1. Francisco Fernández del Castillo, Libros y libreros en el siglo XVI (1914) (Mexico City: Archivo General de la Nación y Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1982); Francisco Rodríguez Marín, El "Quijote" y Don Quijote en América (Madrid: Librería Hernando, 1911); Henry Thomas, Spanish and Portuguese Romances of Chivalry: The Revival of the Romance of Chivalry in the Spanish Peninsula, and Its Extension and Influence Abroad (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1920); José Torre Revello, El libro, la imprenta y el periodismo en América durante la dominación española (Buenos Aires: Jacobo Peuser, 1940); Ida Rodríguez Prampolini, Amadises de América: la hazaña de Indias como empresa caballeresca (Mexico City: Junta Mexicana de Investigaciones Históricas, 1948); Dorothy Schons, Book Censorship in New Spain (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1950).

2. Maxime Chevalier, Lectura y lectores en la España de los siglos XVI y XVII (Madrid: Ediciones Turner, 1976); B. W. Ife, Reading and Fiction in Golden-Age Spain: A Platonist Critique and Some Picaresque Replies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Daniel Eisenberg, Romances of Chivalry in the Spanish Golden Age (Newark, Del.: Juan de la Cuesta, 1982); Clive Griffin, The Crombergers of

Seville: The History of a Printing and Merchant Dynasty (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988); Luis Weckmann, La herencia medieval de México , 3 vols. (Mexico City: Colegio de México, 1984); Juan Gil, Mitos y utopías del descubrimiento , vol. 1: Colón y su tiempo ; vol. 2: El Pacífico ; vol. 3: El Dorado (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1989).

3. New studies on the exportation of books to colonial Spanish America and private libraries abound. See, for example, Carmen Arellano and Albert Meyers, "Testamento de Pedro Milachami, un curaca cañari en la región de los Wanka, Perú," Revista española de antropología americana 18 (1988): 95-127; Luis Jaime Cisneros and Pedro Guibovich Pérez, "Una biblioteca cuzqueña del siglo XVII," Histórica (Lima) 6 (1982): 141-171; Pedro Guibovich Pérez, "Libros para ser vendidos en el Virreinato del Perú a fines del siglo XVI,'' Boletín del Instituto Riva-Agüero (Lima) 13 (1984-1985): 85-114; idem, "Las lecturas de Francisco de Isásaga," Histórica (Lima) 10 (1986): 191-212; Teodoro Hampe Martínez, ''Los primeros libros en el Perú colonial," Fénix 28-29 (1983): 71-90; idem, "Presencia de un librero medinense en Lima (siglo XVI)," Revista histórica (Lima) 34 (1983-1984): 103-112; idem, "Lecturas de un jurista del siglo XVI: la biblioteca del doctor Gregorio González de Cuenca, presidente de la audiencia de Santo Domingo," Anuario de estudios americanos 41 (1984): 143-193; idem, "Libros profanos y sagrados en la biblioteca del tesorero Antonio Dávalos," Revista de Indias 178 (July-December 1986): 385-402; idem, "La biblioteca del virrey don Martín Enríquez: aficiones intelectuales de un gobernante colonial," Historia mexicana 142 (October-December 1986): 251-271; idem, "Lecturas de un jurista del siglo XVI: la biblioteca del licenciado Juan Bautista de Monzón, fiscal y oidor de Lima," Atenea 455 (1987): 237-251; idem, "La difusión de libros e ideas en el Perú colonial: análisis de bibliotecas particulares (siglo XVI)," Bulletin hispanique 89 (1987): 55-84; idem, "La biblioteca del arzobispo Hernando Arias de Ugarte: bagaje intelectual de un prelado criollo," Thesaurus 42 (1987): 337-361; idem, "Una biblioteca cuzqueña confiscada por la Inquisición," Anuario de estudios americanos 45 (1988): 273-315; Teodoro Hampe Martínez and Carlos A. González Sánchez, "La biblioteca de un pícaro indiano del siglo XVI: el cura Alonso de Torres Maldonado," Investigaciones y ensayos 36 (July-December 1987): 483-496; Helga Kropfinger von Kügelgen, "Exportación de libros europeos de Sevilla a la Nueva España en el año de 1586," in Libros europeos en la Nueva España a fines del siglo XVI , Das Mexiko-Projekt der Deutschen Forschungs-

gemeinschaft, vol. 5 (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1973); Guillermo Lohmann Villena, "Los libros españoles en Indias," Arbor (Madrid) 2, no. 6 (1944): 221-249; idem, "Libros, libreros y bibliotecas en la época virreinal," Fénix 21 (1971): 17-24; Agustín Millares Carlo, "Bibliotecas y difusión del libro en Hispanoamérica colonial: intento bibliográfico," Boletín histórico (Caracas) 22 (January 1970): 25-72; Aurelio Miró Quesada, ''Fray Luis de Granada en el Perù," Revistade la Universidad Católica (Lima) 11-12 (1982): 13-20; Stephen Mohler, "Publishing in Colonial Spanish America,'' Inter-American Review of Bibliograpby 28, no. 3 (1978): 2591-271; Ignacio Osorio Romero, Historia de las bibliotecas novobispanas (Mexico City: SEP, Dirección General de Bibliotecas, 1986); Francisco de Solano, "Fuentes para la historia cultural: libros y bibliotecas de la América colonial," in Ensayos de metodología histórica en el campo americanista (Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Centro de Estudios Históricos, 1985); and Guillermo Tovar de Teresa, La ciudad de México y la utopía en el siglo XVI (Mexico City: Espejo de Obsidiana, 1987). See also the fine catalog of the 1987 exhibition "Books in the Americas" at the John Carter Brown Library, Providence, Rhode Island (Julie Greer Johnson, The Book in the Americas: The Role of Books and Printing in the Development of Culture and Society in Colonial Latin America—Catalog of an Exhibition [Providence, R.I.: John Carter Brown Library, 1988]).

A notable recent contribution is Hampe Martínez's inventory and study of one of the most remarkable private libraries of colonial Spanish America, the three-thousand-volume collection of the mestizo priest of San Damián de Huarochirí, Peru, Francisco de Ávila, who is known both for his campaigns to extirpate idolatry and for his compilation of a major collection of information on Andean religion; see also Frank Salomon and George L. Urioste, The Huarochirí Manuscript: A Testament of Ancient and Colonial Andean Religion (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1991).

4. For instance, Carlos Alberto González Sánchez's recent work on books exported to America ("El libro y la carrera de Indias: 'Registro de ida de navíos,'" Archivo bispalense: revista histórica, literaria y artística [Seville] 72, no. 220 [1989]: 93-103) reaffirms the proportion of religious (75 percent) to secular (25 percent) works cited by Leonard nearly sixty years ago; see Leonard's Romances of Chivalry in the Spanish Indies: With Some Registros of Shipments of Books to the Spanish Colonies , University of California Publications in Modern Philology, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 217-372 (Berkeley: Uni-

versity of California Press, 1933), p. 230; and Books of the Brave , p. 105.

5. Charles Gibson made this break-through for colonial historical studies in Tlaxcala in the Sixteenth Century (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1952). For the culture of the conquistadores, see José Durand, La transformación social del conquistador , México y lo mexicano, 15-16 (Mexico City: Porrúa y Obregón, 1953); Mario Góngora, Los grupos de conquistadores en Tierra Firme (1509-1530) (Santiago: Centro de Historia Colonial, Universidad de Chile, 1962). For studies that reveal the complexity of cultural interactions and identities in early Spanish America, see George M. Foster, Culture and Conquest: America's Spanish Heritage , Viking Fund Publications in Anthropology, no. 27 (New York: Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, 1960); and, more recently, Serge Gruzinski, La colonisation de l'imaginaire: sociétés indigènes et occidentalisation dans le Mexique espagnol XVIe-XVIIIe siècle (Paris: Editions Gallimard, 1988); and Angel Rama, La ciudad letrada , introduction by Mario Vargas Llosa, prologue by Hugo Achugar (Hanover, N.H.: Ediciones del Norte, 1984).

6. Lewis Hanke, The Spanish Struggle for Justice in the Conquest of America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1949); R. B. Cunningham Graham, The Horses of the Conquest (1930), edited by Robert Moorman Denhardt (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1949). For the juxtaposition of these works with Leonard's in published reviews, see, for example, Don Guzmán, "Spaniards in America Described," Los Angeles Times , July 26, 1949; Max L. Moorhead, "Spanish Way Not All Roses," Oklahoman (Oklahoma City), July 31, 1949; and D. W. Maurer, ''Books the Caballeros Read, and Horses They Rode," Courier-Journal (Louisville, Ky.), January 8, 1950.

7. Thus Benjamin Keen ("The White Legend Revisited: A Reply to Professor Hanke's 'Modest Proposal,'" Hispanic American Historical Review 51, no. 2 [1971]: 336-355) assesses the Steins' work. See Stanley J. Stein and Barbara H. Stein, The Colonial Heritage of Latin America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970); Charles Gibson, The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule: A History of the Indians of the Valley of Mexico , 1519-1810 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1964). The continuity, rather than rupture, between these intellectual formulations and those of Leonard's generation is marked by Charles Gibson's having named his chaired professorship at the University of Michigan in honor of Irving A. Leonard;

see John J. TePaske, "An Interview with Irving A. Leonard," Hispanic American Historical Review 63, no. 2 (1983): 233-253.

8. John V. Murra, La organización economica del estado Inca , translated by Daniel R. Wagner (Mexico City: Siglo XXI, 1978); idem, The Economic Organization of the Inca State , Research in Economic Anthropology suppl. 1 (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, 1979).

9. Ángel María Garibay K., Historia de literatura nahuatl , vol. 1: Etapa autónoma: de c. 1430 a 1521 ; vol. 2: El trauma de la conquista (1521-1750) (1953-1954), 2d ed. (Mexico City, Porrúa, 1971); Miguel León-Portilla, ed., The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico (1959), introduction by Miguel León-Portilla, translated from Nahuatl into Spanish by Angel María Garibay K., translated into English by Lysander Kemp (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992); Edmundo Guillén Guillén, Versión Inca de la conquista (Lima: Milla Batres, 1974).

10. TePaske, "Interview," p. 248.

11. Thanks to Andrew M. Shapiro for the citations of Prescott used here; all page numbers in the following discussion refer to Prescott's History of the Conquest of Mexico , 3 vols., edited by John Foster Kirk (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1873). For Prescott's reading of Cortés's history, see Stephanie Merrim, "Civilización y barbarie: Prescott como lector de Cortés," in La historia en la literatura iheroamericana , edited by Raquel Chang-Rodríguez and Gabriella de Beer (New York and Hanover, N.H.: City College of the City University of New York and Ediciones del Norte, 1989), pp. 87-96.

12. By the same token, he describes sixteenth-century religion with such terms as "True Faith," "false faith," "hostile religion," and "heretics" ( Books of the Brave , pp. 6, 146, 316; also 119, 141, 313-314).

13. Leonard, Books of the Brave , p. 149. On Amerindian population decline as a consequence of the European invasion, see Sherburne F. Cook and Woodrow Borah, Essays on Population History: Mexico and the Caribbean , vol. 1 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1971); David Henige, "On the Contact Population of Hispaniola: History as Higher Mathematics," Hispanic American Historical Review 58, no. 2 (1978): 217-237; R. A. Zanibardino, "Critique of David Henige's 'On the Contact Population of Hispaniola: History as Higher Mathematics," Hispanic American Historical Review 58, no. 4 (1978): 700-708; Noble David Cook,

Demographic Collapse: Indian Peru, 1520-1620 , Cambridge Latin American Studies, 41 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981). Nicolás Sánchez Albornoz ("La población de las Indias en Las Casas y en la historia," in En el quinto centenario de Bartolomé de las Casas , edited by Luis Yáñez-Barnuevo [Madrid: Ediciones Cultura Hispánica, 1986], pp. 85-92) summarizes the demographic debates and their implications.

14. Benjamin Keen, "The Black Legend Revisited: Assumptions and Realities," Hispanic American Historical Review 49, no. 4 (1969): 706. See Julián Juderías, La leyenda negra: estudios acerca del concepto de España en el extranjero (1914), 13th ed. (Madrid: Editora Nacional, 1954).

15. In chapters 7 and 20 of Books of the Brave (pp. 78-80, 323), Leonard sets forth the claims about Spanish obscurantism which his book refutes.

16. Pedro Guibovich Pérez ("Libros para ser vendidos") has recently retranscribed and provided a new study of a bill of sale and its accompanying list of books, dated September 2, 1591, which Leonard ("On the Lima Book Trade, 1591," Hispanic American Historical Review 33, no. 4 [1953]: 511-525) had published in 1953 on the basis of the original document in the Archivo Nacional del Perú. (Leonard published the article as chapter 16 of Los libros del conquistador [translated by Mario Monteforte Toledo, revised by Julián Calvo. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1953], but he did not reproduce the document itself. For that reason, Guibovich's new, corrected transcription is of particular interest.) Still more recently, in 1989, Carlos Alberto González Sánchez ("El libro y la carrera") called attention to the importance of ships' registers of book shipments—the type of documents Leonard first published in 1933—as a primary source. Acknowledging the importance of Leonard's work, González Sánchez has examined some of the registers of the two fleets of 1605, which Rodríguez Marín and Leonard had studied earlier to learn about the shipment of the first edition of Don Quixote to the Indies (see "Documenting the Book Trade," below).

17. Leonard ( Romances of Chivalry , pp. 219-233) summarizes this legislation, as had Rodríguez Marín ( El "Quijote," pp. 15-19) before him. The decrees are reproduced in Torre Revello, El libro , pp. iii-vi.

18. See Romances of Chivalry , p. 241. Since then Torre Revello ( El libro ,

p. 47) in 1940, and Millares Carlo ("Bibliotecas," pp. 25-26) and Lohmann Villena ("Libros," p. 20) in the 1970s, have reiterated the same conclusion.

19. A new edition of Quiroga's indices of prohibited and expurgated books, the Index de l'Inquisition espagnole, 1583, 1584 , is in preparation by the Centre d'Etudes de la Renaissance, Université de Sherbrooke, Québec, under the direction of J. M. de Bujanda, as volume 11 in the Collection Index des livres interdits .

20. See Antonio Márquez, Literatura e inquisición en España (1478-1834) (Madrid: Taurus, 1980).

21. See Esteban Torre's introduction to Juan Huarte de San Juan, Examen de ingenios para las ciencias (1575), edited by Esteban Torre (Madrid: Editora Nacional, 1976), pp. 42-44.

22. Nevertheless, it is useful to keep in mind that Philip II used the Inquisition for secular as well as ecclesiastical politics. Scholarship of recent decades on the Spanish Inquisition confirms the assessment made a century ago by Henry Charles Lea: "The matters liable to condemnation were by no means confined to heresy, but covered a wide region of morals and of ecclesiastical and secular politics, for the Inquisition was too useful an instrument of statecraft not to be effectively employed in maintaining monarchical as well as clerical absolutism ( Chapters from the Religious History of Spain [Philadelphia: Lea Brothers, 1890], p. 74). For recent perspectives on the Spanish Inquisition that investigate its practices according to broad ideological and cultural objectives, see Joaquín Pérez Villanueva and Bartolomé Escandell Bonet, eds., Historia de la Inquisición en España y América, T.I. (Madrid: Centro de Estudios Inquisitoriales, Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos, 1984); Joaquín Pérez Villanueva, ed., La Inquisición española: nueva visión, nuevos horizontes (Madrid: Siglo XXI, 1980) and Virgilio Pinto Crespo, Inquisición y control ideológico en la España del siglo XVI , prologue by Joaquín Pérez Villanueva (Madrid: Taurus, 1983).

23. Documents 1 and 2 are analyzed in chapter 13; document 3 in chapter 14; document 4 in chapter 15; document 5 in chapter 16; document 6 in chapter 17; document 7 in chapter 18; documents 8 and 9 in chapter 19.

24. On this point, Leonard's personal experience is pertinent. He observes that he grew up with a concept of history as narrative, and his intellectual predilection for "history and literature as forming one study" was no doubt inspired by his early acquaintance with a Civil War veteran. Leonard recalled that as a young boy,

he studied Civil War history so thoroughly that he knew details that the old eyewitness soldier did not know about the Battle of Gettysburg (see TePaske "Interview," pp. 235, 249).

25. See ibid., pp. 241, 245.

24. On this point, Leonard's personal experience is pertinent. He observes that he grew up with a concept of history as narrative, and his intellectual predilection for "history and literature as forming one study" was no doubt inspired by his early acquaintance with a Civil War veteran. Leonard recalled that as a young boy,

he studied Civil War history so thoroughly that he knew details that the old eyewitness soldier did not know about the Battle of Gettysburg (see TePaske "Interview," pp. 235, 249).

25. See ibid., pp. 241, 245.

26. Francisco Rodríguez Marín, El "Quijote" ; Irving Leonard, " Don Quixote and the Book Trade in Lima, 1606," Hispanic Review 8 (1940): 285-304.

27. Leonard (" Don Quixote ," p. 286) acknowledges the aid of Guillermo Lohmann Villena in locating this document.

28. Mateo Alemán, Guzmán de Alfarache (1599), in La novela picaresca española , edited by Angel Valbuena y Prat, (Madrid: Aguilar, 1978), pp. 233-702.

29. González Sanchéz, "El libro," p. 102.

30. Leonard ( Books of the Brave , p. 96) recalled the monopoly on the book trade with New Spain that Charles V granted to Jacobo Cromberger. See Griffin, The Crombergers , pp. 93-94, for a study of this arrangement; Joaquín García Icazbalceta, Bibliografía mexicana del siglo XVI (1886), edited by Agustín Millares Carlo (Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1954) pp. 45-46, had earlier published the decree.

31. Griffin ( The Crombergers , pp. 152-153, 163) underscores the conservative character of the print industry by noting that the Crombergers rarely risked first editions; over 36 percent of their editions, in fact, were reprints of books they had already issued. See also Guillermo Aulet Sastre, "Precios autorizados de libros españoles en Indias," Revista de Indias 24 (April-June 1946): 311-312, on authorized prices.

32. In 1920, Sir Henry Thomas ( Spanish and Portuguese Romances of Chivalry , p. 82) had cited the passages of Bernal Díaz del Castillo and the Sergas de Esplandián that Leonard would later examine in Books of the Brave (chapter 4). Lohmann Villena ("Libros," p. 233) and Leonard ( Books of the Brave , pp. 42, 344) note that Ricardo Rojas ( Historia de la literatura argentina , 2d ed. [Buenos Aires, 1924-1925]) had put forth the idea in the 1920s.

In Amadises de América , pp. 69, 153, Ida Rodríguez Prampolini cited the passages of Bernal Díaz (which Leonard simultaneously considered in his 1949 publication) to support the view that there was a profound relationship between the Spanish love of chivalric adventure and the "empresa de las Indias." Instead of explaining the conquistadores' psychology on the basis of popular reading, Rodríguez Prampolini included the novels of chivalry as a body

of evidence to support her thesis that the Spanish conquest of America was a deed inspired by a "chivalric sense of life," which was responsible in great measure for the conduct of conquistadores, missionaries, and the crown.

33. Leonard ( Books of the Brave , pp. 25, 31, 53, 65) has repeatedly acknowledged that this idea is as indemonstrable as it is appealing.

34. Although Leonard (ibid., p. 40) mentions Columbus's journal as the source for Montalvo's Amazonian episodes, the latter would likely have had access instead only to the "letter of discovery" in one of its printed editions of 1493 or after (see Christopher Columbus, The Letter of Columbus on the Discovery of America: A Facsimile of the Pictorial Edition, with a New and Literal Translation, and a Complete Reprint of the Oldest Four Editions in Latin [New York: Lenox Library, 1892], p. 10). Thanks to Eyda M. Merediz for raising this question. On Columbus's reading of Marco Polo, see Leonardo Olschki, "Ponce de León's Fountain of Youth: History of a Geographic Myth," Hispanic American Historical Review 21, no. 3 (1941): 382.

Leonard's work on myths of Spain's America joins that of Enrique de Gandía, Historia crítica de los mitos y leyendas de la conquista americana , edited by Manuel Rodríguez Carrasco (Buenos Aires: Centro Difusor del Libro, 1944), pp. 75-107. Recalling Leonard's work, Jean-Paul Duviols ("Los indios, protagonistas de los mitos europeos," in La imagen del indio en la Europa moderna [Sevilla: Publicaciones de la Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos, 1990], pp. 377-388) has recently surveyed the accounts of Amazons and giants in the chronicles from Columbus and Vespucci to Lafitau. See Juan Gil's recent, magisterial three-volume study Mitos y utopías del descubrimiento , which comprehensively explores the mythical heritage of the New World discoveries.

33. Leonard ( Books of the Brave , pp. 25, 31, 53, 65) has repeatedly acknowledged that this idea is as indemonstrable as it is appealing.

34. Although Leonard (ibid., p. 40) mentions Columbus's journal as the source for Montalvo's Amazonian episodes, the latter would likely have had access instead only to the "letter of discovery" in one of its printed editions of 1493 or after (see Christopher Columbus, The Letter of Columbus on the Discovery of America: A Facsimile of the Pictorial Edition, with a New and Literal Translation, and a Complete Reprint of the Oldest Four Editions in Latin [New York: Lenox Library, 1892], p. 10). Thanks to Eyda M. Merediz for raising this question. On Columbus's reading of Marco Polo, see Leonardo Olschki, "Ponce de León's Fountain of Youth: History of a Geographic Myth," Hispanic American Historical Review 21, no. 3 (1941): 382.

Leonard's work on myths of Spain's America joins that of Enrique de Gandía, Historia crítica de los mitos y leyendas de la conquista americana , edited by Manuel Rodríguez Carrasco (Buenos Aires: Centro Difusor del Libro, 1944), pp. 75-107. Recalling Leonard's work, Jean-Paul Duviols ("Los indios, protagonistas de los mitos europeos," in La imagen del indio en la Europa moderna [Sevilla: Publicaciones de la Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos, 1990], pp. 377-388) has recently surveyed the accounts of Amazons and giants in the chronicles from Columbus and Vespucci to Lafitau. See Juan Gil's recent, magisterial three-volume study Mitos y utopías del descubrimiento , which comprehensively explores the mythical heritage of the New World discoveries.

35. A vogue documented by Leonard in Romances of Chivalry , pp. 231-240.

36. Griffin, The Crombergers , pp. 6-7; Chevalier, Lectura y lectores , p. 71.

37. Eisenberg, Romances , pp. 89-118; Chevalier, Lecturas y lectores , pp. 65-103.

38. Griffin, The Crombergers , p. 153.

39. Ife, Reading and Fiction , p. 23.

40. Leonard provides numerous literary references, most of which had been presented by Thomas in his discussion of the prevalence

and decline of the new romances in the Spanish peninsula ( Spanish and Portuguese Romances of Chivalry , pp. 147-179).

41. If we take as evidence the expression of chivalric values as they were defined, for example, by Raimundo Lulio, Alfonso el Sabio or Don Juan Manuel, and examine how these notions are incorporated into the chronicles of conquering soldiers, a clear view of the significance of the chivalric model is likely to emerge. See Luis Alberto de Cuenca's anthology of the relevant works, Floresta española de varia caballería: Raimundo Lulio, Alfonso X, don Juan Manuel , prologue by Carlos García Gual (Madrid: Editora Nacional, 1975).

42. The following discussion reiterates that of my "Literary Production and Suppression: Reading and Writing About Amerindians in Colonial Spanish America," Dispositio: revista hispánica de semiótica literaria 11, nos. 28-29 (1986): 1-25.

43. Bernal Díaz del Castillo, The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico (1517-1521) , edited by Genaro García, translated by A. P. Maudslay, introduction by Irving A. Leonard (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1981), pp. 190-191.

44. Bernal Díaz del Castillo, Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España (1568), edited by Carmelo Sáenz de Santa María (Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 1982), pp. 175-176 (chap. 87).

45. Ibid., pp. 384 (chap. 151), 399 (chap. 153). Rodríguez Prampolini ( Amadises , p. 69) drew attention to the first of these passages.

44. Bernal Díaz del Castillo, Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España (1568), edited by Carmelo Sáenz de Santa María (Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 1982), pp. 175-176 (chap. 87).

45. Ibid., pp. 384 (chap. 151), 399 (chap. 153). Rodríguez Prampolini ( Amadises , p. 69) drew attention to the first of these passages.

46. Pedro de Castañeda Nájera, "Castañeda's History of the Expedition" (1560?), in Narratives of the Coronado Expedition, 1540-42 , edited by George P. Hammond and Agapito Rey, vol. 2, Coronado Cuarto Centennial Publications, 1540-1940 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1940), p. 276. I would like to point out that Castañeda's reference to the tale of Charlemagne and the Twelve Peers of France is one that Leonard inadvertently omitted from Books of the Brave (Leonard, letter to the author, December 4, 1990).

47. Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, Historia general y natural de las Indias , edited by José Amador de los Ríos, 4 vols. (Madrid: Real Academia de la Historia, 1851-1855), vol. 1, p. 179: "pues no cuento los disparates de los libros de Amadís ni los que dellos dependen" (my translation).

48. Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, Libro del muy esforçado e invencible cavallero ... don Claribalte (Valencia, 1519).

49. Díaz del Castillo, Discovery and Conquest , p. 191.

50. Here we leave open the issue of the specific social groups that are implied; see Griffin, The Crombergers .

51. See, in particular, the studies of Guibovich Pérez and Hampe Martínez (cited in note 3 above).

52. Francisco López de Gómara ( Historia general de las Indias y vida de Hernán Cortés [1552], prologue and chronology by Jorge Gurria Lacroix [Caracas: Biblioteca Ayacucho, 1979], p. 8) made his famous statement that the conquest of the Indians began just as that of the Moors was concluded, and that Spain's destiny was to fight against infidels, in the dedication of his Historia to Charles V.

53. Nathan Wachtel's Vision of the Vanquished: The Spanish Conquest of Peru Through Indian Eyes, 1530-1570 (1971), translated by Ben Reynolds and Siân Reynolds (New York: Harper and Row, 1977), remains a landmark work in this area.

54. The Reconquest of Spain was universally recognized as a just war, even by Las Casas, who, however, insisted that the conquests in America were illegal ("Memorial-sumario a Felipe II" [1560] and "Tratado de las doce dudas" [1564], both in Obras escogidas de Fray Bartolomé de las Casas , vol. 5, edited by Juan Pérez de Tudela Bueso, Biblioteca de Autores Españoles, 110 [Madrid: Atlas, 1958]; see pp. 459 and 496-498, respectively).

55. The royal decree of September 2, 1556, is published in Torre Revello, El libro , pp. xii-xiii.

56. See ibid., pp. x, xxiii.

55. The royal decree of September 2, 1556, is published in Torre Revello, El libro , pp. xii-xiii.

56. See ibid., pp. x, xxiii.

57. Mario Vargas Llosa ("The Culture of Freedom" [Lewin Lectures in the Humanities, Washington University, St. Louis, 1986], p. 10) may be mentioned among those who continue to maintain that censorship thoroughly suppressed creative endeavor in America in Spanish colonial times, and that literary writing was characterized by "formal extravagances and an art thoroughly predictable, conformist, and devoid of spontaneity and genius." In his essays ("Latin America: Fiction and Reality," in Modern Latin American Fiction: A Survey , edited by John King [London: Faber and Faber, 1987], pp. 1-17; "Latin American Fiction and Reality," Times Literary Supplement , January 30, 1987, pp. 110-111; ''Questions of Conquest: What Columbus Wrought, and What He Did Not," Harper's , December 1990, pp. 45-53) and public lectures (''Culture of Freedom"), he has also taken the view that light reading was all but impossible. Despite his acknowledgment that the first edition of Don Quixote de la Mancha went to the Indies, he then ("Latin America," p. 4) ignores that fact upon declaring that

Inquisitorial censorship was so effective that reading a novel in colonial Spanish America became "a sinful adventure in which, in order to abandon yourself to an imaginary world, you had to be prepared to face prison and humiliation."

58. Mariano Picón-Salas, A Cultural History of Spanish America: From Conquest to Independence , translated by Irving A. Leonard (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962), p. 83. In 1949, Leonard ( Books of the Brave , p. 323) registered his disagreement with this assessment, citing this very passage of Picón-Salas as typical of those that wrongly denied the existence of creativity in Inquisitorial times.

59. Cedomil Goic ("La novela hispanoamericana colonial," in Historia de la literatura hispanoamericana , vol. 1: Época colonial , edited by Luis Íñigo Madrigal [Madrid: Cátedra, 1982], pp. 369-406) demonstrates it; Vargas Llosa ("Latin America Fiction," p. 110) proclaims it, despite his assertions to the contrary, when he speaks of a colonial ''world into which fiction had spread, contaminating practically everything.''

60. See Arthur J. O. Anderson and Charles E. Dibble, Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain—Introductions and Indices , preface by Miguel León-Portilla, Monographs of the School of American Research, 14, pt. 1 (Santa Fe, N.M.: School of American Research and University of Utah, 1982), pp. 35-37.

61. Bartolomé de las Casas, Apologética historia sumaria 1527-1560 , 2 vols., edited by Edmundo O'Gorman (Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma, 1967); Jerónimo Román, Repúblicas del mundo (Medina del Campo: F. del Canto, 1575); idem, Repúblicas del mundo ... corregida y censurada por el expurgatorio del Santo Oficio (Salamanca: Juan Fernández, 1595). See Henry R. Wagner and Helen Rand Parish, The Life and Writings of Bartolomé de las Casas (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1967), pp. 287-289; and my "Censorship and Its Evasion: Jerónimo Román and Bartolomé de las Casas," Hispania 75, no. 5 (1992): 846-861.

62. For theoretical contributions to the reconceptualization of colonial literary studies, see Roberto González Echevarría, "El concepto de cultura y la idea de literatura en Hispanoamérica," in Perspectivas sobre la literatura latinoamericana , edited by Guillermo Sucre (Caracas: Editorial de la Universidad Simón Bolívar, 1980), pp. 5-40; Walter D. Mignolo, "La lengua, la letra, el territorio (o la crisis de los estudios literarios coloniales)," Dispositio: revista hispánica de semiótica literaria 11, nos. 28-29 (1986): 137-160; idem, "Anáhuac

y sus otros: la cuestión de la letra en el Nuevo Mundo," Revista de crítica literaria latinoamericana 14 no. 28 (1988): 29-53; Rolena Adorno, "New Perspectives in Colonial Spanish American Literary Studies," Journal of the Southwest 32, no. 2 (1990): 173-191; idem, "La construcción cultural de la alteridad: el sujeto colonial y el discurso caballeresco,'' in Primer Simposio de Filología Iberoamericana , Facultad de Filología, Universidad de Sevilla, prologue by Antonio Sancho Royo (Zaragoza: Libros Portico, 1990), pp. 153-170.

63. In each case, Leonard gave new significance to data already gathered. In 1920, Thomas ( Spanish and Portuguese Romances of Chivalry , p. 82), had cited the passage in which Bernal Díaz recalled the view of Tenochtitlán as worthy of a scene from Amadís de Gaula and suggested that "the deeds of the heroes of chivalry may have inspired the handful of veterans under Cortés." In 1911, Rodríguez Marín discussed and published as a documentary appendix to his El "Quijote" (pp. 97-118) the "Relación de las fiestas que se celebraron en la corte de Paussa por la nueba del prouiymiento de Virrey en la perssona del marqués de montes claros....''

64. Rodríguez Marín, El " Quijote ," pp. 107-109.

1. Washington Irving, The life and voyages of Christopher Columbus to which are added those of his companions (New York, 1860; 3 vols.), vol. 3, introduction, p. xv.

2. Bartolomé de las Casas, Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias (abridged edition of the Biblioteca enciclopédica popular, 77, Mexico City, 1945), paragraph 16.

3. W. G. Gosling, Life of Sir Humphrey Gilbert (London, 1911), quoted in Howard Mumford Jones, Ideas in America (Cambridge, 1944), p. 243, note 32.

4. Jones, op. cit., p. 54.

5. Ibid.

4. Jones, op. cit., p. 54.

5. Ibid.

6. Arnold J. Toynbee, A study of history (abridgement by D. C. Somervell, New York and London, 1947), p. 413.

7. Of interest in this connection are the comments of J. Bayard Morris in the introduction to his translation of Hernán Cortés, Five Letters (London, 1928), p. xxxiii:

Between the Spaniards who conquered the New World and the buccaneering Englishmen of Elizabeth's reign who successfully robbed them of a large portion of its spoils there was indeed little to choose. The methods of Cortés in Mexico differed little from those adopted by the English in North America, in India and in New Zealand during the succeeding centuries....

8. Sir Walter Raleigh, The history of the world (London, 1786; 2 vols.), vol. 2, p. 575.

9. See Salvador de Madariaga, Christopher Columbus, being the life of the very magnificent Lord, Don Cristobal Colón (New York, 1940), p. 80; Samuel E. Morison, Admiral of the Ocean Sea, a life of Christopher Columbus (Boston, 1942; 2 vols.), vol. 1, p. 76.

10. See Emma H. Blair and James A. Robertson (ed.), The Philippine Islands, 1493-1803 (Cleveland, 1903-1909; 55 vols.), vol. 33, pp. 27-29.

11. Irving, op. cit., p. xii. A more traditional interpretation of the Spanish conqueror is given in Rufino Blanco-Fombona, El conquistador español del siglo xvi (Madrid, 1922), passim.

1. One of the best discussions of the Spanish chronicle is that of George Ticknor, History of Spanish literature (New York, 1854; 3 vols.), vol. 1, chaps. 8, 9, 10.

2. See Julio Cejador y Frauca, Historia de la lengua y literatura castellana ... (Madrid, 1915-1922; 14 vols.), vol. 1, p. 412.

3. Summaries of the plots of Amadis of Gaul and other romances of chivalry are given in Lewis Spence, Legends and romances of Spain (New York, 1920).

4. Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo, Orígenes de la novela (Madrid, 1905-1915; 4 vols.), vol. 1, p. ccxxiii.

5. The following useful table of sixteenth-century novels of chivalry is reproduced from Henry Thomas, Spanish and Portuguese romances of chivalry (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1920), pp. 147-148:

1508 Amadis de Gaula
1510 Sergas de Esplandián Florisando
1511 Palmerín de Oliva
1512 Primaleón de Grecia
1514 Lisuarte de Grecia
1516 Floriseo
1517 Arderique
1518 Clarián de Landanis
1519 Claribalte
1520 Leoneo de Ungría
1521 Lepolemo
1522 Clarimundo
1522 Clarián de Landanis II
1524 Clarián de Landanis III Reymundo de Grecia
1526 Lisuarte de Grecia II Polindo
1528 Lidaman de Ganayle
1530 Amadís de Grecia Florindo
1531 Felix Magno
1532 Florambel de Lucea Florisel de Niquea
1533 Platir
1534 Lidamor de Escocia
1534 Lucidante de Tracia
1535 Rogel de Grecia
1540 Valerian de Ungría
1542 Philesbian de Candaria
1544(?) Palmerín de Inglaterra
1545 Cirongilio de Tracia
1545 Crisalián de España Florando de Inglaterra
1546 Silves de la Selva
1547 Belianis de Grecia II
1550 Floramante de Colonia
1551 Rogel de Grecia II
1556 Felixmarte de Hircania
1562 Espejo de Príncipes
1563 Leandro el Bel
1564 Olivante de Laura
1576 Febo el Troyano
1579 Belianis de Grecia III
1581 Espejo de Príncipes II
1587 Duardo Segundo
1589 Espejo de Príncipes III
1602 Clarisol de Bretanha Policisne de Boecia

6. There is a genealogical table of the Amadis heroes in Pascual de Gayangos, Libros de caballerías, in the Biblioteca de autores españoles, vol. 40, p. xxxviii.

7. A genealogy of the Palmerín cycle is given in Gayangos, op. cit., p. xlv.

8. See note in Diego Clemencín (ed.), El ingenioso hidalgo don Quijote de la Mancha ... (Madrid, 1833; 8 vols.), vol. 2, p. 457.

9. Thomas, op. cit., p. 149.

10. Charles V had a copy of El caballero determinado in its original French with illuminations, and also the Castilian version of Hernando de Acuña, likewise with illuminations, when he retired to the monastery at Yuste. Cf. William Sterling, The cloister life of the Emperor Charles V (Boston, 1853), pp. 316-317. It appears likely that his son Philip II reverently preserved these relics of his father, judging by the "Libros de diversas facultades de la testamentería de Felipe II, 1600" in Documentos para la historia de España (Madrid, 1877), vol. 68, pp. 486-488, where two copies are listed, one evaluated at 8 reales, and the other at 16.

11. Salvador de Madariaga, Guía del lector del Quijote (Madrid, 1926), p. 5.

12. Thomas, op. cit., p. 80.

13. Archer Huntington, Catalogue of the library of Ferdinand Columbus (New York, 1905). John B. Thacher, Christopher Columbus, his life, his work, his remains (New York, London, 1903-1904; 3 vols.), vol. 3, pp. 422-453.

14. Juan de Valdés, Diálogo de la lengua (Madrid, 1928, Clásicos castellanos ed.), pp. 168, 172.

15. E. Allison Peers, Studies in the Spanish mystics (London, 1927; 2 vols.), vol. 1, p. 8.

16. Ricardo Rojas, Historia de la literatura argentina (Buenos Aires, ed. 2, 1924-1925; 8 vols.), vol. 1, p. 84.

17. "La vida de la Santa Madre Teresa de Jesús ... por ella misma," in Biblioteca de autores españoles (Madrid, 1861), vol. 53, p. 24.

18. Gaston Etchegoyen, L'amour divin. Essai sur les sources de Sainte Thérèse (Paris, 1923), pp. 44-46.

19. Francisco de Ribera, Vida de Santa Teresa (Barcelona, 1908), p. 99.

20. The text of this letter is reproduced in Rubén Vargas Ugarte, Manuscritos peruanos en las bibliotecas del estranjero (Lima, 1935; 3 vols.), vol. 1, p. 245.

21. Thomas, op. cit., pp. 152-153.

22. La Florida del Inca (Madrid, 1723), libro II, parte I, p. cxxvii.

1. Diego Clemencín (ed.), El ingenioso hidalgo don Quijote de la Mancha ... (Madrid, 1833; 8 vols.), vol. 1, p. xiii.

2. Francisco Rodríguez Lobo, Corte en Aldea y Noches de Invierno (Valencia, 1798 [First edition in 1619], pp. 18-20, quoted in M. Menén-

dez y Pelayo, Orígenes de la novela (Madrid, 1943), vol. 1, pp. 370-371.

3. Quoted in Henry Thomas, Spanish and Portuguese romances of chivalry (Cambridge, 1920), p. 153.

4. See George Ticknor, History of Spanish literature (New York, 1854; 3 vols.), pp. 251, 253; Rufino Blanco Fombona, Los conquistadores españoles del siglo xvi (Madrid, 1922), p. 231.

5. Ticknor, op. cit., p. 250.

6. Thomas, op. cit., pp. 64-65.

7. See notes in Clemencín, op. cit., vol. 1, pp. 110 ff.

1. Particularly useful for this chapter is Ruth Putnam and Herbert I. Priestley, California: The name (Berkeley, University of California Publications in History, vol. 4, no. 4, 1917), passim. Also of interest is Leonardo Olschki, "Ponce de León's Fountain of Youth: History of a geographic myth," Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 21 (1941), No. 3, pp. 361-385.

2. Cf. Silvio Zavala, Los intereses particulares en la conquista de la Nueva España (Madrid, Facultad de derecho, Universidad Central de Madrid, 1933), passim; Volodia Teitelboim, El amanecer del capitalismo y la conquista de América (Santiago de Chile, 1943), passim.

3. Sir Walter Raleigh, History of the world (London, 1786), vol. 2, p. 478.

4. Celeste Turner Wright, "The Amazons in Elizabethan Literature," Studies in Philology, vol. 27 (1940), No. 3, pp. 433-456.

5. Cf. Bertram T. Lee and H. C. Heaton, The discovery of the Amazon according to the account of Friar Gaspar de Carvajal (New York, American Geographical Society, 1934), passim.

6. James A. Robertson (tr.), Antonio Pigafetta, Magellan's voyage around the world (Cleveland, 1906), vol. 2, pp. 168-170.

7. It is well to recall, perhaps, that the first part of the immensely popular Italian epic of Ludovico Ariosto, Orlando furioso, appeared in 1516. Books XIX and XX of this narrative poem describe an encounter with Amazons.

8. Olschki, op. cit., p. 382.

9. Henry, Thomas, Spanish and Portuguese romances of chivalry (Cambridge, 1920), p. 67.

10. Ibid.

9. Henry, Thomas, Spanish and Portuguese romances of chivalry (Cambridge, 1920), p. 67.

10. Ibid.

11. Ricardo Rojas, Historia de la literatura argentina (Buenos Aires, ed. 2, 1924-25; 8 vols.), vol. 3, pp. 26, 103.

12. Benedetto Croce, La Spagna nella vita italiana durante la Rinascenza (Bari, 1917), pp. 197-198. "L'Amadis e gli altri libri di cavalleria,

tutti pieni com'erano di amori e di svenevolezze, formavano la lettura prediletta dei soldati...."

13. Diego Clemencín (ed.), El ingenioso hidalgo don Quijote de la Mancha ... (Madrid, 1833), vol. 4, p. 277.

14. A. P. Maudslay (tr.), Bernal Díaz del Castillo. The true history of the conquest of New Spain (London, The Hakluyt Society, 1908-1916), vol. 2, p. 37.

15. Part I, chap. 32.

16. H. R. Wagner (ed.), The discovery of New Spain in 1518 by Juan de Grijalva (Pasadena, Cortes Society, 1942), pp. 22, 207.

17. "Instrucción que dió el capitán Diego Velázquez en la isla Fernandina en 23 de octubre de 1518 al capitán Hernando Cortés, etc." Colección de documentos inéditos para la historia de España (Madrid, 1842-1895; 112 vols.), vol. 1, p. 403.

18. A. P. Maudslay, op. cit., vol. 1, p. 131.

19. Francisco Fernández del Castillo, Tres conquistadores y pobladores de la Nueva España: Cristóbal Martín Millán de Gamboa, Andrés de Tapia, Jerónimo López (Mexico City, Publicaciones del Archivo general de la nación, vol. 12, 1927), p. 252.

20. F. A. MacNutt (tr.), Hernando Cortés. The Five letters (New York, 1908), vol. 2, p. 177.

21. "Instrucciones dadas por Hernando Cortés a Francisco Cortés su lugarteniente en la villa de Colima. Año de 1524," in Pacheco y Cárdenas, Colección de documentos inéditos de descubrimientos, conquistas ... en América (Madrid, 1864-1884; 42 vols.), vol. 26, p. 153.

22. H. H. Bancroft, History of Mexico (San Francisco, 1883), vol. 2, p. 61.

23. "The relation of Nunno di Gusman written to Charles the fifth Emperour" in Samuel Purchas, Hakluytus Posthumus or Purchase His Pilgrimes (Glasgow, 1906), vol. 18, pp. 59-60.

24. "Tercera relación de la jornada de Nuño de Guzmán" in Joaquín García Icazbalceta, Documentos para la historia de México (Mexico City, 1858-1866; 2 vols.), vol. 2, p. 451.

25. Putnam and Priestley, op. cit., p. 349. Alvaro del Portillo y Díez de Sollano, in his Descubrimientos y exploraciones en la costa de California (Madrid, 1947), devotes his third chapter to a discussion of the origin of the name California, and believes that it was given in derision by Cortes' enemies. While he may be correct, some of this scholar's arguments are unsound and can be easily refuted.

1. Cf. Enrique de Gandía, Historia crítica de los mitos de la conquista americana (Buenos Aires, Madrid, 1929), passim .

2. Anales de la Biblioteca Nacional (Buenos Aires), vol. 8, p. 124, cited in Ricardo Rojas, Historia de la literatura argentina (Buenos Aires, ed. 2, 1924-1925; 8 vols.), vol. 1, p. 280.

3. Arthur Helps, The life of Las Casas, apostle of the Indies (London, 1868), pp. 94-99.

4. Antonio Rodríguez Villa, El Emperador Carlos V y su corte, según las cartas de D. Martín de Salinas, embajador del Infante D. Fernando (1522-1539) (Madrid, 1903), p. 529.

5. Juan de San Martín y Alonso de Lebrija, Relacíon del descubrimiento y conquista del nuevo reino de Granada, años 1536 a 1539 (Madrid, Sociedad de bibliófilos españoles, 1916), pp. 64-65.

6. Ibid., p. 67.

5. Juan de San Martín y Alonso de Lebrija, Relacíon del descubrimiento y conquista del nuevo reino de Granada, años 1536 a 1539 (Madrid, Sociedad de bibliófilos españoles, 1916), pp. 64-65.

6. Ibid., p. 67.

7. Cf. Bertram T. Lee and H. C. Heaton, The discovery of the Amazon according to the account of Friar Gaspar de Carvajal (New York, American Geographical Society, 1934).

8. Ibid., p. 214.

9. Ibid., p. 221.

7. Cf. Bertram T. Lee and H. C. Heaton, The discovery of the Amazon according to the account of Friar Gaspar de Carvajal (New York, American Geographical Society, 1934).

8. Ibid., p. 214.

9. Ibid., p. 221.

7. Cf. Bertram T. Lee and H. C. Heaton, The discovery of the Amazon according to the account of Friar Gaspar de Carvajal (New York, American Geographical Society, 1934).

8. Ibid., p. 214.

9. Ibid., p. 221.

10. ''Relación de Hernando de Ribera,'' in Comentarios de Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca (Buenos Aires, Espasa Calpe Argentina, Colección Austral, 304, 1942).

11. Usually listed in Spanish accounts as Ulrich Schmidel.

12. "Voyage of Ulrich Schmidt to the rivers La Plata and Paraguai, from the German original of 1567," in The conquest of the River Plate (London, Hakluyt Society, No. 81, 1891), p. 45.

13. Agustín de Zárate, Historia del descubrimiento y conquista del Per,ú book 3, chap. 11, in Biblioteca de autores españoles (Madrid, 1862), vol. 26, Historiadores primitivos de Indias, p. 485.

14. Sir Walter Raleigh, Discovery of Guiana, in Hakluyt Voyages (London, 1927), vol. 7, pp. 295-296.

1. Bernardino de Mendoza, Comentarios de lo sucedido en la guerra de los payses baxos desde el año 1567 hasta 1577 (Madrid, 1592).

2. Cf. Rudolfo Schevill, "La novela histórica, las crónicas de Indias y los libros de caballerías," Revista de las Indias [Colombia], época 2 ^a , Nos. 59-60 (1943), pp. 173-196.

3. Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, Naufragios y comentarios (Buenos Aires, Mexico City, Colección austral, No. 304, 1942). There are many other editions.

4. This tale is recounted in El Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, Comentarios reales (many editions), Book I, chap. 8. Cf. also Lesley B. Simpson, "The Spanish Crusoe. An account by Maese Joan of eight years spent as a castaway on the Serrana keys in the Caribbean sea, 1528-

1536," Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 9 (1929), pp. 368-376.

5. Cf. Adolfo Bonilla y San Martín, Luis Vives y la filosofía del Renacimiento (Madrid, 1929; 2 vols.).

6. Juan Luis Vives, Instrucción de la mujer cristiana (Buenos Aires, Mexico City, Colección austral, No. 138, 1940), p. 36.

7. Quoted in Henry Thomas, Spanish and Portuguese romances of chivalry (Cambridge, 1920), p. 165.

8. Ibid., p. 170.

7. Quoted in Henry Thomas, Spanish and Portuguese romances of chivalry (Cambridge, 1920), p. 165.

8. Ibid., p. 170.

9. Quoted in Francisco Rodríguez Marín, Don Quijote de la Mancha (Madrid, 1916-1917; 6 vols.), vol. 1, p. 209.

10. George Ticknor, History of Spanish literature (New York, 1854; 3 vols.), vol. 1, p. 541.

11. Quoted in Thomas, op. cit., p. 171.

12. Ibid., p. 161

11. Quoted in Thomas, op. cit., p. 171.

12. Ibid., p. 161

1. Henry Thomas, Spanish and Portuguese romances of chivalry (Cambridge, 1920), p. 169. The Peregrino y Ginebra, which also was placed on the Index, was, apparently, another exception.

2. Quoted in Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo, Orígenes de la novela (Madrid, 1925; 4 vols.), vol. 1, p. cclxix.

3. Francisco A. de Icaza, El "Quijote" durante tres siglos (Madrid, 1918), pp. 112-114.

4. Miguel Luis Amunátegui, Los precursores de la Independencia de Chile (Santiago de Chile, 1870), vol. 1, p. 224.

5. José Toribio Medina, Historia de la literatura colonial (Santiago de Chile, 1878; 3 vols.), p. 27.

6. Vicente Gaspar Quesada, La vida intelectual en la América española durante los siglos xvi, xvii, y xviii (Buenos Aires, 1910), p. 61.

7. José María Vergara y Vergara, Historia de la literatura en Nueva Granada, quoted in Quesada, op. cit., p. 75.

8. Carlos González Peña, Historia de la literatura mexicana (Mexico City, ed. 2, 1940), p. 81.

9. Fernando Montesinos, Anales del Perú (Madrid, 1906; 2 vols.), vol. 1, p. 17.

10. Text reproduced in many works such as: José Toribio Medina, Biblioteca Hispano-Americana (Santiago de Chile, 1898-1907; 7 vols.), vol. 6, p. xxvii; Pacheco y Cárdenas, Colección de documentos inéditos relativos al descubrimiento, conquista y colonización de las posesiones españolas en América y Oceania (Madrid, 1864-1884; 42 vols.), vol. 42, pp. 466-467; José Torre Revello, El libro, la imprenta y el periodismo en América durante la dominación española (Buenos Aires, 1940),

apéndice, iii. Ms. original indicated as in Archivo General de Indias, Seville, (Indiferente general. Contratación , 148-2-2).

11. Pacheco y Cárdenas, op. cit., vol. 23, pp. 457-458.

12. Medina, Biblioteca Hispano-Americana, vol. 6, p. xxvi-xxvii. An abbreviated form of this decree is cited in the Recopilación de leyes de los reinos de las Indias (Madrid, 1756; 4 vols.), libro I, título xxiv, ley iiii, with date of September 29, 1543. Cf. Disposiciones complementarias de las Indias (Madrid, 1930; 3 vols.), vol. 3, sec. xxxvii.

13. Cristóbal Pérez Pastor, Bibliografía madrileña (Madrid, 1898-1907; 3 vols.), vol. 1, prólogo xiii.

14. Juan de Torquemada, Monarquía indiana (Madrid, 1723; 3 vols.), libro ix, chap. xxx.

15. Toribio Motolinia, Historia ecclesiástica indiana (Mexico City, 1870), p. 410.

16. Ibid., p. 209. Cf. also Rómulo Velasco Ceballos, La alfabetización en la Nueva España (Mexico City, 1945), passim . Also, "Enseñanza del castellano como factor político colonial," Boletín del archivo general de la nación , vol. 17, no. 2 (Mexico City, 1946), p. 165-171.

15. Toribio Motolinia, Historia ecclesiástica indiana (Mexico City, 1870), p. 410.

16. Ibid., p. 209. Cf. also Rómulo Velasco Ceballos, La alfabetización en la Nueva España (Mexico City, 1945), passim . Also, "Enseñanza del castellano como factor político colonial," Boletín del archivo general de la nación , vol. 17, no. 2 (Mexico City, 1946), p. 165-171.

17. "Carta de D. Antonio de Mendoza, virrey de Nueva España al Emperador, dándole cuenta de varios asuntos de su gobierno, México, Dic. 10, 1537," Documentos inéditos para la historia de México (Mexico City, 1858-1866; 2 vols.), vol. 2, pp. 148-150.

18. Tomás Zepeda Rincón, La instrucción pública en la Nueva España en el siglo XVI (Mexico City, 1933), p. 31.

19. Pacheco y Cárdenas, op. cit., vol. 18, p. 472.

20. Colección de documentos inéditos para la historia de España (Madrid, 1842-1895; 1 vols.), vol. 94, p. 232.

21. Antonio E. Serrano Redonnet, "Prohibición de libros en el primer sínodo santiagueño (Tucumán)," Revista de filología hispánica , vol. 5, No. 2 (1943), pp. 162-166.

1. José Torre Revello, El libro, la imprenta y el periodismo en América durante la dominación española (Buenos Aires, 1940), passim .

2. José Torre Revello, La fundación y despoblación de Buenos Aires (1536-1541) (Buenos Aires, 1937), p. 87.

3. Ciriaco Pérez Bustamante, D. Antonio de Mendoza, primer virrey de la Nueva España, 1535-1550 (Santiago de Compostela, 1928), p. 20, and appendix, Documento No. IV.

4. Cf. George P. Hammond and Agapito Rey, Narratives of the Coronado Expedition, 1540-1542 (Albuquerque, N. M., 1940), passim .

5. Lathrop C. Harper, Catalogue of Americana, part. I, no. 163 (April, 1941), pp. 46-47.

6. José Torre Revello, Crónicas del Buenos Aires colonial (Buenos Aires, 1943), p. 51.

7. Torre Revello, El libro, la imprenta y el periodismo, p. 213.

8. Torre Revello, Orígenes de la imprenta y su desarrollo en América Española (Buenos Aires, 1940), pp. 93-98; Hildamar Escalante, "Juan Pablos, primer impresor de América," Revista nacional de cultura (Venezuela), No. 37 (1943), pp. 76-84; Joaquín Hazañas y La Rua, La imprenta en Sevilla (Seville, 1892), passim; Wagner, Henry R., "The House of Cromberger," To Doctor R (Philadelphia, 1946), pp. 227-239.

9. José Gestoso y Pérez, Noticias inéditas de impresores sevillanos (Seville, 1924), pp. 36 ff.

10. Ibid. , p. 103.

11. Ibid. , pp. 86-99.

9. José Gestoso y Pérez, Noticias inéditas de impresores sevillanos (Seville, 1924), pp. 36 ff.

10. Ibid. , p. 103.

11. Ibid. , pp. 86-99.

9. José Gestoso y Pérez, Noticias inéditas de impresores sevillanos (Seville, 1924), pp. 36 ff.

10. Ibid. , p. 103.

11. Ibid. , pp. 86-99.

12. Recopilación de leyes de Indias (Madrid, 1756: 4 vols.), libro I, título XXIV, ley V.

13. Irving A. Leonard, Romances of chivalry in the Spanish Indies (Berkeley, 1933), p. 13; Torre Revello, El libro, la imprenta y el periodismo, p. 215.

14. These scattered documents are in the Archive of the Indies, Seville, Contratación, legajo 1079.

15. Archivo Nacional del Perú, Protocolos de Sebastián Vásquez, 1551-1554, fol. 1227v-1228.

1. Rudolph Schevill, "An impression of the condition of Spanish American libraries," Modern Language Notes, vol. 20 (May, 1905), p. 143.

2. Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo, Orígenes de la novela (Madrid, 1925; 4 vols.), vol. 1, p. cclxiv.

3. Part I, chap. XVI.

4. Menéndez y Pelayo, op. cit., vol. 1, p. cxli.

5. Ibid., p. cxl. It has been modernly reprinted in Adolfo Bonilla de San Martín, Libros de caballerías (Madrid, 1907-1918; 2 vols.), vol. 2, pp. 477-615.

4. Menéndez y Pelayo, op. cit., vol. 1, p. cxli.

5. Ibid., p. cxl. It has been modernly reprinted in Adolfo Bonilla de San Martín, Libros de caballerías (Madrid, 1907-1918; 2 vols.), vol. 2, pp. 477-615.

6. Menéndez y Pelayo, op. cit., vol. 1, p. cxxxiv.

7. Ibid., pp. lix-lx.

8. Ibid., p. cccxxx.

6. Menéndez y Pelayo, op. cit., vol. 1, p. cxxxiv.

7. Ibid., pp. lix-lx.

8. Ibid., p. cccxxx.

6. Menéndez y Pelayo, op. cit., vol. 1, p. cxxxiv.

7. Ibid., pp. lix-lx.

8. Ibid., p. cccxxx.

9. "Libros de diversas facultades de la testamentaría de Felipe II," Documentos inéditos para la historia de España, (Madrid, 1842-1895; 112 vols.), vol. 68, pp. 486, 488.

10. Part I, chap. VI.

1. The description of the organization and operation of the House of Trade at Seville offered in this chapter is largely derived from the modern account of C. H. Haring, El comercio y la navigación entre España y las Indias en época de los Habsburgos (Paris, Brujas, 1939), and the older and fundamental authority José de Veitía Linaje, Norte de Contratación de las Indias Occidentales (Sevilla, 1672).

2. Haring, op. cit., p. 9.

3. Archivo General de Indias, Contratación, legajo 1086, "Registro de la nao 'Santa Catalina,'" fol. 91. The text of this document is reproduced in its entirety in Irving A. Leonard, Romances of chivalry in the Spanish Indies (Berkeley, 1933), Appendix, Document IV.

4. Ibid., Appendix, VI.

3. Archivo General de Indias, Contratación, legajo 1086, "Registro de la nao 'Santa Catalina,'" fol. 91. The text of this document is reproduced in its entirety in Irving A. Leonard, Romances of chivalry in the Spanish Indies (Berkeley, 1933), Appendix, Document IV.

4. Ibid., Appendix, VI.

5. See Guillermo Céspedes del Castillo, La avería en el comercio de Indias (Sevilla, 1945), passim .

6. Haring, op. cit., pp. 326-330.

1. F. de Castro y Bravo, Las naos españolas (Madrid, 1927), p. 94.

2. José Torre Revello, "Merchandise shipped by the Spaniards to America (1534-1586)," Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 23 (1943), pp. 773-781.

3. For a fuller account of the Spanish fleets see C. H. Haring, Trade and navigation between Spain and the Indies in the time of the Hapsburgs (Harvard University Press, 1918). The Spanish version of this work is here cited: C. H. Haring, El comercio y la navigación entre España y las Indias en época de los Habsburgos (Paris, Brujas, 1939), Parte II, passim .

4. Paul S. Taylor, "Spanish seamen in the New World," Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. V (1922), passim .

5. See Earl J. Hamilton, "Wages and subsistence on Spanish treasure ships (1503-1660)," Journal of Political Economy, vol. 37 (August, 1929), passim .

6. Haring, op. cit., pp. 116-118; José Torre Revello, Crónicas del Buenos Aires colonial (Buenos Aires, 1943), chap. 2.

7. Haring, op. cit., p. 247.

8. Torre Revello, Crónicas del Buenos Aires colonial, pp. 57-60.

9. The complete diary has recently been printed in R. P. Fray Tomás de la Torre, Desde Salamanca, España, hasta Ciudad real, Chiapas. Diario de viaje, 1544-1545 . Prólogo y notas por Franz Blom, 1944-45 (Mexico City, 1945). Much of the text is incorporated in Francisco Ximénez, Historia de la provincia de San Vicente de Chiapa y Guatemala (Guatemala City, 1929). The part of the diary relating to the ocean

crossing is reproduced in E. Rodríguez Demorizi, Relaciones históricas de Santo Domingo (Ciudad Trujillo, R. D.), pp. 93-122.

10. "Cartas de Eugenio de Salazar," in Biblioteca de autores españoles (Madrid, 1926), vol. 62, p. 291.

11. These examples are selected and translated from Francisco Fernández del Castillo, Libros y libreros en el siglo XVI (Mexico City, 194), pp. 360-446.

1. Recopilación de leyes de los reinos de las Indias (Madrid, 1756; 4 vols.), libro I, título XXIV, ley VII.

2. George Haven Putnam, Censorship of the Church of Rome (New York, 1906-1907; 2 vols.), p. 182.

3. Henry Charles Lea, The Inquisition in the Spanish dependencies (New York, 1908), pp. 202, 326.

4. See text of edict in Francisco Fernández del Castillo, Libros y libreros en el siglo XVI (Mexico City, 1914), pp. 459-463.

5. Ibid., pp. 463-464.

4. See text of edict in Francisco Fernández del Castillo, Libros y libreros en el siglo XVI (Mexico City, 1914), pp. 459-463.

5. Ibid., pp. 463-464.

6. Joseph de Veitia Linaje, Norte de la contratación de las Indias (Seville, 1672), libro II, cáp. 18, p. 208.

7. Federico de Castro y Bravo, Las naos españolas (Madrid, 1927), p. 72.

8. Ibid.

7. Federico de Castro y Bravo, Las naos españolas (Madrid, 1927), p. 72.

8. Ibid.

9. See Fernández del Castillo, op. cit., pp. 466-467.

10. Ibid., p. 351.

11. Ibid., p. 366.

12. Ibid., 424.

9. See Fernández del Castillo, op. cit., pp. 466-467.

10. Ibid., p. 351.

11. Ibid., p. 366.

12. Ibid., 424.

9. See Fernández del Castillo, op. cit., pp. 466-467.

10. Ibid., p. 351.

11. Ibid., p. 366.

12. Ibid., 424.

9. See Fernández del Castillo, op. cit., pp. 466-467.

10. Ibid., p. 351.

11. Ibid., p. 366.

12. Ibid., 424.

13. Recopilación de leyes de los reinos de las Indias, libro I, título XXIV, ley VI.

14. Fernández del Castillo, op. cit., pp. 326-327, 357.

15. Ibid., pp. 351-358.

16. Ibid., p. 358.

17. Ibid., p. 359.

18. Ibid., p. 467.

19. Ibid., pp. 422-423.

20. Ibid., pp. 510-511.

14. Fernández del Castillo, op. cit., pp. 326-327, 357.

15. Ibid., pp. 351-358.

16. Ibid., p. 358.

17. Ibid., p. 359.

18. Ibid., p. 467.

19. Ibid., pp. 422-423.

20. Ibid., pp. 510-511.

14. Fernández del Castillo, op. cit., pp. 326-327, 357.

15. Ibid., pp. 351-358.

16. Ibid., p. 358.

17. Ibid., p. 359.

18. Ibid., p. 467.

19. Ibid., pp. 422-423.

20. Ibid., pp. 510-511.

14. Fernández del Castillo, op. cit., pp. 326-327, 357.

15. Ibid., pp. 351-358.

16. Ibid., p. 358.

17. Ibid., p. 359.

18. Ibid., p. 467.

19. Ibid., pp. 422-423.

20. Ibid., pp. 510-511.

14. Fernández del Castillo, op. cit., pp. 326-327, 357.

15. Ibid., pp. 351-358.

16. Ibid., p. 358.

17. Ibid., p. 359.

18. Ibid., p. 467.

19. Ibid., pp. 422-423.

20. Ibid., pp. 510-511.

14. Fernández del Castillo, op. cit., pp. 326-327, 357.

15. Ibid., pp. 351-358.

16. Ibid., p. 358.

17. Ibid., p. 359.

18. Ibid., p. 467.

19. Ibid., pp. 422-423.

20. Ibid., pp. 510-511.

14. Fernández del Castillo, op. cit., pp. 326-327, 357.

15. Ibid., pp. 351-358.

16. Ibid., p. 358.

17. Ibid., p. 359.

18. Ibid., p. 467.

19. Ibid., pp. 422-423.

20. Ibid., pp. 510-511.

21. José Toribio Medina, Historia del Tribunal del Santo Oficio de la Inquisición en México (Santiago de Chile, 1905), p. 417.

22. Ibid., p. 416.

21. José Toribio Medina, Historia del Tribunal del Santo Oficio de la Inquisición en México (Santiago de Chile, 1905), p. 417.

22. Ibid., p. 416.

23. Ricardo Rojas, Historia de la literatura argentina (Buenos Aires, ed. 2, 1924-25; 8 vols.), vol. 3, pp. 43-44.

24. Fernández del Castillo, op. cit., p. 506.

25. Ibid., p. 363.

26. Ibid., pp. 409, 330, 428.

24. Fernández del Castillo, op. cit., p. 506.

25. Ibid., p. 363.

26. Ibid., pp. 409, 330, 428.

24. Fernández del Castillo, op. cit., p. 506.

25. Ibid., p. 363.

26. Ibid., pp. 409, 330, 428.

1. Pacheco y Cárdenas, Colección de documentos inéditos relativos al descubrimiento, conquista ... en América y Oceanía (Madrid, 1864-1884; 42 vols.), vol. 3, p. 496.

2. Cartas de Indias (Madrid, 1877), p. 195.

3. Edmundo O'Gorman, Reflexiones sobre la distribución urbana colonial de la Ciudad de México (Mexico City, 1938), p. 39.

4. Angel Rosenblat, "El desarrollo de la población indígena en América," Tierra Firme (Madrid, 1935), No. 2, pp. 128-142.

5. Gonzalo Aguirre Beltrán, "The slave trade in Mexico," Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 24 (1944), pp. 412-431.

6. Cartas de Indias, pp. 297 ff.

7. Hubert H. Bancroft, History of Mexico (San Francisco, 1883-1888; 6 vols.), vol. 2, p. 661.

8. Cartas de Indias, p. 331.

9. Alberto M. Carreño (ed.), Gonzalo Gómez de Cervantes. La vida económica y social de Nueva España al finalizar el siglo XVI (Mexico City, 1944), p. 188.

10. Cartas de Indias, pp. 315 ff.

11. John Tate Lanning, Academic culture in the Spanish colonies (New York, 1940), p. 113.

12. Joaquín García Icazbalceta, Bibliografía mexicana del siglo XVI, (Mexico City, 1886), p. 168.

13. Ibid., pp. 171, 173.

12. Joaquín García Icazbalceta, Bibliografía mexicana del siglo XVI, (Mexico City, 1886), p. 168.

13. Ibid., pp. 171, 173.

14. Francisco del Paso y Troncoso, Epistolario de Nueva España (Mexico City, 1939-1942; 16 vols.), vol. 12 (1576-1596), p. 13.

15. Cartas de Indias, p. 197.

16. Alfonso Méndez Plancarte, Poetas novohispanos. Primer siglo (1521-1621) (Mexico City, 1942), p. 13-14.

17. The account of this episode is drawn from Amado Alonso, "Biografía de Fernán González de Eslava," Revista de filología hispánica, año II (1940), pp. 213-319, and the correspondence of Archbishop Moya de Contreras and Viceroy Enríquez reproduced in Cartas de Indias .

18. Cartas de Indias, p. 305. 19. Tomás Zepeda Rincón, La instrucción pública en la Nueva España en el siglo XVI (Mexico City, 1933), p. 94.

19. Tomas Zepeda Rincon, La instruccion publica en la Nueva Espana en el siglo XVI (Mexico City, 1933), p.94.

20. The first of these book lists (Appendix, Document 1) is analyzed in Irving A. Leonard, "Una venta de libros en México, 1576," Nueva revista de filología hispánica , año 2 (1948) No. 2, p. 174-185, to which the document itself is appended.

21. This list (Appendix, Document 2) is analyzed in Irving A. Leonard, "On the Mexican Book Trade, 1576," Hispanic Review , vol. 17 (1949), pp. 18-34.

22. Francis Borgia Steck, "Early Mexican literature," Hispanic American Essays (Chapel Hill, N. C., 1942), p. 49.

23. Juan Hurtado y Ángel González Palencia, Historia de la literatura española (Madrid, 1925), p. 393.

1. See Rubén Vargas Ugarte, Manuscritos peruanos en las bibliotecas del estranjero (Lima, 1935; 3 vols.), vol. 1, p. 245.

2. See Roberto Levillier, Don Francisco de Toledo, supremo organizador del Perú. Su vida, su obra, 1515-1582 (Madrid, 1935; 2 vols.); Arthur F. Zimmerman, Francisco de Toledo, fifth Viceroy of Peru, 1569-1581 (Caldwell, Idaho, 1938).

3. Fernando de Montesinos, Anales del Perú (ed. of Victor M. Maúrtua, Madrid, 1906; 2 vols.), vol, 2, pp. 95-96.

4. Rubén Vargas Ugarte (ed.), Diario de Lima de Juan Antonio Suardo, 1629-1639 (Lima, 1936) indicates that on July 15, 1634, a play was performed at the viceroy's palace entitled "Prelado de las Indias, Don Toribio Alfonso Mogrovexo, Arzobispo," playwright not mentioned.

5. Philip A. Means, Fall of the Inca Empire (New York, 1932), p. 175.

6. At the end of Book II of this Historia Acosta wrote, "... que los dos libros precedentes se escribieron en latin, estando en el Perú, y así hablan de las cosas de las Indias como de cosas presentes." There is an interesting chapter on Acosta and his writings in Felipe Barreda y Laos, Vida intelectual del virreinato del Perú . (Buenos Aires, 1937), pp. 99-125.

7. José Toribio Medina, Escritores americanos celebrados por Cervantes en el Canto de Calíope (Santiago de Chile, 1926).

8. See Guillermo Lohmann Villena, El arte dramático en Lima durante el virreinato (Madrid, 1945), pp. 55-83.

9. José Torre Revello, Orígenes de la imprenta en España y su desarrollo en la América Española (Buenos Aires, 1940), pp. 104-117.

10. Genaro García, Documentos inéditos o muy raros para la historia de México (Mexico City, 1905-1911; 35 vols.), vol. 15, p. 99.

11. This book list (Appendix, Document 3) was analyzed in Irving A. Leonard, "Best Sellers of the Lima Book Trade, 1583," Hispanic American Historical Review , vol. 22 (1942), pp. 5-33.

12. The royal decree of February 5, 1569, granting Monterroso the exclusive right to print and sell his work in the Indies for a period of twenty, years, is reproduced in the appendix of José Torre Revello, El libro, la imprenta y el periodismo en América ... (Buenos Aires, 1940), pp. xxi-xxii.

13. See M. de Iriarte, El doctor Huarte de San Juan y su 'Examen de Ingenios' (Madrid, 1935), passim .

14. Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo, Orígenes de la novela (Madrid, 1925; 4 vols.), vol. 1, p. cclxii.

1. See William Lytle Schurz, The Manila galleon (New York, 1939), passim .

2. Archivo General de la Nación (Mexico City, Inquisición tomo 133); this document (Appendix, Document 4) is analyzed in Irving A. Leonard, "One man's library, Manila, 1583," Hispanic Review , vol. 15 (1947), pp. 84-100.

3. Possibly a mistake was made in the date. The newly appointed Commissioner for Manila, Fray Francisco Manrique, received his instructions in Mexico City on March 1, 1583, and must, therefore, have reached the Philippines some months later. Since it was in January, the writer may have inadvertently set down the year just closed, the actual date being 1584.

4. The terminal letter of the name is unlike any other o or a in the manuscript, but the distinguished Spanish paleographer, Dr. Agustín Millares Carlo, who kindly had a photographic copy of the document made for me, gives the reading "trebiña." This name is thus far unidentified. There was a book merchant in Mexico City about the time of this document by the name of Juan de Treviño. See Francisco Fernández del Castillo, Libros y libreros en el siglo XVI (Mexico City, 1914), index.

5. Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo, Historia de los heterodoxos españoles (Madrid, 1911-1932; 7 vols.), vol. 5, p. 425.

6. David P. Barrows, History of the Philippines (New York, 1925); chap. vi. James A. Robertson, "Legaspi and Philippine colonization," American Historical Association Annual Report (Washington, 1908), vol. 1, pp. 143-156.

7. Pedro Torres y Lanzas, Catálogo de los documentos relativos a las Islas Filipinas. Precedido de una Historia general de Filipinas por Pablo Pastells, S. J. (Barcelona, 1925; 2 vols.), vol. 2, pp. ccxxii-ccxxiii.

8. Quoted in ibid., p. clxxxiv-clxxxv.

7. Pedro Torres y Lanzas, Catálogo de los documentos relativos a las Islas Filipinas. Precedido de una Historia general de Filipinas por Pablo Pastells, S. J. (Barcelona, 1925; 2 vols.), vol. 2, pp. ccxxii-ccxxiii.

8. Quoted in ibid., p. clxxxiv-clxxxv.

9. Loc. cit.

10. Op. cit., vol. 2, p. ccxxxi.

11. These data are drawn from a long letter of Bishop Salazar, written in Manila in 1583 to Philip II, translated in Emma H. Blair and J. A. Robertson, The Philippine Islands, 1493-1803 (Cleveland, 1903-1909; 55 vols.), vol. 5, pp. 210-255, See also preface of this volume.

12. Concerning the establishment of the Royal Audiencia of Manila

see Charles H. Cunningham, The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies as illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila, 1583-1800 (Berkeley, 1919), chap. II, passim .

13. These instructions are translated in full in Blair and Robertson, op. cit., vol. 5, pp. 256-273.

14. Carta de Diego de Ronquillo a S. M., 8 de Abril, 1584, quoted in Torres y Lanzas, y Pastells, op. cit., vol. 2., p. ccxxxii.

15. Carta del Obispo a S. M., 18 de Junio, 1583; Carta de Diego de Ronquillo a S. M., 8 de Abril, 1584, quoted in ibid., vol. 2, p. ccxxxii; Blair and Robertson, op. cit., vol. 6, p. 74, note 13; Pedro A. Paterno, Historia de Filipinas (Manila, 1909), vol. 3, p. 58.

16. The Old City of Manila or Intramuros shared the same fate as the modern city outside its walls and was almost completely destroyed in the fighting between the American and Japanese forces in 1945.

17. Torres y Lanzas, y Pastells, op. cit., vol 2, p. clxxix.

18. Ibid., Documentos Nos. 2280, 2328, 2915, 2927, 2937, 2964.

17. Torres y Lanzas, y Pastells, op. cit., vol 2, p. clxxix.

18. Ibid., Documentos Nos. 2280, 2328, 2915, 2927, 2937, 2964.

19. Carta del Obispo a S. M., 18 de Junio, 1583, quoted in ibid., vol. 2, p. ccxxxiii.

20. Blair and Robertson, op. cit., vol. 5, p. 272.

1. Alberto M. Carreño (ed.), Gonzalo Gómez de Cervantes. La vida económica y social de Nueva España al finalizar el siglo XVI (Mexico City, 1944), p. 85. Much of the preliminary material of this chapter is drawn from this interesting document.

2. Ibid., pp. 99-101, 118.

1. Alberto M. Carreño (ed.), Gonzalo Gómez de Cervantes. La vida económica y social de Nueva España al finalizar el siglo XVI (Mexico City, 1944), p. 85. Much of the preliminary material of this chapter is drawn from this interesting document.

2. Ibid., pp. 99-101, 118.

3. Alfonso Méndez Plancarte, Poetas novohispanos. Primer siglo (1521-1621) (Mexico City, 1942), p. xxx.

4. Ibid., p. xxxi.

3. Alfonso Méndez Plancarte, Poetas novohispanos. Primer siglo (1521-1621) (Mexico City, 1942), p. xxx.

4. Ibid., p. xxxi.

5. This document (Appendix, Document 5) was also reproduced in the Hispanic Review , vol. 9 (1941), pp. 1-40, together with an introductory analysis containing reference numbers.

6. Ibid., Nos. 75, 80, 195, 199, 292, 437; cf. No. 540, "Nyculas Rramos, De la bulgata edicion de la Bliblia" (the word is usually so spelled).

7. Ibid., Nos. 64, 72, 117, 305, 432, 71b, 132, 168, 525, 536.

5. This document (Appendix, Document 5) was also reproduced in the Hispanic Review , vol. 9 (1941), pp. 1-40, together with an introductory analysis containing reference numbers.

6. Ibid., Nos. 75, 80, 195, 199, 292, 437; cf. No. 540, "Nyculas Rramos, De la bulgata edicion de la Bliblia" (the word is usually so spelled).

7. Ibid., Nos. 64, 72, 117, 305, 432, 71b, 132, 168, 525, 536.

5. This document (Appendix, Document 5) was also reproduced in the Hispanic Review , vol. 9 (1941), pp. 1-40, together with an introductory analysis containing reference numbers.

6. Ibid., Nos. 75, 80, 195, 199, 292, 437; cf. No. 540, "Nyculas Rramos, De la bulgata edicion de la Bliblia" (the word is usually so spelled).

7. Ibid., Nos. 64, 72, 117, 305, 432, 71b, 132, 168, 525, 536.

8. There appears to be no trace of conflict between Augustinianism and the Pelagianism of the Jesuits. See A. Harnack, History of dogma (Boston, 1905), vol. 7, pp. 73-91.

9. See Nesca A. Robb, Neo-Platonism of the Italian Renaissance (London, 1935), passim; Eugenio Garín, "Aristotelismo e Platonismo del Rinascimento," La Rinascita, vol 2. (1939), pp. 641-671.

10. Letter to Boccaccio, September 7, 1363; see F. Schevill, The first century of Italian humanism (New York, 1928), pp. 22-23.

11. Cambridge modern history (Cambridge, 1903), vol. 2, p. 695; and E. Ananigne, Pico della Mirandola, sincretismo religioso-filosofico (Bari, 1937), chap. 2.

12. B. A. G. Fuller, A history of philosophy (New York, 1938), part 21 p. 19.

13. It should not be forgotten that it was an astrological motive that induced Copernicus to inquire into the mathematical order of the heavens; see F. Thilly, A History of philosophy (New York, 1914), p. 235. Milton expressed faith in astrology in Paradise Lost and justified his belief in it in his tract on Christian faith. Even Kepler made prognostications in his almanacs. Throughout the seventeenth century cultured opinion was divided and perplexed, although in 1586 Sixtus V had published a constitution forbidding all methods of foretelling the future. See Preserved Smith, The history of modern culture (New York, 1934), pp. 426-440.

14. See Appendix, Document 5, Nos. 52, 121, 299, 310, 315, 534.

15. L. Zanta, La renaissance du stoicisme au 16 ^e siècle (Paris, 1914), pp. 167 ff.

16. Four items on this book list testify to the interest in the commentaries of St. Thomas Aquinas. The Thomistic form of scholasticism gained new life in sixteenth-century Spain and Portugal where the Universities of Salamanca and Coimbra ''dem aristotlischen Thomismus zu grossen Ansehen und Einfluss verhalfen''; F. Ueberweg, Grundriss der Philosophie der Neuzeit (Berlin, 1896), vol. 1, p. 28.

17. Interest in the commentaries of Alexander of Aphrosisias is also shown by an item on the list; see Appendix, Document 5 and F. Thilly, op. cit. , p. 232.

18. See Zabuggin, op. cit., pp. 316-318.

19. Méndez Bejarano, Historia de la filosofía en España (Madrid, n.d.), pp. 245-247; M. Menéndez V Pelayo, La ciencia española (Madrid, 1915), pp. 249-281.

20. E. W. Brown and others, The development of the sciences (New Haven, 1923), p. 222. The interest in zoology is much less pronounced and shows similar leanings. See Avicenna, De animalibus, and Nicolas Leonicensus, De los hierros de Plinio y de otros, y de yerbas, animales, y serpientes .

21. M. Möbius, Geschicte der Botanik (Jena, 1937), p. 33.

22. A. Wolf, A history of science, technology, and philosophy in the 16th and 17th centuries (New York, 1935), pp. 396-397.

23. The famous work of Nicolás Monardes, found in many other registros of the sixteenth century, is strangely lacking.

24. This author's Physiognomoniae libri sex ... anticipated the theories of Lavater on the human face.

25. H. Haeser, Lehrbuch der Geschicte der Medicin (Jena, 1881), vol. 2, p. 112. Cf. Secreti diversi et miracolosi , a supposititious work attributed to Gabriello Fallopio.

26. For all these names consult the well-indexed works of Haeser and Wolf.

27. Hasan Ibn Hasan was the greatest of medieval opticians (Wolf, op. cit., p. 244). Campano gave the first European translation of Euclid (from an Arabic text). Sacrobosco was the author of the first work of astronomy published in the West after the fall of the Roman Empire. See C.-F.-M. Marie, Histoire des sciences mathématiques et physiques (Paris, 1883), vol. 2, pp. 140, 158. Information on writers in this section will be taken from this work unless otherwise stated.

28. J.-E. Montucla, Histoire des recherches sur la quadrature du cercle (Paris, 1831), pp. 204, 297.

29. The presence of the Dialectica juris civilis otomani ... by François Hotman is especially interesting since he was a Calvinist and a leading critic of royal absolutism.

30. See G. Toffanin, La fine dell' umanesimo (Torina, 1920), chaps. 8, 9.

31. Miscellaneous items are: P. Mexía, A. de Torquemada, Hernán Núñez, Visorio's poem in six cantos, Anagrama de la vida humana, and Boscán's translation of the Cortegiano .

32. Also known as Egloga di Flavia (by Fillipo Galli?). This edition is apparently unknown.

33. A clerk's notation "En berso latino" would appear to be an error for " ev verso italiano ." It is probably a question of Di M. Antonio Tibaldeo Ferrarese, l'opere d'amore .

34. J. B. Trend, Luis Millán and the vihuelistas (Oxford, 1925), pp. 54, 64.

35. R. Schneider, "Notes sur l'influence artistique de 'Songe de Poliphile'," in Études italiennes (1920), vol. 2, pp. 1-16, 65-73.

1. See Urban Cronan, "Mateo Alemán and Cervantes," Revue hispanique (1911) vol. 25, pp. 468-475.

2. Nicholson B. Adams, The heritage of Spain (New York, 1943), p. 152.

3. In Part II, Book I, chap. vi of Guzmán de Alfarache, Alemán remarks, "... habiéndolo intitulado Atalaya de la vida humana dieron en llamarle Pícaro y no se conoce ya pot otro nombre."

4. Archivo General de Indias, Seville. Contratación , 1135, registro de la nao "La Trinidad," fol. 46.

5. Archivo General de la Nación, Mexico City. Inquisición, 257, visita de naos, 1600, fol. 14.

6. Francisco Fernández del Castillo, Libros y libreros en el siglo XVI (Mexico City, 1914), pp. 444-445.

7. See Document VII in Irving A. Leonard, Romances of chivalry in the Spanish Indies (Berkeley, 1933). There are abstracts of registros of this period in Francisco Rodríguez Marín, Documentos referentes a Mateo Alemán y a sus deudos más cercanos, 1546-1607 (Madrid, 1933).

8. See Discursos leídos ante la Real Academia Española por ... Francisco Rodríaguez Marín y Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo (Seville, 1907), pp. 35-36.

9. Ibid., p. 21.

10. Ibid., pp. 36-39.

8. See Discursos leídos ante la Real Academia Española por ... Francisco Rodríaguez Marín y Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo (Seville, 1907), pp. 35-36.

9. Ibid., p. 21.

10. Ibid., pp. 36-39.

8. See Discursos leídos ante la Real Academia Española por ... Francisco Rodríaguez Marín y Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo (Seville, 1907), pp. 35-36.

9. Ibid., p. 21.

10. Ibid., pp. 36-39.

11. Luis González Obregón, México viejo y anecdótico (Paris-Mexico City, 1909), p. 72.

12. See Alice H. Bushee, "The Sucesos of Mateo Alemán," Revue hispanique (1911) vol. 25, pp. 441 ff.

13. José Toribio Medina, La imprenta en México (1539-1821) (Santiago de Chile, 1907-1912), vol. 2, p. 43.

14. Archivo Nacional del Perú, Lima. Protocolos, Bartolomé de la Cámara, 1612-1614, fol. 155. This document (Appendix, Document 6) was also reproduced in the Hispanic Review , vol. 11 (1943), pp. 218-220.

15. Fernando Montesinos, Anales del Perú (Madrid, 1606; 2 vols.), " Año de 1614." A detailed and interesting description of Lima in the early seventeenth century by a contemporary, Father Bernabé Cobo (1582-1657) is included in Raúl Porras Barrenechea, Pequeña antología de Lima, 1535-1935 (Madrid, 1935), pp. 119-138.

16. Montesinos, op. cit., " Año de 1613."

17. Guillermo Lohmann Villena, Historia del arte dramático en Lima durante el virreinato . I. Siglos XVI y XVII (Lima, 1941), p. 87.

18. Sister Mary H. Corcoran, La Cristiada de fray Diego de Hojeda (Washington, 1935), introduction.

19. In 1606 two copies of the first and second parts were billed for sale in Cuzco at 20 reales each. See App., Doc. 9, and Irving A. Leonard, "On the Cuzco Book Trade, 1606," Hispanic Review , vol. 9 (1941), p. 373.

1. Archivo General de Indias, Seville. Contratación, 1145 a, fol. 259.

2. Francisco Rodríguez Marín, El "Quijote" y Don Quijote en América (Madrid, 1911), p. 35.

3. Archivo General de Indias, Seville. Contratación, 1145 a . Reproduced as Document VIII in Irving A. Leonard, Romances of chivalry in the Spanish Indies (Berkeley, 1933), pp. 114-115.

4. Archivo General de la Nación, Mexico City. Inquisición, tomo 276, No. 13.

5. Ibid.

4. Archivo General de la Nación, Mexico City. Inquisición, tomo 276, No. 13.

5. Ibid.

6. Rodríguez Marín, op. cit., p. 41.

7. Cesáreo Fernández Duro, La armada española (Madrid, 1895-1903; 9 vols.), vol. 3, p. 488.

8. Rodríguez Marín, loc. cit.

9. Fernandez Duro, loc. cit.

10. Luis Cabrera de Córdoba, Relaciones de las cosas sucedidas en la Corte de España, 1599-1614 (Madrid, 1857), p. 264.

11. This document (Appendix, Document 7) was also reproduced in Irving A. Leonard, "Don Quixote and the Book Trade in Lima, 1606," Hispanic Review , vol. 8 (1940), pp. 285-304.

12. The registro covering cases 21 to 40 is in the Archivo General de Indias, Seville. Contratación, 1145 a, fol. 36, and cases 41 to 61, ibid., Contratación, 1145 b, fols. 49-53.

13. Rodríguez Marín, loc. cit., p. 41.

14. A description of Puertobelo about the time of this incident is available in the "Descripción corográfico de ... Puertobelo, 1607," Pacheco y Cárdenas, Colección de documentos inéditos de descubrimientos, conquistas ... en América y Oceanía (Madrid, 1864-1884; 42 vols.), vol. 9, pp. 108-120.

15. "Descripción de Panamá y su provincia sacada de la Relación que por mandado del Consejo hizo y embió aquella Audiencia," Revista de los archivos nacionales (Costa Rica), año 2 (1938), Nos. 5, 6, pp. 245-285.

16. Allyn C. Looseley, "The Puerto Bello fairs," Hispanic American Historical Review (1933) vol. 13, pp. 314-335.

17. "Descripción de Panamá y su provincia," loc. cit.

18. For a discussion of the colonial trails across the Isthmus of Panama, see Roland D. Hussey, "Spanish colonial trails in Panama," Revista de historia de América (1939) vol. 6, pp. 47-74.

19. Both passages are quoted in ibid.

20. These details concerning Old Panama City and a few relating to Puertobelo were drawn from the "Descripción" cited in note 15 above.

21. Ricardo Palma, Mis últimas tradiciones peruanas (Barcelona, 1906).

22. This book list (see Appendix, Document 7) is analyzed in Irving A. Leonard, " Don Quixote and the Book Trade in Lima, 1606," Hispanic Review , vol. 8 (1940), pp. 285-304.

23. Cristóbal Pérez Pastor, Bibliografía madrileña (Madrid, 1896-1907; 3 vols.), vol. 2, p. 90.

24. Loc. cit.

25. Ibid., p. 51.

24. Loc. cit.

25. Ibid., p. 51.

1. Concolorcorvo (Calixto Bustamente Carlos Inga), El lazarillo de ciegos caminantes desde Buenos Aires hasta Lima (Biblioteca de cultura, No. 6, Paris, 1938), apéndice, chap. XXV, gives some indications of the route between Lima and Cuzco. With regard to the amount of time required for the journey, the diarist in the Diario de Lima de Josephe de Mugaburu, 1640-1694 (Lima, 1935; 2 vols.), vol. 2, p. 196, reports that he left Lima with his wife and children on September 12, 1676, and reached Cuzco on November 1, 1676, "after traveling fifty days." Many more details of the route have come to light recently in a contemporary account entitled "Descripción anónima del Perú y de Lima a principios del siglo 17, compuesta pot un judío portugués y dirigida a los estados de Holanda," in the Revista del archivo nacional del Perú, vol. 17 (1944), entrega 1, pp. 3-44.

2. See Appendix, Document 8, and Irving A. Leonard, "On the Cuzco Book Trade, 1606," Hispanic Review , vol. 9 (1941), pp. 359-375.

3. These data on early seventeenth-century Lima, the route to Cuzco, and on the latter city are drawn from the "Descripción anónima" of note 1.

4. Fernando Montesinos, Anales del Perú (Madrid, 1906; 2 vols.), " Año de 1606."

5. Preston E. James, Latin America (New York, 1942), p. 160.

6. Cieza de León, Señoria, chap. 15, quoted in Bailey Diffie, Latin American civilization: colonial period (Harrisburg, Pa., 1945), p. 134.

7. It is of interest to note that only one copy of Lope's comedias is reported in the 45 cases of books which Sarria had brought down to Lima from Puertobelo.

8. See Roland D. Hussey, "Colonial economic life," in A. C. Wilgus, (ed.), Colonial Hispanic America (Washington, 1936), p. 318.

9. Copies of Remedios contra los pecados are listed on both the Lima and the Cuzco documents at 8 reales each.

10. See Francisco Rodríguez Marín, El "Quijote" y Don Quijote en América (Madrid, 1911), pp. 49 ff.

11. The description of the Juego de sortija held in the little town of Pausa in the Peruvian Sierra is drawn from Rodríguez Marín, which reproduces the text of the relación in the appendix.

12. Ludwig Pfandl, Cultura y costumbres del pueblo español de los siglos XVI y XVIL. Introducción al estudio del siglo de oro (Barcelona, 1929), p. 240.

13. In the edition of this novel published at Valencia in 1792, pages 365 to 382 give a detailed description of a juego de sortija which was probably closely imitated at Pausa in 1607.

14. The work by Jenaro Alenda y Mira, Relaciones de solemnidades y fiestas públicas de España (Madrid, 1903) is a bibliography of some

1,795 relaciones and descripciones of public festivities from 1402 to 1726, with numerous excerpts from items listed. On pages 100-101 there are full quotations from a Relación de la sortixa at Valladolid in 1590, from which some of the data given in the text were drawn. Another detailed account of the same year is the "Relación de la sortija que se hizo en Madrid en 31 de marzo de 1590," reprinted in the series of the Sociedad de bibliófilos españoles (Madrid, 1896), vol. 32, pp. 221-232.

15. Rodríguez Marín, op. cit., pp. 110-112.

16. Ibid., p. 118.

15. Rodríguez Marín, op. cit., pp. 110-112.

16. Ibid., p. 118.

1. Dardo Cuneo, "El realismo imaginero," Cuadernos americanos (Mexico City), año 6 (1947), p. 247.

2. Rudolph Schevill, "An impression of the condition of Spanish American libraries," Modern language notes, vol. 22 (May, 1905), p. 143.

3. Of interest in connection with these difficulties of the Creole writer is Agustín G. de Amezúa y Mayo, Como se hacía un libro en nuestro siglo de oro. Discurso leído por ... el día 23 de abril de 1946, con la ocasión de la Fiesta del Libro Español (Madrid, 1946).

4. See Mariano Picón-Salas, De la conquista a la independencia (Mexico City, 1944), pp. 96-104.

5. Of interest in this discussion is the prologue of Edmundo O'Gorman to the 1940 edition of José de Acosta, Historia natural y moral de Indias (Mexico City), pp. liv ff.

6. See Rudolph Schevill, "La novela histórica, las crónicas de Indias, los libros de caballerías," Revista de Indias (Bogotá), época 2 ^a , Nos. 59-60 (1944), pp. 173-196.

7. Juan Alfonso Carrizo, Antecedentes hispano-medievales de la poesía tradicional argentina (Buenos Aires, 1945), p. 79.

8. Rufino J. Cuervo, Apuntaciones críticas sobre el lenguaje bogotano (Bogotá, 1939), quoted in Carrizo, op. cit., p. 51.

9. The cultivated Portuguese-Spanish governor of Spanish Louisiana at New Orleans, Don Manuel Gayoso de Lemos, had in his library in 1799 copies of Cervantes' Galatea, Gil Polo's Diana enamorada, and Suárez de Figueroa's La constante Amarilis . See Irving A. Leonard, "A frontier library, 1799," Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 23 (1943), pp. 21-51.

10. Carrizo, op. cit., p. 39.

11. María Cadilla de Martínez, La poesía popular en Puerto Rico, p. 76, quoted in Carrizo, op. cit., p. 38.

12. Carrizo, op. cit., p. 864.