1. Notable recent works are Gaye Tuchman, Making the News: A Study in the Construction of Reality (New York: Free Press, 1978); Dan Schiller, Objectivity and the News (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981); Harvey L. Molotch and Marilyn Lester, "News as Purposive Behavior," American Sociological Review 39:101-12 (1974), "Accidental News: The Great Oil Spill," American Journal of Sociology 81:235-60 (1975); Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (New York: Pantheon Books, 1979).

1. An earlier version of this general account of what happened at Scottsdale was published in Nieman Reports , 37:31, 32-34 (Spring 1983).

1. John Kobler, Luce: His Time, Life, and Fortune (New York: Doubleday, 1968), p. 137.

2. Luce to Vandenberg, Jan. 12, 1948, in John K. Jessup, ed., The Ideas of Henry Luce (New York: Atheneum, 1969), p. 191.

3. W. A. Swanberg, Luce and His Empire (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1972), p. 24.

4. Ibid ., p. 24.

5. Ibid ., p. 29.

3. W. A. Swanberg, Luce and His Empire (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1972), p. 24.

4. Ibid ., p. 24.

5. Ibid ., p. 29.

3. W. A. Swanberg, Luce and His Empire (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1972), p. 24.

4. Ibid ., p. 24.

5. Ibid ., p. 29.

6. Jessup, Ideas of Henry Luce , p. 30.

7. Ibid ., p. 10.

8. Ibid ., p. 7.

6. Jessup, Ideas of Henry Luce , p. 30.

7. Ibid ., p. 10.

8. Ibid ., p. 7.

6. Jessup, Ideas of Henry Luce , p. 30.

7. Ibid ., p. 10.

8. Ibid ., p. 7.

9. Speech at Centennial of Lake Forest College, Illinois, March 25, 1957, in Jessup, Ideas of Henry Luce , pp. 320-323.

10. Jessup, Ideas of Henry Luce , p. 11.

11. Ibid ., p. 11.

12. Ibid .

10. Jessup, Ideas of Henry Luce , p. 11.

11. Ibid ., p. 11.

12. Ibid .

10. Jessup, Ideas of Henry Luce , p. 11.

11. Ibid ., p. 11.

12. Ibid .

13. Remarks at dinner for Time editors, Nov. 14, 1952, Jessup, Ideas of Henry Luce , p. 70.

14. Robert T. Elson, Time, Inc.: The Intimate History of a Publishing Enterprise, 1923-1941 (New York: Atheneum, 1968), p. 25.

15. Speech to the "Senior Group" of Time editors, writers, and executives, May 4, 1950, Jessup, Ideas of Henry Luce , p. 380.

16. Ibid ., pp. 89-90.

15. Speech to the "Senior Group" of Time editors, writers, and executives, May 4, 1950, Jessup, Ideas of Henry Luce , p. 380.

16. Ibid ., pp. 89-90.

17. Swanberg, Luce and His Empire , p. 225.

18. Jessup, Ideas of Henry Luce , p. 190.

19. Theodore H. White, In Search of History: A Personal Adventure (New York: Harper & Row, 1978), p. 211.

20. Jessup, Ideas of Henry Luce , pp. 378-380.

1. Edgar Snow, Journey to the Beginning (New York: Random House, 1958), p. 31.

1. Freda Utley, Odyssey of a Liberal (Washington, D.C.: Washington National Press, 1970), p. 207.

2. Agnes Smedley to McCracken Fisher et al., no date, Fisher Papers, Arizona State University.

3. Fisher Papers.

1. For an affectionate personal portrait of these middle-of-the-road intellectuals that recognizes their importance, see John K. Fairbank, Chinabound: A Fifty-Year Memoir (New York: Harper & Row, 1982).

2. On the Democratic League figures, see Suzanne Pepper, Civil War in China: The Political Struggle, 1945-1949 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1978).

1. For more information on Hurley's campaign against the Foreign Service officers, see E. J. Kahn, Jr., The China Hands: America's Foreign Service Officers and What Befell Them (New York: Penguin, 1976).

2. Barbara Tuchman, "If Mao Had Come to Washington: An Essay in Alternatives," Foreign Affairs 57:44 (October 1972).

3. For more detail on the cheng feng movement, see Mark Selden, The Yenan Way in Revolutionary China (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 188-200, and Frederick Teiwes, Politics and Purges in China (White Plains, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1979), pp. 64-78.

1. For details on the loan and US government motives, see Michael Schaller, The United States Crusade in China, 1938-1945 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1979), pp. 96-98.

2. James Reston, The Artillery of the Press: Its Influence an American Foreign Policy (New York: Harper & Row, 1966), p. 63.

3. See Lyman F. Van Slyke, ed., The China White Paper, August 1949 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1967) and Robert P. Newman, "The Self-Inflicted Wound: The China White Paper of 1949, " Prologue 14:141-56.

4. See especially Richard W. Steele, Propaganda in an Open Society (Westport, Ct.: Greenwood Press, 1985), pp. 97-125.

1. Tom Englehardt, "Long Day's Journey: American Observers in China, 1948-1950," in China and Ourselves , edited by Ross Terrill and Bruce Douglass (Boston: Beacon Press, 1969), pp. 90-121.

2. Theodore E. Kruglak, The Foreign Correspondents: A Study of the Men and Women Reporting for the American Information Media in Western Europe (Geneva: Libraire E. Droz, 1955; reprint, Westport, Ct.: Greenwood, 1974), and John C. Pollock, The Politics of Crisis Reporting: Learning to Be a Foreign Correspondent (New York: Praeger, 1981).

3. On Vietnam War correspondents, see Harrison Salisbury; ed., Vietnam Reconsidered: Lessons from a War (New York: Harper & Row, 1984); figures on Tokyo correspondents from Prof. George Packard, private communication, February 3, 1986.

4. See Joseph Esherick, ed., Lost Chance in China: World War II Dispatches of John S. Service (New York: Random House, 1974). Language deficiency and lack of background produced a failure of much greater dimensions in Japan where American journalists during the mid-1930s seriously misjudged the intentions and capabilities of the Japanese war machine. See Ernest May, "U.S. Press Coverage of Japan, 1931-1941," in Dorothy Borg and Shumpei Okamoto, eds., Pearl Harbor as History: Japanese-

American Relations 1931-1941 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1973), pp. 511-32.

5. Christopher Thorne, Allies of a Kind: The United States, Britain and the War against Japan, 1941-45 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978).

6. W. Phillips Davison, "Diplomatic Reporting: Rules of the Game," Journal of Communications 25:138-46 (Autumn 1975).

7. James Reston, The Artillery of the Press: Its Influence on American Foreign Policy (New York: Harper & Row, 1966); the cheng feng campaign of 1944 is discussed earlier in the text, see chapter 7; on the student movement, see Suzanne Pepper, Civil War in China (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1978).

8. The pioneering work on journalists of this generation is Leo C. Rosten, The Washington Correspondents (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1937); and of foreign correspondents, Bernard C. Cohen, The Press and Foreign Policy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1963). Recent works by sociologists are cited in the Preface. For analysis of China debates in Congress, see Kenneth Chern, "Politics of American China Policy, 1945: Roots of the Cold War in Asia," Political Science Quarterly 91:631-47 (Winter 1976-77), and Nancy Tucker, Patterns in the Dust: Chinese-American Relations and the Recognition Controversy, 1949-1950 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983).

9. The best work to date on Vietnam War journalists is Harrison Salisbury, ed., Vietnam Reconsidered; the book that originally stirred up the controversy is by Peter Braestrup, Big Story: How the American Press and Television Reported and Interpreted the Crisis of Tet in 1968 in Vietnam and Washington (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1977). At the Scottsdale conference and in the Salisbury volume it is evident that a generation gap exists between the veteran Asia correspondents from the 1940s and the younger journalists of the David Halberstam or Peter Arnett variety. The older generation views the younger as sensationalist and arrogantly ignorant about Asia. Bridging the gap are veteran Asian correspondents who arrived in the 1950s, like Stanley Karnow and Robert Shaplen.

10. Chieh-fang jih-pao , June 12, 1945. This practice in the Chinese press—of using a foreign story about China to make a domestic political point—has continued to this day. Reference News (Cankao xiaoxi) , which has a daily circulation of over eight million, is a compendium of translated news stories produced by the New China ( Xinhua ) News Agency. The selection

is understood by the Chinese public to convey political points that are often different from what the foreign writer intended. Observation based on author MacKinnon's two years in Peking, 1979-1981, working with the People's Daily and the New China News Agency.

11. For additional data on Liu, see Harold R. Isaacs, Re-encounters in China (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1985), pp. 95-110.

12. Excerpted from a paper read by Bill Powell at a University of Montana conference on "The China Hands' Legacy," April 19-20, 1984. Quoted with permission from conference organizer, Charles Hood.

13. Recently a new generation of American China reporters, able to be in situ in Peking for the first time since 1949, have produced remarkably similar books in terms of viewpoint and conclusions about China. Two even have the same title. See Fox Butterfield (New York Times), China: Alive in the Bitter Sea (New York: Times Books, 1982); John Fraser (Toronto Globe), The Chinese: Portrait of a People (New York: Summit Books, 1980); David Bonavia ( Times of London), The Chinese (New York: Lippincott and Crowell, 1980); Jay and Linda Mathews (Los Angeles Times), One Billion: A China Chronicle (New York: Random House, 1983); and Richard Bernstein (Time), From the Center of the Earth: The Search for Truth about China (Boston: Little, Brown, 1982).