1. For a recent study from this perspective, see Dennis Porter, Haunted Journeys: Desire and Transgression in European Travel Writing (Princeton, 1991).

2. See Mary B. Campbell, The Witness and the Other World: Exotic European Travel Writing, 400-1600 (Ithaca, 1988), pp. 47-86. Campbell characterizes this and other "wonder books" as "a kind of perverse Scripture, an upside-down map of the moral universe" (p. 53) in which the combination of the grotesque and the informational stands in opposition to the laws that govern the medieval world order. Significantly, she notes that "documentary accounts by pilgrims and crusaders . . . included little or nothing of the monstrous until their journeys began to spill across the borders of the scriptural lands" (p. 85).

3. A selection covering travel accounts from 890 to 1596 has been reprinted in Richard Hakluyt, Voyages and Discoveries , ed. Jack Beeching (Harmonds-worth, Middlesex, 1972).

4. Donald E. Pease, "Author," in Critical Terms for Literary Study , ed. Frank Lentricchia and Thomas McLaughlin (Chicago, 1990), p. 107.

5. See, for example, the influential travel account Russia in 1839 (1843) by Astolphe de Custine, a French aristocrat and supporter of absolutism who visited Russia under Czar Nicholas l and returned to France a confirmed liberal. The better known example of Alexis de Tocqueville's Democracy in America (1835-1840) similarly advocated progressive political institutions for the Old World.

6. See Rebecca D. Catz, ed. and trans., The Travels of Mendes Pinto (Chicago, 1989).

7. For discussion of the role of parody in linking travel writing and the novel, see Percy Adams, Travel Literature and the Evolution of the Novel (Lexington, Ky., 1983), pp. 272-275. Fictional travel writing also had a reverse effect on first-person accounts. When the Scottish traveler John Bell (1691-1780) asked a university historian for advice turning his travel notes into publishable form, he was told, "Take Gulliver's Travels for your model and you can't go wrong" (J. L. Stevenson, "Introduction," in John Bell, A Journey from St. Petersburg to Pekin [Edinburgh, 1965], p. 24).

8. For some postmodernist thoughts on the ineaning of travel, see James Clifford, "Notes on Theory and Travel," in Traveling Theories: Traveling Theorists , ed. James Clifford and Vivek Dhareshwar, vol. 5 of Inscriptions (Santa Cruz, Calif., 1989), pp. 177-188. Clifford suggests an etymological root in the Greek term theorein as "a practice of travel and observation, a man sent by the polls to another city to witness a religious ceremony" (p. 177).

9. See Samuel Beal, trans., Si-yu-ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World. Translated from the Chinese of Hiuen Tsiang (A.D. 629) (London, 1884); as well as a later study, Thomas Watters, On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India, 629-645 A.D . (London, 1904-1905); also James Legge, trans., A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms; Being an Account by the Chinese Monk Fâ-hien of His Travels in India and Ceylon (A.D. 399-414) in Search of the Buddhist Books of Discipline (Oxford, 1886). The Chronicle of Mu, Son-of Heaven (Mu T'ien-tzu chuan) , the ritual tour of a Chou dynasty emperor, was first published in translation by E.J. Eitel in 1888 in China Review 17, no. 4, PP. 223-240; and no. 5, PP. 242-258.

10. A study of travel diaries by travelers to territory ruled by non-Chinese dynasties appeared in Édouard Chavannes, "Voyageurs chinois chez les Khitan et les Joutchen," Jornal asiatique , 9th ser., 9 (1897): 377-442 and 11 (1898): 361-439; also idem, " Pei Yuan Lou , Récit d'un voyage dans le nord," T'oung Pao , 2d ser., 5 (1904): 163-192. Wu Lien-teh, in an address titled "Early Chinese Travellers and Their Successors," printed in Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society , 2d ser., 64 (1933): 1-23, discussed thirty-five figures all of whom traveled to foreign places. A more recent anthology, Jeannette Mirsky, ed., The Great Chinese Travelers (Chicago, 1964), similarly focused exclusively on journeys beyond China proper. During the past few decades, however, studies of more literary works of Chinese travel writing have begun to appear in the West. For a brief definition of "travel record literature" ( yu-chi wen-hsüeh ) and a short bibliography, see James M. Hargett, " Yu-chi wen-hsüeh ,'' in William H. Nienhauser, Jr., ed., The Indiana Companion to Traditional Chinese Literature (Bloomington, 1986), pp. 936-939; amore extensive survey of Chinese travel literature up to the Sung appears in Hargett, On The Road in Twelfth Century China: The Travel Diaries of Fan Chengda (1126-1193) (Stuttgart, 1929), pp. 9-69.

11. The Four Libraries system (classics [ ching ], history [ shih ], philosophy [ tzu ], and belles lettres [ chi ]) was formalized in the bibliography chapter of the History of the Sui Dynasty ( Sui shu chin g-chi chih , 636). Prior to this, the earliest bibliography in the dynastic histories, that included in the History of the Western Hah Dynasty ( Hah shu i-wen chih , ca. A.D. 82), lacked a category for geography and included only one work of travel writing, the Guideways Through Mountains and Seas ( Shan-hai ching , ca. 320 B.C. - A.D. 200), considered a guide to physical forths and spiritual beings found in the landscape.

12. In prose anthologies such as the Finest Flowering of the Preserve of Letters ( Wen-yüan Yint,-hua , 987), devoted largely to T'ang prose, and the great Ch'ing collection of the T'ung-ch'eng school, A Clasified Compendium of Ancient Style Prose and Verse ( Ku-wen-tz'u lei-ts'uan , 1799), travel accounts were classified as "records" ( chi ). Travel accounts were also well represented in the still-popular anthology The Finest of Ancient Prose ( Ku-wen kuan-chih , 1695). These were organized by dynasty and author and placed alongside other kinds of prose selections. In the Ch'ing encyclopedias Exemplary Models Arranged by Categories ( Yüan-chien lei-han , 1701) and Complete Collection of Books and Illustrations Past and Present ( Ku-chin t'u-shu chi-ch'eng , 1725), travel writings were sometimes included within the entries on geographical places.

13. Po Chü-i originally visited the cave with his brother Po Hsing-chien (775-826) and the poet Yüan Chen (779-831), together known as the "Early Three Travelers" ( Ch'ien san-yu ). Later, in the Sung, Ou-yang Hsiu (1007-1072), Su Shih (1036-1101), and his brother Su Ch'e (1039-1112), the "Later Three Travelers" ( Hou san-yu ), also visited it, among others. See Lu Yu's account (chapter 24 in the present volume), which is particularly concerned with the inscriptions he encountered.

14. See Yüan Hung-tao, Ch'i-yün , in Yüan Chung-lang ch'üan-chi 2:493-494 (Taipei, 1976 rpt.). A partial translation can be found in Chih-p'ing Chou, Yüan Hung-tao and the Kung-an School (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 108-109.

15. As this anthology demonstrates, the Chinese landscape contains many places that are identically named, the result of applying symbolic terms from various cultural discourses, for example: Toist (Elixir Terrace [Tan-t'ai], Cave of Transcendents [Hsien-jen-tung], Lao-tzu's Stove [Lao-chün-lu]); Buddhist (Mañjusri's * Terrace [Wen-shu-t'ai], Lotus Peak [Lien-hua-feng], Buddha's Light [Fo-kuang]); historical (Yellow Emperor's Mountain [Huangshan], Shun's Well [Shun-ching], Pavilion for Cleansing Ears [Hsi-er-t'ing]); mythological (Black Dragon Pool [Hei-lung-t'an], Terrace of Heaven [T'ient'ai], Feng and Huang -Bird Terrace [Feng-huang-t'ai]); lyrical (Wind-in-thePines Pavilion [Sung-feng-ko], Water's Fragrance Pavilion [Shui-hsiang-t'ing], Jade Spring [Yü-ch'üan]); animal (Tiger Peak [Hu-feng], Magpie Mountain [Ch'üeh-shan], Recumbent Ox Mountain [Wo-niu-shan]); and literati (BrushHolder Peak [Pi-chia-feng], Ink Pond [Mo-ch'ih], Pavilion of the Constellation of Literature [Wen-ch'ang-ko]). The act of inscription did not necessarily require the engraving of an entire piece; often, a flew characters naming the site were sufficient. An inscription could even be commissioned from a notable writer some time after his visit. Fan Chung-yen's (989-1052) Pavilion of Yüehyang (1046) ^* was written partly from the memory of earlier excursions and also from a painting supplied by the patron who requested a piece to be engraved there celebrating the pavilion he had built. In some cases, a text was posthumously inscribed at the site because later readers felt it had become a vital constituent of the meaning of the place.

16. For a recent description and photographic record of these and other literary shrines by a modern Japanese pilgrim, see Aoyama San'u, Koanyu * : Chugoku * bunjin fudoki * (Tokyo, 1983).

17. See Su Shih's calligraphed versions of Ou-yang Hsiu's The Pavilion of the Old Drunkard (1046) ^* and The Pavilion of Joyful Abundance (1046) ^* [fig. 24]. The former was engraved at the site in 1091, and the latter is believed to date from the same period. The original Sung engravings, which survive only through rubbings, were destroyed and the texts were engraved again in the Ming. Versions by later calligraphers were also engraved at places other than at the original site and further circulated in rubbings. For a brief discussion of Su Shih's calligraphy of these texts, see Wang Hsüeh-tung, "'Tsui-weng-t'ing chi' yen-chiu shu-p'ing," Yü-wen tao-pao (Hang-chou ta-hsüeh chunk-wen-hsi) (1986. 12): 139.

18. The text is now in the National Palace Museum, Taipei.

19. See the National Palace Museum (Taipei) catalog to an exhibition of paintings and decorative objects that reflect the cult of Su Shih's Red Cliff , in Ch'ih-pi fu shu-hua t'e-chan (Taipei, 1984). While these particular objects largely represent Ch'ing imperial taste, such decorative motifs were appreciated at practically all social levels and were also applied to inexpensive handicrafts and objects of everyday use. For a discussion of the painting tradition of Red Cliff , see Daniel Altieri, "The Painted Versions of the Red Cliffs," Oriental Art , n.s., 29, no. 3 (1983): 252-264.

20. Although China had long had an active foreign trade, as evidenced by records from as early as the reign of Emperor Wu of the Western Han (r. 14187 B.C.), the preoccupation of the literate class with maintaining bureaucratic control in the imperial state rather than with developing private capitalist enterprises provided little motivation for engaging in and writing about commercial trading ventures. Unlike the English Crown, which was a successful investor in Sir Francis Drake's voyages, the Chinese court mounted its expeditions primarily to demonstrate military power, collect intelligence, and obtain luxury goods for itself through exchange of products under the rubric "tribute for the court" ( ch'ao-kung ); sea trade with foreigners was of minor importance for the rulers of a largely self-sufficient continental empire. The secret records of the eunuch-admiral Cheng Ho's seven voyages from 1405 to 1433 were destroyed owing to power struggles between palace eunuchs and Confucian of ficials. The plays, novels, and accounts that celebrated his exploits had little cultural influence. The most detailed account by those who accompanied Cheng Ho, Ying-yai sheng-lan (1433) by Ma Huan (ca. 1380-1460), was poorly preserved over the centuries. Despite the great commercial potential unlocked by these voyages, such large-scale expeditions were subsequently abandoned when the Ming court realized that China did not face a military threat from the sea. For studies of these unusual journeys, which were largely forgotten by the Chinese, see J.J.L. Duyvendak, China's Discovery of Africa (London, 1949); also, Ma Huan, Ying-yai sheng-lan: The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores (1433) , trans. J.V.G. Mills (Cambridge, 1970), pp. 5-34.

21. The Finest Flowering of the Preserve of Letters contains the largest selection of travel accounts of any major prose anthology, but these arc classified under thirty-seven subcategories of "records" ( chi ), such as architecture, geographical features, Buddhist temples, and historical events. The largest subcategory, and the one that contains the most personal travel accounts, has seven sections and is titled "Feasts and Travels" ( Yen-yu ).

22. See Yu-chih hsü-pien ( A Continuation of Accounts of Travels [Taipei, 1977 rpt.]), compiled by T'ao Tsung-i (1316-1403), which contains eighty pieces from the T'ang through the early Ming. It includes the preface and table of contents of an earlier collection, Yu-chih ( Accounts of Travels , 1243), compiled by Ch'en Jen-yü. No longer extant, the latter work anthologized eighty-nine pieces of travel writing. T'ao Tsung-i also included some excerpts of Sung travel diaries in his Shuo-fu ( The Environs of Fiction ), first printed in the fifteenth century. 'Travel themes were arguably recognized as defining genres as early as the Selections of Refined Literature ( Wen hsüan , ca. 526), at least as far as fu rhapsodies and shih poems are concerned. They were classified under such categories as "Recounting Travel" ( Chi-hsing ), "Sightseeing" ( Yu-lan ), and "Journeying" ( Hsing-lü ).

23. A number of anthologies of travel literature have appeared in recent years China. The following are among the most comprehensive: Ni Ch'i-hsin et al., eds., Chung-kuo ku-tai yu-chi hsüan , 2 vols. (Peking, 1985); Teng Chin-shen et al., eds., Li-tai ming-jen jih-chi hsüan (Kuang-chou, 1984); and Yeh Yu-ming and Pei Yüan-ch'en, eds., Li-tai yu-chi hsüan (Ch'ang-sha, 1980). Specialized anthologies by period or place have also appeared, such as Ch'en Hsin et al., eds., Li-tai yu-chi hsüan-i: Sung-tai pu-fen (Peking, 1987); and Ts'ao Wen-ch'ü et al., eds., Hsi-hu yu-chi hsüan (Hang-chou, 1983). Individual works have been reissued as well, for instance Hsü Hung-tsu, Hsü Hsia-k'o yu-chi , ed. Ch'u Shao-t'ang and Wu Ying-shou (Shanghai, 1980). In addition, a periodical, Lü-yu wen-hsüeh (K'ai-feng, 1983- ), has appeared containing articles on both classical and modern travel writing.

24. The important role of historiography in the elite culture of Imperial China has been a topic of considerable interest to Western scholars. Discussions of the characteristics of Chinese history writing appear in W. G. Beasley and E. G. Pulleyblank, eds., Historians of China and Japan (London, 1961); Charles S. Gardner, Chinese Traditional Historiography , Harvard Historical Monographs 11 (Cambridge, Mass., 1961); and Burton Watson, Ssu-ma Ch'ien: Grand Historian of China (New York, 1958). Intellectual issues in history writing are discussed in David Nivison, The Life and Thought of Chang Hsüh-ch'eng (1738-1801) (Stanford, 1966). The role of historical writing in more fictional narrative is discussed in several essays included in Andrew H. Plaks, ed., Chinese Narrative (Princeton, 1977): Kenneth J. DeWoskin, "The Six Dynasties Chih-kuai and the Birth of Fiction," pp. 21-52; Andrew H. Plaks, "Towards a Critical Theory of Chinese Narrative," pp. 309-320 passim; John C. Y. Wang, "Early Chinese Narrative: The Tso-chuan as Example," pp. 3-20. The development of the Chinese novel as a movement away from historiography has been discussed in Martin Weizong Huang, "Dehistoricization and Intertextualization: The Anxiety of Precedents in the Evolution of the Traditional Chinese Novel," Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews 12 (1990): 45-68. The negative effects of historical conventions on the development of the chuan form of biography and autobiography are discussed in Pei-yi Wu, The Confucian's Progress: Autobiographical Writings in Traditional China (Princeton, 1990), pp. 1-14.

25. For a discussion of these two concepts as definitive characteristics of Chinese lyricism, see Yu-kung Kao, "Lyric Vision in Chinese Narrative Tradition: A Reading of Hung-lou-meng and Ju-lin wai-shih " in Plaks, ed., Chinese Narrative , pp. 227-243.

26. See Shang-shu: Yao-tien 1:126-128 ( Shih-san ching chu-shu ed.). This is one of the earlier chapters, dating prior to 400 B.C. The later travels of the Hsia emperor Yü as he surveyed his territories are recorded in Shang-shu: Yü-kung 1:146-153 ( Shih-san ching chu-shu ed.). This chapter is believed to date from the Warring States period. A typical entry:

Between the sea and Mount Tai is Ch'ing-chou. Yü-i was defined. The Wei and Chi Rivers were conducted. Its soil is white and fiat. Along the shores of the sea are wide salt-lands. Its fields are of the lower first class, its revenues are of the upper second class. Its tribute is salt, fine cloth, sea products of various kinds, the Tai valley's silk, hemp, lead, pine-wood, and strange stones. The Lai-i barbarians are herdsmen. In the province's baskets there is mountain-mulberry silk. He [Yü] floated on the Wen River and reached the Chi.

Translated in Bernhard Karlgren, "The Book of Documents," Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities 22 (1950): 14.

27. This anonymously authored text was buried in the tomb of the King of Wei, who died in 296 B.C. It remains highly controversial among scholars who continue to hypothesize about its generic nature, the circumstances of its rediscovery in A.D. 281, its many textual corruptions, and even its authenticity. During the premodern era, however, it was generally treated as a factual account, and when studied, it was usually to confirm its geographical data. For important modern studies, see Ku Shih, ed., Mu T'ien-tzu chuan hsi-cheng chiang-shu (Taipei, 1976 rpt.); Rémi Mathieu, Le Mu tianzi zhuan. Traduction annotée, étude critique (Paris, 1978); Wei T'ing-sheng, Mu T'ien-tzu chuan chin-k'ao (Yang-ming-shan, 1970). A translation by Cheng Te-k'un appeared in Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society , 2d ser., 64 (1933): 124-142; 65 (1934): 128-149.

28. See David Hawkes, "The Quest of the Goddess," Asia Major , n.s., 13 (1967): 82-83.

29. Translated from Ku Shih, Mu T'ien-tzu , pp. 13-16.

30. See note 39.

31. Emperor Mu's travels were evaluated from a Taoist perspective in the Lieh-tzu (ca. A.D. 300), where he persuades a wizard from the distant west to take him on a journey to the heavens that ultimately proves too exhilarating for his mortal capacities. Upon returning, the emperor realizes that it all occurred in a brief span of time while his physical form remained on earth, and decides to set out on the journey described in The Chronicle of Mu, Son of Heaven . As in The Chronicle , he voices the fear that his traveling may be no more than a hedonistic indulgence. The writer of Lieh-tzu concurred and considered Emperor Mu to have traveled in vain, having derived littie spiritual benefit from his experiences. Unlike the Yellow Emperor, who ultimately became a Transcendent, Emperor Mu remained earthbound and merely lived to old age. See Lieh-tzu 3:1a-4b ( SPPY ed.).

32. See Ku Shih, Mu T'ien-tzu , p. 163. The huai -tree mentioned is generally considered a kind of sophora . The Queen Mother of the West (Hsi-wang-mu), mythologized as a fearsome spirit in the Shan-hai ching and later as a beautiful goddess in religious Taoism and other popular religions, is here represented as a tribal chief without supernatural powers.

33. The Chronicle of Mu does not record the actual text, but the genre of imperial inscriptions can be seen in examples from the ritual tours of the First Emperor of Ch'in (r. 221-210 B.C.). See Shih chi 1:242-243 (Peking, 1959 ed.).

34. In the earliest mention of it in Han shu i-wen chih (ca. A.D. 82), written four centuries after its earliest stratum, it was apparently read as a purely descriptive account of the physical and magical features of the landscape as expounded by the philosophical School of Destiny ( Shu-shu ), leading some modern scholars to conclude that it was intended for literate wizards and shamans. See Han shu 2: 1774-1775 (Peking, 1975 ed.). Later Chinese scholars regarded it as the precursor of the geographical account, a genre devoted to documenting the salient physical features of an area as a guide for travelers or as a source of military and political information for rulers. For a modern annotated version, see Yüan K'o, ed., Shan-hai thing chiao-chu (Shanghai, 1980). A recent collection of scholarly studies has appeared in Chung-kuo Shan-hai ching hsüeh-shu t'aolun-hui, ed., Shan-hai ching hsin-t'an (Ch'eng-tu, 1986).

35. Translated from Yüan K'o, ed., Shan-hai ching , pp. 6-8.

36. Translated from ibid., pp. 406-407. This section contains another carly reference to the Queen Mother of the West. Here, she is represented as a fearsome half-human, half-beast. By the time of the Han dynasty she had assumed her later form as a beautiful goddess who offers longevity to privileged guests.

35. Translated from Yüan K'o, ed., Shan-hai ching , pp. 6-8.

36. Translated from ibid., pp. 406-407. This section contains another carly reference to the Queen Mother of the West. Here, she is represented as a fearsome half-human, half-beast. By the time of the Han dynasty she had assumed her later form as a beautiful goddess who offers longevity to privileged guests.

37. See "Tu Shan-hai ching " in Ching-chieh hsien-sheng chi 12b-17b ( SPPY ed.); translated in James Hightower, trans., The Poetry of T'ao Ch'ien (Oxford, 1970), pp. 229-248. The cycle of poems also refers to The Chronicle of Mu , which T'ao read as well. Both works enjoyed a vogue among Taoists and those interested in Mystical Learning ( Hsüan-hsüeh ). For a study of T'ao's reading of these texts, see Lung Hui, "T'ao Yüan-ming yü Shan-hai ching ," in Chung-kuo Shan-hai ching , ed., Shan-hai chine hsin-t'an , pp. 346-354.

38. The "horary stems" system denotes each year, month, and day by two characters, one selected from a set of ten Heavenly Stems ( t'ien-kan ) and one from a set of twelve Earthly Stems ( ti-chih ), the cycle being repeated after sixty combinations. The pervasive use of this structure of time in Chinese narrative texts is an indication of the close relationship between historiography and calendrical calculation in antiquity. Early court historians were expected to perform in both capacities, among others.

39. In the Tso Commentary , the official Tzu-ko refers to Emperor Mu while remonstrating with King Ling of Ch'u (r. 540-529 B.C.): "Formerly, Emperor Mu wished to indulge himself and journey on a circuit throughout the world so that his horses and carriage would leave tracks everywhere. Mou-fu, Duke Chi, wrote the ode 'Ch'i-chao' in order to restrain him, and as a result the emperor died a natural death in the Chih Palace." Unfortunately, King Ling, despite hearing the same ode recited for his benefit, was unable to restrain himself and later met with disaster. The commentary concludes with Confucius's critical judgment of King Ling, which in the context can be extended to Emperor Mu's desire to travel. In Confucius's view, the king demonstrated a lack of humaneness and an inability to "restrain the self and return to li ." The Tso Commentary suggests that Emperor Mu abandoned his desire to travel under pressure from his court, in contrast to the account in The Chronicle of Mu, Son of Heaven . See Ch'un-ch'iu 379: Chao 12:9 Tso .

40. See Lun-yü 11:6:23: "Confucius said, 'The wise man delights in streams; the humane man delights in mountains. The wise man is active; the humane man tranquil. The wise man is happy; the humane man enjoys longevity.'"

41. See a similar image of Confucius in Hsün-tzu 103:28:26:

Confucius was contemplating a river as it flowed east when Tzu-kung asked, "What does it mean to say, 'The Noble Man should contemplate a great river whenever he sees one?'" Confucius said, "When a river is great, it brings life to all kinds of living things, for, by its unwilled activity, it resembles Virtue. Its current flows humbly along a winding course always following natural principle, so it resembles Rightness. It gushes ceaselessly, resembling the Tao . When it breaks through an embankment, overflowing with a ferocious sound and rushing fearlessly into a valley a hundred jen deep, it resembles Courage. In always reaching an even level upon flowing into a space, it resembles Law. When full, it requires no adjustment, resembling Uprightness. As it becomes gentle and reduced to make its way into the smallest cavity, it resembles Perspicacity. Becoming purified as it flows in and out, it resembles Moral Improvement. Despite myriad twists and turns, it flows ever eastward, resembling Ambition. That is why the Noble Man should contemplate a great river whenever he sees one."

In another well-known statement in Lun-yü 21:11:24, a group of disciples state their political ambitions before Confucius. Finally, the disciple Tscng Hsi simply states: "'In late spring when the new spring clothes have been made, I would like to bathe in the I River along with five or six adults and six or seven youths and feel the breeze on the Rain Altar, then return home singing.' Confucius sighed deeply and said, 'I agree with Tien [Tseng Hsi],'" Although Confucius's affirmation of natural simplicity in this case is sometimes cited to indicate his unconditional love of Nature, in the text it was the last alternative after he found fault with all the other disciples' visions of public service.

42. See Meng-tzu 52:7A:24: "Mencius said, 'When Confucius climbed to the top of East Mountain, he saw how small the State of Lu was. When he climbed to the top of the Supreme Mountain, he thought the empire appeared small. Thus it is difficult for a river to satisfy someone who has seen the ocean, and it is difficult for mere words to satisfy someone who has studied with a sage.'"

43. For a brief survey of the term ta-kuan (grand view or total vision) in Chinese literature, see Andrew Plaks, Archetype and Allegory in the "Dream of the Red Chamber" (Princeton, 1976), pp. 178-182. The term can be traced back to The Book of Changes (I ching) and appeared in descriptions of gardens as well as in travel literature.

44. See Lun-yü 25:13:3:

Tzu-lu said, "If the Lord of Wei entrusted the administration to you, what would you carry out first?" Confucius said, "It would be necessary to rectify names." Tzu-lu said, "Really? How circuitous you are, Master. Why bother to rectify names?" Confucius said, "How provincial you are! A Noble Man should hold his tongue when he is ignorant. If names are not rectified, then what is said will not make sense, and if what is said does not make sense, then affairs cannot be successfully concluded. If affairs cannot be successfully concluded, then rituals and music will not flourish. If rituals and music do not flourish, then punishments will not fit the crimes. If punishments do not fit the crimes, then the people will be at a loss as to how to act. Therefore, the Noble Man applies names so that he can speak sensibly and speaks sensibly so that he can act successfully. The Noble Man is never improper when he speaks.''

As a historian traditionally credited with editing the Spring and Autumn Annals (Ch'un-ch'iu) , Confucius was regarded as a progenitive writer carefully employing certain nouns and verbs to name characters and incidents so as to reveal their moral quality. For example, substituting actual ranks for usurped titles and using pejorative verbs to identify assassination were regarded as acts of rectification.

45. See Chuang-tzu 3:1:42: "Hui-tzu said, 'The King of Wei gave me the seed of a great gourd. I planted it, and the fruit was so big it could hold five tan . When I tried to use it as a water container, it was so heavy I could not lift it. I split it to use as ladles, but they were too big for anything to contain them. It wasn't simply because the gourd was so extraordinarily large—I considered it useless, so I smashed it into pieces.' Chuang-tzu said, 'You, sir, arc indeed incapable of making use of a great thing. . . . Why didn't you think of it as a buoy and float with it on the rivers and lakes? You worried that it was too big for anything to contain it. That just shows how overgrown with weeds your mind is!'"

46. Szu-ma Ch'ien, as Grand Historian during the reign of Emperor Wu of the Western Han (ca. 145-ca. 85 B.C.), noted that he had personally accompanied such ritual tours to sacrifice at sacred mounts and subsequently devoted himself to studying the documents relating to wizards. His chapter in the Historical Records narrating the history of the feng and shan sacrifices held at the Supreme Mountain by various emperors marks a further development of historiographical writing about travel. See Shih chi 1:242-243, 4:1355-1404, 4:1366-1370, for entries on the First Emperor of Ch'in's (r. 221-210 B.C.) pilgrimage to the Supreme Mountain, the Sacred Mount of the East, and other travels in search of Transcendents ( hsien ). These and similar ritual progresses resulted in inscriptions at the various sites. For a study of the religious cult that developed around the Supreme Mountain, see Édouard Chavannes, Le T'ai chan; essai de monographie d'un culte chinois (Paris, 1910). The tradition of climbing this mountain as a theme in medieval poetry is discussed in Paul W. Kroll, "Verses from on High: The Ascent of T'ai Shan," in The Vitality of the Lyric Voice: Shih Poetry from the late Han to the T'ang , ed. Shuen-fu Lin and Steven Owen, Studies on China 6 (Princeton, 1986), pp. 167-216. Various essays on religious pilgrimages in China appear in Susan Naquin and Chün-fang Yü, eds., Pilgrims and Sacred Sites in China (Berkeley, 1992). The significance of mountains is explored in Paul Demièville, "La Montagne dans l'art littérature chinois," France-Asiü 183 (1965): 7-32; and Kiyohiko Munakata, Sacred Mountains in Chinese Art (Urbana-Champaign, 1990).

47. See Kenneth De Woskin, Doctors, Diviners, and Magicians of Ancient China: Biographies of "Fang-shih" (New York, 1983), pp. 1-42. The cult of Transcendents, which grew in popularity during the Han, retained a powerful effect on the imaginations of real travelers, either because of a literal belief in them or as figures who had achieved liberation from the human condition.

48. See Shih chi 4:1355-1404.

49. See Yü Yüeh, "Hsüeh Hsin-nung 'Pei-hsing jih-chi' hsü," in Ch'un-tsai-t'ang tsa-wen san-pien 3:29b, in Ch'un-tsai-t'ang ch'üan-shu 66 (1902 ed.). Ma Tipo's piece was preserved as a commentary to the chapter on sacrifices in the History of the Latter Han Dynasty ; see Hou-Han shu 11:3166-3168 (Peking, 1965 ed).

50. For a discussion of these poems, see Hawkes, "Quest of the Goddess," pp. 71-94.

51. This spatialized cosmology was depicted on the backs of bronze mirrors during the Han as well as on archaeological remnants such as the painted textiles of the Ma-wang-tui tombs. For a study of these objects, see Michael Loewe, Ways to Paradise: The Chinese Quest for Immortality (London, 1979). For a discussion of mystical journeys, see Livia Kohn, Early Chinese Mysticism (Princeton, 1992), pp. 86-116.

52. For a discussion of this characteristic of fu rhapsodies, see Dore Levy, "Constructing Sequences: Another Look at the Principle of Fu 'Enumeration,'" Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 46, no. 2 (December 1986): 471-494.

53. See Chang Ts'ang-shou, "Han fu yü shan-shui wen-hsüeh," An-ch'ing shih-yüan hsüeh-pao: she-k'o pao (1987.3): 65-71.

54. For translations of these and other fu rhapsodies, see David R. Knechtges, trans., Wen xuan, or Selections of Refined Literature , vols. 1-2 (Princeton, 1982, 1987).

55. See Hans H. Frankel, The Flowering Plum and the Palace Lady (New Haven, 1976), pp. 41-49, 104-143.

56. The following is an example of parallel construction from "Encountering Sorrow" ( Li sao ):

In the morning I started on my way from Ts'ang-wu;
In the evening I came to the Garden of Paradise.
I wanted to stay a while in those fairy precincts,
But the swift-moving sun was dipping to the west.
I ordered Hsi-ho to stay the sun-steeds' gallop,
To stand over Yen-tzu mountain and not go in.
Long, long had been my road and far, far was the journey.
I would go up and down to seek my heart's desire.
I watered my dragon steeds at the Pool of Heaven,
And tied the reins up to the  Fu-sang  tree.
I broke a sprig of the  Jo -tree to strike the sum with:
I wanted to roam a little for enjoyment.
I sent Wang Shu ahead to ride before me;
The Wind God went behind as my outrider;
The Bird of Heaven gave notice of my comings;
And the Thunder God told me when all was not ready. . . .
       David Hawkes, trans.,  Ch'u Tz'u: The Songs of the South  (Boston, 1962), p. 28.

For a historical discussion of the distinction between "parallel prose" and "free-style prose" ( san-wen ), see Ts'ao Tao-heng, "Kuan-yü Wei Chin Nanpei-ch'ao te p'ien-wen ho san-wen,'' Wen-hsüeh p'ing-lun ts'ung-k'an (1980.10): 238-268. For a generic definition, see James R. Hightower, "Some Characteristics of Parallel Prose," in Studia Serica Bernhard Karlgren Dedicata , ed. S. Egerod (Copenhagen, 1959), pp. 60-91.

57. The relationship between Mystical Learning and landscape literature is discussed in Chung Yüan-k'ai, "Wei Chin hsüan-hsüeh ho shan-shui wenhsüeh," Hsüeh-shu yüeh-k'an (1984.3): 60-67.

58. See Liu I-ch'ing, Shih-shuo Hsin-yü: A New Account of Tales of the World , trans. Richard B. Mather (Minneapolis, 1976), for a translation of the major work that cataloged the types of figures engaged in "Pure Discourse." Among the ideals they avowed were an affected nonconformism, reclusion, humor, intellectual speculation, and the extension of longevity. The philosophical ethos of this period is discussed in Tu Wei-ming, "Profound Learning, Personal Knowledge, and Poetic Vision," in Lin and Owen, eds., Vitality of the Lyric Voice , pp. 3-31.

59. See Susan Bush, "Tsung Ping's Essay on Painting Landscape and the 'Landscape Buddhism' of Mount Lu," in Artists and Traditions , ed. Christian Murck (Princeton, 1976), pp. 132-164. For a survey of painting criticism during the Six Dynasties, see Susan Bush and Hsio-yen Shih, eds., Early Chinese Texts on Painting (Cambridge, Mass., 1985), pp. 18-44. For a Taoist guide to traveling to mountains for spiritual cultivation in the tradition of Guide-ways Through Mountains and Seas , see chapter 17, "Ascending Mountains and Crossing Streams" ( Teng-she ), of The Master Who Embraces Simplicity ( Paop'u-tzu ) by Ko Hung, pp. 284-364, translated in James Ware, trans., Alchemy, Medicine, Religion in the China of A.D. 320: The Nei P'ien of Ko Hung (Paop'u-tzu) (Cambridge, Mass., 1966), pp. 279-300.

60. See Lu Chi, "Essay on Literature," trans. Shih-hsiang Chen, in Anthology of Chinese Literature , ed. Cyril Birch, vol. I: From Early Times to the Fourteenth Century (New York, 1965), pp. 204-214; and Liu Hsieh, The Literary Mind and The Carving of Dragons , trans. Vincent Yu-chung Shih (Taipei, 1970). The latter work, in the first chapter, "On Tao, the Source" ( Yüan-tao ), pp. 9-15, defined two connected aspects of wen (patterns)—metaphysical and human.

61. See Kang-i Sun, "Description of Landscape in Early Six Dynasties Poetry" in Lin and Owen, eds., Vitality of the Lyric Voice , p. 107.

62. See Liu Hsieh, Literary Mind , pp. 348-354. The concept of "the physical world" ( wu-se ) is discussed in Chang Shao-k'ang, " Wen-hsin tiao-lung te wu-se lun," Pei-ching ta-hsüeh hsüeh-pao (1985.5): 94-101; Chiang Tsu-i, "Wen-hsin tiao-lung wu-se p'ien shih-shih," Wen-hsüeh i-ch'an (1982.2): 29-38; T'u Kuang-she, "Tsao-ch'i wu-se miao-hsieh te yen-chin yü san-chung hsiehching feng-ko te hsing-ch'eng,'' Liao-ning ta-hsüeh hsüeh-pao (1985.6): 81-85.

63. For translations, see Hightower, T'ao Ch'ien , pp. 254-258; also Birch, ed., Anthology 1:167-168 (trans. Birch). In "T'ao-hua-yüan chi p'angcheng," Ch'ing-hua hsüeh-pao 11, no. 1 (January 1936): 79-88, Ch'en Yin-k'o hypothesized that the talc may have been inspired by the actual discovery at the time of such a community in north China that had long isolated itself from the surrounding world to escape foreign invasion and civil war.

64. See "Yu hsieh-ch'uan ping-hsü" in Ching-chieh hsien-sheng chi 2:5b; also translated in Hightower, T'ao Ch'ien , pp. 56-58; and H.C. Chang, trans., Chinese Literature , vol. 2: Nature Poetry (New York, 1977), p. 35. Many elements in the preface and poem remain problematical to commentators, including the date and precise location of the stream. It is generally assumed to be somewhere on Hermitage Mountain, referred to here as "South Mountain" (Nan-fu). The "Divine Mountain" (Ling-shan) is the mythological Mount K'un-lun. The "Many-storied Citadel" (Tseng-ch'eng) is traditionally part of the Mount K'un-lun range, but it may also denote an actual place on Hermitage Mountain. For a more metaphorical reading and discussion of these issues, see A. R. Davis, T'ao Yüan-ming (A.D. 365-427): His Works and Their Meaning (Cambridge, 1983), 1:48-52.

65. See Stephen Owen, "The Self's Perfect Mirror: Poetry as Autobiography," in Lin and Owen, eds., Vitality of the Lyric Voice , pp. 71-102.

66. For studies of Hsieh's life and poetry, see J. D. Frodsham, The Murmuring Stream: The Life and Works of the Chinese Nature Poet Hsieh Ling-yün (385-433), Duke of K'ang-Lo , 2 vols. (Kuala Lumpur, 1967); also idem, "The Origins of Chinese Nature Poetry," Asia Major , n.s., 8, no. 1 (1960): 68-104; Richard Mather, "The Landscape Buddhism of the Fifth-Century Poet Hsieh Ling-yün," Journal of Asian Studies 18 (1958-1959): 67-79; Francis A. Westbrook, "Landscape Transformation in the Poetry of Hsieh Ling-yün," Journal of the American Oriental Society 100, no. 3 (July-October 1980): 237-254.

67. See Kang-i Sun Chang, Six Dynasties Poetry (Princeton, 1986), pp. 51-52.

68. See "Shan-chü fu" in Yen K'o-chün, ed., Ch'üan shang-ku san-tai Ch'in Han San-kuo Liu-ch'ao wen (Peking, 1958 rpt.), 3:2604-2609. An annotated version can be found in Hsieh Ling-yün, Hsieh Ling-yün chi chiao-chu , ed. Ku Shao-po (Ho-nan, 1987), pp. 318-319. For a study of this rhapsody, see Francis A. Westbrook, "Landscape Description in the Lyric Poetry and 'Fuh on Dwelling in the Mountains' of Shieh Ling-yunn" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1973). Another influential rhapsody of this period was by Sun Ch'o (314-371), "Wandering on Terrace of Heaven Mountain" ( Yu t'ien-t'ai-shan fu ). Sun, a devotee of Taoism and Buddhism, had a desire to retire to this mountain, which was also a religious center. While serving as governor of Yung-chia (modern Wen-chou, Che-chiang) he had a painting made of the mountain and imagined a journey there that he described as if it had been an actual journey. Sun Ch'o's approach is largely that of "mystical poetry,'' which celebrates spiritual concepts and perceptions. For a translation, see Burton Watson, trans., Chinese Rhyme-Prose: Poems in the Fu Form from the Han and Six Dynasties Periods (New York, 1971), pp. 80-85; also translated and discussed in Richard Mather, "The Mystical Ascent of the T'ien-t'ai Mountains: Sun Ch'o's Yu-T'ien-t'ai-shan Fu ," Monumenta Serica 20 (1961): 226-245.

69. A short reconstruction of Travels to Famous Mountains ( Yu ming-shan chih ) is reproduced in Yen K'o-chün ed., Ch'üan shang-ku 3:2616. Another reconstruction with annotation can be found in Hsieh, Hsieh Ling-yün (Kuo ed.), pp. 272-284. Despite the tradition that regards Hsieh as a progenitive travel writer in prose, what remains of this text does not justify this judgment. His fame as a traveler, like that of T'ao Ch'ien, rests on his poetry.

70. Hsieh, Hsieh Ling-yün (Kuo ed.), p. 272. The allusions at the end refer to Hsieh's motivations in leaving office and traveling: Caldron Lake (Ting-hu) is where the Yellow Emperor is traditionally believed to have risen to Heaven on a dragon to become a Transcendent; Fan Li (n.d.) served King Kou-chien of Yüeh (r. 497-465 B.C.) as prime minister and helped him to destroy the rival kingdom of Wu. However, he then resigned his office owing to his disapproval of the king and later went to T'ao in what is today Shan-tung, where he took the name "Vermilion Duke" (Chu-kung) and made a fortune in commerce; Chang Liang (d. ca. 189 B.C.) was a general who helped to establish the Han dynasty and was enfeoffed as Marquis Liu.

71. Li Chi noted in her study of Hsü Hung-tsu (Hsia-k'o) (1586-1641) that although Hsü spent a lifetime traveling and compiling his diaries, he said virtually nothing about his family, friends, or current events; see Li Chi, trans., The Travel Diaries of Hsü Hsia-k'o (Hong Kong, 1974), p. 22.

72. Fu-yang roughly corresponds to modern Fu-yang County, Che-chiang; and T'ung-lu, to modern T'ung-lu County, Che-chiang. Both areas are located along the Abundant Spring River (Fu-ch'un-chiang).

73. See Shih ching 60:239:3, "The Foothills of Mount Han" ( Han-lu ): "The sparrow hawk soars to Heaven; the fish leaps in the chasm." The sparrow hawk signifies a man of ambition, and Heaven, the imperial court.

74. See I ching: Chun 1:1:7b: "Clouds and Thunder: the hexagram of 'Initial Difficulty.' The Noble Man orders the affairs of the world."

75. Wu Chün (469-519) was a writer and official who was patronized by Emperor Wu of the Liang (r. 502-549). He was known as a poet whose distinct style was characterized by a sense of antiquity, use of allusion, clarity of expression, and animated scenes. He was also a historian who once angered the emperor for compiling an unauthorized history of the preceeding Ch'i dynasty. This fragment of Wu Chün's letter is only 144 characters long. It is reprinted in Liu-ch'ao wen-chieh 3:4a-4b ( SPPY ed.) and briefly discussed in Kao Shan, "Sao-ch'u fu-yen tan-jan wu-ch'en-Wu Chün yü Chu [Sung] Yüanszu shu shang-hsi" San-wen (1987.10): 32-33. For translations of this and several similar letters, see H. C. Chang, trans., Chinese Literature 2:12-19.

76. See Liu Hsi-tsai, I-kai (Shanghai, 1978 ed.), p. 18. The influence of The Guide to Waterways on later travel writing is discussed in Jen Fang-ch'iu, " Shuiching-chu yü yu-chi wen-hsüeh," Wen-shih chih-shih (1984.7): 20-25.

77. For studies and translations, see W.J.F. Jenner, Memories of Loyang: Yang Hsüan-chih and the Lost Capital (493-534) (Oxford, 1981); Yang Hsüan-chih, A Record of Buddhist Monasteries in Lo-yang , trans. Yi-tung Wang (Princeton, 1984).

78. A Record of Buddhist Kingdoms documents Fa-hsien's journey beginning in 399 when he departed from Ch'ang-an at the age of sixty-five. After following the Silk Road through Central Asia, he turned southward into modern Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India, where he visited the Buddhist centers along the Ganges. He returned to China by sea routes that took him to modern Sri Lanka and Indonesia, eventually reaching Lao-shan in Shan-tung in 412 at the age of seventy-eight. The following year, he settled in Chien-k'ang (modern Nanking) and completed this record of more than thirteen thousand characters by 416. Fa-hsien's Record is broad in content, including not only geographical data but also information about Buddhist sites, legends, local customs, political institutions, and economic life. See Legge, trans., A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms . Two other Buddhist pilgrims, Sung Yün and Hui-sheng, went to gather sutras in Udyana and Ghandara from 518 to 522. Sung Yün's account was retold in third-person, historiographical style; it can be found preserved in Yang Hsüan-chih's The Temples of Lo-yang . For a translation, see Yang, Record of Buddhist Monasteries , pp. 215-246 (trans. Wang); also Édouard Chavannes, "Voyage de Song Yun dan I'Udyana et le Gandhara," Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient 3 (1903): 379-441. Both Sung Yün's account and that of Hui-sheng were also reprinted in the dynastic histories of the Sui and T'ang dynasties. For a study of this genre, see Nancy E. Boulton, "Early Chinese Buddhist Travel Records as a Literary Genre" (Ph.D. diss., Georgetown University, 1982).

An earlier example of the geographical travel account was compiled by Chang Ch'ien (n.d.), who was sent on two diplomatic missions by Emperor Wu of the Western Han, the first from 139 to 126 B.C. He submitted a report of these kingdoms, now lost, which became the basis of the historical account by Szu-ma Ch'ien in Shih chi 10:3157-3169. A translation of the latter appeared in Friederich Hirth in "The Story of Chang K'ién, China's Pioneer in Western Asia," Journal of the American Oriental Society 37 (1917): 89-116. An extended biography of Chang Ch'ien, including another description of his travels, appeared in Pan Ku's History of the Former Han Dynasty ; see Han shu 9:2687-2705.

79. Dennis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank, eds., The Cambridge History of China , Vol. 3: Sui and T'ang China 589-906, Pt. 1 (Cambridge, 1979), p. 13.

80. For a study of the background of T'ang writers, see Hans H. Frankel, "T'ang Literati: A Composite Biography," in Confucian Personalities , ed. Arthur F. Wright and Dennis Twitchett (Stanford, 1962), pp. 65-83. The relationship of literati and the T'ang court is considered in detail in David McMullen, State and Scholars in T'ang China (Cambridge, 1988).

81. See the section of the mural dated 713-762 in Cave no. 103 in Tun-huang in modern Kan-su, which depicts the "Parable of the Illusory City" ( Huanch'eng yü-p'in ) from the Lotus Sutra ( Lieu-hua ching ); the scene represents Buddhist pilgrims traveling through Central Asia. Reproduced in Dunhuang Institute of Cultural Relics, ed., Art Treasures of Dunhuang (Hong Kong, 1980), ill. 75. Another representation of traveling during the T'ang, which now exists only in a later copy, is the anonymous painting Emperor Ming-huang's Journey to Shu ( Ming-huang hsing-shu t'u ) in the National Palace Museum, Taipei; it depicts the emperor's flight to safety in what is today Szu-ch'uan during the An Lu-shan Rebellion (755-763). Reproduced in James Cahill, Chinese Painting (Geneva, 1960), pp. 28, 57. More generalized landscapes that have survived from the T'ang have been found as decorations on biwa mandolins in the Shosoin, Nara; these arc discussed in Wen Fong et al., Images of the Mind (Princeton, 1984), p. 23.

82. These are "vertical perspective" ( kao-yüan ), "deep perspective" (shen-yüan), and "flattened perspective" ( p'ing-yüan ), which remained the basic compositional arrangements in Chinese landscape painting. See Fong et al., Images , pp. 20-27, for a discussion and illustrations of the three perspectives.

83. See Chang Yen-yüan, Li-tai ming-hua chi (Peking, 1963 ed.), pp. 15-17. A partial translation appears in Bush and Shih, eds., Early Chinese Texts , pp. 66-67. Po Chü-i's "Record on Painting" is translated in Bush and Shih, eds., Early Chinese Texts , p. 25.

84. Chang Yen-yüan recorded that he had seen a mural of the Wheel River Estate by Wang Wei at the Temple of the Pure Source (Ch'ing-yüan-szu); see Chang, Li-tai , p. 191. No original painting of this theme by Wang survives; however, a handscroll of his estate traditionally attributed to him has been transmitted through later copies and engravings, the earliest dating from the Sung. A version by Kuo Chung-shu (d. 977) was later engraved and widely reproduced. For more reproductions of various interpretations of the Wheel River tradition, see Kohara Haranobu, ed., O I , Bunjinga suihen, Chugoku hen, no. 1 (Tokyo, 1975), pp. 1-84.

85. See, for example, such fictional tales as Yuan Chcn's (775-831) "The Story of Ying-ying" ( Ying-ying chuan ), Po Hsing-chien's (775-826) "The Courtesan Li Wa" ( Li Wa chuan , 805), and Shen Chi-chi's (ca. 740-ca. 800) "The World Inside a Pillow" ( Chen-chung chi ), all of which eraplot journeys of young, ambitious literati along the "official road.''

86. For a study of the Ancient Style movement, see Yu-shih Chen, Images and Ideas in Chinese Classical Prose: Studies of Four Masters (Stanford, 1988), esp. pp. 1-13, 155-162.

87. See the "Valediction to Li Yüan on His Return to Meander Valley" ( Sung Li Yüan kuei p'an-ku hsü , 801), translated and discussed in ibid., pp. 23-28. A comparison of Han Yü and Liu Tsung-yüan's aesthetics appears in Yü Yüan, "Han Yü Liu Tsung-yüan mei-hsüeh szu-hsiang pi-chiao," Wen-i lum-ts'ung 22 (1985.9): 343-364.

86. For a study of the Ancient Style movement, see Yu-shih Chen, Images and Ideas in Chinese Classical Prose: Studies of Four Masters (Stanford, 1988), esp. pp. 1-13, 155-162.

87. See the "Valediction to Li Yüan on His Return to Meander Valley" ( Sung Li Yüan kuei p'an-ku hsü , 801), translated and discussed in ibid., pp. 23-28. A comparison of Han Yü and Liu Tsung-yüan's aesthetics appears in Yü Yüan, "Han Yü Liu Tsung-yüan mei-hsüeh szu-hsiang pi-chiao," Wen-i lum-ts'ung 22 (1985.9): 343-364.

88. The fall of the reformist faction of Wang Shu-wen affected these two writers, who otherwise felt a close affinity for each other, in opposite ways. It was because of opposition to Wang Shu-wen that Han Yü was exiled in 803. Liu Tsung-yüan, on the other hand, was an active supporter of Wang in the capital. When Wang fell in 805, their positions were reversed—Han Yü was recalled, while Liu was sent into exile—thus revealing the complex connections between dynastic politics and literary polemics. It is worth noting that both Han and Liu came from families whose members had previously experienced exile. Han Yü as a youth followed his elder brother into exile in Kuangtung, where the brother died in 800. And Liu Tsung-yüan's father had been exiled during his official career.

89. The anthologizing of Ancient Style prose written by the eight leading writers of this movement (Han Yü, Liu Tsung-yüan, Ou-yang Hsiu [1007-1072], Su Hsün [1009-1066] and his sons, Su Shih and Su Ch'e [1039-1112], Wang An-shih [1021-1086], and Tseng Kung [1019-1083]) began as early as the Southern Sung with Lü Tsu-ch'ien's (1137-1181) A Key to Ancient Prose ( Ku-wen kuan-chien , ca. 1160-1180), but it was in the sixteenth century during the Ming that these eight in particular were selected as primary models by such anthologizers as T'ang Shun-chih (1507-1560) and, especially, Mao K'un (1512-1601) in his Collection of the Prose of the Eight Masters of the T'ang and Sung ( T'ang Sung pa-ta-chia wen-ch'ao , 1579).

90. Scholars have not yet been able to determine when these eight pieces were first considered a set, but they appear to have been accepted as such by the Sung, even though Ho-tunq hsien-sheng chi , the Shih-ts'ai-t'ang edition of Liu's collected works published in the Sung, included a ninth, "The Stream of the God Huang" ( Yu huang-hsi chi , 813). For some reason, most critics and editors of prose anthologies did not include this piece in the set. The actual name, "Eight Pieces from Yung-chou" ( Yung-chou pa-chi ), may date only from the Ch'ing. See Ho P'ei-hsiung, Liu Tsung-yüan Yung-chou pa-chi (Hong Kong, 1974), pp. 17-20.

91. These features are discussed in Shimizu Shigeru, "Ryu Sogen no seikatsu taiken to sono sansuiki" Chugoku bungakuho 2 (April 1955): 45-74. See also William H. Nienhauser, Jr., "Landscape Essays," in Nienhauser et al., Liu Tsung-yüan , Twayne's World Authors Series: A Survey of the World's Literature, 255 (New York, 1973), pp. 71-74.

92. An earlier use of the term yu-chi appeared in the title of a work by Wang Hsi-chih, An Account of a Journey to Four Commanderies ( Yu szu-chün chi ), of which only a fragment survives; see Hargett, On the Road, p. 35, n. 51.

93. See Nienhauser, "Landscape Essays," in Liu Tsung-yüan , p. 75.

94. See Wu Na, "Wen-chang pien-t'i hsü-shuo," quoted in Ch'en Hsin et al., eds., Li-tai yu-chi hsüan-i , p. 3.

95. The question of whether the Sung bureacracy was essentially a meritocracy open to outsiders or an entrenched class of prominent families who perpetuated their status has been debated by scholars for the past several decades. For a critical review of some recent studies that continue this debate, see Patricia Ebrey, "The Dynamics of Elite Domination in Sung China," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 48, no. 2 (December 1988): 493-519. In general, she views the elite as fairly continuous, but they had to manipulate the rules of examination recruitment to maintain their status. On the one hand, the objective grading of examinations and the granting of a degree through the state school system served the cause of meritocracy. On the other, the proliferation of hereditary privilege, the importance of patronage and intermarriage, and the benefits of residing in the capital of K'ai-feng, where almost half of the Metropolitan Graduate degrees were awarded, favored the offspring of official families.

96. See John W. Chaffee, The Thorny Gates of Learning in Sung China: A Social History of Examinations (Cambridge, 1985), pp. 34-35. The figure of four hundred thousand is out of a total population of some sixty million and represents 2.5 percent of the adult male population; also see Ebrey, "Elite Domination," p. 50l.

97. The chin-shih degree changed in nature during the Sung. Originally it emphasized literary ability and was but one of several "doctoral" degrees, and not necessarily the most important. In the 1060s, it was broadened in content and subsequently became the most prestigious degree, required for entrance to higher office. This anthology follows the nomenclature in Charles O. Hucker, A Dictionary of Qfficial Titles in Imperial China , (Stanford, 1985), p. 167, by translating the earlier chin-shih degree as "Presented Scholar" and the post-1060s degree as "Metropolitan Graduate."

98. For a concise survey of the concept of "the classification of things" in the Sung, see Hoyt Cleveland Tillman, "The Idea and the Reality of the 'Thing' During the Sung: Philosophical Attitudes Toward Wu," Bulletin of Sung and Y-an Studies 14 (1978): 68-82. Various positions were taken by Sung philosophers as to whether principles should be primarily sought for in the external world or recognized in the mind through sincere introspection. By the end of the Southern Sung, however, Chu Hsi's more externally oriented system was canonized by the dynasty as orthodox thought; it was to play an even greater ideological role during the Ming and Ch'ing dynasties.

99. For an example of one of the earliest personal diaries from the Sung, see Huang T'ing-chien (1045-1105), At Home in I Prefecture During the Year I-yu ( Ichou i-yu chia-ch'eng , 1105), pp. 1-19 ( TSCC ed.). This daily log written while in exile in I Prefecture, (modern I-shan County, Kuang-hsi) recorded simple activities over eight months ending a month prior to his death in 1105.

100. Ching Hao, Pi-fa chi , in Hua-lun ts'ung-k'an , ed. Yü An-lan, vol. 1 (Hong Kong, 1977), p. 8. Although the depiction of mountains in Sung painting was often based on local terrains, these were rarely identified in the titles, for artists preferred to evoke universal and symbolic meanings. It was apparently not until the fourteenth century that topographical painting became popular, particularly images of scenic places in the Chiang-nan area. See Kenneth Ganza, "A Landscape by Leng Ch'ien and the Emergence of Travel as a Theme in Fourteenth-Century Chinese Painting," National Palace Museum Bulletin 21, no. 3 (1986): 1-17.

101. This account inspired further records of fallen cities after the capture of Lin-an by the Mongols in 1279, such as Record of a Millet Dream ( Men g-liang lu , ca. 1300) by Wu Tzu-mu and Recollections of Wu-lin ( Wu-lin chiu-shih , ca. 1280) ^* by Chou Mi (1232-1298).

102. For studies of embassy diaries, see Herbert Franke, "A Sung Embassy Diary of 1211-1212: The Shih-Chin Lu of Ch'eng Cho," Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient 69 (1981): 171-2O7; also idem, "Sung Embassies: Some General Observations," in China Among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th-14th Centuries , ed. Morris Rossabi (Berkeley, 1983), pp. 116-148.

103. For an annotated translation of Lu Yu's diary, see Chun-shu Chang and Joan Smythe, South China in the Tweelfth Century: A Translation of Lu Yu's Travel Diaries, July 3-December 6, 1170 , Institute of Chinese Studies, Chinese University, Monograph Series no. 4 (Hong Kong, 1981); also Ch'un-shu Chang, "Notes on the Composition, Transmission, and Editions of the Ju-Shu Chi," Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology (Academia Sinica, Taipei) 48 , no. 3 (1977): 481-499. Two other diaries by Fan Ch'eng-ta are translated as Register of Grasping the Carriage Reins ( Lan-p'ei lu ) and Register of Mounting a Simurgh ( Ts'an-luan lu ) in Hargett, On the Road , pp. 147-247. Another notable work from the Sung period is Hsü Ching's (1091-1153) An Illustrated Account of My Route as an Envoy to Korea During the Hsüan-ho Era ( Hsüan-ho feng-shih kao-li t'u-ching , 1124), based on a journey the previous year. Not printed until 1167, it contains a rich source of geographical and ethnographic information similar to the Buddhist records of the Western Region.

104. For discussions of Liu K'ai, see Ronald Egan, The Literary Works of Ou-yang Hsiu (1007-72) (Cambridge, 1984), pp. 14-16; also Kuo Shao-yü, Chung-kuo wen-hsüeh p'i-p'ing-shih , vol. 1 (Taipei, 1971 rpt.), pp. 306-310.

105. The Current Style ( Shih-wen ), which had gained influence during the 1030s and 1040s, and the subsequent "Transformed Style" ( Pien-t'i ) were both Sung versions of Ancient Style prose. The leading practitioners of the latter, Mu Hsiu (979-1032) and Shih Chieh (1005-1045), advocated the value of uniqueness promoted by Hah Yü. But whereas Han had seen such uniqueness as a characteristic of the Six Classics , these practitioners created striking effects based on their subjective inclinations. The Transformed Style was initially advanced by reformers, including Fan Chung-yen and the emperor, as an antidote to the vacuity of the Current Style. However, there was considerable protest when Shih Chieh, serving as an examiner, required all candidates to write in the Transformed Style. Its pursuit of novel and clever effects failed to satisfy the moral program of Ou-yang Hsiu and his circle of Ancient Style advocates. Their opposition to the T'ang pursuit of uniqueness derived from their disapproval of the Transformed Style, which was ultimately discredited.

106. See Michael Fuller, Review of The Literary Works of Ou-yang Hsiu (1007-72) , by Ronald C. Egan, Bulletin of Sung and Yüan Studies 19 (1987): 50-73.

107. See Chung Hsiao-yen, "Liu Tsung-yüan yü Ou-yang Hsiu shan-shui-chi pi-chiao," Wen-shih-che ( Shan-tung ta-hs-eh ) (1986.3): 12-21.

108. For a study of Ou-yang Hsiu's prosody, see Hung Pen-chien, "Lun Ouyang Hsiu san-wen te chü-shih ho hsü-tz'u t'ung ch'i ch'ing-kan te kuan-hsi," Hua-tung shih-fan ta-hsüeh hsüeh-pao (1984.3): 59-65.

109. For a discussion of Su Shih as an Ancient Style writer, see Chen, Images and Ideas , pp. 133-153; also Kuo, Chung-kuo wen-hsüeh 1:339-350.

110. For a general discussion of the role of the landscape in Su Shih's writings, see Andrew L. March, "Self and Landscape in Su Shih," Journal of the American Oriental Society 86 (1966): 377-396. The Buddhist clements in Red Cliff I are discussed in Huang Chin-te, "Ts'ung 'ch'ien ch'ih-pi fu' k'an Su Shih yü fo-hsüeh," Yang-chou shih-yüan hsüeh-pao: she-k'o-pan (1987.1): 84-89.

111. Su Shih wrote about excursions he made to Red Cliff on at least seven occasions during his exile in Huang Prefecture; the first rhapsody on Red Cliff was written after his fifth visit there. See Jao Hsüeh-kang, "'Ch'ien hou ch'ihpi fu' yu-tsung k'ao," in Su Shih men lun-ts'ung , ed. Su Shih yen-chiu hsüehhui (Ch'eng-tu, 1986), pp. 115-121.

112. The site of the battle was actually located elsewhere along the Long River in modern Chia-yü, Hu-pei. The origin of the name "Red Cliff" for Su Shih's place remains obscure, some suggesting that its original name was a homonym, "Red Nose" ( Ch'ih-pi ), referring to the cliff's color and shape. Elsewhere, Su appears to have been unsure about the original site of the battle.

113. Su Shih's friend Chang Shun-min, who had served at the front, visited Su just a month before he wrote this piece and acquainted Su with the details of the Sung debacle. The comparison of Ts'ao's defeat with that of the Sung is Su Shih's rather risky comment on contemporary politics. It is one of the reasons why Su felt that this piece might be regarded as subversive; he did not widely circulate it after it was written. See Chu Ching-hua, "'Ch'ien houch'ih-pi fu' t'i-chih hsin-t'an," in Chu, ed., Su Shih hsin-lun (Chi-nan, 1983), p. 98. Chu discusses a colophon that Su Shih added to a handwritten copy which he sent to his friend and fellow politician Fu Yao-y- urging Fu to conceal it. Chu cites as another proof of Su's awareness of the subversive nature of the piece the fact that he did not refer to Yang Shih-ch'ang or others by name, calling them only "guests" ( k'o ).

1. The Han city of Lo-yang was slightly east of modern Lo-yang, Ho-nan.

2. The Han commandery of Lu covered an area in the southwest of modern Shan-tung; its capital was in Ch'ü-fu.

3. Kuo Chien-po was a eunuch official of the Palace Gate.

4. The Liu clan were members of the Han imperial family; the K'ung clan were the recognized descendants of Confucius, whose head, the marquis of Pao-ch'eng, is referred to later. The Ting clan were descendants of Chiang Tzu-ya (fl. mid-eleventh century B.C.), a general who helped found the Chou dynasty and who was enfeoffed in the area as duke of Ch'i. Hsia-ch'iu was located in the west of modern Tz'u-yang District, Shan-tung.

5. Feng-kao was located in the northeast of modern T'ai-an District, Shantung.

6. Court Gentlemen Brave as Tigers were members of the imperial bodyguard.

7. In 110 B.C., Emperor Wu of the Western Han had also made an Eastern Tour and offered up the feng and shan sacrifices at the Supreme Mountain.

8. Based on the date of the emperor's arrival at Feng-kao, the date of Ma's ascent may be either the seventeenth or the following morning.

9. The Midway Temple (Chung-kuan) was located about midway up the mountain toward the Celestial Gate (T'ien-men), the site of the feng sacrifice.

10. The Celestial Pass (T'ien-kuan) was located between the Midway Temple and the Celestial Gate.

11. Another reference to Kuo Chien-po; see above, note 3.

12. Chao-ling, Ju-nan, was located east of modern Yen-ch'eng, Ho-nan.

13. The First Emperor of Ch'in made an Eastern Tour and offered up the feng and shan sacrifices in 219 B.C. He had a stele erected extolling the virtues of the Ch'in dynasty and a stone entrance constructed at the site of the feng sacrifice.

14. A reference to Emperor Kuang-wu.

15. The implication is that such officials infringed on the emperor's prerogative by first offering sacrifices on their own.

16. Ch'in Vista (Ch'in-kuan) is located southeast of Sunrise Vista (Jih-kuan). Ch'ang-an, modern Hsi-an, Shaan-hsi, refers to the capital of the Western Han dynasty, located near Hsien-yang, the former capital of the Ch'in dynasty. Wu Vista (Wu-kuan), another peak, offered a view in the direction of Kuei-chi Commandery, which included the southern part of modern Chiang-su, eastern An-hui, and most of Che-chiang and Fu-chien provinces, and was administered from Wu District (modern Su-chou, Chiang-su). Chou Vista (Choukuan), referring to the Chou dynasty, offered a view in the direction of the ancient state of Ch'i, in what is today Shan-tung.

17. This is the Tai Temple (Tai-miao) to the Sacred Mount of the East, located at the foot of the mountain in modern T'ai-an, Shan-tung.

18. Lesser Celestial Gate (Hsiao-t'ien-men) is located near the main Celestial Gate.

19. See Shih chi 1:242 (Peking, 1959 ed.).

20. Translated from Yen K'o-chün, ed., Ch'üan shang-ku san-tai Ch'in Han San-kuo Liu-ch'ao wen 1:632-634 (Peking, 1958 rpt.); Hou-Han shu 11:3166-3168 (Peking, 1965 ed.); Ni, Yu-chi 1:1-7.

1. The Bathing Festival (Fu-hsi) was originally an ancient festival of purification held in the first ten days of the third lunar month when the people would go to sacrifice and bathe in a nearby river or lake. During the Six Dynasties period it lost its religious significance and often became a social occasion for literati to gather and write poetry.

2. See Chuang-tzu 12:5:5: "Confucius said, 'Life and death are the greatest of matters, indeed, but he [Wang T'ai] is unaffected by them. Although Heaven may overturn and the Earth might sink, it is no loss to him. He carefully observes whatever is pure and does not let things influence him. He recognizes as fate the transformation of things and holds fast to their guiding principles.'" Here, Confucius is ironically made to espouse Chuang-tzu's philosophy by praising a cripple, Wang T'ai, who had his foot cut off as a penalty yet was said to have gathered as many disciples as Confucius himself.

3. See Chuang-tzu 5:2:52: "No one has lived longer than Shang-tzu, and P'eng-tsu died young." Chuang-tzu paradoxically reverses the common belief that P'eng-tsu lived for eight hundred years, longer than any other man, and that Shang-tzu died in his youth.

4. Translated from Chin shu 7:2099 (Peking, 1974 ed.).

1. Seven Ridges (Ch'i-ling) is another name for Hermitage Mountain.

2. The Celestial Pond (T'ien-ch'ih), also known as Celestial Chasm (T'ienyüan), is a group of ten stars.

3. Nine rivers flow out of the Long River in the Hsün-yang area.

4. The original Divine Vulture Peak (Ling-chiu-shan; Sanskrit: Grdhrakuta) is located near Rajagrha, India, and is the site where Sakvamuni Buddha is believed to have preached the Lotus Sutra ( Lien-hua ching ). Here, it refers to the Buddha-world in general.

5. The Many-storied Citadel (Tseng-ch'eng) is a mountain of nine layers in the legendary K'un-lun range in the Western Region, believed to be eleven thousand li high. See also Introduction, note 64.

6. The Heaven of Great Purity (T'ai-ch'ing) is the nearest of the three heavens of Taoism. It is where gods and Transcendents dwell and is regarded as limitless, formless, and composed of pure, condensed energy.

7. The Classic of Mystery ( T'ai-hsüan ching ; also Hsüan-chung ching ) by the Han scholar Yang Hsiung (58 B.C.-A.D. 18) was a metaphysical treatise influenced by The Book of Changes , which emphasized observation of the natural world.

8. Translated from Ku-shih hsüan 5:6a-7a ( SPPY ed.).

1. "Three Islets" (San-chou) is a literary reference to a section of the Huai River near Pao Chao's home in Tung-hai (modern Lien-shui, Chiang-su).

2. Nine Tributaries (Chiu-p'ai) refers to Pao Chao's destination, the city of Chiang-chou, where nine rivers flow into the Long River.

3. Martial Pass Mountain (Wu-kuan-shan) in the northwest of modern Shang-nan, Shaan-hsi, was regarded as the Earthly Gateway (Ti-men). It marked the southern frontier of the ancient state of Ch'in. Advancing through it, Liu Pang (256-195 B.C.) conquered the Ch'in capital of Hsien-yang and established the Western Han dynasty. Fiere, Pao Chao's description of this place as impassable refers to the division of China into northern and southern dynasties. The "great ambition" he later mentions was to participate in a military expedition to reunify China.

4. The ends of the eight directions mark the farthest extent of the four points of the compass and the four points in between.

5. The jo -tree ( jo-mu ) is a mythical tree growing where the sun rises. lts blossoms are said to emit a glow. See Ch'u tz'u: T'ien-wen 1:12 ( TSCC ed.).

6. Purple Empyrean Peak (Tzu-hsiao-feng) is one of the famous peaks of Hermitage Mountain.

7. The Hsiang River (Hsiang-chiang), the largest river in Hu-nan, originates in modern Ling-ch'uan, Kuang-hsi, and flows into Grotto Lake (Tung-t'inghu). The Han River (Han-shui), the largest tributary of the Long River, originates in modern Ning-ch'iang, Shaan-hsi, and enters the river at modern Wu-han.

8. Wild Boar Island (Hsi-chou) is traditionally believed to be a place where wild boars go to die.

9. Great Fire (Ta-huo) is the second star in the constellation Mind (Hsinhsiu), known in the West as the planet Mars.

10. The water tiger ( shui-hu ) is described as about the size of a three- or fouryear-old child. It has scales, a head resembling a tiger, and claws. In autumn, it likes to sun itself on the sand and often submerges underwater. See Ni, Yu-chi 1:22. It is also mentioned in Shui-ching-chu 28:15b ( SPPY ed.).

11. The "swallow-sieve" ray ( yen-chi ) has a sharp head like a swallow and is flat like a grain sieve.

12. An ancient legend stated that magpies entered the water in autumn to become transformed into clams. See Li chi: Yüeh-ling 6:84.

13. "Crooked teeth" ( ch'ü-ya ) were fish with teeth that protruded from their mouths.

14. The crescent moon is referred to as "becoming a bow" on the twenty-third day of each lunar month.

15. Translated from Pao Chao, Pao-shih chi 9:10a-12b ( SPPY ed.).

1. Ku-ch'eng in Pei-ch'ü District is located in the northern part of modern Chi District, Shan-hsi.

2. Windy Mountain (Feng-shan) is also located in modern Chi District, Shan-hsi.

3. See Yüan K'o, ed., Shan-hai ching , p. 90.

4. See Huai-nan-tzu 8:5b. The extant edition of Huai-nan-tzu differs somewhat from this quote.

5. See Ku Shih, ed., Mu T'ien-tzu chuan , p. 249.

6. Shen Tao (350-275 B.C.), also known as Shen-tzu, was a legalist philosopher. See Shen-tzu: I-wen 2a ( SPPY ed.).

7. Translated from Li Tao-yüan, Shui-ching-chu 4:1a-2a ( SPPY ed.).

1. This passage about Divine Giant (Chü-ling) does not appear in the extant editions of Dialogues from the Feudal States ( Kuo-yü ), a collection of speeches from 990-453 B.C. traditionally, but erroneously, attributed to Tso Ch'iuming (ca. 6th-5th century B.C.). It does appear in a slightly different form in Kuo Yüan-sheng, Record of a Distant Journey ( Shu-cheng chi ), a Chin dynasty work. See Ni, Yu-chi 1:32.

2. The Opening Up of Lotus Crag with Illustrations ( Hua-yen k'ai-shan t'u ) was the name of an apocryphal text from the Eastern Han dynasty, now lost. It apparently combined a mythological and geographical description of the mountain with a guide to divination.

3. The writer mistakenly confuses two allusions. One, from Chang Heng (78-139), "Rhapsody on the Western Capital" ( Hsi-ching fu; Wen-hsüan 2:2a [ SPPY ed.]), reads: "Divine Giant, with his mammoth power, raised high his hands and great distances tread." The other, from Tso Szu (ca. 253-ca. 307), "Rhapsody on the Capital of Wu" ( Wu-tu fu; Wen-hsüan 5:4a) reads: "Giant Tortoise, with his mammoth power, bore as a crown the sacred mount." The latter is a mythical animal who was ordered by the Emperor of Heaven to support the five sacred mountains on his back.

4. This probably refers to Divine Giant's Hand (Chü-ling shou-chang-yin), located on the Eastern Peak of Lotus Mountain. See figure 13.

5. The Temple of the Sacred Mount of the West (Hsi-yüeh-miao) was established during the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han.

6. Celestial Well (T'ien-ching) is a cave that leads to the summit.

7. The Temple on the Summit (Shang-kung) was dedicated to the God of the Sacred Mount of the West.

8. Translated from Li, Shui-ching-chu 4:9a-11a.

1. Broad Stream Gorge (Kuang-hsi-hsia) is another name for Ch'ü-t'ang Gorge.

2. Ch'ang Ch'ü (fl. latter 3d century) served as an official in the kingdom of Shu and wrote A Gazetteer of Lands South of Lotus Mountain ( Hua-yang-kuo chih ), one of the earliest examples of a geographical record. Here, Li expands on a statement in Hua-yang-kuo chih 1:9a ( SPPY ed.) referring to the area known as the White Emperor's Citadel (Pai-ti-ch'eng).

3. A reference to a line in Tso Szu's "Rhapsody on the Capital of Shu" ( Shutu fu; Wen-hsüan 4:11a). The original text speaks of a marsh-dwelling dragon who sends rain at the sound of drums.

4. The Min River (Min-chiang) originates in modern Sung-p'an, Szu-ch'uan.

5. A line from "Rhapsody on the Long River" ( Chiang fu ) by Kuo P'u (276-324), courtesy name Ching-ch'un. See Wen-hsuan 12:7a. "Hsia Emperor" refers to Yü, founder of the Hsia dynasty and traditionally credited with bringing floods and rivers under control. Translated from Li, Shui-ching-chu 33:19b-20a.

6. Tu Yü proclaimed himself "Emperor Wang" and became king of Shu at the end of the Chou dynasty. His semimythical prime minister, Ao-ling, is credited with opening up the Three Gorges as a passage for the Long River. Later, Tu Yü yielded the throne to Ao-ling and retired to a mountain where he died and was said to have metamorphosed into a bird.

7. Kuo Chung-ch'an lived during the Chin dynasty and was the author of a geographical work, A Record of Ching Region ( Ching-chou chi ). "Treatise on Geography" ( Ti-li chih ) refers to the one in the History of the Former Han Dynasty . See Han shu 8a:1566-1567, which records Wu District in Nan Commandery. It is Ying Shao's (fl. late 2d century) commentary which states that Shaman Mountain lies in the southwest of the district.

8. Mount Min (Min-shan) stands about 15,000 feet above sea level in northern Szu-chuan, forming the border between that region and modern Kan-su province. Eyebrows Mountain (O-mei-shan), at 10, 165 feet, is located in the southwest of modern O-mei District, Szu-ch'uan; Transverse Mountain (Heng-shan), the Sacred Mount of the South, stands 4,230 feet high and is in modern Nan-yüeh District, Hu-nan; Nine Similar Peaks (Chiu-i-shan), where the sage-king Shun reputedly died, is located in the south of modern Ningyüan District, Hu-nan.

9. See Yuan K'o ed., Shan-hai ching , p. 277. Ch'i was a son of the Hsia emperor Yü. Meng T'u was originally sent to Pa (modern eastern Szu-ch'uanwestern Hu-pei) to resolve legal disputes. Cinnabar Mountain (Tan-shan) is located in the west of modern Pa-tung, Hu-pei.

10. See the commentary of Kuo P'u (Ching-ch'un) to this passage in the Shanhai ching , the extant edition of which is slightly different from this quotation. The city of Tan-yang was located in the east of present-day Tzu-kuei District, Hu-pei.

11. Sung Yü (ca. 290-ca. 223 B.C.), was a poet in the state of Ch'u. He was traditionally credited with the ''Rhapsody on the Kao-t'ang Belvedere" ( Kaot'ang fu ) in which he describes King Huai of Ch'u's (r. 328-299 B.C.) encounter in a dream with the divine maiden from Shaman Mountain while at the Kaot'ang Belvedere. Modern scholars have raised doubts about Sung Yü's authorship. The mention of the plants and divine fungi at Shaman Mountain here is not found in his extant works and may derive from later mythology.

12. See "Kao-t'ang fu" ( Wen-hsüan 19:1b-2a), which differs slightly from this quotation.

13. The White Emperor's Citadel (Pai-ti-ch'eng) marks the beginning of the Three Gorges and is located along Ch'ü-t'ang Gorge in the eastern part of modern Feng-chieh, Szu-ch'uan. It was built facing the river on a mountaintop by Kung-sun Shu (d. A.D. 36), who proclaimed himself "White Emperor" in A.D. 25 in an unsuccessful attempt to establish a kingdom in Szu-ch'uan. During the Three Kingdoms period, it became a stronghold of the forces of Shu-Han under Liu Pei (161-223).

14. Modern Chiang-ling, Hu-pei.

15. "Eastern Pa" (Pa-tung) here refers to the modern districts of Yün-yang, Feng-chieh, and Wu-shan in Szu-ch'uan.

16. Translated from Li, Shui-ching-chu 34:2a-3a.

17. Yüan Shan-sung was a writer, music expert, and official of the Eastern Chin dynasty who wrote a history of the Eastern Han dynasty. The reference here is from another work of his, A Record of I-tu ( I-tu chi ).

18. This quote is actually from A Record of Mountains and Rivers in I-tu ( I-tu shan-ch'uan chi ) by a Mr. Li. See Ni, Yu-chi 1:43.

19. Translated from Li, Shui-ching-chu 34:5b-6b.

1. For a discussion of this line, see Jenner (trans.), Memories of Loyang , pp. 279-280. It has also been translated as "It is eight li in circumference," as in Yang, Record of Buddhist Monasteries , p. 181 (trans. Wang). Jenner argues that this figure is not compatible with other measurements provided by Yang or with archaeological evidence. In fact, Yang does describe two wards in each of the four directions around the bazaar plus an additional two further to the north.

2. Princess Terrace (Huang-nü-t'ai) was named after a daughter of the Eastern Han emperor Ming (r. 57-75), who was buried beside it. Liang Chi (d. 156) was a powerful figure under Emperor Shun (r. 125-144); he was related to the imperial family and, as Yang states, held the rank of general-in-chief. He influenced the accession of three emperors and was subsequently executed under Emperor Huan (r. 146-167).

3. The site of the town was located in the west of modern Meng District, Ho-nan.

4. Hou Kang, from Lo-yang, entered palace service during the reign of Emperor Hsüan-wu (r. 499-515) because of his expertise in cuisine and later rose to high rank. See Wei shu 6:2004-2006 (Peking, 1974 ed.).

5. See Hou-Han shu 5:1178-1187. East and West Mount Hsiao (Hsiao-shan) are a pair of peaks in western Ho-nan.

6. The "Copper Mountain" (T'ung-shan) alludes to Teng T'ung, who was given a copper mine in modern Szu-ch'uan as a gift from the Western Han emperor Wen (r. 180-157 B.C.) and permitted to mint his own currency. Though his name became synonymous with wealth, all his money was confiscated by the succeeding Emperor Ching (r. 157-141 B.C.), and Teng died in poverty. As for the "Cave of Gold" (Chin-hsüeh), Kuo K'uang, a brother-inlaw of Emperor Kuang-wu of the Eastern Han (r. A.D. 25-57), received so many gifts of cash from his relative that his house was called by that name.

7. The "Warrior's Song" ( Chuang-shih ko ) may refer to the general Ch'en An at the end of the Western Chin dynasty; "Hsiang Yü's Lament" ( Hsiang Yü yin ) was a tragic song sung by the hero Hsiang Yü (232-202 B.C.) of Ch'u after being defeated in battle by Liu Pang.

8. Ts'ui Yen-po (d. 525) left the south and entered the service of the Northern Wei during the T'ai-ho era (477-499). He was highly regarded as a strategist and distinguished himself on the western border. See Wei shu 5:1636-1639.

9. Modern Ku-yüan, Ning-hsia.

10. Mo-ch'i Ch'ou-nu (d. ca. 528-529), from Kao-p'ing, started out as a minor general under the Northern Wei but rebelled. In 528 he proclaimed himself emperor but was soon defeated during the Yung-an era (528-529). Ching-ch'uan is in modern Ching-ch'uan, Kan-su; Ch'i Region is in modern Feng-hsiang, Shaan-hsi.

11. Chang Fang was a general during the Western Chin who may have quartered his troops here during a campaign. The site was a frequent place for seeing off nobles and officials leaving the capital. The Sunset Pavilion (Hsiyang-t'ing) was named after a farewell party for Chia Ch'ung (217-282), father-in-law of Emperor Hui of the Western Chin (r. 290-306), which lasted from dawn to sunset.

12. Yü Po-ya was a skillful player of the ch'in zither during the Spring and Autumn period. He ceased to make music when his close friend Chung Tzuch'i died, feeling that there was no one else who could completely understand his art.

13. Ts'ui died in 525 along with about ten thousand of his soldiers after they were led into a trap by the rebels.

14. Modern An-i, Shan-hsi.

15. Mao Hung-pin was also commander of the strategic border garrison at T'ung Pass under Emperor Hsiao-wu (r. 372-396), the frontier destination referred to here. Ch'ing Region refers to modern I-shui, Shan-tung.

16. Translated from Yang Hsüan-chih, Lo-Yang ch'ieh-lan chi chiao-shih , ed. Chou Tsu-mo (Peking, 1963), pp. 156-161.

1. Baluka * (also Aksu; Chinese: Pa-lu-chia) was located in modern Wen-su, Hsin-chiang. In the T'ang, it was designated part of Ku-mo Prefecture under the military jurisdiction of the Ch'iu-tz'u Area Command.

2. Kucha * (Ch'ü-chih), modern K'u-ch'e, Hsin-chiang, was the headquarters of the An-hsi Area Command during the T'ang. Hsüan-tsang noted in his description of Kucha * that it followed Buddhist practices from India and had adopted Sanskrit as the official written language.

3. The Lesser Vehicle (Sanskrit: Hinayana * ; Chinese: Hsiao-sheng), is the earlier form of Buddhism that originated in India which emphasizes personal salvation in contrast to the goal of universal salvation espoused by the Greater Vehicle (Mahayana * ; Ta-sheng). The latter system, to which Hsüan-tsang subscribed, became more popular in China. The School of All Existing Phenomena (Sanskrit: Sarvastivada * ; Chinese: I-ch'ieh yu-pu) asserts the reality of all things produced by karmic action.

4. The Icy Mountains (Bedal; Chinese: Ling-shan, also Pa-ta-ling) are located northwest of modern Wu-shih, Hsin-chiang, and derive their name from their treacherous glaciers. It took Hsüan-tsang seven days to cross them, during which nearly two-fifths of his traveling party froze or starved to death, along with many horses and mules.

5. The Onion Range (Ts'ung-ling) refers to the Pamir plateau and the surrounding mountains, an important route between China and the Western Region. The T'ang stationed a defense detachment at Onion Range.

6. It was believed that such dragons could stir up sandstorms and heavy rains if angered.

7. Great Pure Lake (Ta-ch'ing-ch'ih), modern Issyk Kul, now lies in the northeast of Kirghizstan, having been gained by Russia in a treaty with the Ch'ing dynasty in 1864. One hundred fifteen miles long and 35 miles wide, it lies about 5,300 feet above sea level and was located 110 miles northeast of Baluka * . It was also called "Hot Sea" (Chinese: Je-hai) in the T'u-chüeh language because it stood opposite the Icy Mountains yet did not freeze over; its water, however, is not high in temperature.

8. The city of Tokmak (Su-yeh shui-ch'eng) was situated near modern Tokmak, in the northern part of Kirghizstan. It was also known as Sui-yeh after the Sui-yeh River, now the Ch'u River. The T'ang dynasty stationed a military detachment here. According to some scholars, it was also the birthplace of the poet Li Po (701-762).

9. The T'u-chüeh was a Turkish tribe that gained ascendancy in northern China during the Six Dynasties. In later centuries it was defeated by other tribes and split into eastern and western branches. Hsüan-tsang here refers to the latter branch, which reestablished itself in the west.

10. The land of Kasanna (also Kesh; Chinese: Chieh-shuang-na) was located south of modern Samarkand, Uzbekistan.

11. Sogdian, the language of Sogd (Su-li), was widely used in Central Asia during this time and remained popular until the Mongol conquest in the thirteenth century. It utilized twenty-five letters and was written either vertically or horizontally.

12. Bing-yul (Chinese: P'ing-yü; also Ch'ien-ch'üan, literally "Thousand Springs") was located at the northern foot of the Kirghiz Mountains in modern Kirghizstan. In the T'ang, it was under the military jurisdiction of the Mengch'ih Protectorate.

13. The Snowy Mountains (Hsüeh-shan) referred to here lie south of Bingyul, in contrast to the Himalayas and Hindu Kush mountain ranges, which were also known by this name.

14. The city of Talas (also Aulia-Ata; Chinese: T'an-lo-szu) was located in modern Dzhambul, Kazakhstan.

15. The city of Pai-shui (also Isbijab, literally "White River") was located northeast of Tashkent and five miles east of modern Chimkent, Uzbekistan. It is now known as Sayram.

16. The exact site of the city of Kung-yü has not yet been found, but it stood in what is now an uninhabited area between the Chirchik and Angren rivers, both tributaries of the Syr Darya.

17. Nejkend (Nu-ch'ih-chien) was located east of Tashkent. Hsüan-tsang proceeded to describe it as a large territory about 330 miles in circumference with rich farmlands and plentiful fruit and grapes. Though nominally one country, it was composed of more than one hundred semi-independent cities, each under a chief who prevented travel and communication between the different territories.

Translated from Hsüan-tsang, Ta-T'ang Hsi-yü chi chiao-chu , ed. Chi Hsien-lin et al. (Peking, 1985), pp. 66-81.

1. Nan-ch'ang was the administrative center of the commandery of Yüchang during the Han. In the T'ang, the area was redrawn and the name changed to Hung Prefecture.

2. The constellations Wings (I) and Crossbar (Chen) occupy a southern area of the sky that was believed by astrologers to be in sympathetic correspondence with the ancient state of Ch'u and the Ching Region. Transverse Mountain (Heng-shan), the Sacred Mount of the South, is located in modern Nanyüeh, Hu-nan.

3. Man-ching refers to the area of ancient Ch'u generally corresponding to modern Hu-pei and Hu-nan; Ou-yüeh refers to the area of eastern Che-chiang.

4. An allusion to a pair of magical swords, Dragon Spring ( Lung-ch'üan ) and Great Mount ( T'ai-o ), which emitted a purple energy into the sky near these constellations during the reign of Emperor Wu of the Western Chin dynasty (r. 265-290). This was noticed by the official Chang Hua (232-300), who was told by Lei Huan that the brilliance originated in the city of Feng-ch'eng in Yü-chang (later Hung Prefecture). Lei was then dispatched to the city as magistrate, where he uncovered the gleaming swords beneath the foundation of an ancient prison. He presented one to Chang and kept the other for himself. After the deaths of both men, the swords leaped into a lake and became dragons. See Chin shu 4:1075-1076.

5. Hsü Chih (97-168), courtesy name Ju-tzu, was from Nan-ch'ang, Yü-chang, in what is today Chiang-hsi. He was known as a righteous scholar who refused to serve in the corrupt court of Emperor Huan (r. 146-167) during the Eastern Han dynasty. The governor of Yü-chang, Ch'en Fan (d. 168), generally discouraged guests except Hsü Chih. He provided a special couch for Hsü, which no one else was permitted to use. See Hou-Han shu 6: 1746.

6. Yü-wen Chün was an official recently appointed metropolitan governor of Li Prefecture in present-day Hu-nan.

7. The swords "Purple Lightning" ( Tzu-tien ) and "Pure Frost" ( Ch'ing-shuang ) allude to lines in Hsiao Ming's "Letter to Wang Seng-pien [d. 555]" ( Yü Wang Seng-pien shu ), later preserved in T'ai-p'ing yü-lan 299:5a. Here, the lines praise the military ability of General Wang, who, along with Academician Meng, remains unidentified.

8. References to Li Yüan-ying, Prince of T'eng.

9. Lake P'o-yang (P'o-yang-hu), the largest freshwater lake in China, now covers about 1,300 square miles and is located m the northern part of modern Chiang-hsi province. The text refers to it by an ancient name, "P'eng-li."

10. Modern Heng-yang, Hu-nan. The Peak of the Returning Geese (Hui-yenfeng) stands just south of the modern city of Heng-yang and is considered the first of the seventy-two peaks forming Transverse Mountain, the Sacred Mount of the South. Geese were said to stop their migration here in winter before returning north.

11. An allusion to a fable in Lieh-tzu 5:15b ( SPPY ed.), where a tragic song sung by the singing master Ch'in Ch'ing was said to have shaken the forest and halted the clouds.

12. The Sui Garden (Sui-yüan) was built in Sui-yang in the south of what is today Shang-ch'iu District, Ho-nan, by Liu Wu, Prince Hsiao of Liang, during the Western Han dynasty. Celebrated for its abundant green bamboo, it was the site of many gatherings of noted writers and poets. "The Magistrate of P'eng-tse," a town located in modern P'eng-tse District, Chiang-hsi, refers to the lyric poet T'ao Ch'ien, who served in this position and who often wrote of his fondness for wine.

13. The former city of Yeh, located in the west of present-day kin-chang District, Chiang-hsi, became Ts'ao Ts'ao's (155-220) capital when he was made prince of Wei in 213 and later became one of the five capitals of the Wei dynasty. It was one of the major cities of the central plains area until destroyed by war in 580. The poet Ts'ao Chih (192-232), Ts'ao Ts'ao's third son, wrote a poem at Yeh, "At a Banquet" ( Kung-yen shih ), which included the line "Autumn orchids cover the long slope; vermilion lotus burst forth in the green pond." Lin-ch'uan was a commandery whose administrative center was located in the west of modern Lin-ch'uan, Chiang-hsi. "The Governor of Lin-ch'uan" may refer to the calligrapher Wang Hsi-chih, who served in this position; however, some commentators believe it refers to the poet Hsieh Ling-yün, who also held office in Lin-ch'uan as an administrator.

14. The "four excellent conditions" ( szu-mei ), mentioned in Hsieh Ling-yün's "Preface to Eight Poems Written in Imitation of the Poetry Gathering of the Crown Prince of Wei at Yeh" ( Ni Wei T'ai-tzu yeh-chung-chi pa-shou ping-hsü ), are a fine day, beautiful scenery, a delighted heart, and a happy occasion. The "two rarities" ( er-nan ) are a worthy host and elegant guests.

15. "Ch'ang-an" refers to the T'ang capital to the northwest; "Wu-kuei" refers to the area of Wu Commandery to the east, administered from what is now Su-chou, Chiang-su. "Beneath the sun" ( jih-hsia ) and "among the clouds" ( yün-chien ) play on additional names For Ch'ang-an and the Wu area, respectively.

16. "Southern Ocean" (Nan-ming) refers to Wang Po's destination, Chiaochih. The group of five stars known as "Celestial Pillar" (T'ien-chu) and the "North Star" (Pei-ch'en) are used as conventional references to the emperor and the imperial court. Here, they refer to Wang's hopes of an official career in the capital.

17. The Proclamation Hall (Hsüan-tien) was the central audience hall in the Wei-yang Palace, where Emperor Wen of the Western Han (r. 180-157 B.C.) received the Confucian scholar Chia 1 (200-168 B.C.) after he was recalled from exile. They are said to have discussed supernatural phenomena such as ghosts and spirits.

18. Feng T'ang served in a number of positions in government throughout his life, ultimately rising to administrator of Ch'u. At the age of ninety he was finally recommended as a worthy to serve Emperor Wu of the Western Han, but he had to decline because of old age. Li Kuang was a general during the Western Han who achieved a number of victories over the Hsiung-nu tribe but was never rewarded with a fief.

19. Chia I was a reformer highly regarded by Emperor Wen of the Western Han, who intended to appoint him to high office. However, he was slandered by conservative officials, and the emperor demoted him instead to Grand Mentor to the Prince of Ch'ang-sha. Four years later he was recalled from exile and granted an audience m the Proclamation Hall (see above, note 17). Liang Hung was an eremite who offended Emperor Chang of the Eastern Han (r. 75-88) in a satiric poem when he visited Lo-yang. He and his wife were forced to change their names and live secretly along the coast of modern Shantung to avoid arrest.

20. The Spring of Avarice (T'an-ch'üan) was said to be located in Stone Gate (Shih-men), about six miles north of modern Kuang-chou, Kuang-tung. Drinking from it was supposed to stimulate insatiable greed, although the official Wu Yin-chih, while posted to this area, drank from it without being affected. See Chin shu 89:2341.

21. An allusion to a fable in Chuang-tzu 73:26:7-11, where a fish stranded in a dry carriage rut signifies being caught in a difficult situation.

22. An allusion to the mythical p'eng -bird mentioned in Chuang-tzu 1:1:1-8 that transforms itself from the k'un -fish in the Northern Sea and rides the wind ninety thousand li to the Southern Sea. The p'eng -bird became a conventional symbol of the man of ambition. Flying in the reverse direction toward the north, as mentioned here, implies journeying to the capital to obtain an official position. In Hou-Han shu 3:646, the Eastern Han general Feng I's victory over rebels was described as a case of having succeeded in the west, where the sun sets over the mulberry and elm trees, after having failed in the eastern corner of the world, where the sun rises. With this sentiment, Wang Po expresses his hope that he can achieve official success in later years despite the obstacles he has so far encountered in his youth.

23. Meng Ch'ang was a governor with a virtuous reputation during the reign of Emperor Shun of the Eastern Han (r. 125-144). He was not, however, appointed to a high post under the succeeding Emperor Huan, though he was highly recommended.

24. The poet Juan Chi (210-263) was a member of a group of eccentric figures known as the "Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove" (Chu-lin ch'i-hsien). His strange behavior was a strategy to avoid dangerous political involvement at a time when the Szu-ma clan was usurping power at court toward the end of the Wei dynasty. In addition to frequently seeking refuge in wine, he would ride about in his carriage and, upon encountering an obstacle in the road, become despondent and return home.

25. Chung Chün (140-113 B.C.), while still in his twenties, was sent as an emissary to the Nan-yüeh Kingdom during the Western Hah dynasty. He requested that the emperor give him long reins, which he would use to bind the King of Nan-yüeh, bringing him back to the capital as a prisoner. "Requesting reins" ( ch'ing-ying ) became a conventional phrase meaning to gain political power.

26. An allusion to Pan Ch'ao (32-102), who, while serving as a scribe during the Eastern Han, decided to cast aside his occupation and join the army in order to earn a fief. After achieving success in campaigns in the Western Region, he was enfeoffed as Marquis Who Pacified Distant Regions (Ting-yüan-hou). Tsung Ch'üeh was a general under Emperor Wen of the [Liu] Sung dynasty (r. 424-453) who was enfeoffed as marquis of T'ao-yang. In his youth, he was asked by his uncle what his ambition was, and he replied that he wished to ride on a great wind and smash the waves for ten thousand li .

27. An allusion to a clever reply by General Hsieh Hsüan (343-388) to his uncle, the aristocratic Chief Minister Hsieh An (320-388), recorded in Shih-shuo hsin-yü: shang A:46a. When Hsieh An asked why everyone hoped for sons, Hsieh Hsüan compared them to "fragrant irises and jade trees" ( chih-lan yü-shu ) that people desired to cultivate in their courtyards. The mother of the philosopher Mencius moved three times in order to raise him in a proper environment. Eventually she settled near a school. See Lieh-nü chuan 1:10a-11b ( SPPY ed.).

28. A reference to Lun-yü 34:16:13, which records Confucius stopping his son Po-yü as he hastened across the courtyard to urge him to study the Book of Poetry and the Book of Ritual . Here, Wang Po is restating his intention to visit his father in Chiao-chih.

29. Dragon Gate (Lung-men) is a point on the Yellow River in the northwest of modern Ho-chin District, Shan-hsi. It was said to have been opened up as a passage for the river by the Hsia emperor Yü. According to popular legend, carp that manage to make it upstream beyond here turn into dragons; see T'aip'ing kuang-chi 466:8. Thus, "passing through Dragon Gate" ( teng lung-men ) came to signify fame and success in official life. Those who received support from the patron Li Ying during the Eastern Han dynasty, for example, were said to have accomplished that feat; see Hou-Han shu 8:2195.

30. Yang Te-i, who served as director of the palace kennels under Emperor Wu of the Western Han, recommended the writer Szu-ma Hsiang-ju (179-117 B.C.) to the court. When the emperor read his "Rhapsody on the Great Man" ( Ta-jen fu ), he is said to have felt like he was "soaring among the clouds" ( ling-yün ). Here, Wang Po is referring to the quality of his own preface.

31. See 6. Yang Hsüan-chih, The Bazaar of Lo-yang , note 12. Chung Tzu-ch'i once praised Yü Po-ya's playing for its evocation of lofty mountains and flowing water.

32. The Orchid Pavilion refers to Wang Hsi-chih's gathering there in 353. The Catalpa Garden (Tzu-tse) was an estate to the northwest of Lo-yang owned by the poet Shih Ch'ung (249-300), where literary gatherings were also held.

33. See Han-shih wai-chuan 7:14a ( CTPS ed.): "Confucius said, 'The Noble Man feels compelled to express himself when he ascends to great heights.'"

34. The critic Chung Hung (ca. 465-518) in his Evaluation of Poetry ( Shih-p'in , ca. 513-517) compared the talent of Lu Chi (261-303) to an ocean and that of P'an Yüeh (247-300) to a river.

35. South Bank (Nan-p'u) is located in the southwest of modern Nan-ch'ang.

36. West Mountain (Hsi-shan) is ten miles northwest of Nan-ch'ang.

37. A reference to the Kan River (Kan-chiang).

38. Translated from Ch'u-T'ang szu-chieh wen-chi 5:11a-12a ( SPPY ed.).

1. The Proselytizing Temple (Kan-p'ei-szu) was located in the main town of Lan-t'ien District, Shaan-hsi.

2. The Pa River (Pa-shui) flows from the eastern part of Lan-t'ien into the Lan River (Lan-shui) and the Wheel River (Wang-shui), forming a route to Wang Wei's estate. The "murky Pa" (hs üan-pa ) alludes to P'an Yüeh's, "Rhapsody on a Western Journey" ( Hsi-cheng fu ): "The murky Pa and the lucid Ch'an." See Wen-hsüan 10:9a.

3. Hua-tzu Hill (Hua-tzu-kang) was a scenic spot located on Wang Wei's estate, later celebrated in his poems and depicted in his handscroll (fig. 16).

4. Huang-nieh is the bark of Phellodendron amurense , used as a medicinal herb to cure intestinal, eye, and skin disorders.

5. Translated from Wang Wei, Wang Yu-ch'eng chi-chu 10:7b-8a ( SPPY ed.).

1. Tao Prefecture roughly corresponded to modern Tao District, Hu-nan.

2. Ying Stream (Ying-hsi) originates in the south of modern Ning-yüan, Hunan, and eventually flows into the Hsiang River in Ling-ling.

3. Translated from Yüan Chieh, Yüan Tz'u-shan chi 9:5b ( SPPY ed.). The ming inscription mentioned has not survived.

1. Chiang-hua (modern Chiang-hua, Hu-nan) was located in Tao Prefecture. Yüan Chieh was first appointed prefect of Tao Prefecture in 763 and reappointed in 766. His inspection of Chiang-hua occurred in the summer of the latter year.

2. Ch'ü Ling-wen was recorded by Yüan Chieh as an expert in seal-style calligraphy; see Yüan Tz'u-shan chi 6:5b.

3. A reference to the Hsiao River (Hsiao-shui).

4. Translated from Yüan, Yüan Tz'u-shan chi 9:7a-7b.

1. My Own Terrace (Wu-t'ai) was built beside My Own Stream (Wu-hsi) in the north of Ch'i-yang District, Yung Prefecture (modern Ling-ling, Hu-nan). Yüan Chieh had built a house in Ch'i-yang beside the stream, and wrote a short preface and ming inscription dated July 15, 767. He signified possession of these places by modifying the character for "my own" ( wu ), adding the water radical for the stream and the mountain radical for the rock.

2. Translated from Yüan Chieh, Yüan Tz'u-shan chi , ed. Sun Wang (Peking, 1960), pp. 152-153.

1. Wang Chung-shu (d. 823), courtesy name Hung-chung, was from modern T'ai-yüan, Shan-hsi. In 804, he was demoted to revenue manager of Lien Prefecture (modern Lien District, Kuang-tung).

2. See Shih ching 79:298:1,2, ''Stalwart" ( Yu-pi ), where the image of white egrets stirred to flight is traditionally interpreted as the joyful attitude of the scholar in office.

3. See Shih ching 26:128:3, "The Small Chariot" ( Hsiao-jung ), where the adjective "regulated" ( chih-chih ), applied to virtuous sounds, signifies the qualities of discipline and intelligence.

4. See Shih ching 81:300:7, "Lovely" ( Na ). The phrase "joyous feasts" ( yen-hsi ) puns the line "the feasts of Duke Hsi" (r. 659-627 B.C.). The duke is the "Marquis of Lu" referred to here, who is praised in the poem for bringing harmony and longevity to his family, enjoying feasts with his officials, establishing peace among the upper classes, and maintaining prosperity in his state.

5. Lan-t'ien near the T'ang capital of Ch'ang-an was located in what is today Lan-t'ien, Shaan-hsi. Shang Prefecture covered an area extending south of the Ch'in Ridge Mountains (Ch'in-ling-shan) in Shaan-hsi. Lo-yang was the secondary, eastern capital of the T'ang. The Hsi River (Hsi-shui) flows through modern Ho-nan. The Hah River (Han-shui) flows into the Long River at modern Wu-han, Hu-pei. Steep Mountain (Hsien-shan) is located in modern Hsiang-yang, Hu-pei. The Square Citadel (Fang-ch'eng), a fiat-topped mountain named after an ancient city nearby, is in the southeast of modern Chu-shan District, Hu-pei. Ching Gate (Ching-men) is a mountain in the northwest of modern I-tu, Hu-pei, on the south bank of the Long River, traditionally the western frontier of the ancient state of Ch'u. The Mien River (Mien-chiang) forms part of the Han River and also refers to a stretch of the Long River below modern Wu-han. Grotto Lake (Tung-t'ing-hu) is a large body of water in Hu-nan. The Hsiang River (Hsiang-shui) originates in modern Kuang-hsi and flows into Grotto Lake. Chen Prefecture covered modern Nan-chen District, Hu-nan. The ridge referred to here leading into Lien Prefecture is Cross-Country Ridge (Ch'i-t'ien-ling), one of five major passes leading into Ling-nan (modern Kuang-tung).

6. See Introduction, note 40.

7. See I ching: Ch'ien 33:53: "Nine in the highest line means the wild goose gradually ascends to the cloudy heights. Its plumes can be used in the sacred dance. Good fortune." Han Yü alludes to the "sacred plume dance" ( yü-i ) to predict that Wang will become an official in the capital.

8. Translated from Han Yü, Ch'ang-li hsien-sheng chi 13:9a-10b ( SPPY ed.).

1. King Chao of Ch'u (r. 515-498 B.C.). The Ch'u capital of Ying-ch'eng was located south of the T'ang city of I-ch'eng, then known as Yen-ch'eng. When Ying-ch'eng was captured, the king shifted the capital to Yen-ch'eng for a brief time until Ying-ch'eng was recovered.

2. The local belief about the poisonousness of the water lasted for centuries. In 734, however, the governor of Hsiang Prefecture, Han Ch'ao-tsung, addressed a memorial to the spirit of the well, and subsequently the water was found to be potable. The name of the well was then changed to "Han's Well" (Han-kung-ching). See Hsin T'ang shu 14:4373 (Peking, 1975 ed.).

3. In 279 B.C., King Chao of Ch'in (r. 306-251 B.C.) ordered his general Po Ch'i (d. 257 B.C.) to attack major cities in Ch'u. The following year, Po Ch'i conquered Yen-ch'eng by damming up the nearby waters and inundating the city.

4. Chiao -dragons ( chiao-lung ) were mythical animals believed to dwell in deep underwater abysses. They benefited man by producing clouds and rain. However, as Han Yü notes, they could also be regarded as harmful.

5. Yü Ti (d. 8 18) was a powerful local warlord who served as military commissioner of the Shan-nan Southern Circuit from 799 to 808 and also as prefect of Hsiang Prefecture, with headquarters in modern Hsiang-yang. The court was often forced to adopt a conciliatory policy toward such figures, whom Hah Yü regarded as usurpers of imperial authority. The Emperor Hsien-tsung (r. 805-820) was later able to assert a greater degree of control. Yü Ti accepted the position of grand councillor at court and was later demoted.

6. The elder P'ing, named Chi, died resisting the An Lu-shan Rebellion. His son, P'ing Feng, commissioned a eulogy from Han Yü in praise of his father's virtue.

7. Translated from Han, Ch'ang-li hsien-sheng chi: wai: 4:5b-7a.

1. Yang Yü-ling (753-830), a highly successful official, was appointed military commissioner of Ling-nan (modern Kuang-tung and Kuang-hsi provinces) and prefect of Kuang Prefecture. He became a patron of Li Ao through the recommendation of Han Yü and appointed Li as an administrative assistant in charge of his office staff. Li Ao later composed his epitaph.

2. Rewarding Goodness Ward (Ching-shan) was a precinct in Lo-yang. The Transport Canal (Ts'ao-ch'ü), also known as the Canal of Widespread Sustenance (Kuang-chi-ch'ü), was developed under the Sui dynasty and eventually linked the capitals of Ch'ang-an and Lo-yang with the Yellow River and the agricultural areas of the Huai and Long rivers.

3. Lo-yang was the Eastern Capital of the T'ang.

4. Li Ao had studied literature with Han Yü, courtesy name T'ui-chih, and had married into his family. Shih Hung (771-812), original surname Wu-shihlan, courtesy name Chün-ch'uan, was, like Han Yü, from Ho-yang (modern Meng District, Ho-nan). He held the Classicist degree and had served as an administrative supervisor in Kuei-chou before retiring from office for a decade; he returned to serve as subeditor in the Academy of Scholarly Worthies.

5. Old Lo-yang (Ku-lo-tung) was just east of the Han and Wei city some six miles west of the T'ang capital. It was the site of the city built in the early Western Chou period by the duke of Chou (fl. mid-late 11th cent. B.C.). Meng Chiao (751-814), courtesy name Tung-yeh, was from Wu-k'ang, Hu Prefecture (modern Te-ch'ing, Che-chiang). A poet and later an official, he was close friends with Li Ao and Hah Yü. In his youth, he retired to Eminent Mountain (see below, note 8); later, at around age fifty, he finally took the official examinations and held various offices, in some cases on the recommendation of Li Ao.

6. Canal Mouth (Ts'ao-k'ou) was where the Transport Canal joined the Lo River.

7. Luminous Clouds Mountain (Ching-yün-shan) is located in the south of modern Yen-shih, Ho-nan.

8. Eminent Mountain (Sung-shan) rises to 4,720 feet. Located in the north of modern Teng-feng District, Ho-nan, 113 miles south of Lo-yang, it is said to have received this name during the time of the Hsia emperor Yü and was considered the Sacred Mount of the Center as early as the Eastern Chou period.

9. Kung District, Ho-nan, is located along the south bank of the lower reaches of the Lo River.

10. The Pien River (Pien-ho) was expanded as early as the Northern Wei for military purposes to facilitate an invasion to the south. Interestingly, an ancestor of Li Ao, Li Ch'ung, successfully advocated one such dredging of the river during the reign of Emperor Kao-tsu of the Northern Wei (r. 471-499). Pienliang Mouth (Pien-liang-k'ou) was located in the north of modern Hsing-yang District, Ho-nan.

11. Ho-yin was located in modern Hsing-yang, Ho-nan.

12. Pien Prefecture was administered from the city of Pien-liang (modern K'ai-feng, Ho-nan), formerly a capital of the state of Wei during the Warring States period.

13. The city of Ch'cn-liu lies sixteen miles south east of K'ai-feng.

14. The T'ang district of Yung-ch'iu (modern Ch'i District, Ho-nan) was fifty-seven miles southeast of Ch'cn-liu.

15. Sung Prefecture (modern Shang-ch'iu, Ho-nan) was a major city along the Pien River during the T'ang. The source text mistakenly gives the day as i-yu instead of chi-yu .

16. Yung-ch'eng is modern Yung-ch'eng District, Ho-nan, fifty-seven miles southeast of Sung Prefecture.

17. Yung Mouth (Yung-k'ou), also known as Yung Bridge (Yung-ch'iao), was an important point for controlling traffic on the Grand Canal; it was located in the south of what is today Su District, An-hui.

18. The site of the administrative town of Szu Prefecture, now inundated under Lake Broad Marsh (Hung-tse-hu), was thirteen miles northwest of present-day Hsü-i, Chiang-su. This section of the Yellow River north of the Huai River was also known as the Szu River (Szu-shui) and led into the Huai. It no longer exists owing to changes in the course of the Yellow River over the centuries. During the T'ang, Yang Prefecture (modern Yang-chou, Chiang-su) just north of the Long River was the major city between Lo-yang and Kuang Prefecture. It was an important stopping point for travelers, who often toured its scenic spots and enjoyed its many entertainments.

19. The T'ang city of Hsü-i was nine miles north of the modern location and the first town reached after the transition from the Pien to the Huai River. New Riverbank (Hsin-p'u; modern Hsin-p'u, Chiang-su) was a district located at the north of Lake Broad Marsh. At this point, boats often ran against the predominantly north winds but were able to reach port with the help of the strong tide of the Huai River.

20. Ch'u Prefecture (modern Huai-an, Chiang-su) was an active port between the Pien and Huai rivers and a prosperous city attractive enough for Li Ao to spend three days here.

21. Li followed the Shan-yang River (Shan-yang-tu) to Yang Prefecture, where he spent four days sightseeing.

22. The Temple of Perching Souls (Ch'i-ling-szu), originally named the Temple of Illumination (Ta-ming-szu), was built during the Ta-ming era of the [Liu] Sung dynasty (457-464). In 601, during the Sui dynasty, a nine-story pagoda was erected there named "The Pagoda of Perching Souls" (Ch'i-lingt'a); after that the temple changed its name.

23. The Great River (Ta-chiang) is the Long River. Jun Prefecture (modern Chen-chiang, Chiang-su) is where the southern stretch of the Grand Canal begins. It was another city noted for its many sights, and Li spent about a week there.

24. The misprinted date " wu-ch'en " in early texts may in fact be either " wu-yin " (March 21) or '' keng-ch'en " (March 23). Ch'ang Prefecture is modern Ch'ang-chou, Chiang-su.

25. Su Prefecture is modern Su-chou, Chiang-su. Like Yang Prefecture, it was already a prosperous city and a popular travel destination in the T'ang.

26. Tiger Hill (Hu-ch'iu) is a scenic park just outside the city walls. Various legends account for its name. One states that a white tiger appeared when King Ho-lü of Wu (r. 514-496 B.C.) was buried in the hill. Another states that a guardian tiger appeared when the First Emperor of Ch'in visited in search of a famous sword buried along with Ho-lü. Thousand Men Rock (Ch'ien-jen-shih) is a flat terrace of rock allegedly capable of accommodating a thousand people seated; it is said to be the site of preaching by the Buddhist monk Chu Tao-sheng (355-434). Sword Pond (Chien-ch'ih) derived its name from the First Emperor's sword, which is said to have fallen into the pond and disappeared when he tried to strike the tiger. Plum Blossom View House (Wang-mei-lou), which appears as "Sea View House" (Wang-hai-lou) in some editions, remains unidentified. Stepping Rock (Tsou-ch'ieh-shih) is a rock that appears to be walking forward. All the above arc Famous spots at Tiger Hill (see 38. Yüan Hung-tao, Tiger Hill ).

The Temple of Gratitude (Pao-en-szu), now known as the North Temple (Pei-szu), is located in the north of the city and was originally built during the Wu dynasty. Originally called the Temple Leading to the Mysterious (T'unghsüan-szu), it acquired this name in the mid-T'ang.

27. The Sung River (Sung-chiang), the upper reaches of the modern Wu-sung River (Wu-sung-chiang), flows from the Great Lake (T'ai-hu) to the sea. Li crossed it near the city of Wu-chiang, Chiang-su.

28. Hang Prefecture is modern Hang-chou, Che-chiang, another major city and scenic place along Li Ao's route in the area around the lower Long River delta.

29. Martial Forest Mountain (Wu-lin-shan) comprises Hidden Spirits Mountain (Ling-yin-shan) and India Mountain (T'ien-chu-shan), both sites of important Buddhist temples that are mentioned in a note in the original text. The phrase lun-ch'un in the original text (translated here as "rounded trees") remains problematical but may be a misprint referring to the stately trees in the area; see Ni, Yu-chi 1:145-146. Placid Lake (P'ing-hu) is an early name for West Lake (Hsi-hu). Solitary Hill (Ku-shan) is a prominent island located in West Lake and connected to the shore by causeways and bridges, one of which was later developed by Po Chü-i when he served as prefect from 822 to 824 (see 44. Shao Ch'ang-heng, An Evening Stroll to Solitary Hill ).

30. The T'ang district of Fu-ch'un was located in what is today Fu-yang District, Che-chiang. The river referred to here is the Abundant Spring (Fu-ch'un-chiang).

31. Two-Mile Rapids (Ch'i-li-t'an) runs through a scenic gorge along the Abundant Spring River between modern T'ung-lu and Chien-te districts, Che-chiang. Mu Prefecture was located in Chien-te.

32. Yang Chiung (650-ca. 693), considered one of the "Four Outstanding Writers of the Early T'ang," served as magistrate of Ying-ch'uan District, south of modern Ch'ü District, Che-chiang, and built this pavilion there.

33. Ch'ü Prefecture was located in modern Ch'ü District, Che-chiang. The K'ai-yüan Temple (K'ai-yüan-szu) was probably one of the temples ordered established in every prefecture and superior prefecture by the Emperor Hsüantsung during the K'ai-yüan era (713-741), many of which were given this name.

34. Hou Kao was a member of the literary circle that included Han Yü and Li Ao. A Taoist who spent time on Hermitage Mountain, he did not earn any degrees and later committed suicide by drowning. Li Ao wrote his epitaph. Stone Bridge (Shih-ch'iao) was a town northeast of Ch'ü Prefecture, now known as Shih-liang.

35. Constancy Mountain (Ch'ang-shan) is located about thirty miles west of Ch'ü Prefecture in the eastern part of modern Ch'ang-shan District, Chechiang, at the end of the Ch'ien-t'ang River. The road along its ridge was the main route to Hsin Prefecture. The T'ang district of Yü-shan is now located in modern Shang-jao, Chiang-hsi. From here, Li could travel farther by boat to Hsin Prefecture.

36. Hsin Prefecture was located in the northwest of modern Shang-jao, Chiang-hsi.

37. Mount Chün-yang (Chün-yang-shan) may be a mountain in the area of modern Kuei-ch'i or Ying-t'an districts, Chiang-hsi. The character yeh (leaf) has been corrected to hua (lotus); see Ni, Yu-chi 1:140.

38. The Kan-yüeh Pavilion (Kan-yüeh-t'ing), named after the westernmost area of the ancient kingdom of Yüeh during the reign of King Kou-chien (r. 497-465 B.C.), was located in Jao Prefecture (modern Yü-kan, Chiang-hsi).

39. Carrying Rocks Lake (Tan-shih-hu) is another name for the southern section of Lake P'o-yang, Chiang-hsi.

40. Hung Prefecture was located in modern Nan-ch'ang, Chiang-hsi. On Hsü Ju-tzu (Chih), see 8. Wang Po, Preface to Poems from the Pavilion of the Prince of T'eng , note 5. A tomb supposedly containing the remains of Hsü still stands in Nan-ch'ang.

41. Chi Prefecture was located in modern Chi-an, Chiang-hsi.

42. Ch'ien Prefecture was located in modern Kan District, Chiang-hsi.

43. Han T'ai served as a director in the Ministry of Revenue and was a member of the reformist faction of Wang Shu-wen along with Liu Tsung-yüan. In 805, Han was demoted and twice exiled, finally serving as vice-prefect of Ch'ien Prefecture. The Mountain of Responding Spirits (Ling-ying-shan) remains unidentified.

44. Great Yü's Ridge (Ta-yü-ling) in modern Ta-yü, Chiang-hsi, was the most important of the Five Ridges (Wu-ling) leading into Ling-nan. It was named after Yü Sheng, who fortified this ridge in the campaign against the Nan-yüeh Kingdom during the Western Han dynasty. Li Ao reached the T'ang district of Chen-ch'ang, located in the south of modern Nan-hsiung, Kuang-tung, by traveling along the Chen River (Chen-shui).

45. The Shao Rocks (Shao-shih), located beyond West Spirit Camp Ridge (Ling-t'un-hsi-ling) in the north of modern Ch'ü-chiang, Kuang-tung, are two towering rocks of roughly equal size standing opposite each other about onethird of a mile apart like portals.

46. Divine Vulture Mountain (Ling-chiu-shan; Sanskrit: Grdhrakuta), located in the north of modern Ch'ü-chiang, derives its name from the mountain in India traditionally associated with the preaching of the Lotus Sutra . On this particular mountain, tigers were prevalent; during the I-hsi era of the Eastern Chin dynasty (405-418), the Buddhist monk Lü built a retreat here and the tigers fled because of his benevolence. The name of the mountain consequently was changed to "Divine Vulture."

47. Shao Prefecture was located in modern Ch'ü-chiang, Kuang-tung.

48. The poet and official Chang Chiu-ling (678-740) was from Ch'ü-chiang and served as prime minister during the reign of Emperor Hsüan-tsung (r. 712-756) until forced to retire by political opponents. He was ennobled as earl of Shih-hsing District and popularly referred to as "Lord of Shih-hsing."

49. Eastern Shade Mountain (Tung-yin-shan) was located in the east of the T'ang district of Chen-yang (modern Ying-te, Kuang-tung), and Chen-yang Gorge (Chen-yang-hsia) in the south of Chen-yang.

50. Gorge Mountain (Hsia-shan) is located in the south of Ch'ing-yüan District, Kuang-tung.

51. Modern Kuang-chou, Kuang-tung, also known in the West as Canton.

52. The T'ang district of Shang-yüan was located in what is now the city of Nanking (Nan-ching), Chiang-su. Hsi-chiang was a port on the Long River in present-day Chien-li, Hu-pei. This shorter route south to Kuang Prefecture meant traveling up the Long River from Yang Prefecture and down through Lake P'o-yang.

53. Shao-po was the name of a lake, a town, and an important waterlock northwest of Yang Prefecture.

54. High Stream (Kao-hsi) is now known as the Trustworthy River (Hsinchiang); it flows into Lake P'o-yang.

55. The Chang River (Chang-shui) is actually one of the sources of the Kan River (Kan-shui), but here the latter is meant.

56. The Chen River (Chen-shui) and the Shao River (Shao-chiang) are sections of the modern North River (Pei-chiang).

Translated from Li Ao, Li Wen-kung chi 18:146a-148b ( SPTK ed.).

1. K'uangs' Hermitage (K'uang-lu) is another name for Hermitage Mountain after the seven K'uang brothers who retired to this mountain to cultivate the Tao during the Chou dynasty and built thatched hermitages.

2. Censer Peak (Hsiang-lu-feng) is now considered as being located in the southern area of Hermitage Mountain, part of Flourishing Peak (Hsiu-feng).

3. See Shih ching 49:204:1, "The Fourth Month" ( Szu-yüeh ): "In the fourth month, the impending summer; in the sixth month, the advancing summer heat."

4. See Tso Szu, "Rhapsody on the Capital of Shu" ( Shu-tu fu; Wen-hsüan 4:10a): "Verdant leaves are spread out profusely, and mix with vermilion fruit abundant." The fruit refers to longan and lychee trees.

5. Tapestry Valley (Chin-hsiu-ku) is located in the southern part of Hermitage Mountain.

6. Stone Gate Ravine (Shih-men-chien) is located in the northern part of Hermitage Mountain (see 3. Lay Scholars of Hermitage Mountain, Preface and Poem on a Journey to Stone Gate ).

7. Tiger Stream (Hu-hsi) is located in front of the Eastern Forest Temple (Tung-lin-szu) and is known in legend as the border beyond which the eminent monk Hui-yüan would not cross, except on one occasion, when he was seeing off the poet T'ao Ch'ien and the Taoist Lu Ching-hsiu. Absorbed in conversation, Hui-yüan forgot his usual rule; he was reminded of it only when he heard the roar of a tiger, whereupon the three friends broke into laughter. This story is without historical foundation, for Lu Ching-hsiu did not travel to the mountain until more than twenty years after T'ao Ch'ien's death. See Li Chi, trans., Travel Diaries , p. 104.

8. The character chih (to know) has been corrected to chih (to expand); see Ni, Yu-chi 1:115.

9. Hui-yung was abbot of the Western Forest Monastery (Hsi-lin-szu). Hui-yüan was abbot of the Eastern Forest Monastery. Tsung Ping, a lay Buddhist and art critic, spent a period of retreat on Hermitage Mountain. Lei Tz'u-tsung (386-448), a lay Buddhist, also dwelled in retirement on Hermitage Mountain. These figures were among the "Eighteen Worthies of the White Lotus Society" ( Pai-she shih-pa-hsien ), the most outstanding members of a prominent lay Buddhist association. In 402, Hui-yüan assembled 123 members who vowed to achieve rebirth in Amitabha Buddha's Western Paradise. The legend of the "Eighteen Worthies," however, was a later creation not based on historical fact, and it became a popular theme in figure painting after the Northern Sung.

10. Actually, only the monks Hui-yung and Hui-yüan remained on the mountain. Of the four mentioned, Tsung Ping fell ill and left, and Lei Tz'utsung accepted an official appointment.

11. A reference to Po's demotion to vice-prefect of Chiang-chou.

12. Yüan Chi-hsü of Ho-nan (from modern Lo-yang, Ho-nan) had served as chief musician and later retired to Hermitage Mountain. Chang Yün-chung of Fan-yang (modern Peking) and Chang Shen-chih of Nan-yang (modern Nanyang, Ho-nan) remain unidentified. "Ts'ou" is the monk Shen-ts'ou; "Man" is the monk Chih-man; "Chien" is the monk "Shih-chien,'' all from the Eastern Forest Temple. "Lang" was referred to elsewhere by Po as "the Venerable Lang." "Hui" remains unidentified.

13. Translated from Po Chü-i, Po [Pai]-shih ch'ang-ch'ing chi 26:3a-6a ( SPTK ed.).

1. In 814, during the reign of the T'ang emperor Hsien-tsung, the military commissioner of Huai-hsi, Wu Yüan-chi (783-817), rebelled. He was finally captured and executed in 817. The character chiu (long) has been corrected to tung (winter); see Ni, Yu-chi 1:124.

2. Chung Prefecture is modern Chung District, Szu-chuan.

3. Yüan Chen, courtesy name Wei-chih. In addition to achieving fame as a poet, Yüan was the author of "The Story of Ying-ying" ( Ying-ying chuan ), a disguised autobiographical talc of a failed love affair. Later storytellers and dramatists expanded it, adding a happy ending, and it became China's most popular romance. T'ung Prefecture is modern Ta District, Szu-ch'uan, and Kuo Prefecture is modern Ling-pao, Ho-nan.

4. Po Hsing-chien, courtesy name Chih-t'ui, was a younger brother of Po Chü-i. He served in various provincial offices, rising to director of the Bureau of Receptions, and was also known as a poet, particularly as a writer of fu rhapsodies. Today he is primarily remembered as the author of "The Tale of Li Wa" ( Li Wa chuan ) about an unusually faithful courtesan whose devotion to a wayward scholar was rewarded with marriage and high social position.

5. I-ling is modern I-ch'ang, Hu-pei.

6. Hsia-lao Garrison (Hsia-lao-shu), better known as Hsia-lao Pass (Hsia-laokuan), lies west of I-ch'ang on the Long River leading into Szu-ch'uan.

7. Hsia Prefecture was located northwest of modern I-ch'ang.

8. Translated from Po, Po [Pai/-shih ch'ang-ch'ing chi 26:12b-14a.

1. West Mountain (Hsi-shan), now known as Grain Mountain (Liang-tzuling), is located in the western part of modern Ling-ling, Hu-nan.

2. The Temple of the Dharma Lotus (Fa-hua-szu) was located on East Mountain (Tung-shan) within the modern town of Ling-ling. Liu Tsung-yüan had the West Pavilion (Hsi-t'ing) constructed, an undertaking that he described in another account.

3. Tinting Stream (Jan-hsi), which Liu later wrote about as "Dimwit's Stream" (Yü-hsi), is a tributary of the Hsiao River that flows through the southwest part of Ling-ling.

4. Flatiron Pond (Ku-mu-t'an) is traditionally located by Dimwit's Stream near Marquis Liu's Temple (Liu-hou-tz'u) outside the modern town of Lingling.

5. The Mid-Autumn Festival (Chung-ch'iu) traditionally falls on the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month.

6. Li Shen-yüan and Yüan K'o-chi were friends of Liu Tsung-yüan's in Yung Prefecture. Li may be Li Shih-yü (756-818), a noted poet, while Yüan was a fellow exile. See Nienhauser et al., Liu Tsung-yüan , p. 129.

7. The Feng area was located in the east of modern Hu District, Shaan-hsi; Hao was originally the capital of the Western Chou in the southwest area of modern Hsi-an, Shaan-hsi; Hu was Hu District, Shaan-hsi; Tu was the Tuling section in the southeast of Hsi-an. All four were scenic areas preferred by the T'ang elite in or around the capital of Ch'ang-an.

8. The character ch'üan (spring) has been corrected to ch'üan (entirely); see Ni, Yu-chi 1:111.

9. Wu Wu-ling of Hsin Prefecture (modern Shang District, Chiang-hsi) was a Presented Scholar during the early Yüan-ho era (806-820). As a sympathizer of the reformist faction he was banished in 808 to Yung Prefecture, where he became close friends with Liu Tsung-yüan. Kung Ku remains unknown. Liu Tsung-hsüan is one of three brothers mentioned in Liu Tsung-yüan's writings, but little else is known about any of them. The two youths have been identified as the sons of Ts'ui Chien.

10. The Cliff Facing the Sun (Ch'ao-yang-yen) is located along the Hsiao River. It had been given this name by Yüan Chieh in 766 because it faced eastward.

11. Yüan Creek (Yüan-chia-ho) is located southeast of the Cliff Facing the Sun in modern Ling-ling.

12. Ch'u (destroyed in 223 B.C.) and Yüeh (destroyed in 306 B.C.) were ancient kindoms whose area covered much of modern Hu-nan, Hu-pei, Anhui, Chiang-su, and Che-chiang provinces.

13. Arrow bamboo ( chien-chu ) is a species with broad leaves growing seven or eight feet tall. Its stalks can be used for arrows.

14. The character shang (above) has been corrected to t'u (land); see Yeh and Pei, Li-tai yu-chi , p. 33.

15. The Central Plains (Chung-yüan) is the ancient heartland of northern Chinese civilization, broadly the area around the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River.

16. Translated from Liu Tsung-yüan, Liu Ho-tung chi 29:2b-8a ( SPPY ed.).

1. The Libation River (Kuan-shui) originates in the southwest of modern Kuan-yang, Kuang-hsi, and flows northeast into the Hsiang River. The Hsiao River (Hsiao-shui) originates in modern Tao District, Hu-nan, and flows into the Hsiang River in Yung Prefecture. Here, the writer refers to this section of the Hsiang River as the Hsiao.

2. "Tinting" ( jan ) is a homonym of the surname "Jan," though they are written with different characters.

3. A reference to Liu Tsung-yüan's involvement in the ill-fated party of Wang Shu-wen and his subsequent exile and demotion to vice-prefect of Yung Prefecture. Liu's house was built to the southeast of Tinting Stream.

4. The name derives from a legend about Duke Huan of Ch'i (r. 685-643 B.C.) who came to a valley while hunting and asked an old man there its name. The old man told him he had named it "Mr. Dimwit's Valley [Yü-kung-ku] after his own folly." See Shuo-yüan 7:61 ( TSCC ed.).

5. See Lun-yü 11:6:23; also, Introduction, note 40.

6. See Lun-yü 9:5:21, which records Confucius as saying, "Ning Wu-tzu practiced wisdom when the realm was governed according to the Tao ; when the realm was not governed by the Tao , he became a dimwit."

7. See Lun-yü 3:2:9: "I spoke to Yen Hui, and during the entire day he seemed like a dimwit. Then he retired, contemplated his character, and became capable of asking questions. So Hui was not a dimwit at all."

8. See Lao-tzu Tao-te ching 14:7 ( SPTK ed.): "What is seen but not comprehended is the undiscernible; what is heard but not understood is the inaudible"; and 25:9: "Soundless and formless, it stands alone and never alters."

9. "Poems on the Eight Dimwits" ( Pa-yü shih ), no longer extant, refers to the sights named by the author.

Translated from Liu, Liu Ho-tung chi 24:6b-7b.

1. Modern T'ang-yang, Ho-nan. It was located next to Lin-lü District, modern Lin District, Ho-nan.

2. Modern Kuei-lin, Kuei-chou.

3. Modern Wu-t'ai District, Shan-hsi. Five Terraces Mountain (Wu-t'aishan) was already a major Buddhist center in the Sung. For a later account of it, see 42. Ku Yen-wu, Five Terraces Mountain .

4. Shang-tang was located in modern Ch'ang-chih, Shan-hsi; Hsiang Prefecture covered several districts around modern An-yang, Ho-nan.

5. The Temple of the Brilliant Teachings (Ming-chiao-yüan) was an ancient Buddhist retreat built during the Western Chin dynasty on a fiat slope surrounded by peaks.

6. The area of Wei during the Han and T'ang included Liu K'ai's hometown of Ta-ming in modern Ho-pei.

7. Yellow-essence ( huang-ching; Polygonatum sibiricum ) and green-thistle ( ts'ang-chu; Atractylis ovata ) were plants associated with the cult of Transcendents; their stalks and roots were believed to enhance longevity as well as effect medicinal cures.

8. Translated from Ku-chin t'u-shu chi-ch'eng 7:49:23b (Shanghai, 1934 ed.).

1. T'eng Tzu-ching (991-1047) was from Lo-yang. He obtained the Presented Scholar degree in the same year as Fan Chung-yen. Later, he was slandered politically and demoted to the prefecture of Pa-ling, modern Yüeh-yang, Hu-nan.

2. Translated from Fan Chung-yen, Fan Wen-cheng-kung chi 7:3a-4a ( SPTK ed.).

1. Ch'u Prefecture was located in modern Ch'u District, An-hui.

2. Lang-ya Mountain (Lang-ya-shan) was named after Szu-ma Jui, later Emperor Yüan of the Eastern Chin (r. 317-322). As prince of Lang-ya he had earlier found refuge on this mountain during a civil war. The mountain stands about 1,040 feet high and is the site of the Lang-ya Temple, built in the Ta-li era (766-779).

3. Lu-ling Commandery was an ancient name for Ou-yang Hsiu's home area.

Translated from Ou-yang Hsiu, Ou-yang Wen-chung-kung ch'üan-chi 39:9a-10a ( SPPY ed.).

1. Abundance Mountain (Feng-shan) is located in the west of the city in present-day Ch'u District.

2. Chao K'uang-yin (927-976), the founding emperor of the Northern Sung, who as Emperor T'ai-tsu reigned from 960 to 976.

3. Pure Stream Mountain (Ch'ing-liu-shan) is located to the southwest of the city of Ch'u Prefecture.

4. Chao K'uang-yin was originally a general of the Latter Chou dynasty in the war against Li Ching, Central Ruler of the Southern T'ang dynasty (r. 943-961). After initial setbacks, Chao succeeded in capturing Ch'u Prefecture and both enemy generals with an inferior force.

5. Another reference to Chao K'uang-yin.

6. Translated from Ou-yang, Ou-yang Wen-chung-kung ch'üan-chi 39:8b-9a.

1. Wu-men is another name for Su-chou.

2. Divine Cliff (Ling-yen-shan) is located west of Su-chou and was the site of the Beauty's Palace (Kuan-wa-kung) built by Fu-ch'ai, king of Wu (r. 495-473 B.C.), for the beauty Hsi Shih. Great Lake is about twelve miles from modern Su-chou and covers 1,397 square miles, making it one of China's largest lakes. It is fed by several rivers and contains over ninety islands, of which the two Grotto Mountains are the most prominent.

3. Heng-chin was a village to the southeast of Su-chou.

4. Forest Hut Cave (Lin-wu-tung) is located below West Grotto Mountain. Mao's Altar (Mao-kung-t'an) is inside Mao's Cave (Mao-kung-tung), halfway up the mountain. Embracing Mountain (Pao-shan) is another name for Grotto Mountain.

5. Misty Peak (P'iao-miao-feng) is the highest peak on West Grotto Mountain.

6. An allusion to Shang-shu: Yü-kung 1:148 ( Shih-san ching chu-shu ed.): "When the three rivers were channeled into it, Trembling Marsh became calm." Trembling Marsh (Chen-tse) is another name for Great Lake. Commentators have variously identified the three rivers, but use of the phrase is apparently rhetorical, referring to the rivers flowing into the lake. In the T'ang, Great Lake was bordered by four prefectures: Su, Hu, Hsüan, and Ch'ang.

7. The Eight Wilds (Pa-huang) were thought to lie in every direction at the ends of the world beyond the four seas.

8. Translated from Su Shun-ch'in, Su Hsüeh-shih wen-chi 13:4a-5a ( SPPY ed.).

1. Hsiao Chün-kuei remains unidentified; Lu-ling is modern Chi-shui, Chiang-hsi. Wang Hui (1024-1065) was a Sung Neo-Confucian philosopher; Chang-lo is modern Fu-chou, Fu-chien. Wang An-kuo (1028-1074) was the fourth younger brother of Wang An-shih, Wang An-shang the seventh younger brother.

2. Translated from Wang An-shih, Lin-ch'uan chi 83:2a-3a ( SPPY ed.).

1. No-chü-lo, originally named Lo Yao-yüan, was a T'ang dynasty monk who was canonized as one of the Sixteen Arhats.

2. Kuan-hsiu (832-913), originally named Chiang Te-yin, from Wu Prefecture in modern Che-chiang, was an eminent monk, writer, and painter active at the court of the Former Shu dynasty in Ch'eng-tu, modern Szu-ch'uan. These lines do not appear in the extant editions of his poems, Collected Works of the Moon of Meditation ( Ch'an-yüeh chi ).

3. Geese Pond, about thirty miles in circumference, is located on Lotus Peak (Fu-jung-feng). The two ponds below are formed by Greater and Lesser Dragon Falls (Ta, Hsiao lung-ch'iu).

4. In 422, Hsieh Ling-yün was demoted to governor of Yung-chia Commandery (administered from what is today Wen-chou, Che-chiang). He often neglected his official duties to investigate the scenery of the area and resigned a year later.

5. These are all names of waterfalls on the mountain.

6. Modern Ying-yang, Ho-nan.

7. Translated from Shen K'uo, Meng-hsi pi-t'an 24:5a-6a ( SPTK ed.).

1. Located in modern Huang-kang, Hu-pei. Su Shih noted elsewhere that Red Cliff was located several hundred paces from his residence in Huang Prefecture and was unsure whether it was the same lied Cliff where the famous naval battle in 208 occurred between the forces of Ts'ao Ts'ao and those of Wu under the general Chou Yü (175-210). In fact, the battle site was located elsewhere along the Long River, in modern P'u-ch'i, Hu-pei. According to some sources, Su Shih's Red Cliff (Ch'ih-pi) was originally named "Red Nose" (Ch'ih-pi) because of its color and shape; the characters were thought to have been confused because of the similar pronunciation.

2. The poem about the bright moon is traditionally identified as Shih ching 29:143, "The Moon Appears" ( Yüeh-ch'u ), in which the moon is a beautiful woman whose unattainability provokes longing and anxiety. The poem about the graceful maiden is Shih ching 1:1, "' Kuan-kuan ' Cry the Ospreys" ( Kuankuan chü-chiu ), in which a nobleman courts a virtuous lady for his palace.

3. The location of these constellations in the sky indicates that Su was looking toward the northeast, the direction of the capital of K'ai-feng.

4. In the traditional Confucian interpretation of poetry, such imagery of the distant beauty personified as the moon can be read as the exile's longing for the imperial court.

5. Later commentators have identified this guest as Yang Shih-ch'ang, a Taoist known for his expert playing of the hsiao flute.

6. Ts'ao Ts'ao, courtesy name Meng-te, wrote two yüeh-fu poems entitled "Short Songs" ( Tuan-ko-hsing ), probably around the time of the Battle of Red Cliff. The one from which these lines are taken begins with melancholy observations about the futility of human ambition and the shortness of life before ending with a renewed determination to unify the country. See Ts'ao Ts'ao, Ts'ao Ts'ao chi (Peking, 1974), pp. 5-6.

7. The city of Hsia-k'ou, built by the Wu emperor Sun Ch'üan (r. 222-252) in 223, was located in what is today Wu-ch'ang, Hu-pei; ancient Wu-ch'ang was located in present-day O-ch'eng District, Hu-pei, and was not the modern city of the same name.

8. A reference to the Battle of Red Cliff in 208.

9. Ching-chou refers to a city, now modern Hsiang-yang, Hu-pei, that administered a region in the Eastern Han covering much of modern Hu-pei and Hu-nan provinces. Ts'ao Ts'ao was able to obtain this strategic place when the area's commander surrendered without a fight. Chiang-ling was located in modern Chiang-ling, Hu-pei.

Translated from Su Shih, Tung-p'o chi 19:8b-9a ( SPPY ed.).

1. The Snow Lodge (Hsüeh-t'ang), located in the east of modern Huangkang, Hu-pei, was a small villa built by Su Shih. Because snow fell during its construction, the interior was then decorated with murals of snow scenes. Linkao was the location of Su Shih's main residence beside the Long River in the southern part of Huang-kang, Hu-pei.

2. The Pine River (Sung-chiang) flows from Great Lake into the Huang-p'u River in modern Shanghai. it was noted for its tasty perch.

3. According to legend, P'ing I was originally a human from Hua-yin, modern Shaan-hsi, who drowned; he later became the river god Ho-po

4. There has been some textual controversy over the centuries as to whether Su Shih wrote that he had dreamt of one or two Taoists. Both alternatives appear in printed versions, calligraphic copies, and paintings; however, the earliest printed edition used here mentions two Taoists, and the change to one may well have been a mistaken editorial emendation. See Yu-shih Chen, Images and Ideas , pp. 149-151, 214-215, for a discussion of this textual problem, as well as for an interpretation of the single crane metamorphosing into two Taoists as signifying Su Shih's metaphysical view of the "two-oneness" of change and continuation.

5. Translated from Su, Tung-p'o chi 19:9b.

1. Stone Bells Mountain (Shih-chung-shan) is a promontory of cliffs located in modern Hu-k'ou, Chiang-hsi on the eastern bank of Lake P'o-yang not far from where the lake flows into the Long River. "P'eng-li" is an ancient name for Lake P'o-yang. This and the subsequent quotation are not found in the extant editions of Li Tao-yüan's Guide to Waterways with Commentary and may be from a lost section.

2. Li Po (773-831) served as prefect of (Chiang Prefecture (Modern Chiuchiang, Chiang-hsi) during the Yüan-ho era (806-820) and wrote "A Discussion of Stone Bells Mountain" ( Pien shih-chung-shan chi ).

3. Ch'i-an was located in modern Huang-kang, Hupei; Lin-ju was in modern Lin-ju, Ho-nan.

4. Jao Prefecture (Jao-chou) was in modern P'o-yang, Chiang-.hsi; Te-hsing is modern Te-hsing, Chiang-hsi, but was a district in Jao) Prefecture during the Northern Sung.

5. Hu-k'ou (literally, "Lake's Mouth"), in modern Chiang-hsi, is located where Lake P'o-yang flows into the Long River.

6. Chi Kuei, King Ching of the Chou dynasty, reigned from 544 to 520 B.C. The bell Wu-i was cast in 521 B.C. See Ch'un-ch'iu 404: Chao 21: Tso fu i .

7. The reference should have been to Wei Hsien-tzu's father, Wei Chiang, known as Wei Chuang-tzu, a grand officer of Chin during the Spring and Autumn period. The Singing Bells ( Ko-chung ) was a set of bells presented to the marquis of Chin in 561 B.C. from the state of Cheng. The marquis divided the set and presented half to Wei Chiang. See Ch'un-ch'iu : 274: Hsiang 11:10 Tso .

8. Translated from Su, Tung-p'o chi 33:3a-b.

On February 4, 1101, Su Shih passed through Chiang-hsi on his way back to the capital from Hal-nan. A collector showed him this text, which he had written some sixteen years earlier. Su added a postscript in which he noted the existence of similar phenomena elsewhere and stated that such places must be everywhere. The postscript is reprinted in Su Shih, Ching-chin Tung-p'o wenchi shih-lüeh 49:292-293 ( SPTK ed.).

1. Sandy Lake (Sha-hu) is now located in the southeast of modern Huangkang, Hu-pei.

2. P'ang An-ch'ang was a local whom Su Shih admired for his learning and skills.

3. The district of Ch'i River (Ch'i-shui) was located in modern Hsi-shui, Hu-pei.

4. This is one of many sites in China associated in local legend with Wang Hsi-chih's activities as a calligrapher, almost none of which can be proven to have a historical basis. Rather, the associations reflect the use of the mythology of literati culture as a source of names for scenic places. The name Orchid Stream (Lan-hsi) further reinforces the connection with Wang's Orchid Pavilion.

5. This tz'u to the tune of "Washed Silk" ( Wan-hsi-sha ) is recorded in Su Shih, Tung-p'o yüeh-fu (Shanghai, 1979 ed.), p. 56.

6. Translated from Su Shih, Tung-p'o chih-lin 1:2 ( TSCC ed.).

1. The site of the Temple That Receives the Heavenly (Ch'eng-t'ien-szu) was in the south of modern Huang-kang, Hu-pei. Its name alludes to The Book of Changes : "How perfect is the sublime, Receptive Principle! The birth of all things depends on it for it willingly receives the heavenly"; see I ching: K'un 3:2/ t'uan . Chang Huai-min was from Ch'ing-ho, Ho-pei. In 1083, he was demoted and banished to Huang Prefecture.

2. Translated from Su, Tung-p'o chih-lin 1:1-2.

1. White Water (Pai-shui) is the name of a mountain in the northeast of modern Po-lo, Kuang-tung.

2. There were two springs near the temple, one with hot water called ''Hot Springs" (T'ang-ch'üan) and the other with cold, called "Snowlike Springs" (Hsüeh-ju-ch'üan).

3. Su Shih took the artistic name "Tung-p'o" (Eastern Slope) after a farm he owned while in Huang Prefecture when he sought contentment in the rural life-style epitomized by T'ao Ch'ien.

Translated from Su, Tung-p'o chih-lin 1:2-3.

1. The Yüan (Yüan-chiang) and Hsiang rivers flow north out of Hu-nan into Grotto Lake and then into the Long River. The Hah River, a section of which was known in ancient times as the Mien River (Mien-shui), flows down from Shaan-hsi into Hu-pei and then into the Long River at modern Wu-han.

2. The Red Cliff described by Su Shih.

3. Chang Meng-te was from present-day Ch'ing-ho, Ho-pei, and was a friend of Su Shih during the latter's exile in Huang Prefecture.

4. Ch'i-an was an ancient name for Huang Prefecture.

5. Tzu-chan was the courtesy name of Su Shih.

6. Wu-ch'ang is the modern O-ch'eng, Hu-pei, located opposite Huang Prefecture across the Long River. The mountains referred to here are also known as the Fan Mountains (Fan-shan) or Yüan Mountains (Yüan-shan).

7. The former city wall was built when Sun Ch'üan fortified O District and renamed it "Wu-ch'ang" to serve as his capital from 221 to 229. Su Ch'e, like his brother, identified the site of the Battle of lied Cliff upstream with the Red Cliff in Huang Prefecture. Lu Hsün (183-245) was a leading general of Wu under Sun Ch'üan who twice occupied Huang Prefecture.

8. An allusion to an event satirized in "Rhapsody on the Wind" ( Feng fu; Wen-hsüan 13:1a-2b [ SPPY ed.]), traditionally attributed to Sung Yü. The officials Sung Yü and Ching Ch'ai accompanied King Hsiang of Ch'u (r. 298-263 B.C.) to the Orchid Terrace Palace located east of modern Chung-hsiang, Hu-pei. According to a tradition ascribed to a now-missing passage in Szu-ma Ch'ien's Historical Records , Sung Yü wrote this rhapsody to satirize King Hsiang's arrogance and extravagance. The words "wind" and "satirize" are homonyms, both now pronounced feng .

9. West Mountain (Hsi-shan) is located on the opposite bank of the Long River west of modern O-ch'eng, Hu-pei.

10. An ancestor of Su Ch'e during the T'ang, Su Wei-tao, was a native of Luan-ch'eng in Chao Commandery (modern Han-tan, Ho-pei), though the Su family in Su Ch'e's time was from Mei Prefecture, Mei-shan in present-day Szu-ch'uan.

11. Translated from Su Ch'e, Luan-ch'eng chi 24:4b-5b ( SPPY ed.).

1. Dragon Well (Lung-ching) was originally known as Dragon Depths (Lung-hung), among other names.

2. In local legend, Ko Hung was believed to have practiced alchemy on a hill north of West Lake, later known as Ko's Ridge (Ko-ling). Ch'in Kuan is mistaken in identifying him as living during the Ch'ih-wu era, however.

3. Wu and Yüeh were ancient kingdoms during the Chou dynasty. "Wu" traditionally refers to the area roughly corresponding to modern Chiang-su, and "Yüeh" to modern Che-chiang.

4. See below, 30. Chou Mi, Observing the Tidal Bore .

5. The szu was an imaginary animal described as a one-horned ox. It was mentioned in Lun-yü 33:16:1 and Ch'un-ch'iu 180: Hsüan 2:1 Tso . The szu is probably based on the rhinoceros, which once existed in China, and the word was later used to refer to the female of the species.

6. The India Temple (T'ien-chu-szu) was a major Buddhist center west of Hang-chou on Hidden Spirits Mountain (Ling-yin-shan). It was divided into Upper, Middle, and Lower temples established during the Five Dynasties, Sui (597), and Eastern Chin (330), respectively. The Monastery of the Sage of Longevity (Shou-sheng-yüan) was a Northern Sung dynasty name for the temple originally built in 949 at Dragon Well and popularly known as Dragon Well Temple (Lung-ching-szu).

7. The name Ch'ien-t'ang originated in the Ch'in dynasty to denote an area west of the modern city of Hang-chou; beginning in the Sui, it referred to the city itself and is used by the author here as a literary designation.

8. Huai-nan, a name originating in the Ch'in, generally refers to the area south of the Huai River and north of the Long River. In Ch'in Kuan's time, it denoted a province governed from the city of Yang-chou that included parts of modern Chiang-su, An-hui, and Ho-nan.

9. Translated from Ch'in Kuan, Huai-hai chi 17:3b-4b ( SPPY ed.).

1. Wu-hsing is modern Wu-hsing, Chiang-su; Kuei-chi is modern Shaohsing, Che-chiang.

2. Ts'an-liao (Meditating on the Boundless) was the artistic name of the Buddhist monk Tao-ch'ien. He was a noted poet and another friend of Su Shih's.

3. Thunder Peak (Lei-feng) forms part of Sunset Mountain (Hsi-chao-shan) on the south side of West Lake and was the site of a prominent pagoda built by the king of Wu-Yüeh, Ch'ien Hung-ch'u (r. 948-978), in memory of the concubine Huang. Damaged severely by Japanese pirates during the Ming, the pagoda later collapsed in 1924. South Screen Mountain (Nan-p'ing-shan) is located west of the Gate of Clear Waves (Ch'ing-po-men), one of the gates to the city of Hang-chou. Beginning in the T'ang, a temple bell on the mountain would sound in the evenings creating one of the celebrated scenes of West Lake, "The Evening Bell at South Screen Mountain" ( Nan-p'ing wan-chung ). The Stream of Benevolent Karma (Hui-yin-chien) flowed past a temple of the same name and on into West Lake.

4. Magic Rock Vale (Ling-shih-wu) denotes a small valley and a mountain also known as Accumulated Blessings (Chi-ch'ing-shan), located to the southwest of Wheat Ridge (Hsiao-mai-ling).

5. Translated from Ch'in, Huai-hai chi 17:4b.

1. The Hsia-lao Pass (Hsia-lao-kuan) is located in the western part of modern I-ch'ang, Hu-pei.

2. See the poem actually titled "Hsia-lao Stream" ( Hsiao-lao-hsi ) in Ou-yang, Ou-yang Wen-chung-kung ch'üan-chi 1:3b-4a ( SPPY ed.).

3. Huang Ta-lin was from Fen-ting (modern Hsiu-shui District, Chiang-hsi) and served as magistrate of P'ing-hsiang District during the Shao-sheng era (1094-1097). Huang T'ing-chien (1045-1105) was a leading poet of the Chiang-hsi school, an influential calligrapher, and an aesthetic theorist associated with Su Shih's circle. Hsin Hung and Hsin Ta-fang remain unidentified.

4. I-ling was located in the eastern part of modern I-ch'ang, Hu-pei. Ouyang Yung-shu was the courtesy name of Ou-yang Hsiu.

5. Ting Pao-ch'en (1010-1067) served as military controller-general in Hsia Prefecture, now the northwestern part of I-cheng, Hu-pei. He was a close friend of Ou-yang Hsiu. The two often exchanged poems, and Ou-yang later wrote his epitaph.

6. The wording of the inscription implies that Ou-yang Hsiu was a native of I-ling, though in fact he was merely serving in office there (he was a native of Yung-feng, modern Chi-shui, Chiang-hsi). The suggestion, therefore, is that these inscriptions might be inauthentic, perhaps added later by others to enhance the historical value of the cave.

7. Ch'ien-nan refers to Ch'ien Prefecture, modern P'eng-shui, Szu-ch'uan. Huang T'ing-chien was banished here in 1095 and crossed through Hsia-lao Pass on the day hsin-hai in the third lunar month (April 22, 1095). Lu Yu assumed that Huang's reference to " hsin-hai " in the earlier inscription meant the year instead of the day of the month. See Chang and Smythe, South China , p. 174, n. 18.

8. Stone Tablet Gorge (Shih-p'ai-hsia) is located in the northwest of modern I-ch'ang, Hu-pei.

9. Fan Gorge (Shan-tzu-hsia) is located west of modern I-ch'ang, Hu-pei.

10. Toad Rock (Ha-ma-pei) is located at the foot of Stone Nose Mountain (Shih-pi-shan), ten miles to the northwest of modern I-ch'ang, Hu-pei.

11. A Ranking of Waters ( Shui-pin ), which evaluated the quality of natural water sources, has been lost.

12. Ox Temple (Huang-niu-miao) is located on Ox Mountain (Huang-niushan), about seven miles northwest of modern I-ch'ang, Hu-pei.

13. See Ou-yang Hsiu's poem "On the Ox Gorge Temple" ( Huang-niu-hsia tz'u ) in Ou-yang, Ou-yang Wen-chung-kung ch'üan-chi 1:4a. Ou-yang's poem was motivated by a mysterious incident which he later related to Su Shih. While serving in K'ai-feng, Ou-yang was visited by his friend Ting Pao-ch'en. Ting told him of a dream he had had in which both men were visiting a temple by the upper reaches of the Long River and noticed a horse in front of the gate with one ear missing. Not long afterward, both men were exiled to this area and one day visited Ox Temple. There they saw the stone horse with its left ear missing and finally understood the meaning of Ting's dream. See Su Shih, Ching-chin Tung-p'o wen-chi 60:7a-7b ( SPTK ed.). In 1082, after relating this story to the local magistrate, Su Shih was asked to write out Ou-yang's poem to be inscribed in stone in Ox Temple, and he also added a prose afterword explaining the background of the dream. This is the stone inscription that Lu Yu mentions a few lines later.

14. The tung-ch'ing is known in the West as the chinaberry ( Melia azedarach ); it is an evergreen with oval leaves, small white flowers, and red berries. Its seeds and bark have medicinal uses.

15. Chang Wen-chung was the posthumous name of Chang Shang-ying (1043-1122), an important official and patron of Buddhism. A protégé of Wang An-shih, he continued to support Wang's reform program despite conservative opposition. After the progressive faction returned to power, he eventually rose to right vice-director of the Department of State and grand councillor under Emperor Hui-tsung (r. 1100-1125). For a study and translation of an account of his pilgrimage to Five Terraces Mountain (Wu-t'ai-shan), see Robert M. Gimello, "Chang Shang-ying on Wu-t'ai Shan," in Naquin and Yü, eds., Pilgrims and Sacred Sites , pp. 89-149.

16. Translated from Lu Yu, Ju-Shu chi 6:52-53 ( TSCC ed.).

1. The Sakayamuni Buddha is traditionally believed to have entered nirvana in a grove in eastern India where twin sala * -trees ( Shorea robusta ) grew. These places are all located on Eyebrows Mountain.

2. The hai-t'ung is an evergreen that grows largely in Fu-chien and Kuangtung; it is known as Pittosporum tobira in the West. The yang-mei is an evergreen known as arbutus in the West.

3. The third and last month of summer was the sixth lunar month, July-August, in the year 1177.

4. The Bodhisattva Samantabhadra (Chinese: P'u-hsien), patron of the mountain, is often paired with Mañjusri * (Chinese: Wen-shu), whose major shrine is on Five Terraces Mountain (Wu-t'ai-shan) in Shan-hsi.

5. Here the author mistakenly ascribes the high boiling point to the water instead of the thin atmosphere.

6. Wang Chan-shu was a Metropolitan Graduate during the Shao-hsing era (1131-1162). He rose to vice-grand councillor during the reign of Emperor Hsiao-tsung (r. 1162-1189).

7. Samantabhadra is often represented in Buddhist iconography riding a white elephant, which he had conquered.

8. Ya Prefecture (Ya-chou) corresponds to modern Ya-an, Szu-ch'uan. Both Greater and Lesser Tiled House mountains (Ta, Hsiao wa-wu-shan) were part of the Mount Min range.

9. Nan-chao was the name of a border kingdom lasting from 649 to 902 that at its height included modern Yün-nan, southern Szu-ch'uan, and western Kuei-chou provinces.

10. The Manifestation of Self-Enlightenment ( P'i-chih-fo-hsien ) signifies the Buddhist concept of self-enlightenment (Sanskrit: pratyeka ; Chinese: p'i-chihchia-fo-t'o ), which is not dependent on transmission by a master but is gained independently.

11. The Snowy Mountains (Hsüeh-shan) denotes the Himalayas.

12. The Rainbow Bridge (Ch'ui-hung-ch'iao) over the Wu-sung River was built during the reign of the Northern Sung emperor Jen-tsung (r. 1022-1063).

13. Translated from Fan Ch'eng-ta, Wu-ch'uan lu: shang 10-12 ( TSCC ed.).

1. The Mountain a Hundred Chang High (Pai-chang-shan) is located in the northeast of modern Chien-yang, Fu-chien.

2. Reed Peak Mountain (Lu-shan; also Lu-feng-shan) is located in the northwest of Chien-yang, Fu-chien.

3. Liu P'ing (1138-1185), courtesy name P'ing-fu, was from Ch'ung-an, Fuchien.

4. Translated from Chu Hsi, Chu-tzu ta-ch'üan 78:1a-1b ( SPPY ed.). The text indicates that the date of the piece was not filled in.

1. In the original text, Yeh-lü Ch'u-ts'ai refers to himself by his Taoist and literary name, Chan-jan chü-shih (Lay Scholar of Profound Clarity). He also included his Buddhist name, Ts'ung-yüan (Following the Source), on the title page.

2. "Yen" refers here to Yen-ching in the southwest of modern Peking, which had been the capital of the Liao dynasty and the Central Capital of the Chin.

3. The Tomb of Eternal Peace (Yung-an-ling) was the burial place of Yehlü's relative the Northern Liao emperor Hsüan-tsung (r. 1122), located in modern Hsiang-shan, northwest of Peking. Yeh-lü Ch'u-ts'ai's home was in the area. Chü-yung Pass (Chü-yung-kuan) through the Great Wall is located farther to the northwest of Peking. Wu-ch'uan is modern Hsüan-hua, Ho-pei; Yün-chung refers to modern Ta-t'ung, Shan-hsi. The Celestial Mountains (T'ien-shan), now known as the Dark Mountains (Yin-shan), are north of modern Hu-ho-hao-t'e, Inner Mongolia. The Desert (Sha-mo) referred to here is the Gobi.

4. The precise location of Chinggis Khan's court at that time in Mongolia is unclear, for the city of Karakoram had not yet been established. One main camp was located near the Kerulen River. The other was in the Black Forest (Hei-lin) south of the Tola River near modern Ulan Bator. See Yeh-lü Ch'u-ts'ai, Hsi-yu lu , ed. Hsiang Ta (Peking, 1981), p. 5.

5. The Western Campaign of Chinggis Khan conquered the state of Khwarazm (Hua-la-tzu-mo) in 1219-1220. Khwarazm, with its capital at Samarkand, was a rich kingdom ruled by Shan Mohammed II (d. 1220) and stretching from modern Iran to Afghanistan and northward to Transoxiana and the Aral Sea. The shan had previously rejected Chinggis Khan's offers of an alliance and murdered his emissaries, thus provoking Mongol revenge.

6. The Golden Mountains (Chin-shan) are the modern Altai range forming the border of modern Hsin-chiang, Mongolia, and Uzbekistan. Altai means "golden" in the Turkic T'u-chüeh language.

7. The city of Beshbalik (Pieh-shih-pa), meaning "Five Cities" in T'u-chüeh, stood at modern Chi-mu-sa-er, east of Wu-lu-mu-ch'i (Urumchi), Hsinchiang.

8. The "Desert-Ocean" (Han-hai) is the Gobi Desert that stretched northwest of Beshbalik to the Golden Mountains. The Desert-Ocean Army commemorated by the stele was stationed in Beshbalik (then called Chin-man in Chinese) in 702 during the reign of Empress Wu.

9. The district of Bugur (Lun-t'ai-hsien) was perhaps located in modern Mich'üan, north of Wu-lu-mu-ch'i. Another view places it in modern Fu-k'ang, Hsin-chiang. See Yeh-lü, Hsi-yu lu , p. 6.

10. Qoco (also Khoco; Chinese: Ho-chou) was Kao-ch'ang, located at modern Ha-la-ho-cho (Karakhoja) in the southeast of the district of T'u-lu-fan (Turfan), Hsin-chiang. It was the capital of the Uighur Kingdom during the Sung and Yüan dynasties. Yeh-lü Ch'u-ts'ai is mistaken in identifying it with "I Prefecture" (I-chou), modern Ha-mi, Hsin-chiang.

11. Khotan (Chinese: Wu-tuan-ch'eng; also Yü-t'ien; also Ho-t'ien) was located west of modern Ho-t'ien, Hsin-chiang.

12. The Black Jade River (Karakash; Chinese: Wu-yü-ho, modern K'o-la-k'oshih) and the White Jade River (Yurungkash; Chinese: Pai-yü-ho, modern Yülung-k'o-shih) were for centuries major sources of nephrite jade exported to China. Both rivers are tributaries of the modern Ho-t'ien River (Ho-t'ien-ho).

13. The city of Bolat (Pu-la) was in modern Po-le, Hsin-chiang.

14. During the Yüan dynasty, the present-day Celestial Mountains (T'ienshan) in Hsin-chiang were known as the Dark Mountains (Yin-shan).

15. Round Lake (Yüan-ch'ih), also known as Celestial Lake (T'ien-ch'ih) and Lake Sairam (Sai-li-mu-hu), lies high in the mountains north of modern Ining, Hsin-chiang.

16. Almalik (A-li-ma) was located east of modern Huo-ch'eng (Khorgos), Hsin-chiang. The name means "Apple City" in the local dialect.

17. There are various lists of the five kinds of grain ( wu-ku ), which include hemp, millet, panicled millet, wheat, and beans.

18. The I-lieh is the modern Ill River (I-li-ho), which flows west for over eight hundred miles from the Celestial Mountains in modern Uighur Autonomous Region, Hsin-chiang, into Lake Balkhash in modern Kazakhstan.

19. Gus Ordo (also Balasagun; Chinese: Hu-szu-wo-lu-to), capital of the Western Liao dynasty, was located northwest of modern Lake Issyk Kul in Kirghizstan. About three miles northwest of Gus Ordo stood the T'ang city of Tokmak mentioned by Hsüan-tsang (see chapter 7 above, including note 8). The Western Liao, also known as the Black Khitans (Karakhitai), effectively came to an end in 1211 when the last ruler was deposed in all but name by his son-in-law Küchlüg. The Mongols were not able to assert their authority and annex the territory until they defeated Küchlüg in 1218. Only then did Chingghis Khan feel the time had come to conquer neighboring Khwarazm.

20. Talas (T'a-la-szu), modern Dzhambul, Kazakhstan, was recorded by Hsüan-tsang in Record of the Western Region as "T'an-lo-su." It remained an important city in the area. See Hsüan-tsang, Ta-T'ang Hsi-yü chi , pp. 77-78.

21. Pap (also Bab; Chinese: Pa-p'u) was located 630 miles west of Khojend (K'u-chan; modern Leninabad, Tadzhikistan), and Pa-lan lay between them. Kasan (K'o-san) was located northwest of modern Namanghan, Uzbekistan. These cities were in the Ferghana Basin near the Syr Darya River (Hsi-er-ho). "Pa-lan" was the sinicization of a Persian word for a kind of apricot.

22. The city of Otrar (O-ta-la) was located east of the Syr Darya River near modern Tashkent, Uzbekistan. The governor of this city, Inalchuq, with the permission of his overlord, Shan Mohammed II of Khwarazm, executed Chinggis Khan's ambassador as well as other members of the embassy on the pretext of an insult and confiscated the rich cargo of the caravan with which they were traveling. When another emissary, sent to protest this act, was also murdered by the shan, the already strained relations between the Mongols and Khwarazm collapsed. This was the pretext for the Western Campaign, although the Mongols would probably have conquered Khwarazm in any event. Chinggis Khan attacked and destroyed the city of Otrar in June 1219.

23. Chinggis Khan attacked the city of Samarkand (Hsün-szu-kan; modern Samarkand, Uzbekistan) in June 1220. It is actually located southwest of Otrar.

24. Ho-chung, which literally means "in the river," was located near a branch of the Ainu Darya River (Oxus; Chinese: A-mu-ho). It had served as the Western Capital of the Western Liao.

25. There are varying lists of the eight kinds of grain ( pa-ku ), which include rice, millet, barley, wheat, soybeans, beans, maize, and hemp. As in the case of the "five kinds of grain" above, the enumeration is rhetorical.

26. Chung-shan was an ancient commandery in the area of modern Ting and T'ang Districts, Ho-pei. The "Nine Fermentations Wine" ( Chiu-yün ) of Chung-shan was a full-bodied wine mentioned in literature as early as the Western Han dynasty.

27. Bokhara (P'u-hua), now located in Uzbekistan, was another residence of Shan Mohammed II, in addition to Samarkand.

28. The Moslems referred to here are the inhabitants of Khwarazm. Bokhara had been conquered by Chinggis Khan in March 1220.

29. The Amu Darya River flows into the Aral Sea (Hsien-hai), a 26,000-square-mile lake located between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan.

30. Urgenj (Wu-li-chien) was located south of the Aral Sea along both sides of the Amu Darya. It was conquered by Chinggis Khan in the autumn of 1221.

31. Bactria (also Bahlika; Chinese: Pan-ch'eng) is modern Balkh in northern Afghanistan. The location of this city is south of the Amu Darya, so "west" in Yeh-lü's text is probably a misprint. The inhabitants of Bactria were deported and slaughtered by the Mongols in 1222. When Ch'iu Ch'u-chi passed through it afterward, only the sounds of dogs barking could be heard. Yeh-lü must have visited it before this time, since he describes it as a rich city.

32. T'uan may be the fortified city of T'uan-pa-la, west of Bactria.

33. Black India (Hei-se yin-tu) remains unidentified. Here, the direction is probably south rather than west. The "great river" later referred to may be the Indus. Black India may be the place recorded by historians as "East India" (Tung-yin-tu-kuo), which Chinggis Khan visited on his return journey in 1224, after summering north of what is now Kabul, Afghanistan.

34. The people of Kipchak (K'o-fu-ch'a) were a branch of the T'u-chüeh. In the eleventh century, they expanded their territory from the Amu Darya to north of the Black Sea. Yeh-lü Ch'u-ts'ai did not actually travel to this vast and distant area, but rather based his account on other sources.

35. See Hsin T'ang shu 217:6144 (Peking, 1975 ed.), which similarly records long days and short nights in Quriqan (Ku-li-kan) near modern Lake Baikal, Russia. This phenomenon, however, is due to Quriqan's closer proximity to the north pole. The two kingdoms are in fact unrelated.

36. Yeh-lü Ch'u-ts'ai's estimations of these distances are inaccurate.

37. The Hsi-Hsia Kingdom was established by the Tangut tribe in 1032 and extended over modern Ning-hsia, Shaan-hsi, Kan-su, Ch'ing-hai, and Inner Mongolia, with its capital at Hsing-ch'ing (modern Yin-ch'uan, Ning-hsia). The Hsi-Hsia king, a Mongol vassal after 1210, had angered the Mongols by not contributing soldiers to the Western Campaign, and in 1225 he had formed an alliance with the Chin. Yeh-lü Ch'u-ts'ai was in attendence at this campaign in 1226-1227 and was credited with dissuading Chinggis from exterminating the Tangut people.

38. Sha Prefecture (Sha-chou) was the administrative designation of the area around modern Tun-huang, Kan-su. Originally established as Tun-huang Commandery in III B.C., it was renamed "Sha Prefecture" in 633 during the T'ang. Kua Prefecture (Kua-chou) designated the area around modern An-hsi, Kan-su. It was actually established Dater, during the Northern Wei.

39. Su Prefecture (Su-chou), established in the Sui dynasty, designated the area around modern Chiu-ch'üan, Kan-su. However, "Shan-shan" referred to Lou-lan in the area of modern P'u-ch'ang, Hsin-chiang.

40. Kan Prefecture (Kan-chou) was established in the Western Wei dynasty. Chang-yeh is modern Chang-yeh, Kan-su; it was conquered by Chinggis Khan in the summer of 1226.

41. Ling Prefecture (Ling-chou) was established by the Northern Wei. Lingwu is modern Ling-wu, Ning-hsia; it was conquered by Chinggis Khan in November 1226 in the campaign against the Hsi-Hsia, and he died here in August 1227.

42. Translated from Yeh-lü, Hsi-yu lu , pp. 1-11.

1. Yüan Hao-wen's adoptive father, Yüan Ko, was the younger brother of his real father, Yüan Te-ming. Yüan Ko adopted Hao-wen at the age of seven months. The two of them went to Yeh District, which is in Shan-tung Province, in 1194 when Hao-wen was four years old.

2. Following the surrender of the Chin capital of Pien-ching to the Mongols in 1233, Yüan Hao-wen, then serving as Left Office Manager, was transported along with other Chin officials to the city of Liao-ch'eng, Shan-tung.

3. The original Pavilion Below Mount Li (Li-hsia-t'ing) was located on Mount Li Terrace (Li-shan-t'ai) within the Official Residence of Chi-nan Prefecture. It faced the mountain with its back to Brilliance Lake (Ta-ming-hu). The pavilion was rebuilt a number of times at different sites through the centuries. The present-day pavilion dates from the Ch'ing dynasty and is located on an island in the lake. "Below Mount Li" (Li-hsia) is an ancient name for the city of Chi-nan, referring to the mountain less than a mile south of the city.

4. The state of Ch'i was formed in the eleventh century B.C. as a feudal state under the Chou dynasty and grew to include much of modern Shan-tung Province and the southern part of Ho-pei Province. It reached the peak of its influence under Duke Huan (r. 685-643 B.C.) and lasted until destroyed by the First Emperor of Ch'in in 221 B.C.

5. Encircling Waves (Huan-po) is located within Brilliance Lake. Magpie Mountain (Ch'üeh-shan), named after a nearby mountain, faces a lake of the same name. Northern Isle (Pei-chu), to the west of Brilliance Lake, was built by Magistrate Tseng Kung in 1072 (see below, note 27). Water's Fragrance (Shui-hsiang) is beside Brilliance Lake, whereas Westerly Water (Shui-hsi) is built on the Lake. Misty Ripples (Lan-i), Frozen Waves (Ning-po), and Frolicking Seagulls (Hsia-ou) are names of other famous pavilions.

6. ''Hundred Flowers" (Pai-hua) is a name given to an embankment in the south of the city that leads to Northern Isle Pavilion; it is also the name of a terrace, a bridge, and an island.

7. Quietude Hall (Ching-hua-t'ang) was located within the Prefectural Office, later the Provincial Administration Commission Compound, and was also built by Tseng Kung. Famous Scholars Pavilion (Ming-shih-hsüan) is located in the same compound.

8. Brilliance Lake is in the northern part of the old city of Chi-nan. First mentioned by Li Tao-yüan in The Guide to Waterways with Commentary , it is fed by the city's many springs as well as by rivers. With a circumference of more than three miles and a surface of eighteen square miles, it was the focal point of the old city. Shun's Spring (Shun-ch'üan) at Mount Li is named after the legendary sage-king Shun, who is said to have farmed here.

9. The Wu region broadly refers to the area of modern Chiang-su and Chechiang provinces with their many lakes, the Long River, and islands.

10. The Mongols began their attack on China 1213. In 1216, the city of T'ai-yüan fell, forcing Yüan Hao-wen to flee southward to Ho-nan.

11. Pien-ching was renamed the "Southern Capital" (Nan-tu) under the Chin in 1153. It became the major center of government after 1213 When Emperor Hsüan-tsung (r. 1213-1223) shifted his court there from Peking, which had been the Central Capital.

12. K'uangs' Mountain (K'uang-shan) is located in the northwest of modern Chi-nan.

13. Millet Mountain (Su-shan) is located to the south of Medicine Mountain (Yao-shan); both are in the northwest part of Chi-nan. "Sun stone" ( yang-ch'i-shih ) is a mineral used in Chinese pharmacology as a tonic. It was believed to exist on the mountaintop because of the powerful effect of the sun's energy there.

14. Magpie Mountain, in northern Chi-nan, appears as a verdant screen without peaks. The gathering of magpies on the mountain occurs around the time of the Double Seventh Festival, on the seventh day of the seventh lunar month. According to a popular legend, the granddaughter of the Emperor of Heaven stopped her weaving when she married the Cowherd of her own free will. In punishment, the two stars Cowherd (Ch'ien-niu) and Weaving Maid (Chih-nü) were separated in the sky and permitted to meet only on the Double Seventh Festival, when magpies form a bridge in Heaven for them.

15. Flower Calyx Mountain (Hua-fu-chu-shan) is located in the northeastern suburbs of Chi-nan, and was named after its shape, which resembles a single flower calyx.

16. See Li Po, "Fifty-nine Ancient Airs," no. 20 ( Ku-feng wu-shih-chiu-shou: ti er-shih ), in CTS: 5:1673. Yüan misquotes the first line slightly; it should read, "Formerly, I traveled to the capital of Ch'i"

17. The southwest part of Chi-nan is located on a higher level than the northern part. Its many springs flow northwest into a canal and then out through North Water Gate (Pei-shui-men). The Relief River (Chi-shui) flows into the Great Clear River (Ta-ch'ing-ho) and eventually into the sea.

18. Recumbent Ox Mountain (Wo-niu-shan) is located in the northeast part of Chi-nan.

19. Tsou-p'ing District here refers to the area that is modern Tsou-p'ing, Shan-tung. The Long White Mountains (Ch'ang-pai-shan) span four modern districts. North of it, the land stretches fiat all the way to Peking; as a result, the mountain peaks appear particularly dramatic to travelers from the north.

20. Fan Chung-yen was from a poor family and lost his father at the age of two. He followed his mother to Ch'ang-shan District when she remarried and studied at the Sweet Spring Temple (Li-ch'üan-szu), scenically situated in the Long White Mountains.

21. Min Tzu-ch'ien (536-487 B.C.) was a disciple of Confucius noted for his filial piety.

22. Buddha's Head Mountain (Ta-fo-t'ou-ling) is also known as Buddha's Wisdom Mountain (Fo-hui-shan).

23. Thousand Buddhas Mountain (Ch'ien-fo-shan) is another name for Mount Li, derived from its many Buddhist carvings. The name Container Mountain (Han-shan) is based on a legend about the goddess Queen Mother of the West, who possessed here a medicine container protected by a white bird.

24. Eruption Spring (Pao-liu-ch'üan), better known as Leaping Spring (P'aot'u-ch'üan), is one of Chi-nan's seventy-two famous springs and was described in a local gazette as "spurting forth from three holes, forming white waves several feet high, sounding like muted thunder through summer and winter" (quoted in Yeh and Pei, Li-tai yu-chi , p. 110).

25. The Lo River (Lo-shui) originates from Leaping Spring and flows east, eventually becoming the Little Pure River (Hsiao-ch'ing-ho).

26. See Shih ching 55:222:2, "Gathering Beans" ( Ts'ai-shu ); and 73:264:7, "Gazing Upward" ( Chan-ang ). Both poems contain the line "flowing forth from the fenced-in spring" ( pi-fei chien-ch'üan ). The changing of the spring's name to Fenced-in Spring (Chien-ch'üan) implies a transformation from a state of uncontrolled nature to one of civilized government. Such moral symbolism apparently did not appeal to the people of Chi-nan, who continued to enjoy the spectacle of "eruption.''

27. Tseng Kung (1019-1083), from Nan-feng in modern Chiang-hsi, was a protégé of Ou-yang Hsiu and became, along with the Su brothers, a Metropolitan Graduate in the 1057 examination. A noted writer later canonized as one of the Eight Masters of T'ang and Sung Prose, he served as a prefect in Chi-nan and was the author of "An Essay on the Two Halls of Ch'i-chou" ( Ch'i-chou er-t'ang chi ), from which Yüan Hao-wen borrowed in several places.

28. Golden Thread Spring (Chin-hsien-ch'üan), located in the western part of Chi-nan, pulses irregularly into a square, stone-lined pond whose bottom is visible through the clear water. Opposing flows of water meet m the middle along a north-south axis, and what appears to be a golden thread undulates on the surface owing to the reflection of the sun.

29. Tu K'ang was a legendary prime minister serving the Yellow Emperor. He was considered the inventor of wine-making and was nicknamed "Magistrate of the Wine Spring."

30. Cold Spring (Ling-shui) was located in the Long River northwest of modern Chen-chiang, Chiang-su. The spot is now a sandy bank.

31. Lu Yü (733-804) was from Ching-ling, Fu Prefecture (modern T'ien-men, Hu-pei). He was known for his satiric wit and his refusal to serve as an official, preferring to devote himself to writing and the art of tea. He is particularly remembered as the author of the definitive Classic of Tea ( Ch'a ching ), and later he was revered as the "God of Tea."

32. Shun's Well (Shun-ching) is another name for Shun's Spring, located east of Shun's Temple (Shun-tz'u). About ten paces north of this is another spring from the same water source.

33. Writings from the Sweet Dew Garden ( Kan-lu-yüan chi ) remains unidentified.

34. Ho-tung was a historical designation for the area cast of the Yellow River. King's Chamber Mountain (Wang-wu-shan) is located between modern Huan-ch'ü and Yang-ch'eng districts, Shan-hsi. It and the Yen River (Yenshui) are mentioned as sources of the Relief River in Shui-ching-chu 7:1a.

35. "Ch'in" may be a misprint, as Shui-ching-chu (ibid.) quotes the Shan-hai ching as calling it the T'ai Marsh (T'ai-tse).

34. Ho-tung was a historical designation for the area cast of the Yellow River. King's Chamber Mountain (Wang-wu-shan) is located between modern Huan-ch'ü and Yang-ch'eng districts, Shan-hsi. It and the Yen River (Yenshui) are mentioned as sources of the Relief River in Shui-ching-chu 7:1a.

35. "Ch'in" may be a misprint, as Shui-ching-chu (ibid.) quotes the Shan-hai ching as calling it the T'ai Marsh (T'ai-tse).

36. Unity Mountain (Kung-shan) is located in modern Chi-yüan, Ho-nan.

37. See Shang-shu: Yü-kung 1:152 ( Shih-san-ching chu-shu ed.).

38. Wen District is roughly equivalent to the modern Wen District, Ho-nan; T'ui-ch'eng is in the northwest of modern Huo-chia, Ho-nan (Yüan's text misprints the character fen for t'ui ; see Yeh and Pei, Li-tai yu-chi , p. 112); Hsing-yang is modern Hsing-yang, Ho-nan; Ts'ao refers to the domain of a Chou feudal kingdom (ca. 11th cent.-487 B.C.), whose capital was northwest of modern Ting-t'ao, Shan-tung; P'u was the name of an ancient district in the southwest of modern Fan District, Shan-tung; T'ao's Hill (T'ao-ch'iu) is in the northwest of modern Ting-t'ao, Shan-tung; the Wen River (Wen-shui) flows through Shan-tung.

39. See Er-ya: Shih-shui 23:12:1. Only the four rivers mentioned are given special status as tu , because they flow into the sea without becoming tributaries. However, they are not all similar in size.

40. The Grand Row Mountains (T'ai-hang-shan) stretch from the northeast to the southwest and divide the Shan-hsi Plateau from the Ho-pei flatlands. The southernmost portion reaches the banks of the Yellow River.

41. There are two Pearl Springs (Chen-chu-ch'üan) in the city of Chi-nan, a northern one and a southern one. The name derives from the appearance of the drops of water.

42. Lei Hsi-yen (1186-1231) was a close friend of Yüan Hao-wen.

43. Jade Bracelet (Yü-huan), Golden Tiger (Chin-hu), Black Tiger (Hei-hu), Willow Catkins (Liu-hsü), Imperial Glory (Huang-hua), Carefree (Wu-yu), Washing the Alms Bowl (Hsi-po), and Crystal Pond (Shui-ching-t'an) are among the seventy-two famous springs of Chi-nan.

44. The Embroidery River (Hsiu-chiang) flows through the eastern portion of Chi-nan.

45. Wu-ch'ang in Pa Commandery was roughly equivalent to modern I-pin, Szu-ch'uan.

46. Pao's Mountain (Pao-shan), is located in the eastern part of Chi-nan. Yüan transcribed the wrong character for pao ; the mountain was named after the feudal lord Pao Shu-ya of the Spring and Autumn period, whose fief included it.

47. Chang Shan (995-1074) was from Li-ch'eng (modern Chi-nan). A high official during the Northern Sung, he rose to vice-minister of the Ministry of Revenue. The schoolhouse where he studied as a youth is located ten miles to the east of Chi-nan.

48. Fan Ch'un-ts'ui (1046-1117) was from Wu-hsien (modern Su-chou, Chiang-su), the fourth son of Fan Chung-yen. He served in the reign of Emperor Che-tsung (r. 1085-1100) as Academician of the Dragon Diagram Hall, as prefect of Ch'ing Prefecture, and, under Emperor Hui-tsung (r. 1100-1126), as an Edict Attendant.

49. The official biography of Chang Shan in Sung shih 31:10699 records his courtesy name as "Wen-yü."

50. The poems were not preserved together with the text. Translated from Yüan Hao-wen, I-shan hsien-sheng, wen-chi 34:11b-15b ( SPTK ed.).

1. The Central Chain Mountains (Chung-t'iao-shan) arise in modern Yungchi, Shan-hsi, and wind eastward to connect with the Grand Row Mountains (T'ai-hang-shan). Mandarin Valley (Wang-kuan-ku) is located in modern Yü-hsiang, Shan-hsi, just west of the Central Chain Mountains. Five Elders Mountain (Wu-lao-shan) is in the southwestern part of Yü-hsiang, Ma Ko's home district.

2. Lady's Table Mountain (Nü-chi-shan) is located thirty miles west of the district seat of modern I-yang, Ho-nan; Wu-ch'üan (Wu-ch'üan-shan) and White Horse mountains (Pai-ma-shan) are located ten miles northeast of Loyang.

3. A reference to the Mongol destruction of the Chin dynasty in 1234.

4. Geese Gate (Yen-men) denotes modern Tai District, Shan-hsi, where Geese Gate Pass (Yen-men-kuan) is located. Its name derives from a legend that geese fly through it. Generation Ridge (Tai-ling) is part of Geese Gate Mountain (Yen-men-shan), located twelve miles northwest of the district seat.

5. An indirect reference to the political division of China into the Mongol-occupied north and the Southern Sung dynasty in the south. Chinese geomancy regards the earth as laced by subterranean arteries of energy ( lung-mai ) that provide nourishment to the earth's surface. The author suggests metaphorically that the desolation of the landscape is the effect of the political division on the earth's flow of energy.

6. Chü-yen is an ancient name for a district in the present O-chi-na Banner, Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region.

7. Liu Ch'i (1203-1250) is referred to in the original text by his courtesy name, Ching-shu. Hun-yüan (literally, "Source of the Turbid River") is located in modern Shan-hsi; it was considered to lie beyond the traditional northern border of China marked by the mountains of Tai District.

8. Wu-ch'uan was modern Hsüan-hua, Ho-pei.

9. The Turbid River (Hun-shui) originates in the northeast of Hun-yüan district and becomes a tributary of the Mulberry River (Sang-kan-ho). See also note 14, below.

10. South Mountain (Nan-shan) and Cypress Mountain (Po-shan) are located in Hun-yüan district.

11. Five Terraces Mountain (Wu-t'ai-shan) is located in the northeastern part of Shan-hsi province and is considered one of the four sacred Buddhist mountains of China. It is dedicated to Mañjusri * .

12. Lei Szu was from Hun-yüan and held a series of high official posts under the Chin dynasty, including that of Transport Commissioner of the Northern Capital.

13. A quote from Shih ching 12:55:5, "The Little Bay of Ch'i" ( Ch'i-ao ).

14. The Mulberry River flows through northern Shan-hsi and western Hopei, and forms the upper reaches of the Eternally Tranquil River (Yung-tingho) flowing on to Peking. A chüeh -disc was a flat, round disc of jade with a hole in the middle used for ritual purposes.

15. Here Ma Ko refers to Yeh-lü Ch'u-ts'ai by his sobriquet, "Lay Scholar of Profound Clarity." The work referred to is Yeh-lü's Record of a Journey to the West .

16. Li Tzu-wei was a protégé of Yeh-lü Ch'u-ts'ai and wrote a preface to his collected works. Karakoram (Ho-lin) became the Mongol capital in 1235; its ruins lie on the eastern bank of the upper Orkhon River in Mongolia.

17. The six coordinates ( liu-ho ) are the four cardinal directions plus up and down.

18. Mandarin Valley (Wang-kuan-ku) was another name for Ma Ko's home district of Yung-chi. The original text concludes with the words "My fellow travelers were . . ." but does not list them.

Translated from Liu Ch'i, Kuei-ch'ien chih (Peking, 1983 ed.), pp. 151-154.

1. The Che River (Che-chiang) is another name for the Ch'ien-t'ang River.

2. Ocean Gate (Hai-men) is located on the northeast coast at the juncture of the Che River and Hang-chou Bay.

3. Yang Wan-li (1127-1206) was considered one of the four major poets of the early Southern Sung along with Lu Yu, Fan Ch'eng-ta, and Yu Mou (1124-1193). The author of over 4,200 poems, he espoused a literary theory influenced by Ch'an Buddhist ideals of enlightenment and often employed illusionistic imagery. The lines quoted here, however, do not appear in his collected works.

4. Chou refers to the Southern Sung capital of Lin-an (modern Hang-chou). The Che River Pavilion (Che-chiang-t'ing) was located south of the city on the northern bank of the river.

5. Nature's Picture (T'ien-kung t'u-hua) was a terrace located within the imperial palace in Lin-an.

6. According to legend, the Flute Terrace (Hsiao-t'ai) was built by Duke Mu of Ch'in (r. 659-621 B.C.) for his daughter Nung-yü and her husband, Hsiao-shih, an excellent flutist. Hsiao-shih summoned feng - and huang -birds with his flute, and he and Nung-yü flew off to become Transcendents. See Lieh-hsien chuan 29-30 ( TSCC ed.). P'eng-lai was one of the mythological islands where Transcendents were said to dwell, located in the sea off the northeastern coast.

Translated from Chih-pu-tsu-chai ts'ung-shu 125:3:10b-11b (Shanghai: Kushu liu-t'ung-ch'u, 1921 ed.).

1. "Eastern Yung" (Yung-tung) refers to the islands of the Chou-shan Archipelago off the coast of Che-chiang.

2. The original text is missing a character between "north" ( pei ) and "embankment" ( yen ).

3. The Medicine Buddha (Chinese: Yao-shih; Sanskrit: Bhaisajyaguruvaidurya-prabhasa) is the healer of all diseases, including ignorance, and is often associated with the direction east.

4. The city of Hsi-k'ou is the modern town of Hsi-k'ou in the district of Feng-hua, Che-chiang.

5. The Rabbit Garden Manual ( T'u-yüan-ts'e ) was credited to the calligrapher Yü Shih-nan (558-638) of the T'ang. Now lost, it was a compilation of traditional anecdotes written in couplets often used as a textbook in local schools during and after the Five Dynasties.

6. The Southern Sung emperor Li-tsung (r. 1224-1264) dreamed that he had visited this place and so named it "Mountain of Our Dream" (Ying-mengshan).

7. Snow Gorge Temple (Hsüeh-tou tzu-sheng ch'an-szu) was ranked as the fifth of the ten major Ch'an Buddhist temples during the Sung and Yüan dynasties. It was founded in 841 and given this name in 1000,

8. Translated from Teng Mu, Po-ya ch'in 1:17-18 ( TSCC ed.).

1. The 1 Gatetowers (1-ch'üeh) also refers to a fortified border outpost built on the mountains during the Spring and Autumn period. The Hsia emperor Yü was recorded as having diverted the course of the 1 River through these mountains to facilitate its flowing into the Yellow River; see Shui-ching-chu 15:19a.

2. "No self-existing characteristics" (Chinese: wu jen-wo-hsiang ; Sanskrit: anatman ) is a Buddhist doctrine that denies the existence of a unified, enduring self. According to the Ta-sheng i-chang ( Taisho 1851:44:507b), "Dharmas are without a substantial nature, therefore they are called 'non-self-existing' [ wuwo ]." ''All forms are empty" ( se chi-shih k'ung ) is one of the central themes of the popular Heart Sutra ( Hsin ching ); see Taisho 251:8:848. "Joy in nirvana" ( chi-mieh wei-le ) refers to the happiness resulting from ultimate deliverance from human suffering in Buddhism. The "four joys of nirvana" ( nieh-p'an szule ) are discussed in the Ta-pan nieh-p'an ching ( Taisho 374:12: 503).

3. Translated from Ku-chin t'u-shu chi-ch'eng 52:187:37b (Shanghai, 1934 ed.).

1. Bell Mountain (Chung-shan) is known as Golden Mount (Chin-ling-shan) and as Purple Gold Mountain (Tzu-chin-shan), among other names.

2. Chiang Tzu-wen is recorded in Sou-shen chi 5:31 ( TSCC ed.) as a supernatural figure from Kuang-ling (modern Yang-chou, Chiang-su) who served as commandant of Mo-ling under the Eastern Hah. The city's name had been changed from Chin-ling to Mo-ling under the Ch'in.

3. Sun Ch'üan (182-252), posthumously known as the August Emperor of Wu (Wu Ta-ti), reigned during the Three Kingdoms period from 222 to 252. In the Sou-shen chi story, Chiang Tzu-wen, while alive, claimed that he would become a god after his death. During Sun Ch'üan's reign, Chiang Tzu-wen was said to have reappeared. He performed a number of miracles and announced that he was the god of the locality who would protect the people if a temple were built to him; otherwise he would send plagues. Sun Ch'üan did not believe him at first, and a series of plagues broke out as Chiang Tzu-wen predicted. Then he was canonized and a temple was dedicated to him.

4. The Yang Region (Yang-chou) was one of nine ancient regions believed to have been designated by the Hsia emperor Yü. Under Sun Ch'üan, the term was used to designate the area along the Long River dominated by the military position of Mo-ling, which Sun had renamed Chien-yeh in 212. The city became the capital of the kingdom of Wu in 229. The mountain was renamed Bell Mountain during the Sung.

5. Chu-ko Liang (181-234) served as prime minister of Shu-Han during the Three Kingdoms period. When Shu-Han was allied with Wu against Ts'ao Ts'ao in the north, Chu-ko Liang visited Chien-yeh and made his famous remark about the strategic importance of Bell Mountain and the Stone Citadel.

6. For Liu Po-wen (1311-1375), named Chi, see below, 34. Liu Chi, The Wind-in-the-Pines Pavilion . Hsia Yün-chung, from Chiang-ning (modern Nanking), was a noted poet and ably served the Yüan until the risc of Chu Yüan-chang. Together with Liu Chi, he aided Chu in his campaign against the rival contender Ch'en Yu-liang (1320-1363). Following the establishment of the Ming, he served as an Erudite in the Secretariat and was given control over prefectures in eastern Che-chiang. Despite his service to the dynasty, he later died in disgrace.

7. Wang An-shih lived here in 1078. He suffered from the humidity of the place and had a canal built to drain away the water. He later donated his residence to become a temple, and in 1084 it was dedicated and named the Temple in Gratitude for Tranquillity (Pao-ning-szu). Halfway Mountain (Pan-shan) was so named because of its location roughly midway along the road between the East Gate (Tung-men) and Bell Mountain. The temple was also popularly known as Halfway Mountain Temple (Pan-shan-szu).

8. The Hill of His Excellency Hsieh (Hsieh-kung-tun) was named after Hsieh An (320-385), great-great-uncle of the poet Hsieh Ling-yün who was an important aristocrat and political figure under the Eastern Chin. He served as prime minister, and in 383, he and his brothers helped defend Chien-k'ang (modern Nanking) from an invasion by the Former Chin dynasty (350-394) to the north. Hsieh An and Wang Hsi-chih often made excursions to this site together.

9. Lu Hsiu-ching (406-477) was the most prominent Taoist master of his time and was invited to Nanking by Emperor Ming of the [Liu] Sung dynasty during the T'ai-shih era (465-471). The Crown Prince of Literary Wisdom (Wen-hui t'ai-tzu), Hsiao Ch'ang-mao, was tilt eldest son of Emperor Wu of the Southern Ch'i dynasty (r. 482-493). A patron of Buddhism, he was given the posthumous name Wen-hui (Literary Wisdom).

10. The Ch'an Buddhist master Yüan-wu K'o-ch'in (1063-1135) was given the title "All-encompassing Enlightenment" (Yüan-wu) by Emperor Kaotsung (r. 1127-1162). The Temple of Universal Peace and National Prosperity (T'ai-p'ing hsing-kuo-szu), ranked third among the ten major Ch'an Buddhist temples, was originally built by Emperor Wu of the Liang dynasty m 515 to commemorate the monk Pao-chih (418-514) and named the Temple of Benevolence (K'ai-shan-szu). Its name was changed to "Temple of Universal Peace and National Prosperity" in the Northern Sung dynasty during the T'aip'ing hsing-kuo era (976-983) of Emperor T'ai-tsu. In 1381, the site was chosen for the tomb of Chu Yüan-chang and called The Mount of Filial Piety" (Hsiao-ling); the temple was then moved to the cast and renamed "Temple of the Valley of Souls" (Ling-ku-szu).

11. Chang San-i (fl. ca. 1314-1369) retired to the mountains at the end of the Yüan dynasty. Later summoned to court by Emperor T'ai-tsu of the Ming (r. 1368-1398), he served as palace aide to the censor-in-chief.

12. Lone Dragon Knoll (Tu-lung-fu) is located on the south side of Bell Mountain.

13. See above, note 10. The original Temple of Benevolence stood at the site of Princess Yung-ting's pagoda.

14. Mi Fei (1051-1107) was a major calligrapher, painter, and connoisseur of the Northern Sung dynasty. He rose to the position of vice-director of the Ministry of Rites.

15. Hui-yüeh, surnamed Lou, lived from 452 to 535.

16. Chang Seng-yao (fl. ca. 470-550) was one of the foremost pre-T'ang painters. Known for his depictions of figures and dragons, he received a number of commissions from Emperor Wu of the Liang (r. 502-549) for murals in Buddhist temples. He rose to the position of Prefect of Wu-hsing. Li Po was the great T'ang poet. Yen Chen-ch'ing (708-784) was an influential calligrapher of the T'ang dynasty, considered one of the three great masters of the regular mode. He rose to the position of Grand Preceptor of the Heir Apparent and was posthumously enfeoffed as duke of Lu.

17. Li Kung-lin (1049-1106) was an important painter of landscapes, figures, and Buddhist subjects under the Northern Sung dynasty, known for his archaic style. A Metropolitan Graduate of 1070, he attained the title of Gentleman for Court Service. For a possible copy of Li's portrait of Wang An-shih, see figure 26.

18. According to legend, an old man with bushy eyebrows who claimed to be the local dragon spirit presented this spring to T'an-yin because there was no drinking water on Bell Mountain. Later, another monk from Central Asia arrived and reported that this was one of eight ponds that had disappeared from his native land. The spring was named Spring of Eight Virtues (Pakung-te-shui), which were identified as: (1) purity, (2) coldness, (3) fragrance, (4) softness, (5) sweetness, (6) cleanliness, (7) nonstagnation, and (8) curing of dysentery.

19. Yao Ch'a (533-606) served in a variety of offices under the Liang and Ch'en dynasties. Under the Sui, he rose to the position of assistant director of the Palace Library and began editing the official histories of those two previous dynasties. He received his ordination at this temple in his youth.

20. Yeh Ch'ing-ch'en (d. ca. 1051), courtesy name Tao-ch'ing, ranked second in the Metropolitan Examination of 1023 and held a number of high offices. During the Ch'ing-li era (1041-1048) he served as prefect of the city and often visited the spot below the cliff, where he had a pavilion built.

21. Tsang Chin remains unidentified.

22. Emperor Wen-tsung of the Yüan (r. 1328-Feb. 1329, Sept. 1329-1332), as Prince Huai, lived in Nanking before ascending the throne.

23. The Northern Altar (Pei-chiao-t'an) was moved to Bell Mountain in the third year of the Ta-ming era (459) of the [Liu] Sung dynasty. The emperors often performed sacrifices to the Earth here.

24. Chiang's Tomb (Chiang-ling) was the tomb of Chiang Tzu-wen and, later, of Sun Ch'üan-hence its later appellation, the Hill of Sun's Tomb (Sun-ling-kang). It is located in the southern foothills of Bell Mountain. Madame Pu was Sun Ch'üan's principal wife, who was posthumously raised to the status of empress.

25. The Great River is the Long River. Triple Peaks Point (San-shan-chi) is in the southwest of Nanking and named after three connected peaks that jut out into the Long River. This is the upper group; another group, known as the Lower Three Peaks (Hsia-san-shan), lies to the east. White Egret Isle (Pai-lu-chou), situated outside West Water Gate (Shui-hsi-men), was in earlier times a sandy islet in the Long River.

26. Celestial Gatetower Peak (T'ien-ch'üeh-feng) refers to Ox-Head Mountain (Niu-t'ou-shan). Lotus Peak (Fu-jung-feng) is the major peak of Ancestral Hall Mountain (Tsu-t'ang-shan). Both peaks stand in the southern part of Nanking.

27. Chicken Cage Mountain (Chi-lung-shan), also known as Cockcrow Mountain (Chi-ming-shan), is within the city walls of Nanking; Falling Star Stream (Lo-hsing-chien) is in the northeast section of the city.

28. Black Warrior Lake (Hsüan-wu-hu) lies in the northeastern part of Nanking and borders the northwestern foothills of Bell Mountain. It was named after the guardian spirit of the north, a tortoise with the head and tail of a snake, whose element is water and symbolic color is black. Astronomically, Black Warrior is a group of seven constellations located in the northern sector of the sky. In Nanking, he was thus symbolically invoked to protect the city from invasion from the north.

29. Black Dragon Pool (Hei-lung-t'an) is located within the city of Nanking near West Hah Gate (Han-hsi-men). It had been named Wildlife Pond (Fang-sheng-ch'ih) by Yen Chen-ch'ing.

30. The character fu (float) has been changed to k'o (could); see Ni, Yu-chi 2:75. An allusion to Chuang-tzu 89:32:18, which ridicules Chu P'ing-man, who spent three years and considerable money to learn dragon-killing only to find no opportunity to practice his skill.

31. Hsiao T'ung (501-531), posthumously known as the Luminous Crown Prince (Chao-ming t'ai-tzu), was the eldest son of Emperor Wu of the Liang (r. 502-549). Named heir apparent in 502, he died before succeeding to the throne. He was an ardent patron of both Buddhism and literature and is best remembered for editing the Anthology of Literature ( Wen-hsüan ), the most complete collection of early Chinese literary works from the third century B.C. to the early sixth century A.D.

32. The Luminous Crown Prince's Writing Terrace (Chao-ming shu-t'ai) is where Hsiao T'ung is supposed to have studied and written. It is located on a peak behind the Pacified Forest Temple (Ting-lin-szu).

33. White Lotus Pond (Pai-lien-ch'ih) is located beside the White Lotus Pavilion (Pai-lien-ko); Sung Hsi's Spring (Sung Hsi-ching) is west of Bell Mountain. Tide Well (Ying-ch'ao-ching) is located in the Temple of the Cleansed Ones (T'ou-t'o-szu) and so named because its level rises and trails with the tides. Cinnabar Lake Cave (Chu-hu tung-t'ien) is the thirty-first of the thirty-six Lesser Celestial Caves of Taoism.

34. The Cottage Temple (Ts'ao-t'ang-szu) was located on the north of Bell Mountain. It was built on the site of Lei Tz'u-tsung's (386-448) academy (see below, note 36) by Chou Yung (fl. ca. 473) during the Southern Ch'i dynasty in admiration of a similarly named temple in Szu-ch'uan.

35. Reed Mountain (Mao-shan) is located in modern Chü-jung, Chiang-su; Chiang's Mountain (Chiang-shan) here refers to Bell Mountain.

36. Hsieh Shang (308-357) was talented in music as well as in other arts; under the Eastern Chin dynasty, he served as regional inspector of Yü Region. Lei Tz'u-tsung, after dwelling on Hermitage Mountain, was summoned to Nanking by Emperor Wen of the [Liu] Sung (r. 424-453), where he opened an academy. Liu Mien (417-473) rose to Right Chief Administrator in the Department of State Affairs during the [Liu] Sung dynasty and was primarily noted for his military accomplishments. Chou Yung dwelled in retirement on Bell Mountain but later accepted an imperial invitation to serve in office and rose to become Erudite of the National University. Wu Pao arrived in Nanking and began teaching during the T'ai-shih era (465-471); he refused invitations to serve in office and later established a school at the foot of Bell Mountain. K'ung Szu-chih (d. 504) was a descendant of Confucius and served as Secretariat Drafter during the [Liu] Sung dynasty and under Emperor Kao of the Southern Ch'i (r. 479-481); he was discontent with official life and later retired to Bell Mountain. Juan Hsiao-hsü (479-536) was a noted bibliographer; he avoided politics, preferring a life of study on Bell Mountain. Liu Hsiao-piao (462-521) was a writer who served in the palace library and as an administrator in the Revenue Section of the Ching Region; an influential teacher, he had spent a period of retirement on Bell Mountain. And Wei Ch'ü-mou (749-801) was a noted poet who lived as both a Taoist and a Buddhist monk. He later returned to lay life, impressing Emperor Te-tsung of the T'ang (r. 780-804) with his knowledge of the Three Teachings. He rose to chief minister of the Court of Imperial Sacrifices. Wei had earlier spent a period of retirement on Bell Mountain.

37. Translated from Sung Lien, Sung Hsüeh-shih ch'üan-chi 3:66-69 ( TSCC ed.).

1. Carved tortoises, representing strong and auspicious forces, were often used as pedestals for steles.

2. Golden Cock Peak (Chin-chi-feng) is located on Mount Kuei-chi outside modern Shao-hsing, Che-chiang.

3. When the sage-king Yao wished to yield the empire to the recluse Hsü Yu because of his purity and virtue, Hsü refused. Yao then proposed to make him prime minister, causing Hsü to feel so defiled that he washed out his cars in the Ying River (Ying-shui), which flows from modern Ho-nan into the Huai River in An-hui. The second allusion here is to Po-i and Shu-ch'i, two brothers descended from the Shang ruling class, who refused to serve under the succeeding Chou dynasty and sought refuge instead on Mount Shou-yang in modern Shan-hsi, where they starved to death.

4. Translated from Liu Chi, Ch'eng-i-po Liu Wen-ch'eng-kung wen-chi 6:13a-14a ( SPTK ed.).

1. Liu Chi alludes to the canopies woven of feathers that swayed above the carriages of ancient nobles during the Chou dynasty.

2. The hsün is an early instrument of clay resembling a round ocarina. The ch'ih was a transverse bamboo flute used in ancient court music.

3. The Six Defilements of Buddhism arc sound, appearance, fragrance, taste, touch, and ideas.

4. Translated from Liu, Ch'eng-i-po Liu Wen-ch'eng-kung wen-chi 6:14a-14b.

1. The ninth day of the ninth lunar month, "Double Ninth" (Ch'ung-chiu), is the traditional autumn festival.

2. The chu zither is an ancient instrument with thirteen strings resembling a cheng , with a narrow neck and rounded shoulders. When played, the left hand exerts pressure on the strings to modify the pitch while the right hand strikes the strings with a bamboo stick.

3. The Temple of the White Clouds (Pai-yün-szu) was built in 826 while Po Chü-i was serving as prefect. The mountain was known as White Clouds Mountain (Pai-yün-shan) in antiquity, and Po named a spring, which Kao Ch'i later mentions, "White Clouds." It is possible that Po was also involved in the construction and naming of the temple. Located at the foot of the mountain, it contains a shrine dedicated to Fan Chung-yen, who is buried here. Both Wei and Yüan remain unidentified.

4. The characters translated as "oppression" ( pan-tang ) allude to two poems in The Book of Poetry ( Shih ching ), "Perversity" ( Pan ; 66:254) and "Mighty" ( Tang ; 67:255) criticizing the misrule of King Li of the Chou dynasty (r. 681-677 B.C.). The allusion thus expresses Kao Ch'i's criticism of the chaos during the last years of the Yüan.

5. A reference to Chang Shih-ch'eng (1321-1367), a salt smuggler who led a revolt against the Yüan and captured Su-chou in 1356. In 1363, a year after this piece was written, he proclaimed himself "Prince of Wu," but later starved himself to death after being taken prisoner by Chu Yüan-chang in 1367.

6. Translated from Kao Ch'i, Kao T'ai-shih fu-tsao chi 2:5a-6b ( SPTK ed.).

1. See Yüan K'o ed., Shan-hai ching , p. 171. While the commentary of Kuo P'u identified the "Transverse Mountain" mentioned here with the Southern Sacred Mount, the original text does not. Later Chinese scholars such as Pi Yüan (1730-1797) believed the reference originally indicated another, lesser mountain of the same name in Nan-yang, Ho-nan.

2. A paraphrase from Shang-shu : Yü-kung 1:146 ( Shih-san-ching chu-shu ed.), where the Hsia emperor Yü is credited with defining the hierarchy of mountains and instituting appropriate sacrifices to them.

3. A reference to Shang-shu : Shun-tien 1:126, which indicates that sacrifices to the Sacred Mount of the South were held during the previous reign of Shun, and Chang assumes this was Transverse Mountain. It was elsewhere recorded that only after Shun consolidated his power some twenty-eight years into his reign did it become possible for him to carry out all the sacrifices. Since Guideways Through Mountains and Seas was traditionally attributed to the succeeding Hsia emperor Yü, Chang Chü-cheng suggests that it was written early in Yü's life before Shun instituted sacrifices, so it does not mention Transverse Mountain as a sacred mount. The attribution of the Guideways to Yü, however, is unfounded.

4. "Hsiao-Hsiang" refers to the area in Hu-nan where the middle reaches of the Hsiang meets the Hsiao River. "Ts'ang-wu" was an ancient designation for the area where the modern provinces of Kuang-tung, Kuang-hsi, and Hu-nan converge.

5. Chu Jung's Peak (Chu Jung-feng), the highest point on the mountain, is named after the god of fire, who was also regarded as the mythical sage-king Ch'ih-ti, guardian of the south.

6. Lotus (Fu-jung), Smoke-and-Mist (Yen-hsia), Rock Bin (Shih-lin), Celestial Pillar (T'ien-chu), together with Chu Jung's Peak, constitute the five major peaks of the mountain.

7. The Cheng River (Cheng-chiang) flows through central Hu-nan into the Hsiao-Hsiang River nearby at Heng-yang.

8. A reference to a poem by Li Po, "Bidding Farewell with Other Gentlemen to Mr. Ch'en on His Return to Heng-yang" ( Yü chu-kung sung Ch'en-lang chiang-kuei Heng-yang ). Its third and fourth lines read: "Whirlwinds blow away snow on the Five Peaks;/Flying blossoms are continually falling into Grotto Lake" (see CTS 5:177:1807).

9. Mount Ts'ang-wu (Ts'ang-wu-shan), also known as the Nine Similar Peaks (Chiu-i-shan) after its nine similarly shaped peaks, is located nearby in the southern part of Hu-nan.

10. Tusita (Chinese: Tou-shuai) is the fourth of the Six Heavens in the Buddhist Universe of Desire.

11. Lady Wei, the daughter of Wei Shu (209-290), was known as a talented calligrapher and a lifelong Taoist practitioner. She was believed to have perfected an elixir on this mountain and to have risen to Heaven as a Transcendent. Later, she was revered as Our Lady of the Sacred Mount of the South (Nan-yüeh fu-jen).

12. Chu Hsi, Chang Shih (1133-1180), and Lü Tsu-ch'ien (1137-1181) were Neo-Confucian philosophers regarded as the "Three Worthies of the Southeast." The temple on Transverse Mountain commemorates all three.

13. Vermilion Mount (Chu-ling) is associated with the Exalted Emperor of the Vermilion Mount Cinnabar Heaven of the Southern Extremity (Nan-chi chu-ling tan-t'ien shang-ti), an important Taoist god who is in charge of the reincarnation of souls.

14. An allusion to a line in Wang Hsi-chih's Preface to Collected Poems from the Orchid Pavilion (see chapter 2 above).

15. See Lun-yü 21:11:24 and Introduction, note 41.

16. Hsiang Ch'ang (fl. mid-1st cent. A.D.), courtesy name Tzu-p'ing, was a recluse during the Eastern Han dynasty. After he married off his daughters and concluded his family affairs, he set off to travel to famous mountains and was never heard of again.

17. The recluse Lu Ao wished to become friends with a Transcendent he had encountered in the North Sea. The Transcendent merely laughed, for he was used to traveling throughout the vast universe and never remained anyplace for long. However, he agreed to meet up with Lu again beyond the Nine Heavens. See Huai-nan-tzu 12:15b ( TSCC ed.).

18. Another allusion to Wang Hsi-chih's Preface to Collected Poems from the Orchid Pavilion .

19. Translated from Chang Chü-cheng, Chang T'ai-yüeh chi 9:8b-11a (Shanghai: Ku-chi ch'u-pan-she, 1984 ed.), pp. 116-118.

1. East Nine Lake (Tung-chiu-hu), now known as Lake Tung-kuei, is named to parallel another lake to the west.

2. Hu-fu is a town south of I-hsing.

3. "Ching-mei" was the courtesy name of Wang Shih-mao (1536-1588). Yen is a literary designation for modern Ho-pei. She District is in the south of modern An-hui.

4. Yü-yang was an ancient commandery in the area north of modern Tientsin and east of Peking.

5. All are names associated with the Taoist cult of Transcendents and the manufacture of elixirs of longevity.

6. See I ching: Feng 34:55:3. The appearance of small stars when the sun is eclipsed may be interpreted as a political criticism of the imperial court. It denotes a situation where the emperor's power declines and unworthy officials suddenly gain influence.

7. Chang Tao-ling (d. 156) is credited with founding the Taoist religion during the reign of Emperor Shun of the Eastern Han (r. 125-144); he is regarded as the first Taoist pope. Chang Kuo, also known as Chang Kuo-lao, is one of the Eight Transcendents of Chinese popular religion. He was considered a historical figure who claimed to have reached the age of several hundred years during the reign of Empress Wu (r. 690-704). Then a recluse living in the mountains, he pretended to die when she summoned him. Later he was said to have appeared at the court of Emperor Hsüan-tsung (r. 712-756), where he performed wizardry and stated that he had been born in remote antiquity during the time of the sage-king Yao.

8. Hsü Hsün (fl. ca. 358), from Kao-yang (modern Li-hsien, Ho-pei), was a recluse-poet influenced by Buddhism who dwelled in the mountains of Chechiang. A devoted traveler, he was also known as Yüan-yu (Distant Traveler).

9. Tso Tz'u, courtesy name Yüan-fang, from Lu-chiang (modern An-hui), was a famous wizard at the end of the Eastern Han. He was once a guest of Ts'ao Ts'ao and performed wizardry but fled to escape Ts'ao's attempts to assassinate him. Tso was said to have finally retired to Mount Huo where he perfected the Nine Transformations Elixir and became a Transcendent.

10. Translated from Wang Shih-chen, Yen-chou shan-jen szu-pu-kao 7:3458-3461 (Taipei, 1976 ed.).

1. The Mid-Autumn Festival (Chung-ch'iu) falls on the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month.

2. Thousand Men Rock (Ch'ien-jen-shih) is a large flat rock in the center of the park that can accommodate many people. The Temple Gate (Shan-men) is the outer gate to the Tiger Hill Temple.

3. An allusion to a line in the Ch'u tz'u poem ''Divination" ( Pu-chü ): "The court bell has been destroyed and abandoned; earthen crocks clamor like thunder." It is the complaint of Ch'ü Yüan to a diviner that upright officials such as himself have been exiled while inferior politicians have gained influence. The poem, however, is now believed to have written by others around the mid-third century B.C. See Ch'u tz'u 6:88 ( TSCC ed.).

4. Sword Spring (Chien-ch'üan), also known as Sword Pond (Chien-ch'ih), is north of Thousand Men Rock, situated between two sheer cliffs. It is reputed to be where King Ho-lü (r. 514-496 B.C.) was buried with three thousand swords. According to another legend, the spot was sliced open with a sword by the First Emperor of Ch'in, and water rushed out to prevent him from finding the entrance to the tomb.

5. Thousands of Acres of Clouds (Ch'ien-ch'ing-yün) was a terrace built by the monk Te-hou in 1272 before the Abbot's Quarters of the Tiger Hill Temple. The name is said to be based on a line from a poem by Su Shih, "Clouds and streams spread across thousands of acres." Celestial Pond (T'ien-ch'ih) is the name of a mountain ten miles outside the city of Su-chou; legend says that a pond on its summit contains a thousand-petal lotus.

6. The Pavilion of the God of Literature (Wen-ch'ang-ko) was dedicated to a group of stars regarded as a god in charge of fame and official position; this god was particularly revered by literati.

7. Mount Yü (Yü-shan) is located in the northwest of modern Ch'ang-shu, Chiang-su.

8. Chiang Chin-chih (1556-1605) served as magistrate of Ch'ang-chou in modern Chiang-su.

9. Wei Ying-wu (737-792) was a noted poet of the T'ang dynasty who served as prefect of Su-chou from 789 to 791. Po Chü-i had served as prefect of Su-chou from 825 to 827.

10. Tao-sheng's Rock (Sheng-kung-shih) is named after the eminent monk Chu Tao-sheng (d. 434) of the Liang dynasty who lectured on the sutras at Tiger Hill, and who is said to have erected this rock to serve as a listener.

11. Translated from Yüan Hung-tao, Yüan Chung-lang ch'üan-chi: Yüan Chungfang yu-chi (Shanghai, 1935 ed.), p. I.

1. The village referred to here is Shuang-ch'ing Village (Shuang-ch'ing-chuang).

2. See above, 23. Ch'in Kuan, Dragon Well .

3. Yüan noted elsewhere that the bamboo shoots from Broken Pond (P'ot'ang) in Shao-hsing in modern Che-chiang, were often praised by his friend T'ao Shih-k'uei. See below, An Evening Stroll , note 1.

4. Translated from Yüan, Yüan Chung-lang ch'üan-chi: Yüan Chung-lang yuchi , pp. 30-31.

1. T'ao Wang-ling, artistic name Shih-k'uei (Stone Basket), was a Metropolitan Graduate in the Wan-li era (1573-1620) and served as junior compiler and as chancellor of the Directorate of Education.

2. Chang Tzu (1153-1211), courtesy name Kung-fu, served during the Northern Sung dynasty as Court Gentleman and Auxiliary in the Imperial Archives. A talented painter of bamboo, rocks, and trees, he built a mansion known for its garden, pavilions, and household entertainers. "Glistening Jade" (Yü-chao-t'ang) was a name given to one of Chang's concubines.

3. Broken Bridge (Tuan-ch'iao) is located on the eastern end of Pai's Embankment (Pai-ti), which was built by Po (Pai) Chü-i while serving as prefect of Hang-chou from 822 to 825. Su's Embankment (Su-ti), on the opposite side of the lake from Pai's Embankment, was built around 1090 and named after Su Shih, who served as prefect of Hang-chou from 1089 to 1091.

4. Translated from Yüan, Yüan Chung-lang ch'üan-chi: Yüan Chung-lang yu-chi , p. 15.

1. The Temple of the Lucky Charm (Hsiang-fu-szu) was located below Purple Rock Peak (Tzu-shih-feng) and was built by the Ch'an monk Chih-man during the T'ien-pao era (742-755). The Temple of Compassionate Light (Tz'u-kuang-szu), located below Cinnabar Peak (Chu-sha-feng), was originally a Taoist Temple known as the Cinnabar Retreat (Chu-sha-an). It was converted into a Ch'an temple in 1606 when the monk P'u-men arrived and was liberally endowed with donations from the Empress Dowager Tz'u-sheng (1546-1614), mother of the Wan-li Emperor.

2. Cinnabar Retreat here refers to another temple in the vicinity.

3. Celestial Capital Peak (T'ien-tu-feng), in the southeast area of the mountain, stands 5,937 feet high and is one of the three major peaks. After P'u-men first climbed to its summit in 1614, paths were gradually extended up its heights. It is the second and Azure Luan -Bird (Ch'ing-luan-feng) the third of the Thirty-six Famous Peaks.

4. Alms Bowl (Po-yü) is the fifth of the Thirty-six Famous Peaks, so named because it is shaped like an overturned Buddhist monk's begging bowl. Old Man Peak (Lao-jen-feng) is one of the Seventy-two Famous Peaks.

5. The Sea of Clouds (Yün-hai) is one of the most celebrated sights of Yellow Emperor Mountain. For another description of it, see below, 48. Yüan Mei, Yellow Emperor Mountain .

6. Mañjusri's * Temple (Wen-shu-yüan) was located on Jade Screen Peak (Yüp'ing-feng) on a terrace between Celestial Capital Peak and Lotus Flower Peak (Lien-hua-feng). It was originally built after P'u-men reached the site in 1614 to commemorate a dream he had of Mañjusri * seated in just such a spot. The temple burned down in 1952, and an overnight hostel was built on the site, where visitors stay after the first day's climb up the mountain.

7. Quoted from Er-ya: Shih-shan 22:11:5: "That which lies on the slopes of mountains before reaching the top is known as 'verdant growth.'"

8. Translated from Ch'ien Ch'ien-i, Mu-chai ch'u-hsüeh chi 46:4b-6a (SPTK ed.).

1. Ning-hai district, now within the modern city of Ning-po, was part of T'ai Prefecture.

2. Guardian Liang's Mountain (Liang-huang-shan) was named after a prince of the Liang dynasty who fled there during a civil war.

3. Terrace Mountain (T'ai-shan) is another name for Terrace of Heaven Mountain.

4. Pine Gate Ridge (Sung-men-ling) marks the border between modern Ning-hai and T'ien-t'ai districts.

5. Feng-hua, a district within Ning-po Prefecture during the Ming, is now within the modern city of Ning-po.

6. The Temple of the Peaceful Nation (Kuo-ch'ing-szu) was the largest temple on the mountain and the seat of the T'ien-t'ai sect of Buddhism. Completed in 598, it received this name in 605. In 804, the Japanese monk Saicho (767-822) was ordained at this temple, and the following year he returned to Japan to establish the Tendai sect, which is still active today.

7. The Rock Bridge (Shih-liang) is the most famous of the eight scenic wonders of the mountain, located northeast of the Temple of the Peaceful Nation.

8. Lien-chou was a fellow local and one of Hsü Hung-tsu's traveling companions.

9. The Temple of the Celestial Realm (T'ien-feng-szu) was founded by Chih-i in 575. He spent time there annotating sutras, and his memorial pagoda is located in the environs. The temple is located south of the summit and was given this name sometime during or after the Sung dynasty.

10. The Monastery of the Lotus Summit (Hua-ting-an) was built on the site of the Temple for the Encouragement of Goodness (Shan-hsing-szu), founded by the monk Te-shao in 936. The name was changed in the Sung and the buildings viewed by Hsü were actually built in the Ming following several fires.

11. Li Po Hall (T'ai-po-t'ang) was built to commemorate the T'ang poet Li Po, who was reputed to have visited the mountain.

12. The Cave of the Yellow Court Scripture (Huang-ching-tung) derives its name from a legend that the calligrapher Wang Hsi-chih had written out his famous version of this text for the Taoist adept Pai-yün, who stored it in this cave.

13. The Upper Monastery of the Universal Teachings (Shang-fang-kuangszu), together with the Lower Monastery (Hsia-fang-kuang-szu), was built in 1101. They arc scenically located above and below the Rock Bridge, respectively.

14. The Pavilion of the Udumbara Blossom (T'an-hua-t'ing) was built by the Southern Sung prime minister Chia Szu-tao (1213-1275) and named after a mythical Indian tree that products fruit without flowering. It blossoms every three thousand years, symbolizing the rare appearance of a Buddha.

15. Broken Bridge (Tuan-ch'iao) is located about a mile north of the Rock Bridge, and the Curtain of Pearls (Chu-lien) farther north still. Both were difficult to reach and rarely visited during Hsü's time.

16. The Temple of Eternity (Wan-nien-szu), five miles west of the Rock Bridge, was built by the monk P'u-an in 833. The sutras were donated in 1587 by the Empress Dowager Tz'u-sheng. The sects of Ch'an Buddhism were traditionally divided into "Northern" and "Southern" Schools.

17. The Paulownia and Cypress Monastery (T'ung-po-kung) was the largest Taoist temple on the mountain, located about seven miles from the Temple of the Peaceful Nation. The Mountain of Paulownia and Cypress (T'ung-poshan) was another name for Terrace of Heaven Mountain. The temple was built in 711 for Szu-ma Ch'eng-chen (655-735), the twelfth patriarch of the Shang-ch'ing sect of Taoism, on a site where the wizard Ko Hsüan (164-244) was reputed to have prepared elixirs. The original buildings were demolished by fire at the end of the Yüan and rebuilt in the Ming.

18. Jade Terrace (Ch'iung-t'ai) and the Double Gatetowers (Shuang-ch'üeh) were considered by another travel writer, Hsü's friend Wang Szu-jen (1574-1646), as the most impressive of the eight famous scenes on the mountain. Hsü described these sites in a subsequent diary recording his second journey here in 1632.

19. The Two Crags (Liang-yen) are Cold Crag (Han-yen) and Bright Crag (Ming-yen), which actually form one mountain located beyond Terrace of Heaven, west of the scat of T'ien-t'ai District. Bright Crag received its name in the tenth century and was the site of a temple and ten famous secures.

20. Peach Spring (T'ao-yüan) is based on a legend set during the Yung-p'ing era of the Eastern Han dynasty (A.D. 58-75). Liu Ch'en and Juan Chao entered the mountain in search of herbs and lost their way; after eating some peaches to allay their hunger, they began to feel ethereal and soon encountered two beauties beside a stream, with whom they lived for half a year. When they returned to their village, they found that seven generations had passed. It was only in 1087, however, that the local authorities opened a road, planted peach trees, and developed the site as a tourist spot, another one of the eight famous scenes on the mountain.

21. The Emerald Cliffs (Ts'ui-pi) refers to the Two Crags. Red Citadel (Ch'ih-ch'eng) is a mountain west of the Temple of the Peaceful Nation. Regarded as the southern gateway to the mountain, it, too, was one of the eight famous sights.

22. Maiden Ts'ao River (Ts'ao-o-chiang), which flows into Hang-chou Bay, is named after the legend of a maiden during the Eastern Han dynasty who drowned while trying to recover her farther's body in the river. The stream it is compared to here is the Stream of Good Fortune (Fu-hsi), one of its tributaries.

23. Han-shan and Shih-te were two Ch'an monks who lived on the mountain in the eighth century during the T'ang. Han-shan, known for his lively poetry exalting the freedom of a life of Buddhist cultivation, dwelled in poverty at the Temple of the Peaceful Nation; Shih-te often saved food for him. Together with the monk Feng Kan, son of a former prime minister, they were known as the "Three Recluses" (San-yin) and often met at Bright Crag to drink and write poetry. Han-shan and Shih-te were later popularly worshipped as incarnations of Mañjusri * and Samantabhadra.

24. Eight-Inch Pass (Pa-ts'un-kuan) is one of the ten famous scenes of Bright Crag, formed by two large rocks in front of the gate to Bright Crag Temple (Ming-yen-szu).

25. On the myth of the Bridge of Magpies (Chüch-ch'iao), see above, 28. Yüan Hao-wen, A Trip to Chi-nan , note 14.

26. The Temple Guarding the Nation (Hu-kuo-szu) stood southwest of Peach Spring. It was built in 957 and received this name in the Sung.

27. An allusion to the two travelers Liu Ch'en and Juan Chao who lost their way here. See note 20 above.

28. Peach Blossom Vale (T'ao-hua-wu) is located within Peach Spring Mountain (T'ao-yüan-shan) and near a cave reputed to be where Liu Ch'en and Juan Chao dwelled with the two beauties. In the Ming, another traveler, Wang Shih-hsing (1547-1598), built a lodge in front of the cave, probably the one referred to here. It later became a monastery.

29. Ringing Jade Torrent (Ming-yü-chien) is located west of Peach Blossom Vale and known for the crashing sounds of its water against the rocks.

30. The Cave of the Jade Capital (Yü-ching-tung) is located on the middle level of Red Citadel. It is considered by Taoists to be one of the Ten Greater Celestial Caves. Gold Coin Pool (Chin-ch'ien-ch'ih) is located slightly north of the Cave of the Jade Capital. According to legend, the monk T'an-yu (d. ca. 396) recited sutras here and a spirit rewarded him with gold coins, which he threw into the pond. The Well for Cleansing the Intestines (Hsi-ch'ang-ching) is located below the Red Citadel. When T'an-yu attempted to worship at the Temple of the Universal Teachings, a resident arhat perceived that his viscera had become contaminated by scallions while he was still a fetus and refused to admit him. T'an-yu then used water from the well to purify his intestines, whereupon a large patch of scallions grew around the well.

31. Translated from Hsü Hung-tsu, Hsü Hsia-k'o yu-chi (Shanghai, 1982), 1:1-6; Hsü, Hsü Hsia-k'o ming-shan yu-chi hsüan-chu (Peking, 1985), pp. 15-29.

1. Pontoon Bridge (Fu-ch'iao) was built in 1509 on top of some fifty boats spanning the Li River (Li-chiang).

2. Flower Bridge (Hua-ch'iao) spans the eastern stretch of the Li River where the Little East River (Hsiao-tung-chiang) and the Magic Sword River (Lingchien-chiang) meet. Rebuilt in 1540 in stone, it is more than two hundred feet in length, with eleven arches. The four arches of the eastern section support a decorated portico known as the "Rainbow over Flower Bridge" (Hua-ch'iao hung-ying).

3. This rock is known as the Celestial Pillar (T'ien-chu-shih) and stands between fifty and sixty feet high. It was used to record the level of the Li River and bears an inscription marking a flood on July 31, 1106.

4. The four jagged peaks on the northeast constitute Potala Mountain (P'ut'o-shan). These form the "cup" of the dipper, while the three peaks on the southeast, known as Crescent Mountain (Yüeh-ya-shan), form the "handle," hence the name "Seven Stars" (Ch'i-hsing).

5. Plucking Stars Pavilion (Chai-hsing-t'ing), located to the right of the cave entrance, was built during the T'ien-ch'i era (1621-1627). The quote, "a pavilion with eaves like wings," alludes to Ou-yang Hsiu's description of the Pavilion of the Old Drunkard.

6. Ts'ao Neng-shih (1574-1647), named Hsüeh-ch'üan, served as a military counselor in Kuei-lin. He was the author of several travel records and geographical works recording scenic places.

7. Hsü called stalagmites "stone bamboo shoots" ( shih-sun ) and stalactites "pillars" ( chu ), terms still used today in Chinese, both popularly and scientifically.

8. The Cave Perched on Mist (Ch'i-hsia-tung), now regarded as part of Seven Stars Cavern, is located on the middle level of the mountain. The name dates from the T'ang, when the cave had strong associations with Lao-tzu, the traditional founder of Taoism.

9. Lao-tzu's Terrace (Lao-chün-t'ai) formerly held an image of the philosopher.

10. The cavern contains three such "Celestial Gates," lofty entrances with pillars of stone rising on each side.

11. Otter's Pool (T'a-tzu-t'an), now known as Scabby Pool (Lai-tzu-t'an), flows out at Bean Sprout Crag (Tou-ya-yen) and into the Magic Sword River.

12. The divine youth Sudhana (Chinese: Shan-ts'ai t'ung-tzu) is one of the Four Victorious Bodies in Buddhism who transcended the cycle of rebirth and achieved a pure embodiment. Born in a flood of precious stones, his image is commonly found to the left of the Bodhisattva Kuan-yin.

13. Dragon River (Lung-chiang) is located beyond the third Celestial Gate, the name deriving from the belief that dragons dwell in grottoes and in watery bodies below cliffs.

14. Red Carpet (Hung-chan) and White Carpet (Pai-chan), now known as Golden Gauze (Chin-sha) and Silver Gauze (Yin-sha), respectively, are curtains of rock and among the most famous sights in the cavern.

15. Layered Colors Mountain (Tieh-ts'ai-shan), named after its multicolored rock resembling piles of brocade, is located within the city of Kuei-lin on the west bank of the Li River. It contains Windy Cave (Feng-tung), through which wind blows from north to south, remaining cool even in summer.

16. Tseng Pu (1036-1107), from Nan-feng in modern Chiang-hsi, was originally a key supporter of Wang An-shih's New Policies but shifted his allegiance when Emperor Shen-tsung (r. 1067-1085) lost confidence in Wang's reforms. He later sought to mediate between the conservative and reform factions, rising to the senior position of right: vice-director of the Department of State Affairs. From 1078 to 1080, he served in Kuang-hsi as a military commander.

17. The Monastery of the Forest of Blessings (Ch'ing-lin-kuan), located in front of the Cave Perched on Mist, was established on the orders of Emperor T'ai-tsung of the T'ang (r. 626-649). He was impressed by an unusual rock from Kuei-lin presented to him and decreed that a monastery be built where the rock originated. The emperor also bestowed the name, "Forest of Blessings."

18. The Cave of the Springtime Visit (Sheng-ch'un-tung) is named after the custom of a local official who used to return to visit his family here in the spring and help with the planting.

19. Sword's Trail River (T'o-chien-shui), now called the Magic Sword River (Ling-chien-chiang), is part of the upper reaches of the Li River. It flows through the eastern section of Kuei-lin through the north part of Seven Stars Cavern before merging with the Little East River (Hsiao-tung-chiang) outside at Flower Bridge.

20. Yao's Mountain (Yao-shan), located five miles northeast of Kuei-lin, was named after the sage-king Yao to complement a temple opposite it dedicated to Yao's successor, Shun.

21. Old Ko's Bridge (Ko-lao-ch'iao) is located beside the Temple Perched on Mist, less than a mile east of Kuei-lin.

22. The Li River flows along the western edge of Kuei-lin and eventually into the Pearl River (Chu-chiang), which enters the sea at Kuang-chou. During the Ch'in dynasty, the first canal was dug linking the Li with the Hsiang and hence with the Long River, forming an extended system connecting central and south China.

23. See Lun-yü 41:20:2. According to Confucius, the Five Excellences ( wu-mei ) in government are bestowing benefits without waste; encouraging labor without complaint; desiring humaneness and being without avarice; treating others with equanimity and without arrogance; and maintaining dignity without aggression. He also defined the Four Evils ( szu-wu ) as savagery—executing people without having taught them; tyranny-expecting completed work without first issuing warnings; oppression—insisting on a time limit yet delaying in issuing orders; bureaucratism—creating obstacles when granting someone something.

24. Chang Nan-hsüan (1133-1180), better known as Chang Shih, is best remembered as a Neo-Confucian philosopher ranked with Chu Hsi and Lü Tsuch'ien. He wrote a noted travel account of a journey he made to Transverse Mountain together with Chu. The son of a general, Chang was appointed magistrate of Kuei-lin in 1172 and served for five years, during which time he suppressed a local rebellion in the Kuang-nan Circuit. Each character in the inscription is about five inches large.

25. The name of the Cave of the Encountered Transcendent (Hui-hsien-yen) derives from a legend that a visitor once met the Taoist Transcendent Lü Tung-pin here.

26. Ch'en Fu, from P'u-t'ien, Fu-chien, became a Metropolitan Graduate in 1163. He rose to vice-minister of war and once visited Kuei-lin.

27. It has been noted by commentators that another source containing Ch'en's inscription printed a homonym for chu (islet)—that is, chu (all, every). See Hsü Hung-tsu, Hsü Hsia-k'o ming-shan yu-chi , p. 202; and Yeh and Pei, Li-tai yu-chi , p. 267.

28. Pellet Mountain (Tan-wan-shan), less than a mile from Kuei-lin, arises by Pellet Stream (Tan-wan-hsi), whose name derives from the shape of rocks ill the water.

29. Seven Stars Monastery (Ch'i-hsing-kuan), at the foot of Seven Stars Mountain, was built during the reign of the Southern Sung emperor Li-tsung (r. 1224-1264).

30. Morning Clouds Cave (Chao-yün-yen) lies on the west side of Seven Stars Mountain and contained Buddhist hermitages.

31. Hui-chou Prefecture, now located within modern An-hui province, was during the Ming part of Nan-chih-li. Its government scat was located in She District.

32. The City of Rivers (Chiang-ch'eng) is another name for Kuei-lin.

33. Hsü Hung-tsu had earlier visited Transverse Mountain m the period February 15-23, 1637, while on this journey to the southwest.

34. Heng-chou is the modern city of Heng-yang, Hu-nan. The Green Bamboo Monastery (Lü-chu-an) is located outside the city's north gate.

35. Yü's Mountain (Yü-shan), also known as Shun's Mountain (Shun-shan) after the ancient sage-king, is to the northwest of Kuei-lin. It contains the Music of Shao Cave (Shao-yin-tung) as well as temples, pavilions, and many ancient inscriptions.

36. East Town Gate Mountain (Tung-chen-men-shan) derives its name from its location near the northernmost gate of the c eastern section of Kuei-lin.

37. Windy Cave Mountain (Feng-tung-shan) is another name for Layered Colors Mountain (Tieh-ts'ai-shan), also, as Hsü points out, known as Cassia Mountain (Kuei-shan). Dragon Tree Cave Mountain (Mu-lung-tung-shan) is named after an old tree which legend states grew suspended from a cliff and resembled a giant dragon. One day, during a violent storm, it turned into a dragon and swam off into the sea.

38. Fu-po's Mountain (Fu-po-shan) is named after the Han general Ma Yüan (14 B.C.—A.D. 49), courtesy name Fu-po. A stalactite in its Cave of the Returned Pearls (Huan-chu-tung) called "Demonstrating Swordsmanship" (Shihchien-shih) is said to have resulted from a performance by Ma here,

39. Flowerscape Mountain (Hua-ching-shan) is located in the north of Kueilin and contains a cave of the same name. Formerly the site of several temples, it is noted for the scenic effect of clouds and mist swirling about its summit.

40. Lingering Horse Mountain (Ma-liu-shan) is connected to Flowerscape Mountain.

41. Retirement Mountain (Yin-shan), located in the west of Kuei-lin, was originally an island, though later it became surrounded by fields; it contains six caves.

42. Marquis Mountain (Hou-shan), located less than three miles west of Retirement Mountain, derives its name from its tall, oblong shape like the ancient hat of a marquis. King of Good Fortune Mountain (Kuang-fu-wangshan) is named after a temple there dedicated to this popular god.

43. The Mountain of Unique Beauty (Tu-hsiu-shan) stands alone, dominating the center of Kuei-lin. During the Ming, it stood within the palace of the Prince of Ching-chiang and was not open to the public. A number of inscriptions on it celebrate its striking appearance.

44. Mount Li (Li-shan) now generally refers to Elephant Trunk Mountain (Hsiang-pi-shan), a picturesque rock with a large arch through which the Li River passes; the thinner part of the arch resembles an elephant's trunk. On top is an old pagoda, and below, the Cave of the Moon-in-the-Water (Shuiyüeh-tung). Elsewhere m this diary, though, Hsü noted that several other mountains nearby were also known as "Mount Li." Pierced Mountain (Ch'uan-shan) derives its name from the Cavern of Luminous Space (K'ungming-yen), which runs through it from north to south.

45. Hsü had earlier moved from an inn to the home of Chao Shih-yü, an office manager, preferring it for its cleanliness and spaciousness.

Translated from Hsü, Hsü Hsia-k'o yu-chi , 1: 293-298; Hsü, Hsü Hsia-k'o ming-shan yu-chi , pp. 190-206; Yeh and Pei, Li-tai yu-chi , pp. 255-267.

1. Liang Shan-po and Chu Ying-t'ai were characters in a popular legend set during the Eastern Chin dynasty. Chu masqueraded as a boy so that she might study and met Liang in school. They fell in love but were prevented from marrying by Chu's father, who betrothed her to another. Liang and Chu then committed suicide in despair. Their story has long appealed to the Chinese romantic imagination; however, it has nothing to do with Ch'ü-fu. Perhaps they were represented at the Confucian shrine because they had been students.

2. This juniper is traditionally believed to have been planted by Confucius but is undoubtedly from a later date.

3. Chu Yüan-chang, the Hung-wu Emperor, also known as Emperor T'aitsu of the Ming (r. 1368-1398), died in the same year that the leaves fell off the tree.

4. The Apricot Terrace (Hsing-t'an) is the site where Confucius is believed to have taught. Later a pavilion was built there to commemorate the spot.

5. Tang Huai-ying (1134-1211) was from Feng-i (modern Ta-li, Shaan-hsi). He served as Han-lin Academician Recipient of Edicts during the Chin and was a noted calligrapher.

6. The Chu and Szu rivers (Chu-shui and Szu-shui) flow through Ch'ü-fu, Shan-tung.

7. Confucius is referred to here by a posthumous name, the Expositor-Sage (Hsüan-sheng). His Four Attendant Spirits ( Szu-p'ei ) are the disciples Yen Yüan (Yen Hui, 521-490 B.C.); Tseng Shen (Tseng-tzu, Tzu-yü, 505-? B.C.); K'ung Chi (Tzu-szu, ca. 483-402 B.C.); and the later Confucian philosopher Mencius (Meng K'o, ca. 372-ca. 289 B.C.). The Ten Philosophers ( Shih-che ) are Min Sun (Min Tzu-ch'ien, 536-487 B.C.); Jan Keng (Jan Po-niu, 544-? B.C.); Jan Yung (Chung-kung, 522-? B.C.); Tsai Yü (Tsai Wo, Tzu-wo, 522-458 B.C.); Tuan-mu Tz'u (Tzu-kung, 520-456 B.C.); Jan Ch'iu (Tzu-yu, 522-489 B.C.); Chung Yu (Chi-lu, Tzu-lu, 542-480 B.C.); Yen Yen (Tzu-yu, 506-? B.C.); Pu Shang (Tzu-hsia, 507-400 B.C.); and Chuan-sun Shih (Tzu-chang, 503-? B.C.).

8. The pi-hsieh , whose name literally means ''avoid evil," is a fabulous animal resembling an ox with two horns.

9. The Chang clan of Lung-hu-shan, Chiang-hsi, were the descendants of Chang Tao-ling, the founder of religious Taoism. The Chu clan from Fengyang, An-hui, were members of the imperial family of the Ming dynasty descended from Chu Yüan-chang.

10. Translated from Chang Tai, T'ao-an meng-i 2:9 ( TSCC ed.).

1. Translated from Chang, T'ao-an meng-i 4:35. For an insightful discussion of this and other accounts by Chang of his visit, see Pei-yi Wu, "An Ambivalent Pilgrim to T'ai-shan in the Seventeenth Century," In Naquin and Yü, eds., Pilgrims and Sacred Sites , pp. 65-88.

1. The Midsummer Festival (Chung-yüan-chieh) falls in the middle of the seventh lunar month and is a traditional time for the population of Hang-chou to make an evening outing to West Lake.

2. On Broken Bridge, see above, 38. Yüan Hung-tao, An Evening Stroll to the Six Bridges to Await the Moon ," note 3. The Temple of Glorious Blessings (Chao-ch'ing-szu) was originally built during the T'ien-fu era (936-943) and later burned in 1640. It was apparently also a noisy scene during much of the first half of the year when masses of Buddhist pilgrims descended on the neighboring marketplace, something Chang Tai complained about elsewhere.

3. The Inner Lake (Li-hu) is the eastern part of West Lake, formed by Solitary Hill (Ku-shan) and Pai's Embankment.

4. Translated from Chang, T'ao-an meng-i 7:58-59.

1. The Dragon Boat Festival (Tuan-wu-chieh) falls on the fifth day of the fifth lunar month. Boats carved in the shape of dragons are often raced to commemorate the suicide by drowning of the poet-official Ch'ü Yüan.

2. The "capital" referred to here is Nanking, which was the Southern Capital during most of the Ming, while Peking, the Northern Capital, was the actual seat of the court and national government.

3. Chung Po-ching (1574-1624), named Hsing, from Chmg-ling in present-day Hu-pei, was an influential poet, critic, anthologist, and editor. He is remembered as a leader of the Ching-ling school, which advocated an individualist position in literature. Like the Yüan brothers, he espoused the ideal of "personal sensibility" ( hsing-ling ) but differed in his preference for refilled diction and a more striking display of originality. His "Rhapsody on the Lantern Boats of Ch'in-huai" ( Ch'in-huai teng-ch'uan fu ) contains a preface with a similar description. See Chung Hsing, Yin-hsiu-hsüan shih-chi (Taipei, 1976 rpt.), 2:535-537.

4. Translated from Chang, T'ao-an meng-i 4:27-28.

1. The Han Canal (Han-kou) was an ancient canal built in 487 B.C. between present-day Yang-chou and Huai-an. The first canal recorded in Chinese history, it was later incorporated into the Grand Canal system ( Yün-ho ). It is now known as the Han River (Han-chiang).

2. A reference to the Eastern Chin dynasty poet and official P'an Yüch (d. A.D. 300), courtesy name An-jen. Noted for his poetry, he was even more celebrated for his physical beauty, which in his youth was said to have caused women to toss fruit at him in admiration.

3. Translated from Chang, T'ao-an meng-i 4:31-32.

1. I-chen, modern I-cheng, is located in the southwest of Chiang-tu, Chiang-su.

2. "The Peak That Flew Here" (Fei-lai-feng) is a name often given to rocks that seem improbably situated. Well-known examples are ones in Hang-chou, on Yellow Emperor Mountain and on Transverse Mountain.

3. Translated from Chang, T'ao-an meng-i 5:37-38.

1. Sakyamuni's * Chain (Mou-ni-ch'uan) was a string of pearls believed to have been manufactured by Sakyamuni * , the historical Buddha. Such a relic was worshipped in Shan-tung province.

2. The Bodhisattva Kuan-yin, in her white-robed aspect, is frequently depicted seated on a white lotus.

3. Translated from Chang, T'ao-an meng-i 7:64.

1. Shih Chao (ca. 1092-ca. 1161) added a commentary in 1161 to Szu-ma Kuang's Comprehensive Mirror for Government ( Tzu-chih t'ung-chien , 1084), a monumental historical guide in chronicle form covering the period from 403 B.C. to A.D. 959; see Szu-ma Kuang, Tzu-chih t'ung-chien 12:21:125 ( SPTK ed.). Tai Prefecture covered what are now Tai, Wu-t'ai, Fan-chih, and Yüanp'ing districts in Shan-hsi.

2. According to legend, the Bodhisattva Mañjusri * led five hundred Transcendents to Five Terraces Mountain where he lectured on the dharma.

3. Pure and Cold Mountain (Ch'ing-liang-shan) is another name for Five Terraces Mountain. The Flower Garland Sutra ( Hua-yen-ching ; Sanskrit: Avatamsaka-sutra ) is the major text of the Hua-yen school of Buddhism, whose patron is Mañjusri * . For this reference to Five Terraces Mountain, see Taisho1735:35:47:859c .

4. Chao Hsiang-tzu (r. 475-425 B.C.), the first ruler of the state of Chao, assassinated his brother-in-law, the king of Tai, and annexed the latter's territory. According to the Historical Records , it was Summer House Mountain (see next note), the Northern Terrace, that Chao Hsiang-tzu climbed; see Shih chi 6:1793.

5. Summer House Mountain (Hsia-wu-shan) is one of several names for this mountain noted in antiquity, which is located in the northeast of modern Tai District, Shan-hsi.

6. Emperor Hsiao-wen (r. 471-499) of the Northern Wei dynasty instituted political and economic reforms, and moved the capital from P'ing-ch'eng (modern Ta-t'ung, Shan-hsi) to Lo-yang in 490.

7. Celestial Pond (T'ien-ch'ih) is located in the southwest of Ning-wu, Shan-hsi. Emperor Yang of the Sui (r. 604-617) built the Fen-yang Palace in the area, which contained the Dragon and Feng -Bird Towers.

8. Hidden Devil (Mi-mo) was a Buddhist priest said to dwell on this cliff who would stab with his wooden pitchfork other priests venturing to worship here.

9. The Royal Forester (Lu) was a Chou dynasty official in charge of the king's forests and parks.

10. The "Middle Ages" here refers generally to the period from the third to the seventh centuries when Buddhism expanded in China and Confucianism was largely in decline.

11. Kasyapa-matanga * (Chinese: She-mo-t'eng) was one of the first Buddhist monks to come to China from India. Together with the monk Dharmaraksa (Chinese: Chu-fa-lan), he brought sutras to Lo-yang during the reign of the Han emperor Ming (r. 57-75) and remained to lecture and translate.

12. After receiving a statue of Sakyamuni * Buddha, Emperor Ming ordered murals painted on the Pure and Cold Terrace (Ch'ing-liang-t'ai) in Lo-yang. Ku Yen-wu is suggesting that that Kasyapa-matanga * never came to Five Terraces Mountain but lived instead in Lo-yang.

13. See Pei-Ch'i shu 2:532 (Peking, 1972 ed.). The T'u-chüeh were nomadic tribes of Turkish origin who periodically invaded from the north, on this occasion in the year 564.

14. See Sui shu 6:1769 (Peking, 1973 ed.). Lu T'ai-i, originally named Chang, fled to the mountains to avoid a vendetta. Known for his powers of divination, he was later given the surname Lu by Emperor Yang of the Sui.

15. See Chiu T'ang shu 10:3416-3418 (Peking, 1975 ed.); Ku's quote differs slightly from the standard text. Wang Chin (700-781) was prime minister under the T'ang emperor Tai-tsung (r. 762-779) and an important supporter of Buddhism.

16. See Chiu T'ang shu 2:512. The T'ang emperor Ching-tsung reigned from 824 to 826.

17. See Hsin Wu-tai shih 1:144 (Peking, 1974 ed.). Emperor Chuang-tsung of the Latter T'ang dynasty reigned from 923 to 926.

18. Ibid., 3:868. Chi-jung (901-973) was a son of the emperor of Yen, Liu Shou-kuang (r. 911-913). After his father's assassination, he became a monk on Five Terraces Mountain. Later, he served in various offices under Liu Ch'eng-chün (Chün), second emperor of the Northern Han dynasty (r. 954-968), which sought protection from the Liao dynasty ruled by the Khitan tribe.

19. See Yüan shih 2:510 (Peking, 1976 ed.). The date has been corrected from the third year of the Chih-chih era to the second. See Ni, Yu-chi 2:271.

20. See I ching: Ko : 30:49 hsiang .

21. A quote from Han Yü's famous polemic in defense of Confucianism and against Buddhism and Taoism. See Han Yü, Ch'ang-li hsien-sheng chi 11:5a.

22. Li Te-yü (787-849) served as prime minister under the T'ang emperor Wu-tsung (r. 840-846). He advocated strong border defenses and appointed Chang Chung-wu (d. 849) as vice-military commissioner of Chi-pei. Chang sealed the border and captured infiltrators of the enemy Uighur tribes at Chü-yung Pass, now within greater Peking. In the text, Li is referred to by his courtesy name, Wen-jao.

23. The traditional four classes ( szu-min ) of Chinese society were shih (knights and scholars), farmers, craftsmen, and merchants.

24. Translated from Ku Yen-wu, T'ing-lin wen-chi 5:4a-6a ( SPPY ed.).

1. "King of Eastern Fen" (Fen-tung-wang) was a title given to Shu-yü by the Northern Sung emperor Jen-tsung during the T'ien-sheng era (1023-1031), and "King of Prosperity and Peace" (Hsing-an-wang) by the Latter Chin emperor Kao-tsu in 941.

2. The Spring of Eternal Youth (Nan-lao-ch'üan) emerges from an underground hole and is a source of the Chin River. It was named after a line in the poem "The P'an River" ( P'an-shui; Shih ching 79:299:3): "He will forever enjoy eternal youth." An octagonal pavilion has stood on the site since the T'ien-pao era of the Northern Ch'i (550-559), having been rebuilt in the Ming. The water is exceedingly clear, and its temperature remains unchanged through the four seasons.

3. See Yüan K'o, ed., Shan-hai ching , p. 80. Suspended Jar Mountain (Hsüan-weng-shan) is located about three miles southwest of modern T'aiyüan, Shan-hsi. It derives its name from a large rock on its middle heights shaped like a jar, from which the Chin River flowed forth. The rock was destroyed in an earthquake during the reign of the Northern Sung emperor Jen-tsung (r. 1022-1063).

4. The Fen River (Fen-ho) originates in the central part of Shan-hsi and flows into the Yellow River.

5. See Shih ching 22:108:1, "The Fen, Damp and Low-lying" ( Fen chü-ju ).

6. Wang Wei (d. 617) and Kao Chün-ya (d. 617) were generals serving under Li Yüan (566-635), regent of T'ai-yüan at the end of the Sui dynasty. When Li began to amass troops, Wang and Kao rightly suspected that he was intending to revolt. They invited Li to make a pilgrimage to the Chin Temple to pray for rain, thus giving them an opportunity to assassinate him, but their plan was discovered and Li had them executed. The following year, Li Yüan established the T'ang dynasty and ascended the throne as Emperor Kao-tsu (r. 618-626).

7. See Ch'un-ch'iu 344: Chao I: Tso fu vii. When Duke P'ing of Chin (r. 557-532 B.C.) fell ill, a fortune-teller attributed his malady to the spirits Shih Ch'en and T'ai-t'ai. Tzu-ch'an of Cheng was invited to advise the court on the matter and explained that T'ai-t'ai was descended from the sage-king Shao-hao and from Mei, an ancient river control official, who had dredged the Fen River and made his home at T'ai-yüan. The sage-king Chuan-hsü was believed to have enfeoffed him with the Fen River area. After T'ai-t'ai's death, he was worshipped as God of the Fen River (Fen-shui-shen).

Shih Ch'en was one of two sons of the sage-king Ti-k'u. The brothers fought and were later separated by the sage-king Yao, who enfeoffed Shih Ch'en in the area of Ta-hsia (Chin-yang). He also became the god of the constellation Mixture (Shen), which ruled over the kingdom of Chin and was the ancestor of Shu-yü of T'ang.

8. The stele was erected in 646. It bears a ming inscription in running-style calligraphy by Emperor T'ai-tsung (r. 626-649) recording his father Kao-tsu's pilgrimage to the Chin Temple at the beginning of his struggle to establish the T'ang dynasty.

9. See Li Tao-yüan, Shui-ching-chu 6:39b ( SPPY ed.). The bridge, which may date from the Northern Sung, spans a square pond fed by a spring known as the Fish Pond (Yü-chao); shaped like a cross, the bridge resembles a bird in flight.

10. In 472 B.C., Earl Chih, an ambitious noble of Chin, demanded territory from Hsiang-tzu of Chao (r. 475-425 B.C.). When Hsiang-tzu refused, Earl Chih attacked him and diverted the Chin River to flood the city of Chin-yang, where Hsiang-tzu had sought refuge. Despite this ploy, Hsiang-tzu was later able to defeat Earl Chih and take possession of his lands.

11. Chin-yang was the capital of the Northern Han. In 969, the Northern Sung emperor T'ai-tsu (r. 960-976) inspected Chin-yang and ordered an embankment built to divert the Fen and Chin rivers and flood the city. With the help of Khitan allies, the Northern Han was able to survive. Ten years later the rivers were diverted by Emperor T'ai-tsung (r. 976-997); the city was again inundated and the Northern Han finally destroyed.

12. Celestial Dragon Mountain (T'ien-lung-shan) is located in the southwest of modern T'ai-yüan, Shan-hsi.

13. An allusion to Chuang-tzu 45:17:88: ". . . minnows swim about contentedly."

14. Yün-chung is modern Ta-t'ung, Shan-hsi.

15. The Mulberry River (Sang-kan-ho) flows through northern Shan-hsi and western Ho-pei and forms the upper reaches of the Eternally Tranquil River (Yung-ting-ho). The Hu-t'o River (Hu-t'o-ho) begins at Five Terraces Mountain in Shan-hsi and flows into western Ho-pei, where it forms the northern reaches of the Tzu-ya River (Tzu-ya-ho).

16. Geese Gate Mountain (Yen-men-shan; see above, 29. Ma Ko, Dragon Mountain , note 4), in the northwestern part of Tai District, Shan-hsi, is also known as Winding Current Mountain (Kou-chu-shan). "Winding Current" refers to the flow of the river around the convoluted shape of the mountain.

17. The legendary sage-king Chin-t'ien, also known as Shao-hao, was the son of the Yellow Emperor. The god T'ai-t'ai was believed to have descended from him.

18. Translated from Chu I-tsun, P'u-shu-t'ing chi 67:5a-5b ( SPPY ed.).

1. Shao Yüan-p'ing, artistic name Chieh-an, had named his villa after Wang Wei's estate, Wheel River. The Hall of the Four Acceptable Things (Szu-k'o-lou) was originally the name of a pavilion on Wang's estate as well.

2. The Double Seventh Festival (Ch'i-hsi) is the Midsummer Festival, falling on the seventh day of the seventh lunar month.

3. The Pavilion for Releasing Cranes (Fang-ho-t'ing) was originally built during the Chih-yüan era (1335-1340) on the site where the hermit Lin Pu (see next note) had once released cranes. It was later rebuilt in the Chia-ching era (1522-1566).

4. Lin Pu (957-1028) was a native of Hang-chou known for his poetry and painting who declined to serve in government. He retired to Solitary Hill and lived there alone for some twenty years, becoming a symbol of purity associated with plum blossoms and cranes. He built his own tomb on the north side of the hill and was honored posthumously by the Sung emperor Jen-tsung (r. 1022-1063). The tomb became a shrine over the centuries, although when it was opened during the Yüan dynasty, only an inkstone and a jade hairpin were found.

5. The Two Eminences (Liang-kao) are North Eminence (Pei-kao-feng) and South Eminence (Nan-kao-feng). South Screen (Nan-p'ing-shan) is located south of West Lake.

6. The Dragon King (Lung-wang) is a water god in popular religion, frequently sacrificed to in times of drought.

7. Lu Chih (754-805) was a powerful T'ang official during the reign of Emperor Te-tsung (r. 779-804) who rose to vice-director of the Secretariat. The shrine dedicated to him was located in the southern part of Solitary Hill. The original text refers to him by his posthumous name, "Hsüan."

8. History generally regarded Chia Szu-tao (1213-1275), who served under the Southern Sung emperors Li-tsung (r. 1224-1264) and Tu-tsung (r. 1264- hard

1274), as a traitorous official. His Garden of Deferred Pleasures (Hou-le-yüan) was named after Fan Chung-yen's famous dictum, "First feel concern for the concerns of the world. Defer pleasure until the world can take pleasure." It was ideally located, with a path leading from it directly to the lake.

9. Ko's Ridge (Ko-ling), on the north side of West Lake, was named after the Taoist Ko Hung, who was said to have created elixirs here.

10. The Water-and-Bamboo Villa (Shui-chu-yüan) was another residence of Chia Szu-tao's, landscaped with many bamboo plants.

11. On Su's Embankment (Su-ti), see above, 38. Yüan Hung-tao, An Evening Stroll to the Six Bridges to Await the Moon , note 3.

12. The Feng -Bird Forest Temple (Feng-lin-szu) was associated with the monk Yüan-hsiu (735-833), who built a retreat here in the beginning of the Ch'angch'ing era (821-824). A friend of Po Chü-i's when Po was magistrate, Yüanhsiu liked to sit in a pine tree where magpies built their nest. The temple was renovated during the Hsüan-te era (1426-1435) and given this name.

13. Translated from Shao Ch'ang-heng, Shao Tzu-hsiang ch'üan-chi: lü-kao shih-wen 4:3a-3b (1700-1702 ed.).

1. An allusion to the inability of later men to retrace the fisherman's path to utopia in T'ao Ch'ien's fable "Record of Peach Blossom Spring."

2. Mei-yüan and Ching-szu remain unidentified, no mention being made of their surnames, although K'ung Shang-jen elsewhere recorded their personal names as Cho and K'o, respectively.

3. The Double Ninth Festival (Ch'ung-yang) falls on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month.

4. An allusion to Ch'un-ch'iu 213: Ch'eng 2: Tso fu 4, which records the pursuit of the army of Ch'i three times around Flower Calyx Mountain after their defeat in 589 B.C. See also above, 28. Yüan Hao-wen, A Trip to Chi-nan , note 15.

5. The Terrace of the Chinned Pearl (Han-chu-t'ai) derived its name from a mythological image in which the moon appears to be a pearl held by a dragon between its chin and throat.

6. Yang Hu (221-278), who held the rank of generalissimo of the Southern Campaigns, was instrumental in conquering the Wu area for the Western Chin dynasty. He often enjoyed the scenery on Mount Hsien near his headquarters in Hsiang-yang in present-day Hu-pei. After his death, the local people mourned him and built a temple there, erecting a stele to his memory, which Tu Yu (735-812) later titled "The Stele of Falling Tears" ( To-lei-pei ). See Chin shu 4:34:1022 (Peking, 1974 ed.).

7. K'ung Yen-shih and K'ung Shang-jen, though nephew and uncle, were about the same age. Yen-shih was noted for his paintings and his theoretical treatise Secrets of Painting ( Hua-chüeh ).

8. A Northern Sung prime minister, T'ao Ku (903-970), often followed the exact wording of his predecessors in drafting decrees. This caused Emperor T'ai-tsu of the Sung (r. 960-976) to criticize him as "painting gourds by imitating the same model." See Wei T'ai, Tung-hsüan pi-lu 1:4 ( TSCC ed.).

9. Hsi Shih, who lived in the early fifth century B.C., was one of the most renowned of Chinese beauties. A fable relates that once, when Hsi Shih fell ill, she knitted her brows in discomfort, which only added to her charm. An ugly woman in the neighboring village to the east sought to imitate her but only ended up looking more repulsive. See Chuang-tzu 38:14:42.

10. "A Poem to Judge Liu Chin and Mr. Cheng Who Serves in Hsia-ch'iu on the Occasion of a Banquet on Stone Gate Mountain" ( Liu Chiu fa-ts'ao Cheng Hsia-ch'iu shih-men yen-chi; CTS 7:2393) was probably written shortly after 736 when Tu Fu (712-770)journeyed to Shan-tung. Hsia-ch'iu was a district next to Stone Gate.

11. See Meng-tzu 25:3 B:9, where Mencius criticizes his contemporaries for following either the egocentric philosophy of Yang Chu (fl. ca. 4th cent. B.C.) or the doctrine of "universal love" ( chien-ai ) espoused by Mo Ti (ca. 479-ca. 381 B.C.). K'ung Shang-jen, as might be expected, felt it to be his responsibility to promote Confucian values and discourage Taoism and Buddhism.

12. There is not much evidence from Confucius himself on his relationship to The Book of Changes except the ambiguous passage in Lun-yü 12:7:17 that may be read: "Confucius said, 'If I were to be granted more years to my life, I would spend fifty of them studying The Book of Changes .'" Chinese tradition believed that Confucius began studying the hexagrams at a late age and edited the various strata of interpretations then current. In Ch'ü-fu, local legend identified Stone Gate as the place where this occurred.

13. The ting sacrifice ( ting-chi ) was held for Confucius and various sage-kings on the first occurrence of the day ting in the second month of each of the four seasons.

14. K'ung Sheng-yu was hereditary head of the K'ung clan in the forty-sixth generation, acceding to the title of Duke of Literary Annunciation in 1021.

15. See Meng-tzu 28:4A:14, where "two elders" ( er-lao ) refers to the recluses Po-yi and Lü Wang. K'ung uses the term to refer to the two monasteries just mentioned.

16. Huang Kung-wang (1269-1354), one of the four great masters of Yüan literati painting, was noted for his compositions of terraced mountains, highly calligraphic brushstrokes, and his sparing use of ink. His style greatly influenced the orthodox school of landscape painting during the late Ming and Ch'ing dynasties.

17. Huang Ch'ao (d. 884) led a ten-year-long rebellion during the reign of Emperor Hsi-tsung of the T'ang (r. 873-88). He succeeded in gaining control of a widespread uprising already under way and eventually captured the capital, proclaiming himself emperor and forcing Hsi-tsung to flee to Szu-ch'uan. The rebellion was finally defeated by Li K'o-yung (856-908) in 885.

18. Geese Creek silk ( O-hsi-hsiao ) was a local product from Szu-ch'uan that was first submitted as tribute to the T'ang court. Its shiny white surface was in great demand for calligraphy, particularly among such Sung literati as Su Shih.

19. An allusion to Meng-tzu 52:7A:24. See Introduction, note 42.

20. The River Wei (Wei-ch'uan) originates near modern Lan-chou, Kan-su, and flows into the Yellow River at T'ung-kuan, Shan-hsi. It was recorded in the earliest geographical works owing to its proximity to ancient capitals, including Ch'ang-an. The pastoral landscape by the River Wei was archetypally evoked by the T'ang poet Wang Wei.

21. The Jade Emperor (Yü-huang) is one of the highest gods in the Taoist pantheon. According to some cosmologies, he rules over the Three Universes of Heaven, the ten directions, the four species of life, and the six levels of existence.

22. Yüan-ch'iao and Fang-hu are two of five mythical isles east of the Gulf of Po-hai mentioned in Lieh-tzu 5:4a ( SPPY ed.). They were believed to be dwelling places of Transcendents.

23. The Earth God (Hou-t'u) has a bewildering number of forms, including the patron deity of the soil, various imperial ancestors, and an earth-mother figure. The god was first sacrificed to formally by Emperor Wu of the Western Hah in 113 B.C. with ceremonies appropriate to various kings of Heaven.

24. The Azurc Emperor (Ch'ing-ti) is one of the five mythical rulers of the universe. His symbolic color is azure, his domain, the east, and his season, spring. He also appears astronomically as the Wood Star (Mu-hsing), corresponding to Jupiter.

25. Pien was part of the ancient state of Lu, located in the eastern section of modern Szu-shui, Shan-tung. "Lu" refers here to Ch'ü-fu, the capital of the ancient state of Lu.

26. A version of Biographies of Eminent Men ( Kao-shih chuan ) by Huang-fu Mi (215-282), courtesy name Shih-an, contains a short biography of the Morning Gatekeeper as follows: "There is someone called the Morning Gatekeeper of Stone Gate, a man of Lu who withdrew from the world. He refused to hold office and dwelled in seclusion, also going by the name of 'Master of the Stone Gate of Lu,' whereby he oversaw its opening and closing, day and night. When Tzu-lu was a disciple of Confucius, he passed through Stone Gate and spent the night there. The Morning Gatekeeper asked him, 'From whom do you come?' Tzu-lu replied, 'From Confucius!' and the Gatekeeper ridiculed Confucius by saying, 'Ah, he is the one who realizes the impossibility of things yet continues to attempt them.' People of that time considered him a worthy.'' See T'ai-p'ing yü-lan 507:Ia ( SPTK ed.). The incident involving Tzu-lu was originally taken from Lun-yü 30: 14: 38.

27. Tzu-lu's carrying rice to sustain his parents is a well-known incident that appears in various sources. One version states: "Formerly, when Tzu-lu was serving his parents, he would often eat pulse himself while he would carry rice for his parents from villages more than thirty miles away. After his parents died, he served as advisor in Ch'u, had an entourage of a hundred carriages, and stored up ten thousand bushels of maize, He sat on layers of cushions and ate from an array of bronze vessels. Yet he yearned for pulse and for the time when he was serving his parents—this could never be recaptured" (Ch'en Shih-k'o, ed., K'ung-tzu chia-yü shu-cheng [ TSCC ed.], p. 48).

28. On Black Warrior (Hsüan-wu), see above, 33. Sung Lien, Bell Mountain , note 28.

29. See I ching: Lü 10/2: 2 hsiang (hexagram 10, "Treading"): "Nine in the second place: He travels a level road; the secluded person perseveres and gains good fortune." Richard Wilhelm comments: "The situation of a lonely sage is indicated here. He remains withdrawn from the bustle of life, seeks nothing, asks nothing of anyone, and is not dazzled by enticing goals. He is true to himself and travels through life unassailed, on a level road. Since he is content and does not challenge fate he remains free of entanglements" (Wilhelm, trans. [into German], The I Ching, or Book of Changes , translated into English by Cary F. Baynes, Bollingen Series 19, 3d ed. [Princeton, 1967], p. 46).

30. Tu Fu's "The Secluded Person" ( Yu-jen ) was written while he was residing in modern Hu-nan. The first lines run: "The solitary cloud also travels with others / For spiritual things have such inclinations" ( CTS 7:2287).

31. K'ung quotes lines 1-10 of a sixteen-line poem, no. 4 in a group collectively titled "Nine Poems in the Ancient Maimer" ( Ni-ku chiu-shou ) by T'ao Ch'ien. The Hundred-Foot Tower (Pai-ch'ih-lou) stood in the northwest of Lo-yang and provided a view of the Mang Hills (Mang-shan) to the north of the city, which contained the graves of nobles and officials; see Ching-chieh hsien-sheng chi 4:2b-3a ( SPPY ed.) and map 2.

32. Golden Powder (Chin-hsieh) was a spring on Wang Wei's estate at Wheel River, which he celebrated in his cycle of poems.

33. Ch'i was a feudal state during the Chou dynasty, destroyed in 221 B.C. As a general geographical designation, it refers here to the area of northern Shantung. Likewise Lu, destroyed in 256 B.C., means more broadly southwestern Shan-tung, especially Ch'ü-fu. The ancient kingdom of Shu, in the west of modern Szu-ch'uan, was destroyed in 316 B.C. The area is isolated by mountains and the road to it was traditionally regarded as difficult to travel. K'ung Shang-jen alludes to the remoteness of Shu by using the names of two of its ancient kings, Ts'an-ts'ung and Yü-fu.

34. An allusion to the inhabitants of T'ao Ch'ien's Peach Blossom Spring, who fled to their isolated hamlet to escape the tyranny of the Ch'in dynasty.

35. Cheng P'u, courtesy name Tzu-chen, was an eremite in the Eastern Han who lived in a place called Mouth of the Vale (Ku-k'ou), where he practiced Taoist self-cultivation. Legend has it that he sang highly transcendental songs without words that had a positive moral influence on the official world at the time. He is briefly mentioned in Han shu 10:3056.

36. Sec Lun-yü 12:7:11, where Tzu-lu is criticized by Confucius for being one of his more impetuous disciples. Somewhat jealous over the Master's preference for Yen Yüan, "Tzu-lu asked, 'If you were to command an entire army, whom would you have along with you?' Confucius said, 'I would not have one who would kill a tiger with his bare hands or ford a river without a boat, not caring whether he died or not. But I would certainly need one who approached matters with caution, who would plan strategies and carry them out.'"

37. Azure Dragon (Ch'ing-lung) is an auspicious creature ruling in the east. He is regarded as one of the Four Guardian Spirits; astronomically, Azure Dragon is a group of seven constellations in the eastern sky.

38. Lines 11 and 12 from Li Po's poem "Escorting Han Chun, P'ei Cheng, and K'ung Ch'ao-fu Back to the Mountain" ( Sung Han Chun, P'ei Cheng, K'ung Ch'ao-fu huan-shan ; CTS 7: 1791).

39. His Excellency Lü was the father of Empress Lü (241-180 B.C.), consort of Liu Pang, later Emperor Kao-tsu of the Han (r. 206-195 B.C.). Skilled in the art of physiognomy, he recognized the imperial qualities of Liu Pang when the latter was living in relative obscurity, and had the foresight to betroth his daughter to him. He was later enfeoffed in this area as marquis of Lin-szu. See Han shu 12:3937.

40. The Pavilion for Cleansing Ears (Hsi-er-t'ing) is named after the incident in which the sage-king Yao offered to yield the empire to the eremite Hsü Yu. Hsu felt so defiled by the mention of such worldly ambition that he washed out his ears.

41. A fable relates that Wang Chih of the Eastern Chin went into the mountains to gather wood and came across two youths playing chess who gave him dates to soothe his hunger. When the game was over, one of the youths pointed out that Wang's ax handle had rotted away. When Wang returned to his village, he found that a century had elapsed. Sec Shui-ching-chu 40:7a.

42. The Taoist god Shao-t'ung lived during the time of the Yellow Emperor and is associated with herbal medicine, serving on the committee of Learned Men in the Celestial Ministry of Medicine. The god Tzu-t'ung, according to one version, was the historical Chang Ya who taught school in Tzu-t'ung, Szu-ch'uan, during the T'ang; other legends place him in the Chin dynasty and claim that after his death he reappeared to perform miracles for various T'ang and Sung emperors. He was later canonized in the Yüan as the God of Literature (Wen-ch'ang) and is associated with a constellation of six stars that forms part of the Big Dipper. He was particularly venerated by the literati, who prayed to him for success in the official examinations. During the Ming and Ch'ing dynasties every school erected a shrine to him, and his birthday was celebrated in temples on the third day of the second lunar month.

43. Chang Shu-ming is mentioned in Tu Fu's Random Jottings ( Tsa-shu ) as a lifelong friend of great intellectual brilliance. He was included with Li Po in a group of six hedonistic scholars known as the "Six Untrammeled Scholars of Bamboo Stream" (Chu-hsi liu-i), with whom the young Li Po spent a period of retreat on First Encounter Mountain (Ts'u-lai-shan), located southeast of modern T'ai-an, Shan-tung. Set Chiu T'ang shu 15:5053.

44. The "Two Poems Written to Mr. Chang Who Dwells in Seclusion" ( T'i Chang-shih yin-chü er-shou ) were probably composed by Tu Fu around the same time as his poem to Judge Liu Chiu and Mr. Cheng. Sec CTS 7:2391.

45. On the Queen Mother of the West, see above, Introduction, notes 32 and 36.

46. Translated from K'ung Shang-jen, K'ung Shang-jen shih-wen chi , ed. Wang Wei-lin (Peking, 1962), pp. 416-422.

1. Throughout the diary, the author refers to Nanking as "Chiang-ning," a prefecture that was the formal name of the city under the Ch'ing, or by its historical name of Chin-ling.

2. P'u-k'ou, now within the city of Nanking, was earlier a separate town on the northern bank of the Long River across from the city, through which travelers usually passed on their way north.

3. Tai refers to Peking as "Yen," originally the name of an ancient Chou dynasty kingdom. Later the name was applied loosely to the area in Ho-pei province around Peking, and to the capital itself.

4. Ch'u Prefecture included modern Ch'u District, An-hui, as well as such neighboring districts as Lai-an and Ch'üan-chiao.

5. Lu Hsiang-sheng (1600-1638) served as vice-minister of the Ministry of War. In 1635 he was placed in charge of suppressing the growing peasant rebellions against the Ming dynasty and later died resisting the Manchu invasion. Tsu K'uan (d. 1644) served as regional commander of Ning-y-an and later commissioner-in-chief. Also charged with quelling peasant rebellions, he was given the responsibility of defending the city of Chi-nan after the fall of Peking and died in battle after a series of miscalculations resulted in the fall of the city. The rebel Li Tzu-ch'eng (1606-1645) led the most powerful of the peasant revolts at the end of the Ming, capturing Peking, a victory that resulted in the suicide of the Ch'ung-chen Emperor (r. 1628-1644). After briefly establishing his own dynasty, the Shun, he was driven out of the capital by Manchu forces allied with Ming loyalist elements, and later killed. In February 1636, Li had attacked Ch'u Prefecture but was defeated at Vermilion Dragon Bridge (Chu-lung-ch'iao) by Ming armies under Lu and Tsu. The slaughter of peasant rebels was said to have been so great that their bodies blocked the flow of the Ch'u River.

6. Su-sung and Huai-ning districts are both in the southwest of modern Anhui along the Long River.

7. Modern Ting-yüan, An-hui.

8. Feng-yang, An-hui, was then a prefecture that included modern Feng-yang, T'ien-ch'ang, Ting-yüan, and Huo-ch'iu districts.

9. T'ai-p'ing was a prefecture approximately corresponding to modern Tang-t'u, An-hui.

10. Lin-huai was a town located in the eastern part of modern Feng-yang, Anhui, and a point where travelers crossed the Huai River.

11. Modern Ling-pi, An-hui.

12. Full Moon ( yüeh-wang ) falls on the fifteenth day of each lunar month.

13. Modern Su District, Chiang-su.

14. The temple was dedicated to Min Tzu-ch'ien (536-487 B.C.), a disciple of Confucius.

15. Empress Hsiao-tz'u (1332-1382), was the wife of Chu Yüan-chang, Emperor T'ai-tsu of the Ming.

16. The Terrace of Sporting Horses (Hsi-ma-t'ai) was located in the southern part of modern T'ung-shan, Chiang-su. It was made famous in the I-hsi era of the Eastern Chin dynasty (405-418) by Liu Yü, who once entertained friends here for nine days of drinking and poetry writing.

17. Su Shih served as prefect of Hsü-chou from 1077 to 1079. He recommended to Emperor Shen-tsung in a letter dated November 1078 that the Terrace of Sporting Horses be fortified, but the wording differs from Tai's quote. See Su Shih, Tung-p'o ch'üan-chi 2:4b-5a ( SPPY ed.).

18. Benefit the Nation Station (Li-kuo-i) was located twenty-eight miles to the northeast in T'ung-shan, Chiang-su, on the border with Shan-tung Province.

19. An allusion to Liu Pei, Emperor Chao-lieh of Shu-Han (r. 221-223), who vainly attempted to unite China during the Three Kingdoms period. His campaign was stalled in Ching-chou for several years, and one day he noticed fat growing on his thighs, a sign of his military inaction. Liu lamented the passage of time and feared he would grow old without accomplishing his goal.

20. Modern T'eng District, Shan-tung.

21. Modern Tsou District, Shan-tung.

22. The Temple of Mencius (Meng-tzu-miao) is dedicated to Meng K'o (Mencius) (ca. 372-ca. 289 B.C.), the second principal philosopher of the Confucian school, who was from this district. The temple to Mencius was first built beside his tomb in 1037 and was later moved to the present site in 1121. By the Ming, it had reached its present proportions; it has been restored thirty-eight times over the years.

23. Located in the southeast part of Tsou District, Mount I stands 1,820 feet high. It was mentioned in such ancient texts as The Book of Documents and The Book of Poetry and was visited by the First Emperor of Ch'in, who left an inscription.

24. Modern Wen-shang, Shan-tung.

25. The first line alludes to a poem, "South Mountain" ( Nan-shan; Shih ching 20:101:1), that is traditionally read as a criticism of incest and adultery. During the Spring and Autumn period, Wen-chiang, wife of Duke Huan of Lu (r. 711-694 B.C.), had an affair with her elder brother, Duke Hsiang of Ch'i (r. 697-686 B.C.). The first stanza reminds Duke Hsiang that the "lady of Ch'i" is married and has taken the road to her husband in Lu. The second line of Tai's poem alludes to an anecdote in Lun-yü 10:6:9 about the disciple Min Tzu-ch'ien, who preferred to remain in We,-shang rather than serve as an official to an unworthy nobleman, Chi-sun.

26. The old district town of Tung-o was located in the southern part of modern Tung-o, Shan-tung.

27. See Shang-shu: Chiu kao 1:205-208, which contains an injunction by King Wu of the Chou dynasty (fl. mid-late 11th cent. B.C.) against groups of men drinking; the order was addressed to the king's younger brother, K'ang-shu.

28. Modern Ch'ih-p'ing, Shan-tung.

29. Modern Kao-t'ang, Shan-tung.

30. Waist Station (Yao-chan) was located in the southwest part of modern P'ing-yüan, Shan-tung.

31. Yen and Chao refer to the general area of modern Ho-pei and Shan-hsi provinces.

32. Modern Fu-ch'eng, Ho-pei.

33. Shang Family Grove (Shang-chia-lin) was located in the southern part of modern Ho-chien, Ho-pei.

34. Modern Jen-ch'iu, Ho-pei.

35. White Channel (Pai-kou) is a town located in the eastern part of modern Jung-ch'eng, Ho-pei.

36. Located in the eastern part of Fang-shan in modern Peking.

37. Modern Cho District, Ho-pei.

38. On Fang Pao, see the headnote to 47. Geese Pond Mountain , below.

39. Tso Kuang-tou (1575-1625), from An-ch'ing, T'ung-ch'eng (modern T'ung-ch'eng, An-hui), was a leader of the Eastern Forest Society of Confucian activists who sought to revive the declining Ming dynasty. In 1624, as censor-in-chief of the left, he impeached the powerful eunuch Wei Chunghsien (1568-1627), as a result of which he himself was arrested and died in prison.

40. Reed Channel Bridge (Lu-kou-ch'iao) crosses the Eternally Pacified River (Yung-ting-ho) to the west of Peking and is one of the traditional entrances into the city. It is known to Westerners as the Marco Polo Bridge.

41. Chang Ying (1637-1708) was, like Tai Ming-shih himself, from T'ungch'eng, An-hui. A Metropolitan Graduate during the K'ang-hsi era (1662-1722), he rose to grand secretary of the Hall of Literary Glory and concurrently minister of rites.

42. Translated from Tai Ming-shih, Tai Ming-shih chi , ed. Wang Shu-min (Peking, 1986), pp. 294-297.

1. On Liu Tsung-yüan, see the headnote to 14. Eight Pieces from Yung Prefecture .

2. Floating Mountain (Fu-shan) is located thirty miles east of T'ung-ch'eng, An-hui, the writer's native place. It is surrounded by bodies of water, making the visitor feel that he is floating—thus its name. Assistance Mountain (Sheshan), also known as the Mountain Perched on Mist (Ch'i-hsia-shan), is located to the northeast of Nanking and is the site of an important Buddhist monastery. The Peak That Flew Here (Fei-lai-feng) is in Hang-chou, Chechiang, and is located opposite the Temple of Hidden Spirits (Ling-yin-szu).

3. "Original mind" ( pen-hsin ) is a concept widely employed in Chinese thought that identifies a fundamental moral or spiritual state of being untainted by desire. See, for example, Meng-tzu 45:6A:10, where Mencius discusses the loss of the original mind owing to a desire for luxuries beyond the limits of ritual and rightness.

4. See Li chi: Chung-yung 31:23: "Sincerity is not achieved by perfecting oneself first and then perfecting things. 'Perfecting one-self' is an act of humaneness; 'perfecting things' is a function of one's knowledge." K'ung Ying-ta's (574-648) commentary: "This means that when a man achieves complete sincerity, he does not stop with perfecting himself but can also bring other things to perfection."

Translated from Fang Pao, Fang Wang-hsi hsien-sheng ch'üan-chi 14:18a-19b ( SPTK ed.).

1. Ch'u Prefecture roughly corresponded to modern Li-shui District, Chechiang.

2. See Ch'un-ch'iu 429: Chao 29: Tso fu iv: "When things are half-hidden and obstructed, they are unable to flourish.

3. On Mount I (I-shan), see 46. Tai Ming-shih, Diary of a Journey North in the Year I-hai, note 23.

4. Like Liu Tsung-yüan and Su Shih, Yüan Mei speculated about the Creator-of-Things ( Tsao-wu-che ), a vaguely personified force that brings into being and sustains the natural world.

5. On Eminent Mountain (Sung-shan), see chapter 12. Li Ao, Diary of My Journey South , note 8.

6. See Lun-yü 12:7:8: "Confucius said, 'If I present one corner and he cannot return to me with the other three, then I cannot continue to teach him.'"

7. Translated from Yüan Mei, Hsiao-ts'ang-shan-fang hsü-wen-chi 29:6a-6b ( SPPY ed.).

1. White Mount (Pai-yüeh) is located in the west of modern Hsiu-ning, Anhui, and lies on the route to Yellow Emperor Mountain. The hot springs are located at the foot of the mountain as one enters. As described by Hsü Hungtsu when he visited it in 1616, there was a bathing pool formed by walls of rock, and its fragrant water gave off clouds of steam. Other travelers described the water as reddish in color and considered it to have medicinal properties. The hot springs are still visited today.

2. On the Temple of Compassionate Light, see above, 39. Ch'ien Ch'ien-i, Yellow Emperor Mountain , note 1.

3. The Nest-in-the-Clouds (Yün-ch'ao) is a huge hollow rock located on the path below Mañjusri's * Temple (Wen-shu-yüan) in the "Front Sea" (Ch'ienhai) of Yellow Emperor Mountain (see below, note 6).

4. On Mañjusri's * Temple, sec above, 39. Ch'ien, Yellow Emperor Mountain , note 6.

5. The Dragon Boat Festival (Tuan-wu-chieh), usually a warm summer occasion, falls on the fifth day of the fifth lunar month. Yüan Mei's journey took place a month before.

6. The upper heights of Yellow Emperor Mountain contain broad, sandy plateaus, and the onrushing clouds appear to surround the highest peaks forming islands; hence, the metaphor of "seas" is frequently used to denote these areas. The "Front Sea" extends through modern She, I, and Hsiu-ning districts; the "Rear Sea" (Hou-hai) is in T'ai-p'ing District, An-hui.

7. One Hundred Steps Through the Clouds (Pai-pu yün-t'i)—actually closer to four or five hundred steps—is a particularly precarious passage of stone steps at the foot of Lotus Peak. On each side, the rock walls plummet down into deep ravines.

8. Lotus Peak, about 6, 110 feet high, and Celestial Capital Peak, at 5,937 feet, are the two major scenic peaks of Yellow Emperor Mountain. Brilliant Summit (Kuang-ming-ting), at 6,041 feet, is actually the second highest.

9. Lion Grove Temple (Shih-lin-szu) was located on a flat plain of pines known as Lion Grove (Shih-tzu-lin) beneath Lion Peak (Shih-tzu-feng) on the route north.

10. Seeing-Is-Believing Peak (Shih-hsin-feng) stands 5,475 feet high on the eastern part of the mountain and is a particularly startling rock formation. It is approached by a narrow rock bridge high above a chasm. The name derives from an ancient traveler who abandoned his doubts about the mountain's beauty after having seen this peak. See figure 62.

11. The Gate to the Western Ocean (Hsi-hai-men) is formed by closely packed peaks on both sides that seem like a gateway to the western part of the mountain.

12. See Lun-yü 14:8:6: "Tseng-tzu said, 'He to whom one could entrust an orphaned prince only six ch'ih high or the fate of a state but a hundred li so that he would not lose hold of them in a crisis—would he be a Noble Man? He would indeed!'"

13. See Huai-nan-tzu 7:2a: "Turn the gall bladder into clouds." Hsü Shen's (ca. 58-ca. 147) commentary: "The gall bladder corresponds to the element 'metal.' Metal and stone give risc to clouds." This may refer to an alchemical method for becoming a Transcendent.

14. Translated from Yüan, Hsiao-ts'ang-shan-fang 29:7b-8b.

1. Floating Gauze Mountain (Lo-fu-shan), known for its more than one thousand waterfalls, is located in the northwest of modern Po-lo, Kuang-tung; the Stone Gate Mountain (Shih-men) referred to here is located in the western part of modern Ch'ing-t'ien, Che-chiang.

2. An allusion to the second of two poems by Li Po, "Gazing at the Waterfall on Hermitage Mountain" ( Wang lu-shan p'u-pu-shui er-shou ): "It cascades straight down three thousand ch'ih . Could it be the Silvery River falling from the Nine Heavens?" ( CTS 6:1837). The "Silvery River" (Yin-ho) refers to the Milky Way.

3. Liu Hsia-shang was Yüan Mei's student.

4. See Chuang-tzu 3:2:3: "If you have heard the piping of man, have you heard the piping of Earth? If you have heard the piping of Earth, have you heard the piping of Heaven?"

5. A reference to the North River (Pei-chiang), which flows through Kuangtung.

6. Translated from Yüan, Hsiao-ts'ang-shan-fang 29:10a-10b.

1. The Hsün-yang River (Hsün-yang-chiang) is a tributary of the Long River flowing through Hsün-yang, Chiang-hsi, north of the city of Chiu-chiang. The author refers to Lake P'o-yang by an ancient name, "P'cng-li," as well as another name, "Kung-t'ing" (Palace Pavilion), actually a smaller, contiguous lake named after a nearby temple.

2. Left Bank (Tso-li) is located in the northwest of modern Fu-ch'ang, Chiang-hsi.

3. Modern Hsing-tzu, Chiang-hsi.

4. White Deer Grotto (Pai-lu-tung) is located on the southeast of Hermitage Mountain about two miles from Hsing-tzu. According to legend, Li Po (773-831) and his elder brother came to dwell in retreat here in 785 and raised a white deer as a pet. In 825, when Li Po served as prefect of Chiang-chou, he built a terrace and pavilion on the spot. It first became a school during the civil wars at the end of the T'ang dynasty and later was an important NeoConfucian academy during the Sung associated with Chu Hsi. Five Elders Peak (Wu-lao-feng) is named after its five tall pinnacles grouped together like five old men.

5. Lesser Three Gorges (Hsiao-san-hsia) is named affer the considerably grander Three Gorges of the Long River in modern Szu-ch'uan and Hu-pei.

6. The Stream That Threads through the Tao (Kuan-tao-hsi) flows in front of the White Deer Grotto.

7. Three Gorges Torrent (San-hsia-chien) is west of Five Elders Peak and is fed by more than ninety streams. The crashing sound of its powerful current against the rocks suggests the perilous stretches of the Three Gorges of the Long River. Happiness Pavilion (Huan-hsi-t'ing) is located on the Ridge That Bites Hold of Lake P'o-yang (Han-p'o-ling); see below, note 9.

8. Mr. Li's Mountain Lodge (Li-shih shan-fang) was the residence and library of Li Ch'ang (1027-1090), a Presented Scholar during the Ching-yu era of the Northern Sung dynasty (1034-1037). He served as vice-censor-in-chief and stored his library of some nine thousand volumes, many of which were copied by himself, in the place on Hermitage Mountain where he studied when young.

9. The Ridge That Bites Hold of Lake P'o-yang is located along the middle heights of Hermitage Mountain and faces the lake.

10. Great Monad Peak (T'ai-i-feng) is named after the brightest star in the Northern Culmen (Pei-chi) of Chinese astrology. It is considered the generator of the cosmological Monad and is particularly associated with the ruler of the Chinese state.

11. Nan-ch'ang is modern Nan-ch'ang, Chiang-hsi. P'eng-tse is the name of an ancient district generally corresponding to modern Hu-k'ou, Chiang-hsi.

12. The Pool of the Jade Abyss (Yü-yüan-t'an), on the south side of Hermitage Mountain, is part of the lower reaches of Three Gorges Torrent. It is one of a string of seven or eight ponds formed as the torrent flows through numerous plateaus. The Temple of Perching Worthies (Ch'i-hsien-szu), one of the five major Buddhist temples on Hermitage Mountain, was built below Five Elders Peak during the Southern Ch'i dynasty.

13. The Temple of Myriad Firs (Wan-shan-szu), allother of the five major temples, was located below Auspicious Clouds Peak (Ch'ing-yün-feng). In the T'ang it was named Auspicious Clouds Monastery (Ch'ing-yün-yüan); during the Ching-te era of the Northern Sung dynasty (1004-1007) it was renamed when the monks reforested the area with firs.

14. Flourishing Peak Temple (Hsiu-feng-szu), another of the five major temples, was located below Singing Crane Peak (Ho-ming-feng) in the southeastern foothills. It was built by Li Ching, Central Ruler of the Southern T'ang dynasty (r. 943-961), on the site where he had studied. Originally named the Inauguration Temple (K'ai-hsien-szu), it was renamed by the K'ang-hsi Emperor (r. 1661-1722) when he visited it on one of his southern tours.

15. Green Jade Gorge (Ch'ing-yü-hsia) is located in front of Flourishing Peak Temple. A striking scene is formed by two cascades, Horsetail (Ma-wei-shui), which falls from between Singing Cranes and Tortoise Back (Kuei-pei-feng) peaks, and, opposite, the Waterfall (P'u-pu-ch'üan), which shoots out from Matched Swords Peak (Shuang-chien-feng) into the gorge; see figure 63. Incense Burner Peak (Hsiang-lu-feng) is located on the northwestern side of Hermitage Mountain and derives its name from its shape, its extraordinary peak suddenly protruding. Together with another waterfall below, it is considered by many the most majestic scene on the mountain.

16. The T'ang poet Li Po is said to have taken refuge here behind Five Elders Peak to avoid the An Lu-shan Rebellion. A building below Censor Peak was later named Li Po's Study (T'ai-po tu-shu-t'ang).

17. The Temple That Gazes at the Clouds (Chan-yün-szu), built by Wang Hsi-chih, was located below Golden Wheel Peak (Chin-lun-feng) and was considered one of the five great Buddhist temples of Hermitage Mountain. Wang Hsi-chih's Pond for Washing Away Ink (Yu-chüin mo-ch'ih) is located within the temple compound.

18. The White Crane Monastery (Pai-ho-kuan), located below Five Elders Peak, was first built in 683 during the T'ang.

19. Grain Village (Su-li), at the foot of Yellow Dragon Mountain (Huanglung-shan), is traditionally the site of a residence of the poet T'ao Ch'ien. The Rock for Drunken Slumber (Wo-tsui-shih) is where T'ao is reputed often to have slept when drunk.

20. Chien-chi's Monastery (Chien-chi-kuan) is located below Golden Cock Peak (Chin-chi-feng) and is built on the site where the Taoist Lu Hsiu-ching lived during the Ta-ming era of the [Liu] Sung dynasty (457-464). Lu was given the posthumous name Chien-chi (Austere Solitude).

21. The Yellow Cliff Temple (Huang-yen-szu) below Matched Swords Peak was first built by the T'ang monk Chih-ch'ang.

22. Han-yang Peak (Han-yang-feng), at 4,8.35 feet, is the highest point on Hermitage Mountain, said to afford a commanding view for more than a hundred miles as far as the Long and Han rivers.

23. Translated from Yün Ching, Ta-yün-shan-fang wen-kao 3:11b-12a ( SPPY ed.).

1. Pao Chao wrote ''Rhapsody on the Weedy Citadel" ( Wu-ch'eng fu , 459-460) after a revolt in 456 by Liu Yen, prince of Ching-ling, was brutally suppressed. This followed upon an invasion of the city by Northern Wei forces in 450. The Weedy Citadel in Yang-chou was an ancient fortress whose dilapidated appearance symbolized the city's destruction.

2. Shu Hill (Shu-kang) is a prominent ridge located slighty more than a mile northwest of the city, the site of temples, pavilions, and gardens. Stretching about twelve miles, it was said to extend all the way to Shu (modern western Szu-ch'uan), hence its name. However, Er-ya: Shih-shan 22:11:4 provides another possible origin, explaining shu as meaning standing independently like an insect walking alone.

3. The Garden That Rests on Rainbows (I-hung-yüan) was located near the Rainbow Bridge (Hung-ch'iao) at Slender West Lake (Shou-hsi-hu). It was a popular establishment for meeting friends and dining noted for its waterside pavilions. See figure 64.

4. The West Garden (Hsi-yüan) on Shu Hill was a large garden built in 1751 and visited by the Ch'ien-lung Emperor (r. 1735-1795). Among its attractions were the "Fifth Purest Spring Under Heaven."

5. Chicken-head ( ch'ien ) is a plant whose seeds are used medicinally.

6. A paraphrased allusion to lines in Pao Chao's "On the Weedy Citadel"; see Pao Chao, Pao-shih chi 1:4a ( SPPY ed.).

7. Kung had visited Yang-chou in 1820. Sung Hsiang-feng (1776-1860) was from Ch'ang-chou (modern Su-chou), Chiang-su, and was at one time a close friend of Kung Tzu-chen.

8. Translated from Kung Tzu-chen, Ting-an hsü-chi 3:1a-1b ( SPPY ed.).