an Order of the United States Board of Appeals (San Francisco: Parker Printing Co., 1936), 319-320.

29. Adolph Zukor, "Zukor Outlines Coming Year's Policies," MPN , 29 June 1918, 3869.

30. Old Wives for New , Paramount Collection, AMPAS. On film censorship, see Francis G. Couvares, "Hollywood, Main Street, and The Church: Trying to Censor the Movies Before the Production Code," American Quarterly 44 (December 1992): 584-616; Couvares, "Contexts and Solidarities: Thinking about Movie Censorship and Reform in the Twentieth Century" (Paper presented at The Movies Begin: History/Film/Culture, Yale University, May 1993).

31. Memo to Al Lichtman, General Manager of Famous Players-Lasky, 28 June 1918, in Jesse Lasky 1918 folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU.

32. R. E. Pritchard, "Old Wives for New," MPN , 8 June 1918, 3453-3454; Frederick James Smith, MPC , August 1918, in Northwest Mounted, Old Wives for New , and Plainsman folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU; Edward Weitzel, "Old Wives for New," MPW , 8 June 1918, 1470; " Old Wives for New," Variety Film Reviews, 1907-1980 (New York: Garland, 1983), 31 May 1918; "Exhibitor to Exhibitor Review Service," MPN , 8 June 1918, 3400.

33. Frederick James Smith, "The Celluloid Critic," MPC , April 1919, 44; " Don't Change Your Husband., "Variety Film Reviews , 7 February 1919; "Special Service Section on 'Don't Change Your Husband,'" MPN , 1 February 1919, 728; "DeMille's Film Breaks Some Records," MPN 9 March 1919, 1353; Frederick James Smith, ''The Celluloid Critic,'' MPC , April/May 1920, 50; Ad, MPN , 20 March 1920, 2609.

34. "Grauman's Rialto Gets Business by Use of Novelties," MPN , 1 May 1920, 3837; "What Brown Did for DeMille's Special," MPN , 10 July 1920, 403; Ad, MPN , 22 May 1920, 4245; Lasky to DeMille, 19 April 1920, in Jesse Lasky 1920 folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU; "Famous Players-Lasky Plans Big Campaign," MPN , 24 January 1920, 1083; "Getting the Woman Appeal," MPN , 7 December 1918, 3358; "The Affairs of Anatol," MPW , 24 September 1921, 446. On the cultural wars of the post-World War I decade, see Frederick Lewis Allen, Only Yesterday (New York: Harper & Bros., 1931); William E. Leuchtenburg, The Perils of Prosperity, 1914-32 (Chicago: University' of Chicago Press, 1958); Paul A. Carter, Another Part of the Twenties (New York: Columbia University Press, 1973); Stanley Coben, Rebellion against Victorianism: The Impetus for Cultural Change in 1920s America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Lawrence W. Levine, "Progress and Nostalgia: The Self Image of the Nineteen Twenties," in The Unpredictable Past: Explorations in American Cultural History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 189-205. Daniel H. Borus offers a revisionist interpretation in "New Perspectives in the 1920s in the United States" (Paper delivered at SUNY Brockport, April, 1991). On film exhibition during this period, see Koszarski, An Evening's Entertainment , chap. 2; Douglas Gomery, Shared Pleasures: A History of Movie Presentation in the United States (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992), chaps. 3-4.

35. See Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars ; Peiss, Cheap Amusements .

36. "Why Change Your Wife?" MPN , 8 May 1920, 4062.

37. Famous Players-Lasky ad, MPN , 26 June 1920, 4.

38. Statistical Abstract of the United States (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1933), 90; Report of the President's Research Committee on Social Trends, Recent Social Trends in the United States (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1933), 694; William L. O'Neill, Divorce in the Progressive Era (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967), 20; Elaine Tyler May, Great Expectations: Marriage and Divorce in Post-Victorian America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), 51, 87; Glenda Riley, Divorce: An American Tradition . (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 133; " Don't Change Your Husband, "New York Times Film Reviews (New York: Arno Press, 1970), 3 February 1919; Lynd and Lynd, Middletown , chap. 10; William H. Chafe, The American Woman : Her Changing Social, Economic, and Political Roles, 1920-1970 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972), chap. 2.

39. Media Mistley, "Why Husbands Leave Home," MPC , July 1918, 54-56.

40. Hazel Simpson Naylor, "Master of Mystery," MPM , November 1919, 1261 "How to Hold a Husband," Photoplay , November 1918, 311 Elizabeth Peltret, "Gloria Swanson Talks on Divorce,'' MPM , December 1919, 74; "Editorial: Cinema Husbands," MPM , September 1920, 29.

41. "What Does Marriage Mean As Told by Cecil B. deMille to Adela Rogers St. Johns," Photoplay , December 1920, 28-31. DeMille's more well-known liaisons included relationships with Jeanie Macpherson and Julia Faye. The director also owned a ranch in the San Fernando Valley that was called Paradise for reasons other than its idyllic location.

42. Adela Rogers St. Johns, "More about Marriage," Photoplay (Max, 1921): 24-26, 105.

43. Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality , vol. 1, trans. Robert Hurley (New York: Pantheon, 1978), 37.

44. See Richard Dyer, Stars (London: British Film Institute, 1979); Richard deCordova, Picture Personalities: The Emergence of the Star System in America (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990); Catherine E. Kerr, "Incorporating the Star: The Intersection of Business and Aesthetic Strategies in Early American Film," Business History Review 64 (Autumn 1990): 383-410. On female subjectivity as constructed by fan magazine discourse, see Gaylyn Studlar, "The Perils of Pleasure?" 6-32.

45. Swanson on Swanson: An Autobiography (New York: Random House, 1980), chaps. 7-8; Lasky to DeMille, 3 January 1919, in Jesse Lasky 1919 folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU; Smith, "The Celluloid Critic," 44; Hazel Simpson Naylor, "Across the Silversheet," MPM , April 1919, 72.

46. Frederick James Smith, "The Silken Gloria," MPC , February 1920, 161 Delight Evans, "Don't Change Your Coiffure," Photoplay , August 1919, 73; "She Changed Her Coiffure," Photoplay , September 1920, 33; untitled article, Variety, 7 December 1919, in Gloria Swanson scrapbook, RLC, LMPA; Hazel Naylor Simpson, "Piloting a Dream Craft," MPM , April 1921, 87. Although costume design credits for DeMille's films are difficult to ascertain, Alpharelta Hoffman is cited as the designer for Old Wives for New in Northwest Mounted, Old Wives for New , and Plainsman folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU. MPN cites Margaretta Hoffman (the first name is an error) as the designer for Don't Change Your Husband in ''Cecil B. DeMille's New Feature Is Started," 23 November 1918, 3084. Possibly, Mitchell Leisen, who began his career designing costumes for the Babylonian sequence in Male and Female and became DeMille's art director later in the 1920s, may also have been involved in costume design. See David Chierichetti, Hollywood Director: The Career of Mitchell Leisen (New York: Curtis Books, 1973), 22-28.

47. See Anne Hollander, Seeing Through Clothes (New York: Viking Press, 1975). See also Mary Louise Roberts, "Samson and Delilah Revisited: The Politics of Women's Fashion in 1920s France," American Historical Review 93 (June 1993): 657-684. French reaction to changes in women's clothing and hairstyles, which were seductively but disturbingly unisexual, was comparable to consternation expressed in American society. Roberts fails to mention that fashion had become an international phenomenon partly as a result of the influence of motion pictures. Paul Iribe, who illustrated Art Deco fashion plates for couturier Paul Poiret, not coincidentally, became DeMille's art director in the 1920s. See also Paula S. Fass, The Damned and the Beautiful: American Youth in the 1920s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977); Allen, Only Yesterday , chap. 5; Leuchtenburg, The Perils of Prosperity , chap. 9. See also F. Scott Fitzgerald, "Bernice Bobs Her Hair," in Flappers and Philosophers (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1920), 116-140.

48. The Affairs of Anatol , Paramount Collection, AMPAS; Anatol: A Sequence of Dialogues by Arthur Schnitzler; Paraphrased for the English Stage by Granville Barker (New York: Mitchell Kennerley, 1911).

49. A 16-mm print at UCLA Film and Television Archive preserves the beautiful colors of this process. Unfortunately, the George Eastman House print is in black and white, incomplete, edited out of sequence, and titled in Czech.

50. Telegram, Lasky to DeMille, 9 October 1920; telegram, DeMille to Lasky, 8 January 1921; Lasky to DeMille, 4 October 1921, in Jesse Lasky 1920 and 1921 folders, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU; The Affairs of Anatol , stills file, AMPAS. On the recession, see Leuchtenburg, The Perils of Prospeirty , 179; John Izod, Hollywood and the Box Office, 1895-1986 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 52.

51. Morning Telegraph , 12 December 1920, Wilfred Buckland clipping file, AMPAS. The reasons for Buckland's exit during a recession are unclear. In 1946, he shot his mentally ill son and then himself, leaving his modest estate to his landlady and to William deMille.

52. The Affairs of Anatol, MPN , 27 September 1921, 166. See Victor Arwas, Art Deco (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1980), chap. 1; Richard Guy Wilson, Dianne H. Pilgrim, and Dickran Tashjian, The Machine Age in America, 1918-1941 (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1986); Diane Chalmers Johnson, American Art Nouveau (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1979); Bernard Champigneulle, Art Nouveau , trans. Benita Eisler (Woodbury: Barron's, 1976); Peter Selz and Mildred Constantine, eds., Art Nouveau: Art and Design at the Turn of the Century , rev. ed. (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1975).

53. Quoted in T.J. Jackson Lears, "From Salvation to Self-Realization: Advertising and the Therapeutic Roots of the Consumer Culture, 1880-1930," in Lears and Fox, eds., The Culture of Consumption , 21.

54. As Roland Marchand observes in Advertising the American. Dream , a French maid was a real sign of conspicuous consumption because domestic servants were overwhemingly ethnic in origin (202).

55. Wilson, Pilgrim, and Tashjian, The Machine Age in America , 29. According to the authors, John Marin painted the bridge in the 1910s, and Frank Stella, Walker Evans, and Hart Crane celebrated it in their work in the 1920s.

56. Schnitzler, "A Question of Fate," Anatol . A physician as well as a playwright, Schnitzler had published on the subject of hypnotism. See Paul F. Dvorak, ed. and trans., Illusion and Reality: Plays and Stories of Arthur Schnitzler (New York: Peter Lang, 1986), xvii.

57. In fact, DeMille discusses this particular film in relation to the trilogy and Male and Female . See Pratt, "Forty-Five Years of Picture Making," 139.

58. Walter Lippman, A Preface to Morals (New York: Macmillan Co., 1929), chap. 14, 288; Lynd and Lynd, Middletown , chap. 10; Fass, The Damned and the Beautiful , 69. For studies on sexuality and marriage during this period, see Gilbert Van Tassel Hamilton, A Research in Marriage (New York: Albert and Charles Boni, 1929), 80-82, 383; Robert L. Dickinson and Lura Beam, The Si n gle Woman: A Medical Study in Sex Education (New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1934), 101, 145; Lewis M. Terman, Psychological Factors in Marital Happiness (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1938), 320-321, 367; Katherine B. Davis, Factors in the Sex Life of Twenty-Two Hundred Women (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1938), 14, 38-39. On the history of contraception, see Linda Gordon, Woman's Body, Woman's Right: A Social History of Birth Control in America (New York: Grossman, 1976). See also John D'Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1988).

59. Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures: Saleswomen, Managers, and Customers in American Department Stores, 1890-1940 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988), 76. The Ladies' Paradise is the translated title of Zola's novel, Au bonheur des dames .

60. Lynd and Lynd, Middletown , 82.

61. DeMille to Lasky, 22 September 1922, in Jesse Lasky 1922 folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU.

62. Unidentified article, Photoplay , October 1915, in Cecil B. DeMille scrapbook, RLC, LMPA.

63. Martha L. Olney, Buy Now, Pay Later: Advertising, Credit, and Consumer Durables in the 1920s (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), chaps. 1-2, 95; Lynd and Lynd, Middletown , 137; Borus (Paper delivered at SUNY Brockport); Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal , chap. 3; Daniel Horowitz, The Morality of Spending: Attitudes toward the Consumer Society in America, 1875-1940 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985), chap. 7. See also Mary Douglas and Baron Isherwood, The World of Goods (New York: Basic Books, 1979); Grant McCracken, Culture and Consumption: New Approaches to the Symbolic Character of Consumer Goods and Activities (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990); Jean-Christophe Agnew, "Coming Up for Air: Consumer Culture in Historical Perspective," Intellectual History Newsletter 12 (1990): 3-21.

64. Marchand, Advertising the American Dream , 198; Barrett C. Kiesling, "The Boy Who Lived in the Haunted House," MPC , November 1925, 29; Gladys Hall and Adele Whitely Fletcher, "We Interview Cecil B. DeMille," MPM , April 1922, 93.

65. Marchand, Advertising the American Dream , chaps. 1-7; Olney, Buy Now, Pay Later , 139-152; T. J. Jackson Lears, "Some Versions of Fantasy: Toward a Cultural History of American Advertising, 1880-1930," Prospects 9, 384; Christopher P. Wilson, "The Rhetoric of Consumption: Mass-Market Magazines and the Demise of the Gentle Reader, 1880-1920," in Fox and Lears, eds., The Culture of Consumption , 39-64; Stuart Ewen, All Consuming Images: The Politics of Style in Contemporary Culture (New York: Basic Books, 1988), 47. See also Ewen, Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of the Consumer Culture (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976); James D. Norris, Advertising and the Transformation of American Society, 1865-1920 (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1990); Michael Schudson, Advertising, The Uneasy Persuasion: Its Dubious Impact on American Society (New York: Basic Books, 1984); Susan Strasser, Satisfaction Guaranteed: The Making of the American Mass Market (New York: Pantheon, 1989); Lynne Kirby, ''Gender and Advertising in American Silent Film: From Early Cinema to the Crowd," Discourse 13 (Spring/Summer 1991): 3-20.

66. Cecil B. DeMille, "The Heart and Soul of Motion Pictures," NYDM , 12 June 1920, 194-195; Frederick James Smith, "How Christ Came to Pictures," Photoplay , July 1927, 118.

67. DeMille's impressive and costly collection of furnishings and objets d'art was on display before a Christie's auction in New York in 1988. See Property from the Estate of Cecil B. DeMille (New York: Christie's East, 1988).

1. "The Drama of the Decalogue, Pictures from DeMille's The Ten Commandments," MPC , October 1923, 32; The Autobiography of Cecil B. DeMille , Donald Hayne, ed. (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1959), 249; Souvenir program, The Ten Commandments clipping file, AMPAS; Henry C. DeMille, in Diary folder, Family, DMA, BYU.

2. See David Glassberg, American Historical Pageantry: The Uses of Tradition in the Early Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990).

3. On fundamentalism, see Timothy P. Weber, "The Two-Edged Sword: The Fundamentalist Use of the Bible," and Grant Wacker, "The Demise of Biblical Civilization," in Nathan O. Hatch and Mark A. Noll, eds., The Bible in America: Essays in Cultural History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), 101-138.

4. James Stevens, ed., A Doré Treasury: A Collection of the Best Engravings of Gustave Doré (New York: Bounty Books, 1970), viii; The Doré Bible Illustrations (New York: Dover Publications, 1974); "Two 'Ten Commandments' Cast," MPN , 12 May 1923, 2305. On the Catholic Bible, see Gerald P. Fogarty, S.J., "The Quest for a Catholic Vernacular Bible in America," in Hatch and Noll, eds., The Bible in America , 163-180. I wish to thank Bernard Barryte at the Stanford University art museum for discussions regarding Doré's work.

5. Philip Vandenberg, The Golden Pharaoh (New York: Macmillan, 1978), 133; Thomas Hoving, Tutankhamun: The Untold Story (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1978), 109-110; Souvenir program, The Ten Commandments clipping file, AMPAS.

6. "The Ten Commandments," Variety Film Reviews, 1907-1980 (New York: Garland, 1983), 27 December 1923.

7. For a psychoanalytic account of this phenomenon, see Christian Metz, The Imaginary Signifier: Psychoanalysis and the Cinema , trans. Celia Britton (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1982).

8. "Paramount Claims Biggest Location Feat," MPN , 14 July 1923, 173; Souvenir program, The Ten Commandments clipping file, AMPAS. DeMille's sets were excavated in 1983. See Peter L. Brosnan, "Egyptian City Discovered under California Sands," American West , September/October 1985, 34-40.

9. See Daniel Bell, The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism (New York: Basic Books, 1976), 99-119.

10. See William Leach, "Strategies of Display and the Production of Desire," in Simon J. Bronner, ed., Consuming Visions: Accumulation and Display of Goods in America, 1880-1920 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1989), 114-115; Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 120-127.

11. I am indebted to David Parker at the Library of Congress for detailed explanations of these color processes. Although only four photographers are listed in the film's credits, DeMille names five in his autobiography. The reasons for Wyckoff's departure are puzzling. Years later, he wrote that he "resigned" from DeMille's crew but declined to explain why. (Wyckoff to George Pratt, 10 January 1956.) I am grateful to the late George Pratt for sharing this correspondence with me. Charles Higham claims in his problematic biography, Cecil B. DeMille (New York: DaCapo, 1978), that Wyckoff and DeMille differed over the use of lighting and the former's union activities. Given the director's militant and unrelenting opposition to unionism, a rupture over politics is feasible. For more details on production, see Robert S. Birchard, "DeMille and The Ten Commandments (1923): A Match Made in Heaven," American Cinematographer , September 1992, 77-81; Birchard, '' The Ten Commandments (1923): DeMille Completes Personal Exodus," American Cinematographer , October 1992, 76-80. Unfortunately, Birchard does not cite sources.

12. "DeMille-Wyckoff Add to Color Process," MPN , 9 February 1918, 865; " Ten Commandments," Variety Film Reviews , 27 December 1923.

13. James Cozart points out in " The Captive : Tinting of the Print for Pordenone," a sheet passed out with program materials at Le Giornate del Cinema Muto in Pordenone in 1991, that DeMille experimented with tinting that was not necessarily cued for day-night effect but for emotional tone.

14. Script of The Ten Commandments , USC.

15. On earlier representations of Moses, see William Uricchio and Roberta E. Pearson, "'You Can Make The Life of Moses Your Life Saver': Vitagraph's Biblical Blockbuster," in Rosalind Cosandey, André Gaudreault, and Tom Gunning, eds., Une invention du diable? Cinema des premiers temps et religion (Sainte-Foy: Les Presses de l'Université Laval, 1991), 197-211.

16. Jeanie Macpherson, "How the Story Was Evolved," Souvenir program, The Ten Commandments clipping file, AMPAS; Telegram, Zukor to Lasky, 19 April 1923; Telegram, DeMille to Lasky, 24 February 1923, in Jesse Lasky 1923 folder; Telegram, DeMille to Zukor, 10 May 1924, in 1924 Autobiography, personal correspondence folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU.

17. Script of The Ten. Commandments , USC. See also James Card, "The Silent Films of Cecil B. DeMille," in Marshall Deutelbaum, ed., Image on the Art and Evolution of the Film (New York: Dover Publications, 1979), 118-119; Card, Seductive Cinema (forthcoming, Alfred A. Knopf).

18. Script of The Ten Commandments , USC.

19. Lasky to DeMille, 30 August 1923, in Autobiography, Personal correspondence folder; Zukor to DeMille, 14 August 1924, in Jesse Lasky 1924 folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU; "Premiere of 'Ten Commandments,'" MPN , 5 January 1924, 51.

20. " The Ten Commandments, "New York Times Film Reviews (New York: Arno Press, 1970), 22 December 1923; "What the New York Critics Say," Souvenir program, The Ten Commandments clipping file, LMPA; C. S. Sewell, "The Ten Commandments,'' MPW , 5 January 1924, 56; Adele Whitely Fletcher, "Across the Silversheet," MPM , March 1924, 51; Oscar Cooper, "The Ten Commandments," MPN , 5 January 1924, 74; "The Shadow Stage," Photoplay , February 1924, 62; James R. Quirk, "The Ten Commandments," Photoplay , February 1924, 42, 128; Johnson to DeMille, 18 January 1924, in Miscellaneous 1924 folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU.

21. " The Ten Commandments ," New York Times Film Reviews , 22 December 1923; " The Ten Commandments," Variety Film Reviews , 27 December 1923.

22. A restrictive quota bill was passed in 1921 and in 1924. See John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925 (1963; reprint, New York: Atheneum, 1981), chap. 11. On the proletarianization of white-collar workers, see Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1974), chap. 13; C. Wright Mills, White Collar: The American Middle Classes (New York: Oxford University Press, 1956), 182-188. See also Cindy Sondik Aron, Ladies and Gentlemen of the Civil Service: Middle-Class Workers in Victorian America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); Olivier Zunz, Making America Corporate, 1870-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990). Although there is disagreement as to when the process of proletarianization began, evidence points to the decades after 1880 when there was a dramatic increase in white-collar workers and an increasingly homogeneous work environment.

23. T.J. Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture, 1880-1920 (New York: Pantheon, 1981 ), xvii; Nathan O. Hatch, The Democratization of American Christianity (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), 216, chap. 8.

24. Millicent Rose, Introduction to The Doré Bible Illustrations , vii-viii. Rose points out that Cassell, Peter, & Galpin, the firm that owned the rights to The Doré Bible , also published a cheaper, illustrated edition with pictures by various artists; it was titled Cassell's Illustrated Family Bible .

25. The Holy Bible (New York: P.J. Kennedy 1945). I am indebted to Robert Gilliam for calling my attention to this fact. See my "Antimodernism as Historical Representation in a Consumer Culture: Cecil B. DeMille's The Ten Commandments , 1923, 1956, 1993," in Vivian Sobchack, ed., The Moving Image: Modernism and Historical Representation (forthcoming, Routledge/AFI), for discussion of a recent advertising campaign that used Doré's illustration of Moses in an ad for kosher chicken. Interestingly, TV Cuide recently used another Dora illustration of the lawgiver to advertise Ancient Mysteries ; opposite the page was an ad for a Billy Graham special. See TV Guide , September 4-10, 1992, 178-179.

26. Neil Harris, "Color and Media: Some Comparisons and Speculations," and "Iconography and Intellectual History: The Halftone Effect," in Cultural Excursions: Marketing Appetites and Cultural Tastes in Modern America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 318-336, 304-317. Harris, who focuses mostly on the sound era in his discussion of film, is incorrect about silents. James Card reminds us that contrary to most prints that survive today, silent film was composed of color-tinted footage, not to be confused with hand coloring. See his Seductive Cinema . See also Paolo Cherchi Usai, "The Color of Nitrate,'' Image 34 (Spring/Summer 1991): 29-38. DeMille himself used the terms dyed and toned rather than tinted in interviews tape-recorded for his autobiography. ( Joan the Woman folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU.)

27. Cooper, "The Ten Commandments," 74.

28. Jeanie Macpherson, "How the Story Was Evolved," Souvenir program, The Ten Commandments clipping file, AMPAS. See Lawrence W. Levine, Highbrow/Lowbrow: The Emergence of Cultural Hierarchy in America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988), 47-48.

29. T. J. Jackson Lears, "From Salvation to Self-Realization," in T. J. Jackson Lears and Richard Wightman Fox, eds., The Culture of Consumption (New York: Pantheon, 1983), 29-38; Lears, "Some Version of Fantasy: Toward a Cultural History of American Advertising, 1880-1930," Prospects 9 (1984): 367.

30. Souvenir program, The Ten Commandments clipping file, AMPAS.

31. Guy Debord, Society of the Spectacle (Detroit: Black & Red, 1977), 10, 4, 47. See also Georg Lukács, History and Consciousness: Studies in Marxist Dialectics , trans. Rodney Livingstone (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1971).

32. Fletcher, "Across the Silversheet," MPM , March 1924, 101; Adele Whitely Fletcher, "Across the Silversheet," MPM , December 1922, 108.

33. Frederick James Smith, "The Celluloid Critic," MPC , April 1919, 44; September 1919, 44-45; "The Screen Year in Review," August 1920, 44; "The Celluloid Critic,'' April 1921, 80; Harrison Haskins, "The Big Six Directors," September 1918, 16-17; Smith, "The Celluloid Critic,'' April 1922, 92; Laurence Reid, "The Celluloid Critic," May 1923, 93; Harry Carr, "The Directors Who Bring 'Em In," November 1923, 25.

34. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Historical Studies of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975), part 1,199. I am grateful to Robert J. Smith for assisting me with these calculations. The Lasky Company's first full year of production, 1914, as the base year and the wholesale price index were used to compute inflation. Filming of the studio's first feature, The Squaw Man , was begun in December 1913. Figures for cost and grosses in the DeMille Archives are reproduced in David Pierce, "Success with a Dollar Sign: Cost and Grosses for the Early Films of DeMille," in Paolo Cherchi Usai and Lorenzo Codelli, eds., The DeMille Legacy (Pordenone: Edizioni Biblioteca dell'Immagine, 1991), 308-317. I have not discussed costs in relation to grosses because the latter figures, as Pierce points out, are more problematic; whether they include foreign as well as domestic rentals, reissues, and so forth cannot be determined. Furthermore, the director had disagreements with Famous Players-Lasky regarding his percentage of profits on films made after 1920 and was involved in litigation with the Internal Revenue Service, two factors that may have influenced his computing of grosses. Zukor's letter to DeMille regarding additional costs for advertising and exploitation leads me to conclude, however, that these expenditures were not part of the production figures. Although it is impossible to determine the shooting ratio of DeMille's films, interestingly, average footage per feature increased with cost in the postwar era. Figures, based on data for all but three features in DeMille's bound shooting scripts, are rather constant before the merger: 4,569 feet in 1914; 4,724 feet in 1915; and 4,822 feet in 1916, excluding Joan the Woman , a special that totalled 10,446 feet. Figures averaged for the years following the merger are as follows: 6,221 feet in 1917; 6,184 feet in 1918; 7,661 feet in 1919; 8,377 feet in 1920; 8,722 feet in 1921; 9,374 feet in 1922; 11,756 feet for The Ten Commandments in 1923; and 8,833 feet in 1924.

35. Undated memo, in Executives Folder, Personal: Autobiography files; DeMille to Lasky, 27 December 1918, in Jesse Lasky 1918 folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU.

36. Telegram, DeMille to Lasky, 13 October 1920, in Jesse Lasky 1920 folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU.

37. United States Circuit Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. Commissioner of Internal Revenue, Petitioner, vs Cecil B. DeMille Productions, Inc., Respondent. Transcript of the Record. In. Three Volumes. Upon Petition to Review an Order of the United States Board of Tax Appeals (San Francisco: Parker Printing Co., 1936), 89-96.

38. Telegram, DeMille to Lasky, 13 May 1921; Lasky to DeMille, 21 May 1921; Memorandum of Points Arrived at in Discussion of Cecil B. DeMille's Wire of May 13th in Which He Requested an Increase in His Allowance for DeMille Productions, in Jesse Lasky 1921 folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU.

39. Zukor to DeMille, 22 June 1921; Telegram, DeMille to Lasky, 22 September 1921; Lasky to DeMille, 4 October 1921; Lasky to DeMille, 14 April 1922; in Jesse Lasky 1921 and 1922 folders, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BYU.

40. Telegram, Zukor to Lasky, 19 April 1923, in Jesse Lasky 1923 folder; Telegram, DeMille to Zukor 10 May 1924, in Autobiography, personal correspondence folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky; Undated memo by Berenice Mosk, in Adolph Zukor folder, Personal: Autobiography files; DeMille to S. R. Kent, 12 October 1923, in Miscellaneous 1923 folder; Lasky to DeMille, 25 October 1923; DeMille to Lasky, 25 October 1923, in Autobiography, personal correspondence folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky; DMA, BYU.

41. "F.P.-L. Orders Production Shut Down," MPN , 10 November 1923, 2225-2226.

42. "Lasky Studio to Reopen Jan. 7; Full Speed Producing Planned," MPW , 5 January 1924, 25; Zukor to DeMille, 14 August 1924, in Jesse Lasky 1924 folder; Zukor to Lasky, 2 December 1924, in Autobiography personal correspondence folder, Lasky Co./Famous Players-Lasky, DMA, BY-U; "DeMille Leaves Paramount," MPN 24 January 1925, 323; U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals , 315-316.

43. Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Random House, 1978), 123. Perhaps the best filmic text on filmmaking as a form of Orientalism is the documentary about the making of Apocalypse Now, Hearts of Darkness (1991), a more revealing film about the Vietnam War than any narrative about the war itself.

44. For a reading of the sound version of the film as a Western, see Marc Vernet, "Wings of the Desert; or, the Invisible Superimpositions," Velvet Light Trap 28 (Fall 1991): 65-72. Interestingly, DeMille instructed an orchestra to play "The New World Symphony" as inspirational music while filming the silent version. As is true of several historical epics of the 1950s and 1960s, the remake resonates with Cold War issues. See Michael Wood, America in the Movies or, "Santa Maria, It Had Slipped My Mind!'' (New York: Basic Books, 1975), chap. 8. DeMille became so ardent in his right-wing political stance that in his recollection of Why Change Your Wife? he stated, "The whole theme of all these pictures is the 'happy home—is home life—the home as the central unit of a nation. It's the exact opposite of what communism gives you.'' (Interview with DeMille, Why Change Your Wife? folder, Personal: Autobiography files, DMA, BYU.)

45. On programmed flow, see Raymond Williams, Television: Technology and Cultural Form (New York: Schocken, 1975), chap. 4. On the supertext, see Nick Browne, "The Political Economy of the Television (Super) Text," Quarterly Review of Film Studies 9 (Summer 1984): 174-183; Sandy Flitterman, "The Real Soap Operas: TV Commercials," in E. Ann Kaplan, Regarding Television: Critical Approaches — An Anthology (Frederick: University Publications of America, 1983), 84-96.

46. On the waning of historicity, see Fredric Jameson, "Postmodernism, or the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism," New Left Review 146 (July/August 1984): 58-64; reprinted as "The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism," in Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (Durham: Duke University Press, 1991 ): 1-54; David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989). For a different interpretation of postmodernism and history, see Linda Hutcheon, A Poetics of Postmodernism: History, Theory, Fiction (London: Routledge, 1988).

47. For a fuller discussion of the sound remake and its annual telecast, see my "Antimoderism as Historical Representation in a Consumer Culture: Cecil B. DeMille's The Ten Commandments , 1923, 1956, 1993." See also Alan Nadel, "God's Law and the Wide Screen: The Ten Commandments as Cold War 'Epic,'" PMIA 108 (May 1993): 415-430.

48. As demonstrated in Jurassic Park and previous hits, Steven Spielberg, along with George Lucas and Francis Ford Coppola, are the most obvious heirs of DeMille's legacy. Significantly, the concept of theme park as urban reality has been realized in Universal City's City Walk, a totally artificial environment or supermall for yuppie moviegoers that was opened a year after the riot provoked by the Rodney King verdict. See "Will Movie Meccas Do the Right Thing?" Variety , 12 July 1993, 1, 69; Peter Bart, "Bite-Sized Reality," Variety , 12 July 1993, 3, 5; Hubert Muschamp, "Who Should Define a City?" New York Times , 15 August 1993, H32.