1. For the contributions of American scholars to these areas, it may suffice to cite the names of Joseph Strayer (for medieval English and French constitutional history), Gene Brucker (Renaissance Florence), and Thomas Brady (south German free cities).

2. AFR argues that the forms of public debt created by Low Countries provinces represent a stage of development intermediate between the debts of medieval cities and the first national debt, created by the English parliament at the end of the seventeenth century.

3. Nannerl Keohane, Philosophy and the State in France (Princeton, 1980), 232-235, 384-388, 407-419; cf. Montesquieu, Spirit of the Laws, Bk. 9.

4. Hans Conrad Peyer, "Die Entstehung der Eidgenossenschaft," in Das Handbuch der Schweizer Geschichte (Zurich, 1972), 1:161-238.

5. H. G. Koenigsberger, "The Italian Parliaments from Their Origins to the End of the Eighteenth Century," Standen en Landen 70 (1977):101.

6. Hans Nabholz, et al., Die Geschichte der Schweiz, 2 vols. (Zurich, 1932), 1:174-184. See also François Gilliard, "Gouvernés et Gouvernants dans la Confédération Helvétique, des Origines à la Fin de l'Ancien Régime," Recueils de la Société Jean Bodin 25 (1965): 139-162.

7. For general surveys, see NAGN, vols. 4-6; Pirenne, vols. 3-4; Pieter Geyl, The Revolt of the Netherlands, 2d ed. (London: 1958); and Geoffrey Parker, The Dutch Revolt (Ithaca: 1977). The Revolt began in 1568, with William of Orange's unsuccessful invasion from Germany, but the rebels did not control any territory until the towns of Holland and Zeeland adhered to the revolt in 1572.

8. Johannes Althusius, Politica Methodice Digesta, ed. Carl Friedrich (Cambridge: 1932), 122-136.

9. W. P. Blockmans, "De Representatieve Instellingen in het Zuiden, 1384-1483," and P. H. P. Leupen, "De Representatieve Instellingen in het Noorden, 1384-1482," NAGN 4: 156-163, 164-171; A. Th. van Deursen, "Staatsinstellingen der Noordelijke Nederlanden, 1579-1780,'' NAGN 5: 350-387.

10. Pieter Geyl, Orange and Stuart, 1641-1672 (London: 1969); on

the two most important Grand Pensionaries, see Jan Den Tex, Oldenbarneveld, 2 vols. (Cambridge, 1973), and H. H. Rowan, John de Witt (Princeton, 1978).

11. K. H. D. Haley, The Dutch in the Seventeenth Century (New York, 1972), 64-74; Keohane cites the view of René-Louis de Voyer de Paulmy, Marquis d'Argenson, that the Dutch regime "has many arms, but lacks a head" (386).

12. Van Deursen, in NAGN 5: 350-353; the quotation is from Willem Bentinck, lord of Rhoon.

13. Ibid., 350-355. In 1645 the States General considered dissolving the Union among the provinces that traced back to 1579, now that the long war against Spain was concluded. H. Wansink, "Holland and Six Allies: the Republic of the Seven United Provinces," Britain and the Netherlands (1971) 4:133-155, concludes that "at the end of the eighteeenth century the Republic was not markedly more unified than at the end of the sixteenth" (155).

12. Van Deursen, in NAGN 5: 350-353; the quotation is from Willem Bentinck, lord of Rhoon.

13. Ibid., 350-355. In 1645 the States General considered dissolving the Union among the provinces that traced back to 1579, now that the long war against Spain was concluded. H. Wansink, "Holland and Six Allies: the Republic of the Seven United Provinces," Britain and the Netherlands (1971) 4:133-155, concludes that "at the end of the eighteeenth century the Republic was not markedly more unified than at the end of the sixteenth" (155).

14. Van Deursen, in NAGN 5:352-354; G. de Bruin, "De Souvereiniteit in de Republiek: een Machtsprobleem," BMGN 94 (1979): 27-40.

15. Pirenne, vol. 3; K. J. W. Verhofstad, S.J., De Regering der Nederlanden in de Jaren 1555-1559 (Nijmegen, 1937). "Verwerperlijk archaïsch" is W. P. Blockmans's characterization for the traditional view of provincial particularisms: "Breuk of Continuiteit? De Vlaamse Privileges van 1477 in het Licht van het Staatvormingsproces," in Blockmans, Het Algemeen en de Gewestelijke Privileges van Maria van Burgondië voor de Nederlanden, 1477 = Standen en Landen 80 (Heule, 1985): 119.

16. On the historiography of the Revolt, see J. W. Smit, "The Present Position of Studies Regarding the Revolt of the Netherlands," Britain and the Netherlands 1 (1960): 11-29; and Heinz Schilling, "Der Aufstand der Niederlanden-bürgerliche Revolution oder Elitenkonflikt?" Geschichte und Gesellschaft 2 (1976): 177-231.

17. AFR.

18. J. J. Woltjer, "Dutch Privileges, Real and Imaginary," Britain and the Netherlands 5 (1975): 19-35.

19. Tracy, "The Taxation System of the County of Holland under Charles V and Philip II, 1519-1566." Economisch- en Sociaal-Historisch Jaarboek 48 (1984): 72-117.

20. Haley, 64-71; the fullest account of the social and economic history of the Republic is J. G. van Dillen, Van Rijkdom en Regenten: Handboek tot de Economische en Sociale Geschiedenis der Nederlanden tijdens de Republiek (The Hague, 1970).

1. For the history of Holland's waterways, the fundamental work is A. H. Beekman, Holland, Zeeland en Westfriesland in 1300 (The Hague, 1916-1920; the three parts bound together in this volume originally appeared separately); this book is text volume 4, corresponding to map number 5 in map volume 1 of Geschiedkundige Atlas van Nederland, 3 volumes of maps (The Hague, 1913-1938); 15 volumes of text (The Hague, 1916-1938).

2. The best works in English are: William Te Brake, Medieval Frontier: Culture and Ecology in Rijnland (College Station, 1985), and Audrey Lambert, The Making of the Dutch Landscape (London, 1971).

3. S. J. Fockema Andreae, "Embanking and Drainage Authorities in the Netherlands during the Middle Ages," Speculum 27 (1952): 158-167; C. Dekker, "The Representation of Freeholders in the Drainage Districts of Zeeland West of the Scheldt during the Middle Ages," AHN 7 (1975): 1-30.

4. H. P. H.Jansen, "Holland's Advance," AHN 10 (1978): 1-20; Lambert, 154-178. Most of the Dutch scholars now working on Holland's medieval history are represented in the memorial volume for Prof. Jansen: D. E. H. de Boer and J. W. Marsilje, eds., De Nederlanden in de Late Middeleeuwen (Utrecht, 1987).

5. For Holland's political history in the fourteenth century, see J. F. Niermeyer, "Hennegouwen, Holland, en Zeeland onder Willem III en Willem IV van Avesnes," and "Het Sticht Utrecht en het Graafschap Holland," AGN 3:63-80, 287-297, and H. P. H. Jansen, "Holland, Zeeland, en het Sticht," NAGN 2: 293-307.

6. P. J. Blok, "De Financiën van het Graafschap Holland," BMGN, 3d. ser., 3 (1886): 36-130.

.7. H. P. H. Jansen, Hoekse en Kabeljauwse Twisten (Bussum, 1966). Michiel Brokken, Het Ontstaan van de Hoekse en Kabeljauwse Twisten (Zutphen, 1982) presents a more detailed and more nuanced account, in which the dispute over the Dordrecht staple is seen as less important than local rivalries and constitutional issues.

8. J. F. Niermeyer, "Hennegouwen, Holland, en Zeeland onder het Huis Wittelsbach," AGN 3: 104-107.

9. Klaus Spading, Holland und die Hanse im 15en Jahrhundert (Weimar, 1973), 1-12; H. A. H. Boelmans-Kranenburg, "Visserij van de Noordnederlanders," in Maritieme Geschiedenis der Nederlanden, ed. G. Asaert, et al., 4 vols. (Bussum, 1976-1978), 1: 290-294.

10. N. W. Posthumus, De Oosterse Handel van Amsterdam (Leiden, 1953), and Geschiedenis van de Leidsche Lakenindustrie (3 vols. The

Hague, 1908-1933) vol. 1; J. C. van Loenen, De Haarlemse Brouwindustrie voor 1600 (Amsterdam, 1950).

11. Niermeyer, "Hennegouwen, Holland, en Zeeland onder het Huis Wittelsbach," AGN 3: 110-111.

12. A. G. Jongkees, "Strijd om de Erfenis van Wittelsbach, 1417-1433," AGN 3: 226-252; H. P. H. Jansen, Jacoba van Beieren (The Hague, 1967), 54-91; J. Scheurkogel, "Opstand in Holland," in De Boer and Marsilje, De Nederlanden in de Late Middeleeuwen, 363-378. For a sample of "Hoek historiography," see below, note 13.

13. Jan Wagenaar, Vaderlandsche Historie, 21 vols. (Amsterdam, 1749-1759), 3: 475-479: the Duke of Burgundy's foreign garrisons and the "perpetual fines" he imposed on Hollanders who had supported Jacoba were "tangible signs of an arbitrary regime" ("tastelyke blyken van een willkeurige regeringe"), a yoke from which Hollanders would finally gain freedom during the Revolt.

14. Richard Vaughan, Philip the Good (New York: 1970), 303-331; J. Bartier, "Filips de Goede en de Vestiging van de Bourgondische Staat," AGN 3: 253-271; W. P. Blockmans, "Vlaanderen, 1384-1482," NAGN 4: 217-220.

15. Wagenaar, Vaderlandsche Historie, 4: 39; E. A. M. E. Jansen, De Opkomst van de Vroedschap in Enkele Hollandse Steden (University of Leiden, 1927). Cf. Niermeyer, "Hennegouwen, Holland, en Zeeland onder het Huis Wittelsbach," AGN 3: 108. Duke Albert introduced a guild regime in Dordrecht to weaken the authority of Hoek patricians. For urban constitutions in the southern Netherlands, see H. van Werveke, "De Steden. Rechten, Instellingen, en Maatschaapelijke Toestanden," AGN 2: 374-416, and R. van Uytven, "Het Stedelijk Leven, 1100-1400," NAGN 2: 187-253.

16. For the organization of the Hof van Holland see the introduction to A. S. de Blécourt and E. M. Meijers, Memorialen van het Hof van Holland, Zeeland, en Westfriesland van de Secretaris Jan Roosa, 3 vols. (Haarlem: 1929); J. van Rompaey, "De Bourgondische Staatsinstellingen," NAGN 4: 152-153.

17. Wagenaar, Vaderlandsche Historie, 3: 486; P. H. D. Leupen, "De Representatieve Instellingen in het Noorden, 1384-1482," NAGN 4: 164-165; W. P. Blockmans, "De Representatieve Instellingen in het Zuiden, 1384-1482," NAGN 4: 156-163; H. de Schepper, "De Burgerlijke Overheden en hun Permanente Kaders, 1480-1579," NAGN 5: 323-328. See also the important collection of texts edited by W. Prevenier and J. G. Smit, Bronnen voor de Geschiedenis der Dagvaarten van de Staten en Steden van Holland voor 1544, vol. 1 (The Hague, 1987).

18. Paul Rosenfeld, "The Provincial Governors from the Minority

of Charles V to the Revolt,'' Standen en Landen = Anciens Pays et Assemblées d'Etat, 17 (Leuven, 1959): 1-63; Vaughan, Philip the Good, 127-204. T. S. Jansma, "Holland en Zeeland onder de Bourgondische Hertogen, 1433-1477," AGN 4: 313-316, 322-328.

19. J. A. van Houtte, R. van Uytven, "De Financiën," NAGN 4: 118-120; Van Houtte, An Economic History of the Low Countries (New York, 1977): 110-113; John Gilissen. "Les États Généraux en Belgique et aux Pays Bas sous l'Ancien Régime," Recueils de la Société Jean Bodin 24 (1966): 401-438.

20. Tracy, "The Taxation System of the County of Holland," Jaarboek voor Economisch- en Sociaal-Geschiedenis 48 (1984): 71-81; Vaughan, Philip the Good, 193-194; H. P. H. Jansen, "Holland en Zeeland, 1433-1482," NAGN 4: 272-273; Jansma, "Holland en Zeeland onder de Bourgondische Hertogen," AGN 3: 313-316.

21. Spading, Holland und die Hanse im 15en Jahrhundert, 1-19; Jansen, "Holland en Zeeland, 1433-1482," NAGN 4: 277-279; Vaughan, Philip the Good, 65-77, 92-94, 141-163.

22. Ter Gouw, 3:25-55; J. C. A. De Meij, "Oorlogsvaart, Kaapvaart, en Zeeroof," Maritieme Geschiedenis der Nederlanden, 1: 311-315; on the composition of Holland's war fleet, see Raimond van Marle, Le Comté de Hollande sous Philippe le Bon (1428-1467) (The Hague, 1908), 79-80, citing Baron Fr. de Reiffenberg, Mémoire courennée en réponse à cette question proposée par l'Académie Royale des Sciences et Belles Lettres de Bruxelles: Quel a été l'état de la population, des fabriques et manufactures, et du commerce dans les Provinces des Pays Bas, pendant les XVe et XVIe siècles? (Brussels, 1820), 231.

23. Richard Vaughan, Charles the Bold (London, 1973), 183-184; see also pp. 1-40, 84-100.

24. Vaughan, Charles the Bold, 185-189, 205-210, and Valois Burgundy (London, 1975), 106-107; Gilissen, 416.

25. J. Bartier, "Karel de Stoute," AGN 3: 272-298; AFR, 14-17; Isaak Le Long, Historische Beschryving van de Reformatie der Stad Amsterdam (Amsterdam, 1729), 379-382; Vaughan, Charles the Bold, 414-415; M. Mollat, "Récherches sur les Finances des Ducs Valois de Bourgogne," Revue Historique 219 (1958): 285-321.

26. Jansen, "Holland en Zeeland, 1433-1482," NAGN 4: 284-5; R. Fruin, "De Verpondingen van 1496 en 1515 en haar Voorbereiding," in his Verspreide Geschriften, ed. P. J. Blok, et al., 10 vols. (The Hague, 1900-1904), 6: 141-143; Ter Gouw, 3: 100-108. Aud. 650: 486 ^v , quotes from an assiètte or quota for a bede of 500,000 crowns in 1473, in which Holland, West Friesland and Zeeland combined were assessed for 127,000 or as much as Flanders.

27. Jansen, "Holland en Zeeland, 1433-1482," NAGN 4: 282-284; Ter Gouw, 3: 130.

28. Jongkees, "Het Grote Privilege van Holland," in Het Algemeen en de Gewestelijke Grote Privileges van Maria van Bourgondië ; see also W. P. Blockmans's contribution to the same volume, "Breuk of Continuiteit? De Vlaamse Privileges van 1477 in het Licht van het Staatvor-mingsproces," 97-144. HB 3: 7-17; Blok, 2: 25-28; De Schepper, ''De Burgerlijke Overheden en hun Permanente Kaders, 1480-1579," NAGN 5: 324.

29. F. W. N. Hugenholz, "Crisis en Herstel van het Bourgondisch Gezag, 1477-1493," AGN 4: 1-10, and "The 1477 Crisis in the Burgundian Duke's Dominions," Britain and the Netherlands, 2 (1962): 33-46; Jansen, "Holland en Zeeland, 1433-1482," NAGN 4: 288-291; Ter Gouw, 3: 130-149; Wagenaar, Vaderlandsche Historie, 4: 185-197, 220-233; R. van Uytven, "Crisis als Cesuur 1482-1494," NAGN 5: 422-423; AFR, 57-58.

30. Hugenholz, "Crisis en Herstel," AGN 4: 11-22. For two different views of the Bread and Cheese War, see F. W. N. Hugenholz, "Het Kaas- en Broodvolk," BMHGU 81 (1967): 201-247, and J. Scheurkogel, "Het Kaas- en Broodspel," BMGN 99 (1979): 189-211.

31. J. E. A. L. Struick, Gelre en Habsburg, 1492-1528 (Arnhem, 1960), 8-26; Blok, 2: 25-27: coached by his advisers, Philip omitted from his oath many of the concessions included in Mary of Burgundy's "Great Privilege" of 1477; thus was the principle of majority rule restored to the States of Holland, at least as far as the government was concerned. Jongkees, "Het Grote Privilege van Holland," 180-181.

32. Struick, 39-52; Wiesflecker, Kaiser Maximilian I , 2: 140-146.

33. The best account of the Guelders wars is found in Struick, Gelre en Habsburg .

34. Posthumus, De Oosterse Handel van Amsterdam (Leiden, 1953); De Uitvoer van Amsterdam (Leiden, 1971); Ter Gouw, 3: 110-130.

35. Richard W. Unger, Dutch Shipbuilding before 1800 (Assen, 1978), 1-5; Posthumus, De Uitvoer van Amsterdam, 186, Table 15, lists the value of goods exported to various destinations (including Norway) between 1543 and 1545.

36. James D. Tracy, "Habsburg Grain Policy and Amsterdam Politics: the Career of Sheriff Willem Dirkszoon Baerdes, 1542-1566," Sixteenth Century Journal 18 (1983): 309-310; H. de Haan, Moedernegotiatie en Grote Vaart (Amsterdam, 1977).

37. Aksel E. Christensen, Dutch Trade to the Baltic around 1600 (Copenhagen, 1941), 29-45.

38. Lambert, 142, 170-172, 185-186; Geraerdt Brandt, Historie

der Vermaerde Zee- en Koop-Stadt Enkhuizen (Hoorn, 1740), 21; J. A. van Houtte, "Nijverheid en Handel," NAGN 4: 101-108. H. A. H. Boelmans-Kranenburg considers the estimate of 250 busses "exaggerated:" ''Visserij van de Noordnederlanders," in Maritieme Geschiedenis der Nederlanden, vol. 1, ed. G. Asaert, et al. (Bussum, 1976), 290.

39. Posthumus, Geschiedenis van de Leidsche Lakenindustrie, vol. 1; W. P. Blockmans, et al. "Tussen Crisis en Welvaart: Sociale Veranderingen, 1300-1500," NAGN 4: 51.

40. J. C. van Loenen, De Haarlemse Brouwindustrie voor 1600 (Amsterdam, 1950); C. C. J. Pinske, "Het Goudse Koutbier," in Gouda Zeven Eeuwen Stad (Gouda, 1972), 91-128; GVR 20 (February 1509, 13 April 1537); see also an undated petition from Gouda's brewers to the Stadtholder, Hoogstraten, Aud. 1524, 18-19; M. A. Timmer, "Grepen uit de Geschiedenis der Delftsche Brouwnering," De Economist 70 (1920): 358-373, 415-430; J. J. Woltjer, "Een Hollands Stadsbestuur in het midden van de 16e eeuw: brouwers en Bestuurders te Delft," in De Boer and Marsilje, De Nederlanden in de Late Middeleeuwen, 261-279.

41. F. Ketner, "Amsterdam en de Binnenvaart door Holland in de 15e Eeuw," BVGO 4 (1943): 169-200; 5 (1944): 33-59.

42. Aud. 650: 486; GRK 3425 (Holland's portion of a 1523 extraordinaris bede of 608,000 was 81,607, or 13.33%). Leo Noordegraaf, Hollands Welvaren? Levens-Standaard in Holland, 1450-1650 (Bergen, 1985): 76, cites a long list of authors who agree on Holland's prosperity under Charles the Bold.

43. Noordegraaf, 20-22, 32-34, 41-43, 77-81.

44. P.A. Meilink, Archieven van de Staten van Holland voor 1572, 53.

45. R. Fruin, ed., Informacie: of 171 villages surveyed, 148 had sold renten by 1514, including eighteen for the Utrecht War.

46. Posthumus, Geschiedenis van de Leidsche Lakenindustrie, 1: 195-213.

47. E. Coornaert, Un Centre industriel d'autrefois. La Draperie-sayerie d'Hondschoote, XIVe-XVIIe siècles (Paris, 1930); Posthumus, Geschiedenis van de Leidsche Lakenindustrie, 1: 245-259, 368-371 (tables on cloth production). For complaints by Leiden that its merchants have no credit, see AJ, 10 September, 29 December 1523, 28 January 1524.

48. Pinske, "Het Goudse Kuitbier;" GVR, 20 February 1509.

49. Woltjer, "Een Hollands Stadsbestuur;" Van Loenen, De Haarlemse Brouwindustrie, 15-21, 45-62. In the sixteenth century Haarlem contributed stained-glassed windows to churches in towns in Waterland, West Friesland, and Friesland where much Haarlem beer was consumed: HVR, 20 March 1521 (Purmerend), 8 June 1521 (Medem-

blik), 8 April 1522 (Enkhuizen), and 13 April 1529 (Workum, in Friesland).

50. Fruin, Informacie .

51. Fruin, Informacie . Haarlem reports that its overseas shipping is only a fraction of what it was fourteen years previously.

52. I. Prins, Het Failissement der Hollandsche Steden: Amsterdam. Dordrecht, Leiden en Haarlem in het Jaar 1514 (Amsterdam, 1922); W. Downer, "De Financiële Toestand van de Stad Leiden omstreeks 1500," (typescript at the Leiden Stadsarchief 1951); J. C. Overvoorde and J. N. Oerburgt, Het Archief van de Secretarie van de Stad Leiden, 1252-1575 (Leiden: 1937), Regestenlijst, for prolongation of Leiden's dept-postponement, no. 1262, 1271, 1301, 1315, 1337, 1404, 1447, 1502, 1551, 1679, 1770, 1932; cf. no. 1390, 1400.

53. Fruin, Informacie; J. C. Naber, Een Terugblik: Statistische Bewerking van de Resultaten van de Informatie van 1514 (reprint, Haarlem, 1970), Bijlage 10.

54. Fruin, Informacie; Naber, Terugblik .

55. Fruin, Informacie; Naber, Terugblik .

56. W. S. Unger, "De Sociale en Economische Struktuur van Dordrecht in 1555," De Economist 63 (1913): 947-984.

57. C. Hoek, "Delfshaven, de Rivierhaven van Delft," in De Stad Delft: Cultuur en Maatschappij tot 1572 (Delft, 1980), 100-104. Fruin, Informacie: Rotterdam itself reports sixty-three herring busses, Schiedam another twenty. Christensen, 111-121, chooses a Delft merchant (active after 1560) to study the organization of Dutch commerce in the Baltic.

58. Noordegraaf, Hollands Welvaren, 80-81; Christensen, 29-39: on the earliest Sound Toll registers, from 1497 and 1503.

59. Jansen, "Holland's Advance"; Jan De Vries, The Dutch Rural Economy in the Golden Age, 1500-1700 (New Haven, 1974), 86.

1. Otto Hintze, "Typologie der ständischen Verfassung des Abendlands," Historische Zeitschrift 141 (1929/1930): 229-248; A. R. Myers, Parliaments and Estates in Europe to 1789 (London, 1979), 34-48. See also Gouverants et Gouvernés = Recueils de la Société Jean Bodin vols. 22-27 (Brussels, 1965-1968), and Antonio Marongiu, Medieval Parliaments: A Comparative Study, tr. S. J. Woolf (London, 1968).

2. J. E. A. Jolliffe, The Constitutional History of Medieval England, fourth edition (London, 1961), Chapters 3 and 4, passim; Hintze, "Typologie der ständischen Verfassung des Abendlands."

3. Jan Dhondt, "Les Assemblées d'État en Belgique avant 1795," Recueils de la Société Jean Bodin 24 (1966): 325-400; Jolliffe, 349-350.

4. H. G. Koenigsberger, "The Powers of Deputies in Sixteenth-Century Assemblies," Estates and Revolutions (Ithaca, 1971), 176-210; Marongiu, Medieval Parliaments, 228-232.

5. AJ, 14 October 1523, 15 October 1523, 25 October 1523, 19 April 1524. H. G. Koenigsberger, "The Parliament of Piedmont during the Renaissance, 1460-1560," in Estates and Revolutions, 19-79; Antonio Marongiu, Il Parlamento in Italia nel Medio Evo e nell'Eta Moderna (Milan, 1962), 398, citing Armando Tallone, editor of the series, Parlamento Sabaudo; for the period of interest here, see Parta Prima, Patria Cismontana, vols. 6 and 7 (Bologna, 1932-1933), and Parte Seconda, Patria Oltramontana, vol. 2 (Bologna, 1937).

6. H. G. Koenigsberger, "The States General of the Netherlands before the Revolt," in Estates and Revolutions, 125-143; R. Wellens, Actes des États Genéraux des Anciens Pays Bas , vols. 1 (1464-1477), 2 (1478-1493), 3 (1493-1506) (Heule, 1974- ).

7. Otto Brünner, Land und Herrschaft, 128-146, 231-240, 414-440.

8. Herbert Helbig, Das Wettinische Ständestaat (Münster/Cologne, 1955), 464-476; Blickle, Landschaften im Alten Reich (Munich, 1973), 3-48.

9. W. Prevenier, De Leden en de Staten van Vlaanderen, 1384-1405 = VKAW-KL 43 (Brussels, 1961), 19-23, 57-84.

10. See Chapter 1, note 29. Brünner, Land und Herrschaft, 414-440. For criticism of various aspects of Brünner's views, see R. Folz, "Les Assemblées d'états dans les principautés Allemandes (fin XIV ^e -debut XVI ^e siècle)," Recueils de la Société Jean Bodin 25 (1965): 166-169; Gerhard Oestreich, "The Estates of Germany and the Formation of the State," in his Neostoicism and the Early Modern State (Cambridge, 1982), 197; and W. P. Blockmans, "Typologie van de Volksvertegenwoordiging in Europa tijdens de Late Middeleeuwen," Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis 87 (1974): 484-485.

11. AFR, 57-58; Leiden dagvaarten, 13 May 1535, 4, 18 November 1538.

12. Floris Oem van Wijngaerden, "Register van tgeene Gedaen  . . .  Is in Diverse Dagvaarten," no. 29 of a 33-point memorandum that begins on fol. 22, and fol. 34 ^v -36 (Gemeentearchief Dordrecht).

13. P. D. J. van Iterson, P. H. J. van der Laan, Resoluties van de Vroedschap van Amsterdam, 1490-1550 (Amsterdam, 1986), 39, 44. See Chapter 1, Table 1.

14. On sources for the medieval concept of the corporation, see

Brian Tierney, Foundations of the Conciliar Theory (Cambridge, reprint 1968), 106-117, and Otto Gierke, Geschichte des Deutschen Körperschaftsrecht = vol. II of his Das Deutsche Genossenschaftsrecht (Berlin, 1873), especially 485-489, 553-558. (The Low Countries waterschappen, not discussed by Gierke, may have been a model for other corporate bodies in this region.) The "corporatist" interpretation of medieval history proposed by E. Lousse, La Société de l'Ancien Régime = Standen en Landen 6 (Leuven, 1943) is rightly criticized by Jan Dhondt, "'Ordres' ou 'Puissances:' l'Exemple des États de Flandre," in Estates or Powers, ed. W. P. Blockmans = Standen en Landen 79 (Heule, 1977), 27-53, and by Blockmans himself, "Typologie van de Volksvertegenwoordiging in Europa," 484-485.

15. AJ, 27 May 1524: when the nobles refuse to pay in a new tax, Amsterdam asks clarification of "wye aan tlichaem oft corpus van hollant behooren oft niet / en oft de adelen een lit vant voors. corpus zyn oft niet" ("who belongs to the body or corpus of Holland or not; and if the nobles are a member of the aforesaid corpus or not").

16. AJ, 25 January, 8-10 February, 8 June 1524, 15-20 June 1525: deputies from small cities voice their opinions, but these opinions did not count as votes. AJ, 23 August 1523, the small cities ought to be summoned, because "frequentior senatus" means "breeder last." Even in later years Assendelft would still cite the opinions of the small cities in his reports on the meetings, e.g., to Hoogstraten, 18 September 1542 (Aud. 1646:3).

17. See Chapter 3, notes 50, 51.

18. Blockmans, "Typologie van de Volksvertegenwoordiging in Europa," and De Volksvertegenwoordinging in Vlaanderen in de Overgang van Middeleeuwen naar Nieuwe Tijd (1384-1506) = VKAW-KL 90 (Brussels, 1978): 195-206. The figures for dagvaarten for the States of Holland are based on RSH, AJ, and GVR .

19. For contrasting views on the parliamentary "liberties" of Aragon, see Carlos Lopez de Haro, La Constitucion y Libertades de Aragon (Madrid, 1926), and Ralph E. Giesey, If Not, Not; The Oath of the Aragonese and the Legendary. Laws of Sobrarbe (Princeton, 1968). F. L. Carsten, Princes and Parliaments in Germany (Oxford, 1959), 1-6.

20. See the literature cited above, note 5.

21. Carsten, 3, 258-259 on the preeminence of urban deputies in the Estates of Wiirttemberg and in the Rhineland Duchies of Julich and Berg.

22. Ricardo Garcia Carcel, Cortes del Reinado de Carlos V (Valencia, 1972) reproduces sixteenth-century editions of the laws or furs (cf. the Castilian term fueros ) promulgated by the Valencia corts of 1528, 1533,

1537, 1542, 1547, and 1552. The only other session during Charles's reign was in 1535: Joan Regla, Appoximacio a la Historia del Pais Valencia (Valencia, 1978), 87-88.

23. Cited by Oestreich, Neostoicism and the Early Modern State, 192. See also H. G. Koenigsberger, ''Composite States, Representative Institutions, and the American Revolution," Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research, 62 (1989): 135-153.

24. Marongiu, Medieval Parliaments, 196-206, and Il Parlamento in Italia, 294-297. Koenigsberger, "The Parliament of Piedmont during the Renaissance," 63-79, disputes the common view that parliamentary irresponsibility paved the way for Emmanuel Philibert's triumph.

25. Carsten, Princes and Parliaments in Germany, 6-25; for fuller information, see Walter Grube, Der Stuttgarter Landtag, 1457-1957 (Stuttgart, 1957), "Erstes Buch," 12-193.

26. Esteban Sarasa Sanchez, Las Cortes de Aragon en la Edad Media (Zaragoza, 1979).

27. Blockmans, "Typologie van de Volksvertegenwoordiging in Europa," 491-492.

28. For the development of committees in the States of Holland, see the forthcoming dissertation of J. W. Koopmans, "De Staten van Holland, 1544-1584" (University of Groningen). I am grateful to Mr. Koopmans for sharing with me a draft of his chapter dealing with the organization of the States.

29. Of the six great cities, Amsterdam was farthest from The Hague, about forty miles, presuming the deputies traveled by way of Haarlem.

30. John B. Henneman, Royal Taxation in Fourteenth-Century France (Princeton, 1971); Martin Wolfe, The Fiscal System of Renaissance France (New Haven, 1972), 30-41.

31. Wladimiro Piskorski, Las Cortes en el Periodo de Transito de la Edad Media a la Edad Moderna, 1188-1520, tr. C. Sanchez-Albornoz (Barcelona, 1977), 150-170, 188-193. This book is a reprint of the 1930 edition, based on the Russian original of 1897. See also Steven Haliczer, The Revolt of the Comuneros (Madison, 1981).

32. Barthélemy Amadée Pocquet du Haut-Jussé, "A Political Concept of Louis XI: Subjection instead of Vassalage," in The Recovery of France in the Fifteenth Century, ed. P. S. Lewis (New York, 1971), 196-215; J. W. Allen, A History of Political Thought in the Sixteenth Century (London, reprint 1960), 271-285.

33. Stanford E. Lehmberg, The Reformation Parliament, 1529-1536 (Cambridge, 1970); Michael A. Graves, The Tudor Parliaments (London, 1985), 77-81; Carstens, 430-437.

34. Carsten, 11, 24-25; AFR, 19-21; Oestreich, 192-195.

35. AFR, 18-26, 43, 99: the German estates which took over princes' debts did not issue instruments of' indebtedness; the French and Spanish monarchies did issue instruments similar to the Netherlands renten, but these were not guaranteed by parliamentary bodies.

36. Stanford E. Lehmberg, The Later Parliaments of Henry VIII, 92-95, 175-180; G. R. Elton, "Taxation for War and Peace in Early Tudor England," in J. M. Minter, ed. War and Economic Development (Cambridge, 1975), 47: "Though 'everybody knows' that the principle [of redress of grievances before granting of supply] existed in the medieval history of the English parliament, it is in fact hard to find it there." I owe these references to my colleague at Minnesota, Prof. Lehmberg.

37. RSH, 29 March 1531.

38. Margaret of Austria to Charles V, July 1530, in Gordon Griffiths, Representative Government in Western Europe in the Sixteenth Century (Oxford, 1968), 354.

39. HB, 2: 133-149. Jongkees, "Het Groot Privilege van Holland en Zeeland van 1477," 189-190, 216-235: paragraph 19 of the 1477 Great Privilege for Holland, requiring consent of the States for war, was not renewed after 1494, except for clauses relating to feudal military service.

40. Wallace Notestein, The House of Commons, 1604-1610 (New Haven, 1971), 264-265.

41. Carsten, 26. For military unions between the States of Holland and the quarters of Antwerp and 's Hertogenbosch (Brabant), see Chapter 3, notes 55, 79.

42. Carcel, Cortes del Reinado de Carlos I, fol. IV ^v ; see Sebastian Garcia Martinez, Bandolerismo, Pirateria, y Control de Moriscos en Valencia durante el Reino de Felipe II (Valencia, 1977), 21-25. For provisions made by the States of Holland for defense of the Zuider Zee, see AJ, 25 October 1523, 10 February, 19 April. 28 August 1524.

43. Marongiu, Il Parlamento in Italia, 294-297. Cf. Chapter 3, note 61.

44. The first six volumes of RSH were published separately in 1751. Between 1791 and 1798 they were reissued, together with 277 more volumes, covering the period to 1795. For Brabant there is only the "Roet Boek van de Staten van Brabant (1506-1572)," Algemeen Rijksarchief, Brussels, Collection "Staten van Brabant," nr. R 199/16.

45. Six volumes of the series Handelingen van de Leden en van de Staten van Vlaanderen = KAW-CRH, Publications in Quarto have now appeared,

edited by W. Prevenier (1384-1405, vol. 58, Brussels, 1959), A. Zoete (1405-1419, vols. 72:1, 72:2, Brussels, 1981-1982), and W. P. Blockmans (1467-1477, vol. 64, Brussels, 1971, and 1477-1506, vols. 67:1 and 67:2, Brussels, 1973). A seventh volume covering the period from 1419 to 1467, also edited by Prof. Blockmans, is in press.

46. W. Prevenier, J. G. Smit, Bronnen voor de Geschiedenis der Dagvaarten van de Staten en Sieden van Holland, vol. 1 (The Hague, 1987).

47. AVR, GVR, HVR .

48. The fullest study of the office of town pensionary is J. Melles, Ministers aan de Maas: Geschiedenis van de Rotterdamse Pensionarissen, 1508-1795 (The Hague, 1962). See Chapter 5, Table 4.

49. The travel diaries of Jacobszoon and Sandelijn have been used by Ter Gouw and others, but the Leiden dagvaarten seems to have escaped notice (Stadsarchief Leiden, Secretarie, nr. 1218). It is a loosely bound collection of annual notebooks, each beginning in October; the consecutive pagination is in a later hand. Folios 1-48 are in the same hand; Willem Pieterszoon uyten Aggar is present for every meeting described, and on fol. 45 he says "I, Willem Pieters uyten Aggar," undertook a journey for the city. The rest of the manuscript is in a different hand, and "Jacob de Milde, pensionaris" is present for all the meetings described.

50. Aud. includes correspondence between the Council of Holland and leading government figures; Assendelft's letters alone number in the hundreds.

51. R. van Uytven, "1477 in Brabant," and "De Blijde Inkomst van Maria van Bourgondie, 29 Mei 1477, Text en Eigentijds Commentar," in Blockmans, Het Algemeen en de Gewestelijke Privileges van Maria van Bourgondie voor de Nederlanden, 253-285, 286-372. On names for and conceptions of unity in the Habsburg Netherlands, see Johan Huizinga, ''Uit de Voorgeschiedenis van Ons Nationaal Besef," in Verspreide Opstellen over de Geschiedenis van Nederland, ed. W. E. Krul (Alphen aan den Rijn, 1982), 53-68, and J. J. Poelhekke, "Het Naamloze Vaderland van Erasmus,'' BMGN 86 (1971): 90-123

52. M. Gachard, Collections des Voyages des Souverains des Pays-Bas, vol. 2 = Academie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et de Beaux-Arts de Belgique, Commission Royale d'Histoire, Publications in Quarto 15:2 (Brussels, 1874), 15-16. For Charles's reception in Amsterdam, see HVH, 176-177 ^v .

53. Gachard, Collection des Voyages, 2: 27-30, 158-67, 269-274, 293-301, 310-330, 374-396.

54. Jane de Iongh, Margaretha van Oostenrijk (Amsterdam, 1947),

and De Koningin: Maria van Hongarije, Landvoogdes der Nederlanden (Amsterdam, revised 1966).

55. Paul Rosenfeld, "The Provincial Governors from the Minority of Charles V to the Revolt," Standen en Landen 17 (1959): 1-63. On rivalries among these families during Charles's minority, see Andreas von Walther, Die Anfänge Karls V (Leipzig, 1911). On the Brederodes, see H. A. Enno van Gelder, "De Hollandse Adel," Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis (1930), as cited by A. C. Duke, ''The Time of Troubles in the County of Holland, 1566-1567," Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis 82 (1969): 316.

56. Jan van Rompaey, De Grote Raad van de Hertogen van Bourgondie en het Parlement van Mechelen = VKAW-KL, no. 73 (Brussels, 1973); J. Th. de Smidt, et al., Chronologische Lijst van de Geëxtendeerde Sententiën en Procesbundels Berustende in het Archief van de Grote Raad te Mechelen 1465-1555, 4 vols. (Brussels, 1966-1987).

57. Van den Bergh, Correspondentie van Margaretha van Oostenrijk, 1506-1528 = vols. 2 and 3 of Gedenkstukken tot Opheldering der Nederlandsche Geschiedenis, 3 vols. (Leiden: 1842-1847); K. Lanz, Correspondenz des Kaisers Karls V, aus dem Königlichen Archiv und der Bibliotheque de Bourgogne zu Brüssel, 3 vols. (Leipzig: 1844-1846). Cf. Aud. 47-70: Lanz published only a few letters from these twenty-four packets of correspondence between Charles V and Mary of Hungary. The letters printed in Manuel Fernandez Alvarez, Corpus Documental de Carlos V (5 vols, Salamanca, 1973-1981) have little direct bearing on the Low Countries.

58. Margaret of Austria to Charles V, 23 October 1524, in Lanz, Correspondenz des Karls V, no 59, 1: 146-148; Charles V to Mary of Hungary, 3 January 1531, Lanz, no. 156, 1: 417-418; Mary of Hungary to Charles V, 28 January 1532, Aud. 52; Charles to Mary, 23 October 1535 (Aud. 52), and 2 March 1536 (Aud. 52); Mary to Charles, 21 April 1536, Lanz, Letter 633, 2: 600. De Iongh, De Koningin: Maria van Hongarije, 180-182, 194-195.

59. Michel Baelde, De Collaterale Raden onder Karel V; on Schore, see 309-310.

60. H. de Schepper, "De Grote Raad van Mechelen, Hoogste Rechtscollege van de Nederlanden?" in H. de Schepper, ed., Miscellanea Consilii Magni (Amsterdam, 1980), 171-192. See below, note 69.

61. See the introduction to vol. I of Blécourt and Meijers, Memorialen van het Hof van Holland  . . .  van de Secretaris Jan Roosa . Paul van Peteghem, "Centralisatie in Vlaanderen onder Karel V," (dissertation, University of Ghent, 1980), describes the personnel and functions of the Council of Flanders.

62. A. Kluit, Historie der Hollandsche Staatsregering tot aan het Jaar 1795, 5 vols. (Amsterdam, 1802-1805), 5: 529-531, a list of thirty-seven bailiffs and sheriffs in 1420. By 1552 there were 105 local judicial officers responsible for the posting of government ordinances or plakkaten: Council of Holland to Mary of Hungary, 15 January 1552 (Aud. 1646:2).

63. On the Blijde Inkomst, see note 51 above; Powicke, The Reformation in England (Oxford, reprint 1965), 35-37; Koenigsberger, "The Parliament of Piedmont," 29; Hintze, "Typologie der ständischen Verfassung des Abendlands," 231-232.

64. P. Leupen, Philip of Leiden, a Fourteenth-Century Jurist (The Hague, 1981), 91-103. There is need for a study of Meester Vincent Corneliszoon van Mierop; see the references in Chapter 5.

65. Aud. 650: 527-528. On the collection in which this document is found, see AFR, 73; Koenigsberger, "Patronage and Bribery during the Reign of Charles V," in Estates and Revolutions (Ithaca, 1971), 170, citing AJ, 9 December 1535.

66. RSH, 25 February 1543. On contemporary notions of absolute power among professors of civil law at French universities, see Allen, A History of Political Thought in the Sixteenth Century, 280-285.

67. In addition to the incident cited in note 66, see the minute of 28 June 1528 by the Audiencer, Laurens Du Blioul, in Griffiths, Representative Government in Western Europe, 351-352, on Margaret of Austria's decision to force through a bede not accepted by the States of Brabant. The third case occurred when Charles V occupied Ghent (1540) and compelled its acceptance of a bede already endorsed by the other three Members of Flanders: see N. Maddens, "De Opstandige Houding van Gent tijdens de Regering van Karel V, 1515-1540," Appeltjes uit het Meetjesland 28 (1977) 203-239; Van Durme, Antoon Perrenot, Kardinaal van Granvelle, 377-379. Folkert Postma, Viglius van Aytta als Humanist en Diplomaat (1507-1549) (Zutphen, 1983) covers Viglius's career up to the point he assumed his post in the Secret Council, and Dr. Postma (University of Groningen) is at work on a sequel. R. Fruin and H. T. Colenbrander, Geschiedenis der Staatsinstellingen in Nederland, 40.

68. Niklaas Everaerts, Consiliorum Opus (Leuven, 1571), 5-6, 97-102.

69. Sandelijn, 15 December 1549: Holland should pursue its claim to exemption from the Antwerp toll in the Grand Council of Mechelen, because both the Secret Council and the Council of Finance were "quite suspect" in regard to the Emperor's toll revenues. Cf. 13 October 1548, 9 October 1551 and 27 January 1553: the Grand Council

judged in Holland's favor (1548) on the important issue of grain export fees, but the States could not get the verdict engrossed because Mary of Hungary wished the Secret Council to "examine" it first.

70. Council of Holland to the Secret Council, HH 381, 20 February 1560: the Council and the Chamber disagreed over a challenge to the privileges of the island of' Voorne. On differences over the enforcement of heresy laws between the Council and Charles V's prosecutor, the Procurator General, see Tracy, "Heresy Law and Centralization under Mary of Hungary: Conflict between the Council of Holland and the Central Government over the Enforcement of Charles V's Placards," Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte 73 (1982): 284-307.

71. See the last three letters of Charles V to Mary of Hungary cited in note 58.

72. For example, Maximiliaan van Egmont, Count of Buren, joined the officials of his town of Leerdam under house arrest, rather than authorizing them to pay a novel tax: For references, see chapter 5, note 71.

73. Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 24 January 1535 (Aud. 1529), and 30 September 1535 (Aud. 1527): Hoogstraten and the Regent each wanted to have direct reports from the Council of Holland, and each could be upset to hear about something through the other.

74. See chapter 7, notes 34-35. Alain Derville, "Pots de vin, cadeaux, racket, patronage: essai sur les mécanismes de décision dans l'état Bourguignon," Revue du Nord 56 (1974): 341-364, and "Les Potsde-Vin dans le dernier tiers du XVe siècle (d'après les comptes de Lille et St. Omer)," in W. P. Blockmans, ed., Het Algemeen en de Gewestelijke Privileges van Maria van Bourgondië voor de Nederlanden, 449-471.

75. AJ, 2 October 1525, 19 October 1526, 23 June 1539.

76. AJ, 1 January 1536.

77. AJ, 22 October 1531; Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 18, 26 January 1537 (Aud. 1530) and 28 January 1537 (Aud. 1532).

78. AJ, 23-24 February 1536, RSH 5, 25 February 1536.

79. RSH, 25 August 1531; AJ, 16 June 1530, 4-8 February 1536.

80. Whether there were precisely seventeen separate provinces is a matter for discussion: H. de Schepper, "De Burgerlijke Overheden en hun Permanente Kaders," NAGN 5: 315-316. The provinces of Friesland (1523), Utrecht and Overijssel (with Drenthe, 1527), Groningen (with Twente, 1536) and Gelderland (1543) were added under Charles V.

81. Mary of Hungary to Charles V, 8 February 1536, and Charles to Mary, 2 March 1536, in Lanz, Letters 627, 631, 2: 657-659.

82. Lille B 2301, 2309, 2315, 2320, 2328, 2504: total receipts aver-

aged 1,229,555 pounds between 1521 and 1525, but the income for 1552 was 5,021,015. In wartime years (as in 1552) receipts were swollen by extraordinaris beden, which the states granted only grudgingly in peace time.

83. Aud. 837:53 ^v -57 ^v , 312-315, shows repayment of 499,747 in loans ("deniers prins a frait") for the period 1521-1530, not counting sales of renten and anticipations of bede payments, meaning that the government paid back an average of 50,000 per year. Aud. 1407:1 shows an annual debt of roughly 3,800,000 pounds for the period 1554-1556.

84. Tracy, "Taxation System in the County of Holland," 80-81.

85. Aud. 867:116-123, a summary of domain income and the expenditures charged against that income for 1527.

86. H. Soly, "De Aluinhandel in de Nederlanden in de 16e Eeuw," Belgische Tijdschrift voor Filologie en Geschiedenis / Revue Belge de Philologie et d'Histoire 52 (1974): 800-857.

87. AJ, 13 February, 21 November 1523, 31 December 1523, 9 February 1525, 31 July 1527, 6 April 1528.

88. Hugo de Schepper, Belgium Nostrum, 1500-1650: Over Integratie en Desintegratie van het Nederland (Antwerp, 1987).

89. States of Holland petition to Margaret of Hungary (1524? Aud. 1524: 61-2); Council of Holland to the Council of Finance, 14 March 1542 (Aud. 1533).

90. Aud. 868:120-128, an anonymous and undated memorandum (ca. 1540) proposing important changes in the existing system of taxation.

91. Fritz Blaich, Die Reichs-Monopolgesetzgebung im Zeitalter Karls V (Stuttgart, 1967).

92. On disputes between large and small brewers, see J. C. van Loenen, De Haarlemse Brouwindustrie voor 1600 (Amsterdam, 1950), 37-44; Aud. 1441:4, nos. 1 and 5, document a similar dispute involving the government and the brewers of Delft.

93. Mary of Hungary to the Sheriffs of Dordrecht, Delfshaven, and Rotterdam, 5 December 1552 (Aud. 1656:2); Council of Holland to Emmanuel Philibert of Savoy, 28 November 1556 (Aud. 1419:1).

94. Tracy, "Herring Wars: Sea Power in the North Sea in the Reign of Charles V," under consideration by a journal.

95. Anneke Geitz, "De Staten van Holland en hun Personeel," 27-29.

96. Geitz, 33; see P. A. Meilink, Archieven van de Staten van Holland voor 1572, nos. 1706-1789 (The Hague, 1927) for an inventory of omslag accounts.

97. AJ, 27 January, 13 February, 7, 8 March, 14 August, 10 September 1523, 31 May, 13 August 1524; Henk F. K. van Nierop, Van Ridders tot Regenten, 179-185. The States tried in vain to obtain the papers of' Albrecht van Loo, and Aert van der Goes's record was preserved only because his son succeeded him (Sandelijn, 18-19 April 1555; Meilink, Archieven van de Staten van Holland voor 1572, 1-5). Cf. Blok, ` Geschiedenis eener Hollands Stad, 2: 25-28.

98. Tracy, "The Taxation System of the County of Holland," 79-80; Blockmans, "Breuk of Continuiteit? De Vlaamse Privileges van 1477," 114.

99. Leiden dagvaarten, 20 August 1532.

100. AJ, 31 December 1530-2 January 1531, 16 August 1531.

101. Oem van Wijngaerden, "Register van tgeene gedaen is," 65-75, Delft's brewers contested the monopoly claimed by Dordrecht for the distribution of beer in rural south Holland; H. A. Diederiks, "Amsterdamse Binnenscheepvaart-politiek in de 16e Eeuw," Amstelodamum 56 (1969): 111-115, the inland shippers' guild of Haarlem disputed the right claimed by their Amsterdam counterparts to have preference given to Amsterdam ships, provided the ship-type and the freight charges were the same.

102. B. van Rijswijk, Geschiedenis van het Dordtsche Stapelrecht, 64, 80-82. See also the capsule history of the staple controversy in Matthys Balen Janszoon, Beschryving der Stad Dordrecht (Dordrecht, 1677), 441-516.

103. AJ, 11-27 October 1527.

104. Rijswijk, 83-95; Council of Holland to Mary of Hungary, 7 November 1539 (Aud. 1528); report by Pieter Venyck, secretary to the Emperor, 27 March 1542 (Aud. 1533); Dordrecht to Lodewijk van Schoer, 11 April 1543 (Aud. 1656: 1).

105. For commodities exported from Amsterdam, see Posthumus, De Uitvoer van Amsterdam, 181-192. GRK 4921 contains accounts of the Gouda toll from I May 1541 through 30 April 1544, accounts which were deposited with officials in The Hague because of a law-suit.

106. GRK 4921, the Gouda toll account; Stadsarchief Leiden, Oude Secretarie 1264:58e (1557 report on traffic through the Sparendam lock); Fruin, Informacie op het Staet van Hollant . See above, note 101.

107. F. Ketner, "Amsterdam en de Binnevaart door Holland"; on the Sparendam lock and its rebuilding in 1518, Stadsarchief Leiden, Oude Secretarie 1263:206-208, 214-232; HVR, 18, 22, 26 June; 3, 12, 17, 21 July; 7 August 1518.

108. J. C. Overvoorde, J. N. Oerburgt, Archief van de Secretarie van

de Stad Leiden, 1253-1575 (Leiden, 1937), Regesten, nos. 1317 (14 May 1519, a placard issued at the request of Gerrit Geerloofs, tollfarmer of Gouda), 1818 (26 October 1553); A. J. Enschede, Inventaris van het Oud-Archief van de Stad Haarlem (Haarlem, n.d.), Regesten, 26 June 1536: passages specifically prohibited are at Billerdam, Heiligen Weg (site of Amsterdam's Overtoom ), Zevenhove, and Goe Jan Verwellersluis, between Gouda and Oudewater. See also Enschede, Privileges, no. 253 (1516): Amsterdam and Leiden are prohibited from attempting to escape tolls at Gouda and Sparendam (1516).

109. On the duties and privileges of the ambachtsheer, see van Nierop, Van Ridders tot Regenten, 119-126.

110. The distinction between a waalersluis and an opwindende sluis is explained by C. Hoek, "Delfshaven, de Rivierhaven van Delft." See Fockema Andreae, De Hoogheemraadschap van Rijnland .

111. 1) From the early fifteenth century through much of the sixteenth century, there were disputes between Haarlem and Amsterdam concerning an overhaul or overtoom that permitted direct connections between the Amstel and the Haarlemmermeer, bypassing the IJ and Haarlem. 2) From 1520 through 1545, Haarlem, Gouda, and Dordrecht disputed efforts to open a sluice gate in the Billerdam south of Amsterdam, which would have opened another direct connection to the Haarlemmermeer. 3)Between 1492 and 1555 there were various efforts to build a sluice through the Leidschendam (between Delft and Leiden), to put a windlass on top, or to dig a new channel northward from Delft via Nootdorp; all were blocked by Haarlem, Gouda, and Dordrecht, joined at times by Leiden. 4)In 1492,400 men from Gouda and Dordrecht smashed an overtoom at Hildam on the Rotte (built by Rotterdam so its barges could reach the Oude Rijn without passing through Gouda) as well as the new sluice in the Leidschendam. 5) Between summer 1517 and spring 1518, men from Haarlem twice appeared in arms on the IJ dike to prevent the building of a new lock they thought would have been too narrow, and prejudicial to their shipping. 6)In 1562 Hendrik van Brederode sent men to sink a ship at Vreeswijk on the Lek, opposite his town of Vianen, just at the point where the city of Utrecht was cutting a new opening in the Lek dike. 7) In May 1564 men from the villages of Hermelen, Camerijk and Zegwert in the Land van Woerden marched out—with banners, fife and drum—to smash a dam and stone bridge being built at Bodegraven by the Dike-Count of the Land van Woerden, without their approval. 8) Dordrecht to Gouda, 2 January 1565 (Stadsarchief Haarlem, Loketkast 7.5.6. nr. 1) proposes joint action to oppose Schoonhoven's request for

permission to travel with small ships and barges through Goe Jan Verwellersluis, as had already been permitted to Woerden and Oudewater. References and further details will be provided in Tracy, "Armed Non-Rebellion: the Assertion of Corporate Privileges in the Habsburg Netherlands," an article in preparation.

112. Delft argues in its defense of the Nootdorp channel (no. 3 in note 111) that "waterways are public and that all prohibitory injunctions tend to cause inconvenience for some users, or to make navigation worse than it formerly was  . . . [;] moreover according to common law each is entitled to make use of his own so as to make a profit." Cf. the statement from one of Niklaas Everaert's briefs that "de jure gentium omnibus libera per mare & flumina competit navigatio" ( Conciliorum Opus, 3: 7-8), and Everaert's opinion on the inequity of the Dordrecht staple.

113. T. S. Jansma, "De Betekenis van Dordrecht en Rotterdam omstreeks het Midden der Zestiende Eeuw," De Economist 93 (1943): 212-250.

114. Pirenne, Histoire de Belgique, 3: 259-272. W. Brulez, "Brugge en Antwerpen in de 15e en 16e Eeuwen. Een Tegenstelling?" Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis 83 (1970): 15-37, relativizes Pirenne's sharp contrast between the dynamic, free trade of Antwerp and the stagnating, regulated trade of Bruges. Van der Wee, "De Overgang van de Middeleeuwen naar Nieuwe Tijd," 20-22, 29-30, traces the continuing prosperity of the southern Netherlands in this period to the development of specialized luxury products and services, with less emphasis on the so-called new cloth industries. E. C. G. Brünner, De Orden op de Buitennering van 1531 (Utrecht, 1918), 79-80.

115. Brünner, De Orden, 65-78, 126. RSH, 7 June 1529, 24 February 1530, 6 July, 2 August 1531, 5 February 1532; AJ, 31 October 1528, 7 June 1529, 5 March 1530. Overvoorde and Oerburgt, Het Archief van de Secretarie van de Stad Leiden, Regesten, 1677, 1685, 1706; Brünner, De Orden, 155.

116. Klaus Spading, Holland und die Hanse in 15en Jahrhundert (Weimar, 1973), x, stresses the "progressive" character of Holland's economy in this era; W. van Ravensteyn, Onderzoekingen over de Economische en Sociale Ontwikkeling van Amsterdam, 45-51, argued that Amsterdam was already different from other Holland towns in the Middle Ages, since its involvement in the transit trade, rather than in any particular industry, meant that its guilds were not guilds in the conventional sense. Other scholars have been more impressed by the traditional features of Holland's economy. W. S. Unger, "De Hollandse Graanhandel en Graanhandelspolitiek in de Middeleeuwen," De Economist

(1916): 480-482, treats Hollanders' arguments for free trade as a matter of self-interest, not as a precocious statement of liberal economic doctrine. T. S. Jansma, "Hanze, Fugge, Amsterdam," BMGN 91 (1976): 6, rejects the notion that Holland in its economic development was, prior to about 1550, superior to its Baltic rival, Lübeck. Pirenne, Histoire de Belgique, 3: 228-238; Early Democracies in the Low Countries, tr. J. V. Saunders (New York, 1971), 162-171, 187-215.

117. For Amsterdam's defense of "free trade" in various contexts, see AJ, 9 March 1527 (Amsterdam and Dordrecht protested restrictions on the sailing dates for the herring fleet on the grounds that "alle neringhe ende hanteringhe van coopmanschap behoort vry te wesen ende nyet gerestringeert tot enige sekere conditien"), 11 April 1537; RSH, 5 August 1545, 15 December 1549; Meilink, "Rapporten en Betoogen nopens het Congiegeld op Granen,'' 90, 118. Cf. RSH, 24 September 1532: Amsterdam did not have a representative on the delegation sent to Brussels in connection with the ban on buitennering . Meilink, "Rapporten en Betoogen," 1-5; the privilege was confirmed in 1507. AJ, 18-21 June 1528.

118. Geyl, The Revolt of the Netherlands, 15-66.

1. Geoffrey Parker, The Military Revolution, 1500-1800 (Cambridge, 1988); J. R. Hale, War and Society in Renaissance Europe, 1450-1620 (New York, 1985), 61-63; E. F. Jacob, Henry V and the Invasion of France (New York, 1966), 68; Perry Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State (New York, 1974), 30-33.

2. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition (Princeton, 1975).

3. Cited by Donald Wilcox, The Development of Florentine Humanist Historiography (Cambridge, Mass., 1969), 90.

4. "Sileni Alcibiadis," in Adagiorum Chiliades, D. Erasmi Opera Omnia, ed. J. Leclercq, 10 vols. (Leiden, 1703-1706) = LB 2: 775DE: "Justum bellum appellant, cum ad exhauriendam opprimendamque rempublicam Principes inter se colludunt." Cf. "Tributum a Mortuis Exigere," LB 2: 338C, and Erasmus to Antoon van Bergen, 14 March 1514, in Opus Epistolarum D. Erasmi, ed. P. S. Allen, 12 vols. (Oxford, 1906-1963), Letter 288, 1.55-56, 1: 553.

5. J. H. Shennan, The Origins of the Modern European State, 1450-1725 (London, 1974), 37.

6. Budé, De Studio Litterarum (Paris, 1532), 13.

7. Tracy, The Politics of Erasmus, 67-68; AJ, 29 June-7 July 1529.

8. For example, the Emperor sought a special gift of 50,000 pounds in 1510: Maximilian to Margaret of Austria, 10 June 1510, LeGlay, Letter 213, 1:282-284; Margaret of Austria to Maximilian, July 1510, LeGlay, Letter 233, 1: 308-310; and Maximilian to Margaret of Austria, 18 August 1510, LeGlay, Letter 237, 1: 313-315.

9. See below, notes 83-90; HVH, 156 ^v -157, 198 ^v -199.

10. On the meaning of "exploicter," see Maximilian to Margaret of Austria, 21 May 1510, LeGlay, no. 206, 1: 269.

11. Struick, Gelre en Habsburg, 6-12. On the Zuider Zee channels, which had to be marked each year by Amsterdam's stroommeester or master of the current, see Ter Gouw, 4: 115-117.

12. Struick, 39-58; Wiesflecker, Kaiser Maximilian I, 2: 140-146, 3: 92-104; L. P Gachard, "Les Anciennes assemblées nationales de Belgique," Revue de Bruxelles 3 (1839): 16-17. Struick cautions against the view that Karel van Egmont should be considered a Renaissance version of Attila the Hun (6).

13. HVH 186-194 ^v ; J. S. Theissen De Regering van Karel V in de Noordelijke Nederlanden (Amsterdam, 1922), 35-48; J. J. Kalma, Grote Pier van Kimswerd (Leeuwarden, 1970).

14. Struick, 230-231; Cuthbert Tunstall and Edward Ponynges to Henry VIII, 25 March 1516, in J. S. Brewer, ed., Letters and Papers Foreign and Domestic, of the Reign of Henry VIII (Reprint: Vaduz, 1965), 2:i.

15. AJ, 17-21 November 1527, 29 April 1524. E. M. ten Cate, "Onderhandelingen van het Hof te Brussel met de Munstersche Wederdopers Aangeknoopt," Doopsgesinde Bijdragen (1899).

16. Hadrianus Barlandus (d. 1535), Historia Rerum Gestarum a Brabantiae Ducibus (Frankfurt, 1585), 169; Ludwig Duncker, Fürst Rudolf der Tapfere von Anhalt und der Krieg gegen Herzog Karl von Geldern, 1507-1508 (Dessau, 1900), 37. For a simillar misinterpretation of events, see below, note 35.

17. See above, note 12.

18. Collection "Staten van Brabant," Algemeen Rijksarchief, Brussels.

19. Hermans, Hollandiae Gelriaeque Bellum, in Ant. Mathesis, Veteris Aevi Analecta (The Hague, 1738).

20. Cornelius Aurelius, Cronycke van Hollandt, Zeelandt en Vrieslant (Antwerp, 1530). R. Fruin, "De Zamensteller van de zogenaamde Divisie-Kroniek," in his Verspreide Geschriften, (The Hague, 1903), 7: 66-72.

21. On Snoy, see Robert de Graaf, Reyner Snoyaoudanus, a Bibliography (Nieuwkoop, 1968).

22. An archivist's note describes the anonymous author as ''een Amsterdamse schrijver en oogentuyge." In connection with a visit to Amsterdam in 1515 by Adriaan van Utrecht, the future Pope Adrian VI, the author (220) names the altar on which he said mass twice, and mentions that Adriaan "maecte costelicke boecken ende besonderling screef by seer coestelyck op dat boek van de hogen sinne"—a reference to Adrian's "Commentarius sive Expositiones in Proverbia Salamonis," a full text of which survives in manuscript but was never published in its entirety: Dictionnaire de théologie catholique, 15 vols. (Paris, 1909-1950), 1:461.

23. Hermans, Hollandiae Gelriaeque Bellum, 334.

24. "Ad Suam Bataviam," in Cornelis Aurelius, Batavia sive de Antiquo ezus Insulae Quam Rhenus  . . .  Facit Situ, ed. Bonaventura Vulcanius (Antwerp, 1586), 78. Translation mine.

25. Cornelius Aurelius, Batavia, 84-98: letters to Hendrik van Nassau, Stadholder of Holland; Jacob Lokhorst, burgrave of Leiden; and Jan Bennink, member of the Council of Holland.

26. Snoy, De Rebus Batavicis Libri XIII, 187.

27. Like his kinsman, Willem Hermans, Aurelius was an early friend and correspondent of Erasmus: see Allen, Opus Epistolarum D. Erasmi, vol. 1; and P. C. Molhuysen, "Cornelius Aurelius," Nederlands Archief voor Kerkgeschiedenis, n. s. 2 (1902): 1-28. Aurelius to Snoy, in Batavia, 49-50, says that he wrote this treatise at Snoy's request.

28. IJsselstein to Margaret, 2 March 1512, Van den Bergh, Letter 168, 3: 13-15. Spinelly's report, 13 January 1513, in Brewer, Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII, 1:i, no. 1594. IJsselstein was apparently popular in Dordrecht, which had supported the war against Guelders: AJ, 29 December 1523, the pensionaris of Dordrecht speaks up in behalf of Hoogstraten, "prodens ita dordracensium bonum favorem ad Florentium comitem de Buren."

29. HVH, 143 ^v , 151, 169.

30. See above, note 16.

31. HVH, 142 ^v -143, 160 ^v , 162 ^v , 167.

32. Contrast HVH, 166 ^v , with Struick, Gelre en Habsburg, 139-146.

33. HVH, 162 ^v .

34. Velius, Chronyk van Hoorn, ed. Sebastian Centen (Hoorn, 1740), 196.

35. HVH, 164 ^v ; cf. 185, regarding a six-week truce in Friesland ending 4 May 1517: "This truce was made to the disadvantage of our land. And it is to be supposed that some lords made this truce without the knowledge of the King of Spain [Charles], because they did not

love our land, and in order that the war in Friesland should last longer, and our portion of the land suffer more harm." Theissen, De Regering van Karel V in de Noordelijke Nederlanden, 48: the truce in question was concluded in conjunction with the Treaty of Cambrai (11 March 1517, between Francis I, Maximilian, and Archduke Charles), which is not mentioned by the author of the "Historie van Hollant."

36. HVH, 187 ^v -188, has Nassau stationing cavalry in Schoonhoven (on the Lek) and Haarlem, and parcelling out four "banners" of infantry (about 900 men) to Edam, Monnikendam, Hoorn, and Uutdam. Aurelius, Cronycke van Hollandt, Zeelandt en Vrieslant, sig. Ee 5 ^v , concurs, but also mentions that Medemblik, where the Black Band landed, had "300 foreign troops" within its walls.

37. HVH, 191 ^v .

38. Tracy, The Politics of Erasmus, 96-107.

39. D. S. van Zuider, "De Plundering van Den Haag door Maarten van Rossum 6-9 Maart 1528," Die Haghe (1911): 130-152. The reference is to Hortensius, Secessionum Civilium Ultrajectinarum et Bellorum ab Anno 1524 Historia (Basel, 1546), and Heuterus, Rerum Austriacarum Libri XV (Antwerp, 1584).

40. Maximilian to Margaret of Austria, 29 April 1509, LeGlay, Letter 100, 1: 130-133. Deputies to Low Countries parliaments were not alone in harboring such suspicions: Marongiu ( Il Partamento in Italia, 296) notes that Duke Charles of Savoy assured the stati of Piedmont (1518) that the troops he was recruiting were not meant to attack his subjects.

41. Margaret of Austria to Maximilian, [April 1512], Van den Bergh, Letter 179, 3: 32-34; the same text is given in LeGlay, Letter 380, 1:504-507. See also Gachard, "Anciennes assemblées nationales de Belgique," 23-24.

42. Margaret of Austria to Maximilian, July 1510, LeGlay, Letter 233, 1: 308-310, and n.d., Letter 302, 1: 394; Maximilian to Margaret, 29 September 1512, Letter 413, 2: 40-42.

43. Margaret to Maximilian, 18 March 1512, LeGlay, Letter 377, 18 March 1512, 1:501-502; 20 August 1512, LeGlay, Letter 402, 2: 23-25; and 15 December 1512, Van den Bergh, Letter 184, 3: 58-60.

44. Struick, Gelre en Habsburg, 311-315; Theissen, De Regering van Karel V in de Noordelijke Nederlanden, 74-84.

45. Tracy, "The Taxation System of the County of Holland," Table 1, 108-109.

46. AJ, 25 October 1523, 20 November 1527 RSH, 18 June 1535 (Hoogstraten's bande d'ordonnance ). AJ, 25 September, 3 October, 5-

12, 17 December 1523; cf. 9 December 1522, 31 March 1528; RSH, 31 March, 16 June 1528, 26 March, 3 April 1533, 20 September 1534; Struick, Gelre en Habsburg, 287. Masons earned five or six stuivers per day in Haarlem and Leiden between 1525 and 1530 (Noordegraaf, Hollands Welvaren, Tables 4d and 4e, 69-70).

47. AJ, 3, 9, 20, 25 October 1523.

48. Struick, Gelre en Habsburg, 286.

49. The Dutch word staet (from the French état ) can mean a prospective or retrospective budget summary (see Aud. 650 for examples of both kinds), or, in this case, budget for a bede .

50. AJ, 28 December 1523; cf. 9 January 1524.

51. AJ, 18 January 1524; the burgomaster was Robrecht Jacobszoon.

52. HVH, 218-218; AJ, 3 October 1523.

53. AJ, 31 December 1523.

54. Margaret to Charles V, 21 February 1524, Lanz, Correspondenz des Kaisers Karls V, Letter 49, 1: 89-90; the ninth of Gattinara's "ten commandments for war," Henne, Histoire de Belgique sous le Règne de Charles V, 1: 316-322; Struick, Gelre en Habsburg, 288-289.

55. The other two cities with voting rights in the States of Brabant, Leuven and Brussels, were farther removed from the fighting, and had refused to pay for the war in 1512: Margaret to Maximilian, April 1512, Van den Bergh, Letter 179, 3:32-34 = LeGlay, Letter 380, 1:504-507.

56. Struick, Gelre en Habsburg, 289-295.

57. AJ, 19 February; 1, 13, 15 April; 12, 12, 20 May; 4, 7 June; 13 August 1524; 1, 31 May; 1 June 1525.

58. In a discussion among cities involved in the Baltic trade, the men of Antwerp said that a Baltic war would be "worse for us [meaning all those assembled] than three French wars": AJ, 18 January 1524.

59. AJ, 28 December 1523. Cf. Theissen, De Regering van Karel V in de Noordelijke Nederlanden, 35-48: Duke Albert of Saxony received Holland's claim to Friesland in payment for a campaign he had conducted for Maximilian; his son, Duke George, sold it back to the Habsburg government in 1515.

60. AJ, 7, 11 March 1523.

61. HVH , 217 ^v -218 ^v . AJ, 15, 20, 25 October 1523; cf. 25 September 1523.

62. H. F. K. van Nierop, Van Ridders tot Regenten, 45-46; AFR, 48, 76, 86-87.

63. Using RSH, AJ, and GVR, one can find eighteen occasions between 1522 and 1530 when the towns were divided on a government

proposal. Dordrecht voted initially with the government seventeen times, Haarlem fourteen, Amsterdam twelve, Leiden four, Delft three, and Gouda two. Cf. Mary of Hungary to Assendelft, 20 September 1554 (Aud. 1646:3): the Regent finds it strange that those resisting a new bede request include the men of Dordrecht, "qui sont accoustumez a donner example aux aultres."

64. HVR, 17 January 1519: Stadtholder Hendrik van Nassau reminds Haarlem's deputies of the "contract" their city had made with the Duke of Saxony, in order to obtain a favorable rate of gratie . The city had two-thirds gratie on its ordinaris bede at this time: Tracy, "Taxation System of the County of Holland," 79-80.

65. For the leper poor law of 1525, see J. A. van Houtte, An Economic Histroy of the Low Countries (New York, 1977), 128-129, and [William Marshal], The Forme and Maner of Subvention for Pore People at Hypres (London, 1535; reproduction Amsterdam, 1974), a translation of the Ieper ordinance. For discussion in the States of Holland, see AJ, 18-27 February 1529; RSH, 4 September, 20 November 1527 (copies of the Ieper ordinances are distributed), 3 March 1528, 16 March 1529.

66. See Chapter 5, notes 100, 101.

67. GVR, 7 April 1524; AJ 10 September, 9 December 1523, 28 January, 14 February, 1 April 1524.

68. GVR, 28 September 1528, 6 November 1529, 8 January, 11 July 1530, 7, January 1531, 27 January, 3 July 1533, 13 April 1537; AJ, 1-6 December 1527, 14 January 1531.

69. See Chapter 1, note 28. Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 22 February 1540, Aud. 1528, two cities have still not consented to a levy of 2,000 pounds for gratuities (bribes), "ende zal nietternin den ommeslach terstont hebben voertganck als geconsenteert  . . .  by tmeerderdeel"; Council of Holland to Mary of Hungary, 26 May 1544, Aud. 1646: 1, the nobles have not agreed to a special tax that bears on the countryside, and people will "murmur" because one of the four cities which agreed, Delft, is now exempt from all beden because of a recent fire, and thus the majority is questionable.

70. AFR, 52, note 84.

71. Ruysch Janszoon's importance is suggested by the fact that a dagvaart of the States was postponed because he forgot to come: AJ, 3 November 1523; Elias, De Vroedschap van Amsterdam, I, sub nomine .

72. On décharges, see the references in AFR .

73. AJ, 7 March, 20 October 1523.

74. AJ, 25 October 1523. The Audienceur was head of the government chancery.

75. AJ, 3, 20 October, 21-29, 31 December 1523, 25-28 January, 8, 10, 14 February, 9 April 1524. Hoogstraten pledged his credit to the service of the state on numerous occasions and claimed he had not always been reimbursed: AFR, 113-114.

76. HVH, 219.

77. AJ, 6-11, 27 June 1525; cf. 23 March 1528.

78. AJ, 21 November 1523, 5 May, 19 June 1524; but cf. AJ, 28 January 1524, Castre conducted a raid through the Veluwe district of Guelders.

79. Struik, Gelre en Habsburg, 311-315; Theissen, De Regering van Karel V in de Noordelijke Nederlanden, 74-84. On the strategic significance of the acquisition of Friesland and Utrecht, see AJ, 21 December 1523, 9 February 1528.

80. HVH 249-249 ^v ; AJ, 23 September 1527. See chapter 3, note 39.

81. AJ, 22, 23 March 1528.

82. RSH, 13, 31 March 1528; AJ, 14-16, 17 April 1528. On Renneberg, see Leo Peters, Wilhelm von Renneberg, ein Rheinischer Edelherr zwischen den Konfessionellen Fronten (Kempen, 1979).

83. AJ, 1-6, 19-23 December 1527, 24 January 1528.

84. Struick, Gelre en Habsburg, 290-291; for efforts to breach the tax exemption enjoyed by the feudal enclaves, see Chapter 5.

85. RSH, 16 February, 25 July 1528. Council of Holland to Hoogstraten, 6 December 1527, and 27 February 1528, Aud. 1524; AJ, 23 March 1528; Struick, Gelre en Habsburg, 290-291.

86. AJ, 22 March 1528; RSH, 28 February, 1, 13 March 1528.

87. AJ, 22-23 March 1528; cf. 25-28 January 1524.

88. Struick, Gelre en Habsburg, 313-323.

89. Tracy, "The Taxation System of the County of Holland," 111, Table 3, items n-q, four sales of renten totalling 96,000 pounds.

90. AJ, 16-27 August, 7 September 1528; RSH, 12-19 September 1528.

91. AJ, 30 April 1528.

92. AJ, 1 June 1525.

93. RSH, 7 May, 18 July 1528; AJ, 20, 25 October, 21-29 December 1523, 10, 14-15 February 1524; Council of Holland to Hoogstraten, 9 July 1528 (Aud. 1524).

94. See Chapter 3, note 75.

95. Council of Holland to Hoogstraten 9 July 1528 (Aud. 1524). There are, however, no further references to the Treasurer of War's accounts.

96. Among the members of Amsterdam's vroedschap in the 1520s,

Heyman Jacobszoon van Ouder Amstel had served as castellan of Muiden in 1508 ( HVH, 166), Goosen Janszoon Recalf had served as admiral of the Zuider Zee in 1523 ( AJ, 13 March 1523), and Meester Pieter Colijn was one of the masters of the muster appointed by the States (see above, note 93): on these men, see the entries in J. E. Elias, De Vroedschap van Amsterdam, 1578-1795, 2 vols. (Amsterdam, 1963).

1. Cornelis de Scepper to Maximilian of Burgundy, lord of Vere and Beveren, 5 June 1546 (Aud. 1659:3 / III).

2. For salient features of the westward trade, see van Houtte, An Economic History of the Low Countries, 176, 178-181, 184-185, 192, 195-196. For discussion in the States of Holland on protective measures, Sandelijn, 24 September; 12, 14, 23-24 October; 5, 15 November; 8, 15, 21 December 1549.

3. Rogier De Gryse, "De Gemeenschappelijke Groote Visscherij van de Nederlanden in de XVIe Eeuw," BGN 7 (1952): 32-54. On the size of Holland's fleet, Chapter 1, note 38; Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 18 October 1536 (Aud. 1526), and to Mary of Hungary, 12 September 1552 (Aud. 1646:3). On the size of busses, see Assendelft to Mary of Hungary, 27 July 1537 (Aud. 1532), 15 August 1547, 10 August and 14 August 1552 (Aud. 1646:3). For the 1550 lastgelt, CC 23336. CC 23358 (100th penny tax on goods exported from Holland, November 1543-February 1544), entries on herring exports indicate an average price of 40.5 pounds per last .

4. Council of Holland to Hoogstraten, 5 May 1528 (Aud. 1524), 10 April 1537 (Aud. 1530). Charles de la Roncière, Histoire de la Marine Française, 6 vols. (Paris, 1909-1932), 3: 432-452; Robert Kerr Hanny and Denys Hay, The Letters of James V (Edinburgh, 1954), 326-7, 370, 404, 407-408, 414.

5. Mary of Hungary to Assendelft, 31 July 1547 (Aud. 1646:3), and to Beveren and Scepper, 25 June 1552 (Aud. 1659:3 / III).

6. Rogier De Gryse, "De Konvooieering van de Vlaamse Vissersvloot in de 15e en 16e Eeuwen," BGN 2 (1948): 1-24. Besides the dagvaarten of the States, RSH records certain dagvaarten particulier, including those of "towns and villages engaged in the herring fishery." For omslagen by the States to help pay for warships, see HTR, 1522/3, AJ, 22 January 1523.

7. GVR, 6-22 August 1522, 28 June 1524, 2 October 1525.

8. AJ, 22 January 1523; 15, 25 June 1524; it was also alleged that warships robbed the busses they were meant to protect.

9. AJ, 6 April, 6 May 1528; cf. RSH, 7 May 1528. For other complaints about how safe-conducts worked to the profit of "great purses," see AJ, 13 February, 21 November, 8, 31 December 1523, 9 February 1525, 8 January 1526, 31 July 1527. Soly, "De Aluinhandel in de Nederlanden," shows the government alum monopoly working exactly this way.

10. AJ, 10 July 1536, 20 June 1537; RSH, 8 August 1536, 11 August 1537; Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 19 July, 21 August 1536; 18, 23 October 1537 (Aud. 1526), 16 September 1536, 8 January 1537 (Aud. 1530).

11. Council of Holland to Hoogstraten, 10 April 1537 (Aud. 1530), 20 April 1537 (Aud. 1532); Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 9 July 1537, and 23 October 1537, including a report by Secretary Vuytwyck (Aud. 1532); Hoogstraten to Mary of Hungary, 12 July and 27 July 1537 (Aud. 1532); minute of Mary of Hungary's response to deputies from Holland, 1 June 1537 (Aud. 1532); AJ, 17, 18 May; 1, 13, 20 June 1537; RSH, 18 April; 1, 15, 30 June, 15 July 1537. A later letter reports deputies from Schiedam saying their town has only the herring fishery to sustain it: Assendelft to Mary of Hungary, 14 August 1552 (Aud. 1646:3).

12. Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII, 16: Letter 150; 17: Letter 529; 19.1: Letter 345; 19.2: Letters 349 and 364; 20.1: Letter 598, Treaty of 4 April 1528 between Scotland and the Netherlands; 21.2: Letter 24, 5 September 1546 addition to the treaty, to enforce more strictly the provision that safe-conducts be respected by both sides. The Antwerp petition (Aud. 1659:3/III) can be dated prior to September 7, 1551. For other reports of hostile acts by the Scots, see Council of Holland to Beveren, 28 July 1550, and to Mary of Hungary, 25 March 1552 (Aud. 1646:2).

13. Mary of Hungary to the Council of Holland, 11 June and 5 July 1547 (Aud. 1646: 1); Assendelft to Mary of Hungary, 11 June 1547 (Aud. 1646:3). RSH, 27 June, 19 July 1552, 14-16 March 1553; RSH, 11, 22, 29, 30 June, 3 July 1547.

14. RSH, 15, 21, 30 July, 8 September 1547, 7 August 1548, 7 June 1549; De Gryse, "De Gemeenschappelijke Groote Visscherij van de Nederlanden," 43-44; Council of Holland to Mary of Hungary, 15 and 21 July 1547 (Aud. 1646: 1); Assendelft to Mary of Hungary, 21 July 1547, 5 and 15 August 1547 (Aud. 1646:3); Mary of Hungary to Assendelft, 31 July 1547, and 19 December 1547 (Aud. 1646:3); Sandelijn, 3 June 1549.

15. For Habsburg naval strategy, see Tracy, "The Herring Wars: Sea Power in the North Sea in the Reign of Charles V," under consideration by a journal.

16. P. A. Meilink, "Rapporten en Betoogen nopens het Congiegeld op Granen, 1539-1541," BMHGU 44 (1923): 73, 111; Richard W. Unger, Dutch Shipbuilding before 1600 (Assen, 1978), 11.

17. AJ, 16 May 1528, 11 February 1530, 30 March 1531, 7 May 1532; Mary of Hungary to Assendelft, 14 March 1544 (Aud. 1646:3): the Queen is puzzled that the nobles join in opposing the tenth penny on commercial profits. Cf. De Vries, The Dutch Rural Economy in the Golden Age, 166.

18. Enschede, Inveniaris van her Oud-Archief van Haarlem (Haarlem, s.d.), Regesten, 26 April 1516, Charles grants Haarlem the staple for herring packing; but in light of Haarlem's refusal to pay for protection of the herring fleet (above, note 7), one must wonder how effective this regulation was. On herring exports to the Baltic, see Post-humus, De Uitvoer van Amsterdam, 174-192.

19. Nina Ellinger Bang, Tabeller over Skibsfart og Varetransport gennem Øresund, 1497-1660, 2 vols. (Copenhagen, 1906-1922), 1:2-3, 6-8, 18-33; Christensen, Dutch Trade to the Baltic, 29-45.

20. Spading, Holland und die Hanse im 15en Jahrhundert, 1-12; I. H. Kam, Waar Was dat Huis op de Warmoes Straat? (Amsterdam, 1968), 13; Alfred Schmidtmayer, "Zur Geschichte der bremischen Akzise," Bremisches Jahrbuch 37 (1937): 64-79; cf the series "Bremisches Kornhaus," 1, Stadtsarchiv Bremen, beginning with the year 1549. On the growth of Bremen's direct trade with Iberia, see Council of Holland to Hoogstraten, 24 February 1538 (Aud. 1531), and Meilink, "Rapporten en Betooven noopens het Congiegeld op Granen," 37, 82-83. For links between Hamburg and Antwerp, see G. Asaert, De Antwerpse Scheepsvaart in de XVe Eeuw = VKAW-KL 72 (Brussels, 1973), 304-314.

21. G. A. IJssel de Schepper, De Lotgevallen van Christiern II en Isabella van Oostenrijk gedurende hun Ballingschap in de Nederlanden (Zwolle, 1870), 17-21, 46-52.

22. H. Klompmaker, "Handel, Geld- en Bankwezen in de Noordelijke Nederlanden," NAGN, 6: 61; AJ, 29 May 1529, 12 May 1530.

23. AJ, 12 January 1527, 7 January 1536; Henne, Histoire de Belgique sous le Règne de Charles Quint, 2: 184-190; sketches of both men in Michel Baelde, De Collaterale Raden onder Karel V, 252-253, 327-328.

24. RSH, 28 February 1528; AJ, 16 May 1528.

25. Meilink, "Rapporten en Betoogen nopens het Congiegeld op Granen," 5-6; RSH, 9 January 1527.

26. AJ, 8-11 January 1527.

27. AJ, 2 February 1527, 24 January, 18 February, 16 May 1528; RSH, 28 February 1528.

28. RSH, 3 January 1530; AJ, 29 May, 11 September 1529, 10 January 1530.

29. GVR, 3 March 1530; RSH, 3, 17 January 1530; AJ, 27 February, 27 September 1523, 28 January 1524, 29 May 1528, 15 December 1529, 10-28 January 1530; W. S. Unger, De Tol van Iersekeroord, Documenten en Rekeningen, 1321-1572 [= Rijksgeschiedkundige Publicatiën, Kleine Ser., 29 (The Hague, 1939), 129-130].

30. For the two beden in question, see Tracy, ''Taxation System of the County of Holland," 111, Table 3, items s and t; AJ, 12, 22 May 1529, 1, 8, 11 (the quotation), 17 February, 11 March 1530.

31. AJ, 25 February 1530; GVR, 2 March 1530; RSH, 9 June 1530. See below, note 35.

32. AJ, 17 November 1528, 16 July 1530; RSH, 27 July 1530, 25 August 1531.

33. AJ, 14 February, 25 May, 16 June 1530. For example, the budget for an omslag of 4,776 pounds in 1533 included 800 pounds in "gratuities" for various officials, including Assendelft: Leiden dagvaarten, 29 October 1533.

34. AJ, 8, 21 February 1530; RSH, 18 February, 2 May, 1 July 1530; Meilink, "Rapporten en Betoogen," 25-46.

35. Meilink, "Rapporten en Betoogen," 35-64.

36. Meilink, "Rapporten en Betoogen," 49, 82-83, 114-116. For price ranges per last of rye, see below, note 63.

37. Meilink, "Rapporten en Betoogen," 34-65.

38. RSH, 5, 10-11 May, 1 July, 28 November 1530; AJ, 26 November, 21 December 1530. Both sources indicate that the grain export ban was renewed in November 1530, but again not published by the Council of Holland.

39. RSH, 9, 28 March 1531; AJ, 20 March 1531.

40. RSH, 24 April, 24 June, 5, 11 July 1531; AJ, 22 August 1534.

41. RSH, 5, 23 February 1536; AJ, 13 January, 4 February 1536; on Ruffault, see Baelde, De Collaterale Raden, 302.

42. AJ, 5 June 1535; ASR 1535, 35-38.

43. AJ, 1 January, 23-24 February 1536; RSH, 5, 12, 15, 23-25 February 1536. On the falsification of documents, see Chapter 7, for the case of the inquisitor Frans van Hulst.

44. RSH, 17 June 1536; cf. AJ, 4-8 February 1536: while Ruffault and his allies were pressing for a congie, Hoogstraten secretly wrote Aert van der Goes that Nassau, IJsselstein, and other great lords who

understood Holland's needs had arrived in Brussels. Ingelande was the term for the major landowners of a district who were eligible for membership on local drainage boards. See also below, note 77.

45. N. Maddens, "De Opstandige Houding van Gent tijdens de Regering van Keizer Karel, 1515-1540," Appeltjes uit het Meetjesland, 28 (1977): 203-239.

46. J. J. Woltjer, "Het Conflikt tussen Willem Baerdes en Hendrik Dirkszoon," BMGN 86 (1971): 180. For the Hendrik-Dirkisten, see also Chapter 5.

47. RSH, 21 November 1540, 7, 22, 25 January, 22 February, 22 April, 3 September 1541; Meilink, "Rapporten en Betoogen," 93-95, 101; ASR, 1540, 45 ^v ; 1541, 50,

48. Tracy, "Habsburg Grain Policy and Amsterdam Politics," 299-303; RSH, 5 September, 2 November 1541; ASR, 1541, 55, 60-60 ^v .

49. RSH, 31 October, 27-28 November 1545, 11 February, 27 November 1546, 1, 13 March, 15 July, 2 August, 22 October 1547, 21 January, 26 February, 1, 5, 18 March, 16 May, 30 June, 25 July, 13, 26 October, 14 November, 12 December 1548, 9 October 1551, 10 May 1552, 27 January 1553, 11 October 1554, 20-21 February, 4 May 1555.

50. Spading, Holland und die Hanse im 15en Jahrhundert, 1-7.

51. Ter Gouw, 3: 347-353; Hãpke, Die Regierung Karls V und der Europãische Norden, 98-101; Jansma, "Hanze, Fugger, Amsterdam," 6; Svend Cedergreen Bech, Reformation og Renaissance [= Danmarks Historie, ed. John Danstrup, Hal Koch, vol. 6 (Copenhagen, 1963)], 173-182.

52. Bech, Reformation og Renaissance, 206-436. Denmark, Norway and Sweden were joined in the 1378 Union of Kalmar; when Sweden regained its independence under Gustavus Vasa (1523), the southern province of Skåne remained for some time a part of Denmark.

53. Hãpke, 92-97; AJ, 30 March, 20 August, September 1523.

54. AJ, 13 February, 30 March 1523; Hãpke, 98-101.

55. Hãpke, 110-115; AJ, 13 February, 5 August 1523, 25-28 January, 15 February, 11 July 1524; GVR, 24 May, 4 November 1524.

56. IJssel de Schepper, 196-204; AJ, 26 November 1530, 15 September, 6 November 1531; RSH, 8 September, 5 November 1528, 15 September, 13 November 1531; GVR, 12 September 1531; Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 25 September, 28 September, and 21 October 1531 (Aud. 1525).

57. Waitz, Lübeck unter Jürgen Wullenwever, 1: 36-88, 127-136.

58. See the French-language report on Baltic affairs, titled "news from Amsterdam," (undated, but after 6 February 1532, Aud. 1530).

59. Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 10 November 1532, 13 March 1533 (Aud. 1525). Otto Nübel, Pompeius Occo (Tübingen, 1972): Occo was responsible for the delivery of Fugger copper from the Vistula to Antwerp, via the Øresund and the Holland binnenlandvaart, and he also had close ties with Christiern II: G. W. Kernkamp, ed., ''Rekeningen van Pompeius Occo aan Koning Christiaan II van Denemerken, 1520-1523," BMHGU 36 (n.d.): 255-329.

60. Hoogstraten to the Council of Holland, 28 June 1533 (Aud. 1446:2b); Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 13 March, 27 March 1533, 8 November 1534 (Aud. 1525). Benninck was twice sent on embassies to the Baltic as part of a Netherlands delegation, and twice accompanied Melchior Rantzau on the Netherlands portion of journeys to the Habsburg court. Elias, Vroedschap van Amsterdam, 1: 43.

61. Ter Gouw, 4: 215-224; instructions for Meester Abel Coulster, member of the Council of Holland, 14 May 1532, and (a letter doubtless carried by Coulster on his mission to the court) Hoogstraten to Mary of Hungary, 15 May 1532 (Aud. 1525).

62. GVR, 17 May 1532; RSH, 7, 13 May 1532; AJ, 16 July 1532; Waitz, 1:152-157.

63. Ter Gouw, 4:219-221; Waitz, 1:157-164, 174-184.

64. Waitz, 1: 184-189; HVH has Lübeck asking for 300,000 gold gulden in indemnities (316 ^v ), but RSH, 4 April 1533, correctly attributes this demand to Frederik I.

65. RSH, 3, 20, 24, 30 April, 5, 12, 16 May 1534. Cf. Ter Gouw, 4: 222-230: the States General, meeting at Mons in December 1532, acknowledged that the war against Lübeck pertained to the Emperor's lands as a whole, and not just Holland; owing to a recent flood; however, the other provinces were unwilling to make a contribution.

66. RSH, 29 May 1534; Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 19 May 1533, and 5 June 1533 (Aud. 1446:2b); Council of Holland to Hoogstraten, 30 May 1533 (Aud. 1446:2b).

67. Minute of a meeting of the Council of State, June 1533, and Hoogstraten to the Council of Holland, 28 June 1533 (Aud. 1446:2b).

68. Letter patent of Charles V, acknowledging Hoogstraten's obligation in the amount of 35,675 pounds, 2 July 1533 (Aud. 1662:3b).

69. RSH, 13, 27 July, 2, 3, 10, 20 August 1533; Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 12 September 1533; HVH, 320-322 ^v . The Council of State (minute cited above, note 67) rejected Bruges's plea for exemption from the ban on accepting goods from Lübeck.

70. Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 26 October, 30 October 1533 (Aud. 1446:2a), and 26 November, 27 November 1533, 8 December 1533 (Aud. 1446:2b); minute of report to Hoogstraten by two of Merke-

ren's commanders, Maurice of Oldenburg and Walram de Haplincourt, 9 November 1533 (Aud. 1446:2a); HVH, 316-318 ^v , 320-322 ^v ; Ter Gouw, 4: 226-230.

71. Ter Gouw, 4:226-232.

72. The fullest account of the Counts' War is C. Paludan-Muller, Grevens Feide, 2 vols. (reprint of 1853-1854 edition, Copenhagen, 1971).

73. Waitz, 2: 130-139; Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 24 January 1535 (Aud. 1529), and 11 July 1535 (Aud. 1646:3).

74. Charles V to Mary of Hungary, 3 May 1532 (Aud. 52), and 13 August 1532 (Lanz, Letter 288, 2:3); Mary to Charles, 20 August 1534 (Aud. 52), and 27 May 1535 (Lanz, Letter 402, 2:180-181); Charles to the Archbishop of Lund, 11 March 1534 (Lanz, Letter 94, 2: 94-95); the Archbishop of Lund to Charles, 1 October 1534 (Lanz, Letter 382, 2:125-130).

75. Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 29 May 1535 (Aud. 1529), and 11 July 1535 (Aud. 1646:3; Assendelft recognizes the signature of Karel van Egmont). RSH, 28 February, 7 April 1536; Council of Holland's instructions for Secretary Vuytwyck, 25 May 1536 (Aud. 1530).

76. RSH, 21 April, 24 May 1536.

77. RSH, 28 April, 24 May, 16 June 1536; Council of Holland's instructions for Vuytwyck, cited above, note 75.

78. Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 4 July 1536 (Aud. 1530), 11 July, 31 July and 3 August 1536 (Aud. 1526), 22 August and 24 August 1536 (Aud. 1530), 9 September 1536 (Aud. 1526), 15 October 1536 (Aud. 1532), and 18 October 1536 (Aud. 1526); Council of Holland to Hoogstraten, 11 July 1536 and 25 August 1536 (Aud. 1526); report by Secretary Vuytwyck, 4 August 1536 (Aud. 1530); Adolph of Burgundy to Mary of Hungary, 1 July and 27 July 1536 (Aud. 1530).

79. Extracts from Hoogstraten's instructions to La Tiloye for a mission to Charles V, dated by Lanz between 15 September and 12 November 1536. See Lanz, Letter 656, 2: 667.

1. Aud. 868:3-18, 873:143-70, and 650:141-148, 398-400 for military budget summaries. For the wider context, see Geoffrey Parker, The Military Revolution; M. J. Rodriguez-Salgado, The Changing Face of Empire: Charles V, Philip II and Habsburg Authority, 1551-1559 (Cambridge, 1988), 232-242; Martin Wolfe, The Fiscal System of Renaissance France (New Haven, 1972), 109-118.

2. Based AFR, and Tracy, "The Taxation System of the County of Holland."

3. Wolfe, 76-85.

4. Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 11 July 1536, 5 January 1537 (Aud. 1530): postponing the semi-annual interest payments due at the St. John's term would be unwise because it would lead to arrests on Holland goods by renten -holders in Brabant and Flanders. The States sometimes instructed the Receiver for the Common Land to pay "foreigners" first (e.g., Flemings, Brabanders), to avoid seizure of goods for non-payment: RSH, 30 July 1544, 1 March 1547.

5. AJ, 29 December 1523: the deputies say they dare not take the (new) staetgen that has been shown them home to their principals; cf. Chapter 3, note 75.

6. RSH, 29 March 1531, Sandelijn, 6-8 March 1549. The accord agreed to by the States became known as the acceptatie when signed by the Regent; it was then copied in at the head of the account for the bede in question. Cf. RSH, 10 December 1545, a complaint by the States that the Emperor's acceptatie of a bede is not in conformity with the accord signed by the States.

7. The accord always contained a clause linking the bede to local defense.

8. Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 21 October 1531 (Aud. 1525).

9. Receiver General's accounts, Lille B, 2416, 2430, income items for "From the Emperor's coffers," 107,392 in 1539, 90,000 in 1540; Mary of Hungary to Charles V, 28 November 1542 (Aud. 53); see Chapter 3, note 8.

10. Tracy, "The Taxation System of the County of Holland," 76-81.

11. In the inventory for GRK, Goudt is listed as "Receiver General" for the beden in Holland bettween 1510 and 1543.

12. Tracy, "The Financial System of the County of' Holland," 110, Table II, item v; RSH, 7, 13, 14 May, 6 August 1532; AJ, 7 May, 16, 18 July, 6 August 1532.

13. RSH, 16 August 1532. 18-19 June 1535; Council of Holland to Hoogstraten, 27 June 1536, and Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 4 July 1536 (Aud. 1530).

14. Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 20 November 1531 (Aud. 1525), 28 January 1537, and 28 January 1539 (Aud. 1532); Mary of Hungary to Assendelft, 27 November 1542 (Aud. 1646:3).

15. The best discussion is J. J. Poelhekke, "Het Naamloze Vaderland van Erasmus," BMGN 86 (1971): 90-123.

16. RSH, 3-5 July, 2 September, 12-13 October 1537.

17. Mary of Hungary to Guileyn Zeghers, 15 April 1543 (Aud.

1646:1); on Zeghers as a confidant of the government, see Tracy, "Heresy Law and Centralization under Mary of Hungary," 302, 305-306. I have not been able to trace a loan "for Maastricht" secured by the Holland beden, but in March 1543 Goudt obtained 35,000 pounds in Antwerp, which he brought to Reynier van Nassau in 's Hertogenbosch for the payment of troops: GRK, 3441, "Reisen en Vacatien," trips by Goudt on 12 March (to Antwerp) and 18 March (to 's Hertogenbosch), and Reynier van Nassau to Mary of Hungary, 19 March 1543 (Aud. 1660:1c).

18. Mary of Hungary to the Council of Holland, 12 May 1543 (Aud. 1646:1).

19. AFR, 40-43.

20. GRK, 3440, "Payments to Officers" (the rubric under which décharges are listed); Aud. 650: 293-294.

21. Mary of Hungary to [the Council of Holland], 6 January 1537, and Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 13 January 1537 (Aud. 1530); AFR, 43, note 51.

22. SH, 1602, Barthout van Assendelft's account, as Receiver of the Common Land, for renten sold during the Utrecht War; Geitz, "De Staten van Holland en hun Personeel, 1540-1555," 33-38. For the development of this office after 1555, see the forthcoming dissertation of J. W. Koopmans (University of Groningen).

23. SH, 2275, Van der Ketel's account for the renten sale of 60,000 pounds. For the 31,000-pound obligatie, see the letter of Mary of Hungary to Assendelft, 27 November 1542 (Aud. 1646:3).

24. On Van der Hove, see Geitz, "De Staten van Holland en hun Personeel, 1540-1555," 39-40. GRK, 3445 indicates that Van der Hove conveyed 13,118 to the Receiver for the beden to cover a shortage in a morgental to which the States had consented; cf. RSH, 19 September 1545. For the States' insistence that deputies be present when tenth penny accounts were examined by government auditors, see RSH, 5, 26 March, 9 April 1544, 21 May, 9 July, 5, 21 August 1545.

25. E.g., GRK, 3454: gross receipts were 105,598; disposable income (after subtraction for gratie and renten interest) was 48,581.

26. SH, 2277-2282. Cf. Tracy, "The Taxation System of the County of Holland," 112, Table III, items hh-ll.

27. Figures from SH, 2279-2282.

28. GRK, 3454: 94-96 ^v , "Décharges non couchées," twenty-one items, dated from 27 July 1552 to 18 March 1555, totalling 530,640 pounds, plus another 65,764 in outstanding obligatiën .

29. AFR, 131-138; Tracy, "The Taxation System of the County of Holland," 117. Members of the audit committee, listed at the end of

each account, include deputies from the States for sums collected by the Receiver for the Common Land ( SH ), but not for sums collected by the Receiver for the beden .

30. RSH is used here, as the most consistent and reliable source for meetings of the States. But in a comparison with AJ and the Leiden "Register van de Dagvaarten," three students in my seminar at Leiden (spring 1987) noted several dagvaarten that are not mentioned by Aert van der Goes because he was absent on other business: Raymond Fagel, Fiekke Krikhaar, and Sandra Slaghekke, "De Hollandse Dagvaarten, 1530-1535: Drie Bronnen Vergeleken." H. De Ridder-Symoens, "De Universitaire Vorming van de Brabantse Stadsmagistraten en Funktionarissen: Leuven en Antwerpen, 1430-1580," Verslagboek van de Vijfde Colloquium, "De Brabantse Stad .'' ('s Hertogenbosch, 1978), 21-125).

31. Ter Gouw, 8: 345; Elias, Vroedschap van Amsterdam, 1: 304.

32. Ter Gouw, 3: 366-369.

33. Based on RSH, kept by the Advocate, who sometimes has one town or another represented by "someone I don't know," or "een quidam."

34. A list of Gouda's brewers and the number of "brews" they produced during the last year is included with a petition from Gouda which has a marginal note dated 9 August 1546 (Aud. 1656:1). Lists of officeholders are given in Ignatius Walvis, Beschryving der Stad Gouda (Gouda, 1713), and C. J. De Lange van Wijngaerden, Geschiedenis en Beschrijving der Stad van der Goude, 2 vols., (Amsterdam, 1817).

35. GVR, 3 October 1512, the vroedschap decrees that members who are deputed to represent the city at a dagvaart may not refuse.

36. C. C. Hibben, Gouda in Revolt (Utrecht, 1983).

37. Genealogies of these families are given in Matthys Balen, Beschryving der Stad Dordrecht (Dordrecht, 1677).

38. See Chapter 3, note 63.

39. Van Nierop, Van Ridders tot Regenten, 171.

40. AFR, 177-178; Reiner Boitet, Beschryving der Stad Delft (Delft, 1729), for the Sasbout family; for lists of potential officeholders in Delft, Aud. 1441:4 no. 2, discussed by. J. J. Woltjer, see "Een Hollands Stadsbestuur," De Nederlanden in de Late Middeleeuwen, 261-279.

41. Boitet, Beschryving der Stad Delft; Aud. 1441:4 no. 2; D. Hoek, "Het Geslacht Duyst van Voorhout in de 16e Eeuw," Jaarboek voor het Centraal Bureau van Genealogie 12 (1958): 185-220.

42. A. E. D'Ailly, Zeven Eeuwen Amsterdam, 6 vols., (Amsterdam, 1943-1950), 1: 40-49; Ter Gouw, 3: 366-369; Blok, Geschiedenis eener Hollandsche Stad, 2: 93-107;

43. HVR has approximately 1500 pages for the years 1518-1566,

whereas P. D. J. van Iterson, P. H. J. van der Laan, Resoluties van de Vroedschap van Amsterdam, 1490-1550 (Amsterdam, 1986) has 96 pages of text; on selling "apart," 59-62.

44. S. A. C. Dudok van Heel, "Oligarchiën in Amsterdam voor de Alteratie van 1578," in Michiel Jonker, et al., eds., Van Stadskern tot Stadsgewest (Amsterdam, 1984), 35-61.

45. Lists of burgomasters and other officials are printed at the end of each volume in Ter Gouw. See also A. J. M. Brouwer Ancher and J. C. Breen, "De Doleantie van een Deel ber Burgerij van Amsterdam tegen den Magistraat dier Stad van 1564 en 1565," BMHGU 24 (1903): 85.

46. AFR, Chapter 5.

47. Sources for these two tables are the same as for Table 15b in Tracy, AFR, 145.

48. Tracy, AFR, 128-129, 157-158.

49. AFR, 175-176, 182-183 (large purchases of renten by brewers in Delft, but not by investors in land).

50. For the popularity of urban lijfrenten, see the income entries in ASR under sales of renten: 1550, there is a limit of three pounds interest per rentebrief; 1552, the limit is set at six pounds, "so that everyone might be satisfied." Gene Brucker, The Civic World of Early Renaissance Florence (Princeton, 1977), 144, 270.

51. Tracy, AFR, 125, 134, and Appendix IIb, nos. 37, 62.

52. Van Nierop, Van Ridders tot Regenten, 155-185; see below, note 89.

53. See the two sources on Delft cited above, note 40.

54. Balen, Beschryving der Stad Dordrecht, sub nomine .

55. Van Nierop, Van Ridders tot Regenten, 81-105; Letter from J. J. Temminck, Archivaris, Gemeentearchief Haarlem, 16 January 1984.

56. Balen, Beschryving der Stad Dordrecht, sub nomine .

57. Renten purchases listed in SH, 2279 and 2280 indicate that Sybrant Meester Hendrik Dirkszoon was married to Lijsbeth Reyniersdochter Brunt, and that Dirk Hendrikszoon Opmeer was married to Neel Reyniersdochter Brunt: cf. Elias, De Vroedschap van Amsterdam, 1, xxxiv, xxxvi, xlii, 29, 108; Ter Gouw, 8: 337, Kam, Waar Was dat Huis op de Warmoes Straat, 170; Brouwer Ancher, "De Doleantie van een Deel van de Amsterdamse Burgerij," 82. The father of these women was very likely Meester Reynier Brunt, Procurator General of Holland from 1523 to 1536 (de Blécourt and Meijers, Memorialen van het Hof van Holland ).

58. Cf. the Council of Holland's refusal to publish grain export bans without consulting the States: Chapter 4, notes 26, 41.

59. Enforcement of taxes decreed by the States is discussed in Chapter 7.

60. De Vries, The Dutch Rural Economy, 41-43; For sums paid by the clergy, see AJ, 21 November 1523, 19 June 1525; RSH, 9-10 February, 19 June 1525, 18 October, 14 November 1533, 1 January 1534 (Aud. 1446:2b), 31 August 1537 (Aud. 1532); Assendelft to Mary of Hungary, 23 October 1546, 20 May, 2 June 1551 (Aud. 1646:3). Cf. RSH, 19 August 1543, deputies "curse" the clergy and the nobles and the great lords for not bearing the cost of war.

61. J. C. Naber, Een Terugblik, 34, finds a total of 239,297 morgen counted in the 1515 schiltal . Taking in each case the average of two accounts from the 1540s and 1550s, one may estimate 268,926 morgen under the schiltal ( SH, 1792, 2210), and 36,680 morgen outside it ( SH, 2281, 2283), or twelve percent of the total.

62. GRK, 3422, folio 19.

63. Asperen, Heukelom, IJsselstein, Leerdam, Vianen, Woudrichem, and Zevenbergen.

64. RSH, 7 March 1543, imposition of the hundredth penny.

65. Nieuw Nederlandsch Biographisch Woordenboek, 1: 136 (Hendrik van Nassau); 3: 324-339 (the Egmonts); 9: 416 (Montmorency); 10: 121, 128-32 (the Brederodes).

66. Charles V to Reymer van Nassau, 10 May 1542 (said to be in the Emperor's own hand), 10 June 1542, 19 August 1543, 23 September 1543, 1 November 1543, 9 November 1543 (Aud. 1660:1c); Rosenfeld, "The Provincial Governors," 5-6.

67. On Maximiliaan van Egmont, see Biographie Nationale de Belgique 6: 488-490.

68. The exempt areas were supposed to contribute in certain extraordinaris beden of 1523 and 1524, but apparently did not; cf. Aud. 873:120, sums not paid by Egmont's villages, 1520-1530.

69. E.g. RSH, 14-16 March, 9-17 April 1553; the account for this bede is SH, 2278, but for the acceptatie see GRK, 3453.

70. RSH, 9 August 1555, 26 August 1556.

71. Council of Holland to Mary of Hungary, 3 February 1544, and Mary of Hungary to the Council of Holland, 12 March 1545 (Aud. 1646:1); statement by Witte Aertszoon van der Hoeve as collector for Leerdam, 9 September 1545 (Aud. 1656:1). RSH, 6 August, 19 September, 6 December 1545, 6 November 1546, 14 March 1547, 21 January 1548.

72. RSH, 27 January, 15 February 1553, 4 May 1555; the Emperor's Procurator-General in Holland at this time was Christiaan de Wairt (1549-1558; de Blécourt and Meijers). Cf. RSH, 30 October

1553, and Geitz, "De Staten van Holland en hun Personeel," 46-49, the States dismissed their own Procurator before the Court of Holland, Joost Jacobszoon de Bye, because he too refused to take action in this case.

73. RSH, 2 November 1553, 1 October 1554; Assendelft to Mary of Hungary, 26 October 1555 (Aud. 1646:3).

74. RSH, 22 August, 7 September, 17 October 1556.

75. Mary of Hungary to the Council of Holland, 12 December 1542, and to Amsterdam, 14 March 1543 (Aud. 1646:1); RSH, 7 March 1543; Ter Gouw, 4: 115-117; Mary of Hungary to Amsterdam, 24 April 1543 (Aud. 1656:1), 8 February, 13 July 1544 (Aud. 1652:5a).

76. Mary of Hungary to Assendelft, 11, 12 January 1543 (a draft and a corrected draft of the same letter), 30 November 1543 (Aud. 1646:3), RSH, 7 March 1543, 5 August 1545 (1,200 pounds collected). For Delft, Amsterdam, and Leiden, included in Meilink, "Gegevens aangaande Bedrijfscapitalen," the total was 1,111. Aud. 650: 355, 357, 382.

77. For discussion of the wine tax proposal in the States of Holland, see Sandelijn, 14 November, 4 December 1548, 14, 22-23 November, 8, 15 December 1549; RSH, 22-23, 29 October, 1, 24 December 1549, 19 March 1550.

78. RSH, 20 July 1550; cf. CC 23336, Maximilien Dublioul's account for the first two years of the wine tax. See Chapter 2, note 104.

79. RSH and Sandelijn, entries for 2 August 1552, 28 May 1554; Aud. 650: 316-317, summary of receipts for the first four years.

80. That is, the congie, the hundredth penny on exports (1543-1545, the tenth penny on mercantile inventories (1543-1545), the wine tax, a 200th penny on all goods imported into the Netherlands (1552), and a 50th penny on all goods exported "westward" (1552-1554). For accounts of the latter two levies, see CC 23456, 23474-23477. For a summary of bede, income from Holland during these years, see Tracy, "The Taxation System of the County of Holland," 108-109.

81. On the political influence of the twelve abbots who made up Brabant's first estate, see P. J. Gorissen, "De Prelaten van Brabant  . . .  en Hun Confederatie."

82. See Chapter 2, note 9.

83. For the argument that cities prosper by allowing free trade, see AJ, 5 January 1536, 11 April 1537; Meilink, "Rapporten en Betoogen nopens het Congiegeld," 90, 108. There was a legal tradition that viewed certain restrictions on commercial activity, like the Dordrecht

staple, as contrary to natural law (AJ, 11, 15, 17 October 1527; Niklaas Everaerts, Consiliorum Opus, 8-10). Typical of such arguments was Amsterdam's contention that the hundredth penny on exports was "outside all natural laws and reason, and contrary to various privileges of the city and province" which the ruler had sworn to uphold at his accession: to the Council of Holland, 2 March 1544 (Aud. 1656:4a).

84. See accounts for beden of 100,000 e.g., GRK, 3441. AJ, 25 June 1536; cf. Mary of Hungary to the Council of Holland, 3 June 1544 (Aud. 1646:1), the countryside in Holland is not taxed as heavily as in Brabant and Flanders.

85. AFR, 85, and Tracy, "The Taxation System in the County of Holland," 89. For the account of this bede, see SH, 2208, GRK, 3445. RSH, 2 March 1543, says the nobles gave their consent, but cf. Council of Holland to Mary of Hungary, 26 May 1544 (Aud. 1646:1). Mary of Hungary to Pieter Moens Willemszoon (Goudt's successor as Receiver for the beden), [?] April 1543 (Aud. 1656: 1), and Council of Holland to Mary of Hungary, 20 June 1544 (Aud. 1646: 1). For another bede in which the countryside made up for urban rebates, see Sandelijn, 29-30 January 1552; RSH, 22, 29-30 January, 6, 12, 26 February 1552; Assendelft to Mary of Hungary, 23 January 1552, and Assendelft and Cornelis Suys to Mary of Hungary, 31 January 1552 (Aud. 1646:2); GRK, 3451.

86. The assumptions are: 1) that rural tenth penny income was 70.77 percent of the total, as in 1557; 2) that the rural portion of a schiltal assessment was 42.25 percent of the total; and 3) that the rural share of gratiën was 20 percent for ordinaris beden, and 10 percent for extraordinaris beden . Calculation is based on Tables 1-3 of Tracy, "The Taxation System of the County of Holland," using net income figures for beden levied according to schiltal . Not counted are 39,240 pounds from a hearth tax in which there is no way of gauging actual contributions from town and country, and two small levies on property outside the schiltal ( SH, 2283, 2284), whose collection must be regarded as uncertain.

87. Council of Holland to Mary of Hungary, 17 August 1549 (1646:2). Cf. SH, 1792, the account which includes the morgental referred to in this letter.

88. Henk Schorl, ' T Oge: Het Waddeneiland Callensoog onder het Bewind van de Heren van Brederode en hun Erfgenamen ([Haarlem], 1979), 67-72; Archief van Het Hoogheemraadschap van Rijnland, Leiden, 7192, "Receuil van Stukken betreffende de Grote Sluis te Sparendam," nos. 13/2 and 14 (for a comparable description of the wooden sluice as rebuilt in 1518, see Stadsarchief Leiden, Oude Se-

cretarie, 1263:206); on draining by windmill-pumps, see below, note 89. On reclamation projects in the years before the Revolt, see De Vries, The Dutch Rural Economy, 192-196, and Van Nierop, Van Ridders tot Regenten, 128-130.

89. For the drainage of a small lake near Alkmaar, undertaken by Lamoraal van Egmont and Hendrik van Brederode, see Council of Holland to the Secret Council, 12 May, 10 June 1564, 18 September 1565 ( HH, 381).

90. RSH, 14 November 1548, 12 October, [?] November 1549, 9 October 1551, investments by Baudoin de Lannoy and Maximilian of Burgundy; for investments by the Antwerp merchant Arnoldus Rosenberger, see the testimony collected in Alkmaar (May 1568) under orders from Alba's Council of Troubles (Algemeen Rijksarchief, Brussels, "Raad van Beroerten," item no. 109 [sec. 110]).

91. J. P. A. Louman, "'Roerende dat Heycoopwater en Amstellant': Een Hollands-Utrechts Waterstaatsgeschil en de Instelling van het Hoogheemraadschaap van Amstellant, 1520-1527," Hollandse Studiën 12 (1982): 121. Heyman Jacobszoon became ambachtsheer of Ouder Amstel in 1531: Elias, De Vroedschap van Amsterdam, 1: 67.

92. J. J. Schilstra, Wie Water Deert: Het Hoogheemraadschap van de Uitwaterende Sluizen, 1544-1969 (Wormerveer, n.d.), 21; report from Egmond Binnen, "Raad van Beroerten," 109 (110). For the landed interests of Amsterdam's leading magistrates, including Buyck and Mattheuszoon, see AFR, 181-184.

93. Wealth inventories in the archives of Amsterdam's orphan bureau ( weeskamer ) often include private renten secured on houses in the city and on land in the countryside.

94. See the instructions entered at the head of accounts for the morgental in the 1550s, SH, 2293-2295. GRK, 3453, accord and acceptatie for a tenth penny, as part of a 300,000 pound bede in 1553 (cf. SH , 2278). According to J. Kuys and J. T. Schoenmaker, Landpachten in Holland, 1500-1650 (Amsterdam, 1981), 27-29, sixteenth-century lease contracts required the pachter or lessee to assume the burden for the bede payments by the schiltal, tenth penny taxes, and dike maintainence taxes. The only exceptions the authors find are in West Friesland and in the vroonlanden which were part of the prince's domain. Cf. Council of Holland to Mary of Hungary, 19 August 1549 (Aud. 1646:2), pachters of domain land will not pay the current levy of two stuivers per morgen unless the Chamber of Accounts promises them it will be deducted from their lease obligation, as in previous beden .

95. A hearth tax was tried in 1552, but yielded only about forty

percent of what was expected: SH, 2277; RSH, 4-5 April, 2 August 1552; Sandelijn, 5 July 1552.

96. Assendelft to Mary of Hungary, 28 December 1543 (Aud. 1646:3). For riots over accijnsen, AJ, 1:160, reporting a July 1524 ''upstal" in The Hague, in which "de gemeene buerluyden" accused the magistrates of bad governance and demanded lower excise taxes. AJ, 15-20 June 1525, the States refuse a bede request on the grounds that "if one further troubles the commons or imposes exactions on them, it is to be feared there will be riots, such as occurred at Utrecht, Antwerp, and's Hertogenbosch.'' The social inequity of accijnsen was a commonplace: Institutio Principis Christiani, ed. Otto Herding, in Des. Erasmi Opera Omnia, 4:1 (Amsterdam, 1974), 190-191.

97. RSH, 5, 22 February, 5, 18, 19, 27 March, 7 April 1544; Council of Holland to Mary of Hungary, 26 May 1544 (Aud. 1646: 1). Cf. LTR, HTR for 1520.

98. Cf. SH, 2295 with LTR and ASR for 1556.

99. Mary of Hungary to Leiden, 5 December 1547 (Aud. 1656:1) ordering the city to honor the exemption from excises and tolls enjoyed by Antoine Carlier as a Councillor of Holland. Carlier was not a "Councillor Ordinary" (he does not appear on de Blécourt and Meijer's list), but he is named as "General of the Mint" (in Leiden) in some accounts for the purchase of Holland renten (e.g., SH, 2282), and was presumably a "Councillor Extraordinary," without salary.

100. AJ, 10 September 1523, 18, 25 January, 30 April 1524, 14 May 1526.

101. In a bede of 100,000 pounds (e.g. GRK, 3441), Delft's quota was 8,517; the next highest were Leiden (8,067) and Amsterdam (8,017). For an example of Delft's demands for equality in taxation, see AJ, 10 September 1523.

102. Assendelft, Vincent Corneliszoon, and Joost Sasbout to Hoogstraten, 14 October 1538 (Aud. 1527); Assendelft to Mary of Hungary, 23 February (Aud. 1646:3), and 26 May 1544 (Aud. 1646:1).

103. AJ, 15-21 September 1538, Haarlem and Leiden reject a bede proposal because both had to levy a capitale impositie on their burghers for the last bede; proposals by Delft, GVR, 12 October 1523, AJ, 21 October 1528.

104. AJ, 9 July 1523; RSH, 2 August 1543; Aud. 650:488 ^v , from a memorandum of [1542] on new ways to raise revenue: "Par assiette capitale selon la valeur et puissance des biens des subgectz. Lon entend quil seroit fort difficile a conduire."

105. De Vries, The Dutch Rural Economy, 50-55. Assendelft's fear of rebellion in northern Holland was acute during the Anabaptist move-

ment of the 1530s (see chap. 6). Assendelft to Mary of Hungary, 5 August 1547, 10 August 1552 (Aud. 1646:3). See Chapter 1, note 12.

106. Council of Holland to Hoogstraten, 10 March 1535 (Aud. 1646: 1), and Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 24 August 1536 (Aud. 1530); Schorl, Het Waddeneiland Callensoog, 46-48.

107. Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 5 January 1537 (Aud. 1530); Council of Holland to Mary of Hungary, 26 May, 20 June 1544 (Aud. 1646:1).

1. Recall the riot against collection of the grain tax in Amsterdam in 1541 (chap. 4), and the armed demonstrations by towns whose participation in the privileged binnenlandvaart was threatened by the opening of new channels (chap. 2).

2. For the importance of the distinction between burghers and mere residents, see notes 74 and 75 below.

3. The old view that the northern Netherlands spawned an autonomous "sacramentarian" movement in the 1520s is questioned by J. J. Woltjer, Friesland in Hervormingstijd (Leiden, 1962), 102.

4. Ernest McDonnell, The Beguines and Beghards in Medieval Culture (New Brunswick, 1954); L. Philippen, De Begijnhoeven. Oorsprong, Inrigtingen, Geschiedenis (Antwerp, 1918).

5. R. R. Post, The Modern Devotion (Leiden, 1968) supersedes Albert Hyma, The Devotio Moderna (Grand Rapids, 1924).

6. The town of Amersfoort (Utrecht province) has a well-preserved hofje dating from the fifteenth century which is still in use.

7. C. Ligtenberg, Armenzorg in Leiden tot het Einde van de XVI ^e Eeuw (The Hague, 1908); C. A. van Manen, Armenpflege in Amsterdam in ihrer Historischer Entwicklung (Leiden, 1913).

8. For a splendid parish history, D. P. Oosterbaan, De Oude Kerk van Delft gedurende de Middeleeuwen (The Hague, 1973).

9. Laurentius Knappert, De Opkomst van het Protestantisme, 46-56; H. van Druten, Geschiedenis van de Nederlandsche Bijbelvertaling, 2 vols. (The Hague and Rotterdam, 1895-1897), vol. 1; F. J. Dubiez, Op de Grens tussen Humanisme en Hervorming (Nieuwkoop, 1962).

10. De Imitatione Christi, ed. Paul Hagen (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1935); three of the mystical treatises of the Hollander Hendrik van Mande are printed as appendices in Willem Moll, Johannes Brugman en het Godsdienstig Leven onzer Vaderen in de 15 ^e Eeuw, 2 vols. (Amsterdam, 1854), 1: 259-313.

11. Alfons Auer, Die vollkommene Frömmigkeit eines Christen (Düsseldorf, 1954) remains the best study of Erasmus's Enchiridion .

12. See Chapter 5, note 60.

13. Overvoorde and Oerburgt, Archief van de Secretarie van de Stad Leiden, "Regesten," 7 January 1519, 24 October 1520; Enschede, Inventaris van het Oud-Archief van de Stad Haarlem, "Contracten," 16 May 1516. Cf. Margaret of Austria's instruction for an embasssy to Charles V in Spain, 9 July 1525: Lutheranism sprouts from "contempt for the extortions which men of the Church practice in the laity in many places"; in Paul Fredericq, Corpus Documentorum Inquisitionis Haereticae Pravitatis Neerlandicae, 5 vols. (Ghent, 1889-1902), 5: 34-35.

14. For the 1525 riot in 's Hertogenbosch, see Aelbertus Cuperinus Chronike, in C. R. Hermans, Verzameling van Kronyken, 1:90-91; cf. AJ, 1:160, and 15-20 June 1525.

15. Ter Gouw, 5: 174-195; P. Scheltema, Inventaris van het Amsterdamsche Archief, 3 vols. (Amsterdam, 1866-1874), 1:45-46, 87; R. R. Post, Kerkegeschiedenis van Nederland in de Middeleeuwen, 2 vols. (Utrecht, 1957), 2:79-85.

16. R. R. Post, Kerkelijke Verhoudingen in Nederland voor de Reformatie (Utrecht, 1954), 205-206; Ter Gouw, 5:177-181.

17. Post, Kerkelijke Verhoudingen, 37-55: in 1500, the diocese of Utrecht had about 600,000 faithful, with 1,500 secular priests with cure of souls, and another 3,500 without cure of souls; in 1950 the same diocese had about 600,000 faithful and 800 parish priests.

18. Erasmus to Willibald Pirckheimer, 28 August 1525, in Allen, Opus Epistolarum, 6:155, Letter 1603, 1:27-29: "Maxima populi pars apud Hollandos, Zeelandos, Flandros scit doctrinam Lutheri, et odio plusquam capitali fertur in monachos."

19. For the one exception, see J. Hof, De Abdij van Egmond van de Aanvang tot 1573 (The Hague, 1973).

20. Rogier, Geschiedenis van het Katholicisme in Noordelijke Nederland, 69-76; Post, Kerkelijke Verhoudingen, 327-341. On Franciscan preachers, see Moll, Johannes Brugman; Johannes Hopfer, Johannes Kapistran, 2 vols. (Heidelberg, 1964-1965); Iris Origo, The World of San Bernardino (New York, 1962); André Godin, Le Homiliaire de Jean Vorier (Geneva, 1971).

21. John Harthan, The Book of Hours, with a Historical Survey and Commentary (New York, 1977); Oosterbaan, De Oude Kerk van Delft, 225.

22. Frederik Pijper, Het Middeleeuwsch Christendom. De Vereering der Heilige Hostie (The Hague, 1907); Post, Kerkgeschiedenis van Nederland, 294.

23. R. R. Post, "Het Sacrament van Mirakel te Amsterdam," Studia Catholica 30 (1955): 241-261; Ter Gouw, 5:166-174; A. J. Kölker, Alardus Amstelredamus en Cornelius Crocus, Twee Amsterdamse Priester-Humanisten (Nijegen, 1963), 60-66, 95-107, 158.

24. Kölker, Alardus Amstelredamus en Cornelius Crocus .

25. Moll, Johannes Brugman, 1: 129-146, citing the seventeenth-century historian Geraert Brandt.

26. Ter Gouw, 4: 201-206, 353-356, 360-362; on Jan Bennink and Imme van Diemen, see Elias, De Vroedschap van Amsterdam, sub nomine; de Blécourt and Meijer (Bennink was Councillor Extraordinary, 1513-1518 and Councillor Ordinary, 1518-1534); and Louman, " 'Roerende dat Heycoopwater en Amstellant.' " See also below, note 75.

27. HVH 295 ^v -298.

28. Ter Gouw, 4: 197-203; the text of the sentence by the city court is given in J. G. van Dillen, Bronnen tot de Geschiedenis van het Bedrijfsleven en het Gildewezen van Amsterdam (3 vols., The Hague, 1929-1974), 1: 95-96, and confirms the account in HVH .

29. A. F. Mellink, Documenta Anabaptistica Neerlandica, vol. 5, Amsterdam 1531-1536 (Leiden, 1985), no. 302.

30. On Netherlands Protestant humanists, see Johannes Lindeboom, Het Bijbelsch Humanisme in Nederland (Leiden, 1913), 152-157 (Willem de Voldersgracht, or Gnaphaeus); J. Prinsen, Geraard Geldenhouwer Noviomagus (The Hague, 1908); D. Frielinghaus, Ecclesia et Vita. Eine Untersuchung zur Ekklesiologie des Andreas Hyperius (Göttingen, 1956); H. F. Wijnman, "Wouter Deelen, de Eerste Professeur in het Hebreeuwsch te Amsterdam," Jaarboek Amstelodamum 27 (1930): 43-65; and below, notes 34, 53.

31. Trijn Hillebrandsdochter was the sister of Dirk Hillebrantszoon Otter, the future Dirkist burgomaster, and both the husband of Geert Garbrandsdochter (Willem Klasszoon Koeck) and her brother (Egge Garbrandszoon Paf) were among the seven "sincere" schepenen elected for 1536, in the wake of the Anabaptist uprising of 1535 (see below, n. 90). Engel Corsdochter was married to Heyman Jacobszoon van Ouder Amstel, a leading figure in the more tolerant ruling faction which preceded the Dirkisten. On all these individuals, see Elias, De Vroedschap van Amsterdam, sub nomine .

32. Dictionnaire de Théologie Catholique, 7:2, 2049; G. Grosheide, Bijdragen tot de Geschiedenis der Anabaptisten in Amsterdam (Hilversum, 1938), 272-277.

33. Fredericq, Corpus Documentorum, nos. 72 and 73, 4: 101-105, commissions for Hulst and Lauwerijns, 23 April 1522, and no. 154, 4:

219-220, exerpt from AJ for 23 August 1523, Wijngaerden's interview with Charles V; De Hoop Scheffer, Geschiedenis der Kerkehervorming, 144; Erasmus to Lauwerijns, Allen, Opus Epistolarum, Letter 1299, 14 July 1522, 5: 84-87, with a warning about Niklaas Baechem, on whom see also Letter 1153, 1, 15-18, 4: 362.

34. A. Eckhof, De Avondmaalsbrief van Cornelis Hoen (The Hague, 1917). Bart Jan Spruyt (Universities of Utrecht and Leiden) is preparing a dissertation on Hoen.

35. AJ, 31 December 1521; Erasmus to Peter Barbirius, 17 April 1523, Letter 1358: 26-28, 5:276.

36. Fredericq, Corpus Documentorum, 4: nos. 125-127; Scheltema, Inventaris van het Amsterdamsche Archief, 1: 34, 69; Grosheide, Geschiedenis der Anabaptisten in Amsterdam, 272-277.

37. Fredericq, Corpus Documentorum, 4: nos. 120, 123, 136, 149; De Hoop Scheffer, 174-194.

38. Fredericq, Corpus Documentorum, 4: nos. 151-153, 156, 157, 161-164, 167, 169-172, 188, 197. Note that while this controversy continued, with Hulst in Gorinchem, Hoogstraten was also there, arousing the suspicion of the States by raising an army which then failed to invade Guelders (chap. 3).

39. De Hoop Scheffer, 334-337; Fredericq, Corpus Documentorum, 4: no. 164; 5: no. 520; RSH, 2 October 1527, 17-18 November 1528; Post, Kerkgeschiedenis van Nederland, 94-95, a 1434 concordat between Duke Philip the Good and the Bishop of Utrecht included the privilege de non evocando for the Duke's subjects.

40. A. C. Duke, "The Face of Popular Religious Dissent in the Low Countries," Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 26 (1975):41-67; De Hoop Scheffer, 256-278.

41. Fredericq, Corpus Documentorum, 4: nos. 175, 214, 215, 226, 244, 248, 353. For examples of similar punishments for cursing and blaspheming, see "Justitieboek," Rechterlijk Archief, Gemeeente Archief Amsterdam, entries for 21 September 1537 and 7 July 1539.

42. F. van der Haeghen, et al., Bibliographie des Martyrologes Protestants Neerlandais, 2 vols. (The Hague, 1890), 2: 81-91, 271-304; J. W. Gunst, Johannes Pistorius Woerdensis (Hilversum, 1925); J. C. van Slee, Wendelmoet Claesdochter van Monnikendam (The Hague, 1917).

43. For the quotation, see AJ, 8-14 March 1526.

44. Fredericq, 4: nos. 247, 278; 5: nos. 544, 580; De Hoop Scheffer, 338-339.

45. Fredericq, 4: no. 151, extract from HVR; cf. no. 214, Amsterdam makes the same claim of independence vis-à-vis the Court of Holland.

46. Prisoners from little Monnikendam were brought to The Hague over the objections of the magistrates: Fredericq, 5: nos. 447, 497, 498, 544, 548, 555, 580. With the "great cities" the Council was apparently more circumspect: the Leiden printer Jan Zeverszoon was summoned four times to appear in The Hague, and apparently never did; see also 4: nos. 183, 201, 212, 213; 5: no. 430. For the Council's intervention in the trial of David Joris in Delft, see De Hoop Scheffer, 223-238; R. H. Bainton, David Joris (Leipzig, 1937).

47. AJ, 10-16 December 1526, 17-22 March, 6-8, 8-14, 17-19 April, 22 April-1 May, 3-8, 10-12, 13-23 May 1527. Many of these passages are exerpted in Fredericq, vol. 5. The sentence against Zijvertszoon is printed in Wagenaar, Amsterdam in Zijn Opkomst, Aanwas, en Geschiedenis, 4 vols. (Amsterdam, 1760), 1: 235.

48. On Lauwerijns, see above, note 33.

49. Dubiez, 99-103, establishes that Amsterdam's crippled book dealer is not the same man as the Leiden printer mentioned in note 46.

50. AJ, 18-21 June 1528; RSH, 8 July 1528.

51. Fredericq, 5: 581, 582, 589, 592, 662, and 684 = Council of Holland to Hoogstraten, 1 February 1528 (Aud. 1524).

52. H. J. Elias, Kerk en Staat in de Zuidelijke Nederlanden onder de Regering der Aartshertogen Albrecht en Isabella, 1595-1621 (Antwerp 1931), 12-35.

53. Sartorius is mentioned as penitent in the letter cited in note 51, but cf. "Memoire pour M. le Tresorier" [Vincent Corneliszoon], ACB, 93, between letters dated 15 December 1536 and 2 January 1536, and Nieuw Nederlands Biographisch Woordenboek 2: 1263.

54. AJ, 1 April 1528.

55. Tracy, "Heresy Law and Centralization," 289-290.

56. A. F. Mellink, "Pre-Reformatie en Vroege Reformatie," NAGN, 6:151, and Documenta Anabaptistica, 5: 253, from no. 302, "Memorie vant ghundt dat vuyt diversche informatien tot Amsterdam bevonden werdt," January 1536.

57. That the Netherlands Reformation was radicalized by the removal of' moderate leadership through persecution is a commonplace among historians, e.g., Cornelius Krahn, Dutch Anabaptism (The Hague, 1968), 133.

58. A. F. Mellink, De Wederdopers in de Noordelijke Nederlanden (Groningen, 1954), and Amsterdam en de Wederdopers in de Zestiende Eeuw (Nijmegen, 1978); Grosheide, Bijdragen tot de Geschiedenis der Anabaptisten in Amsterdam; Krahn, Dutch Anabaptism; James M. Stayer, Anabaptisten and the Sword (Lawrence, 1972); P. Kawerau, Melchior

Hoffman als Religiöser Denker (Haarlem, 1957); W. J. Kühler, Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Doopsgezinden in de Zestiende Eeuw (Haarlem, 1932).

59. The important collections of sources by C. A. Cornelius, Geschichte des Münsterschen Aufruhrs, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1855-1860) and G. Grosheide, "Verhooren en Vonnissen der Wederdopers, betrokken bij de Aanslag op Amsterdam," BMHGU 41 (1920): 1-197, have now been superseded by the series Documenta Anabaptistica Neerlandica, of which vols. 2 and 5, edited by A. F. Mellink, are pertinent here: Amsterdam (1531-1536) (Leiden, 1985), and Amsterdam (1536-1578) (Leiden, 1980).

60. Charles V to Mary of Hungary, 3 January 1531, Lanz, Letter 156, 1:417-418; Jane de Iongh, De Koningin: Maria van Hongarije, Landvoogdes der Nederlanden (Amsterdam, 1966), 57-63, 79-83. In 1542 her confessor, Peter Alexander, was jailed on a heresy charge. See Mellink, "Pre-Reformatie en Vroege Reformatie," 157. On Nicolaus Olah, see the entry by L. Domonkos in Peter Bietenholz, ed., Contemporaries of Erasmus, 3 vols. (Toronto: 1985-1987), 3: 29-31.

61. "Erste Memoriaalboek van Jan de Jonge," 87-91 ^v , placard of 7 October 1531 ( HH, no. 29, Rijksarchief van Zuid Holland, The Hague).

62. Mellink, Documenta Anabaptistica, 5, nos. 1, 302.

63. Unlike the rest of Hoogstraten's correspondence, which is part of Aud. (at the Algemeen Rijksarchief in Brussels), ACB is found at the Rijksarchief van Zuid-Holland in The Hague.

64. Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 3 May 1533, 23 February 1534 (Aud. 1446:2b); 30 November 1534, 29 December 1534, 14 February, 12 March 1535 (Aud. 1529).

65. Woltjer, Friesland in Hervormingstijd, 91-102.

66. Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 8 November 1534 (Aud. 1529). For correspondence between Erasmus and members of the Council, see Allen, Opus Epistolarum, Letters 1092, 1186, 1188, 1238, 1469, 1653 (Niklaas Everaerts), 2645 and 2844 (Joost Sasbout), and 2734 (Assendelft). For the gift, see AJ, 19-21 August 1532; RSH, 16 August 1532; and Allen, Opus Epistolarum, 9: 55.

67. Mellink, Documenta Anabaptistica, 5, nos. 37, 38, 39 and 302, which recount charges against four priests favored by the magistrates; minute of Hoogstraten's comments to Assendelft and Vincent Corneliszoon, dated 20 November 1533 in his wife's town of Culemborg (Aud. 1446:2b); Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 13 September and 30 October 1533 (Aud. 1446:2b); De Hoop Scheffer, Geschiedenis der Kerkhervorming in Nederland, 505-512.

68. Mellink, Documenta Anabaptistica, 5, no. 15, and De Wederdopers in de Noordelijke Nederlanden, 101-105.

69. Mellink, Documenta Anabaptistica, 5, no. 148. See nos. 276, 277 and 307 for additional prophecies, and nos. 113, and 312 for an indication of debates among the Anabaptists about violence; for the wider context, see Stayer, Anabaptists and the Sword, 267-269.

70. Council of Holland to Hoogstraten, 30 May 1533, and Jan de Jonge to Hoogstraten, 23 November 1533 (Aud. 1446:2b); Council to Hoogstraten, 10 March 1535 (Aud. 1646:1); Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 5 June 1533, and 7 February 1534 (Aud. 1446:2b). Hendrik Goetbeleet, one of the leaders of the May 1535 uprising in Amsterdam (see Mellink, Documenta Anabaptistica, 5, sub nomine ) is probably the man of the same name who served as an officer among the knechten sailing with the Baltic war fleet of 1533: Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 27 November 1533 (Aud. 1446:2b).

71. Brunt to Hoogstraten, 20 March 1534, ACB, 92, Anabaptists are heading for Cromeniedijk (Kennemerland), meaning to take ship for Münster, instead of presenting themselves for penitence; Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 26 December 1539, Jan de Haes (one of the suspect priests in Amsterdam in 1534, above, note 67) found a post as vice-curate in the village of Middelie.

72. HVH, 324-326.

73. Mellink, De Wederdopers in de Noordelijke Nederlanden, 30-38.

74. HVH, 337-347.

75. Sheriff Jan Hubrechtszoon had been removed in February 1534, but his successor, Heyman Jacobszoon van Ouder Amstel, was not much better from the government's point of view: Mellink, Documenta Anabaptistica, 5, no. 16. On Sheriff Klaas Gerritszoon Mattheus, see Ter Gouw, 4: 255-259, and Brunt to Hoogstraten, 21 November 1534, ACB, 92. The draper who calmed the crowd was Joost Buyck, the future Dirkist magistrate, who left his own account of these events; "Nieuwe Maren of Verhall van hetgeen voorgevallen is binnen Amsterdam, 1534-1536," printed in full in P. Scheltema, Amstel's Oudheid, 6 vols. (Amsterdam, 1855-1872), 2: 55-76, and partially in Mellink, Documenta Anabaptistica, 5. On relations between town magistrates and those next below them in the social hierarchy, known loosely as "the well-to-do" ( het rijkdom ), see Christopher Grayson, "The Common Man in the County of Holland, 1560-1572: Politics and Public Order in the Dutch Revolt," BMGN 95 (1980): 35-63.

76. Council of Holland to Hoogstraten, 10 November 1534, to Assendelft, 23 November 1534, and to Mary of Hungary, 24 January 1535 (Aud. 1529); Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 11 November 1534, 29

December 1534, 24 January 1535 (Aud. 1529); Brunt to Hoogstraten, 29 December 1534, 30 January 1535 (Aud. 1529). Mellink, De Wederdopers in de Noordelijke Nederlanden, 156-168.

77. Knappert, De Opkomst van het Protestantisme in eene Noord-Nederlandsche Stad, 148-155.

78. Council of Holland to Mary of Hungary, [?] January 1535 (Aud. 1504:2). This important letter, not previously cited, is transcribed by Leo Schulte-Noordholt in a seminar paper for the University of Leiden: "De Twee 'Bekeringen' van Jannetgen Thijsdochter," (Spring 1987). For Jannetgen Thijsdochter's confession, see Mellink, Documenta Anabaptistica, 5, no. 76.

79. Mellink, Documenta Anabaptistica, 5, nos. 87-91, and Amsterdam en de Wederdopers, 45-49.

80. Mellink, Geschiedenis der Wederdopers in de Noordelijke Nederlanden, 71-72, 86-91.

81. Mellink, Documenta Anabaptistica, 5, nos. 111, 123, and Amsterdam en de Wederdopers, 53-75.

82. Woltjer, Friesland in Hervormingstijd, 105-106; Mellink, Amsterdam en de Wederdopers, 76-86; Ter Gouw, 4: 383-405; Grosheide, Geschiedenis der Anabaptisten in Amsterdam, 307 ff; Krahn, Dutch Anabaptism, 166-175.

83. Johan De Cavele, Daagraad van de Reformatie in Vlaanderen = VKAW-KL 76 (Brussels, 1975), 33-34; Woltjer, Friesland in Hervormingstijd, 105-121; Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 24 June 1534 (Aud. 1646:3).

84. Tracy, "Heresy Law and Centralization," 291-293. The quotation is from the Council of Holland's instructions for Meester Abel van Coulster on a mission to Hoogstraten, dated 17 Febraury 1534, in Mellink, Documenta Anabaptistica, 5, no. 16.

85. Mellink, Documenta Anabaptistica, 5, nos. 61, 69-71.

86. Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 14 February, 12 March 1535 (Aud. 1529); Brunt to Hoogstraten, 15 March 1535 ( ACB, 93).

87. Instructions for Guilleyn Zeghers, 27 May 1534, and Mary of Hungary to the Council of Holland, 1 June 1534 ( ACB, 92). Council of Holland to Hoogstraten, 22 June 1534 (Aud. 1646: 1) and 28 July 1534 (Aud. 1529); Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 24 June 1534 (Aud. 1646:3).

88. Council of State's instructions to Brunt, for the Council of Holland, 23 January 1535 ( ACB, 92); "Instructions pour M. le Tresorier" (Vincent Corneliszoon), after 15 December 1535 ( ACB, 93).

89. Queen's instructions for Hoogstraten in Holland, 7 April 1535 ( ACB, 93); Brunt before the Secret Council, 5 May 1535, with marginal notes giving the Council's answers (Aud. 1529).

90. Ter Gouw, 4: 279-284; Mellink, Amsterdam en de Wederdopers, 80-82. The new schepenen for 1536 included Egge Garbrandszoon Paf and Willem Klaaszoon Koeck (see above, n. 31) and Klass Doedeszoon, Klaas Gerrit Mattheuszoon, and Pieter Kantert Willemszoon (see chap. 5, table 6).

91. For the attack on Hazerswoude, see Kühler, Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Doopsgezinden, 188-189; Mellink, Amsterdam en de Wederdopers, 84-86.

92. Tracy, "Heresy Law and Centralization," 300-301.

93. Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 12 April 1537 (Aud. 1530); Council of Holland to Hoogstraten, 15 April 1537; Mary of Hungary to Lodewijk van Schore, 6 October 1537, and Council of Holland to Schore, 9 November 1537 (Aud. 1532).

94. Tracy, "Heresy Law and Centralization," 302-303.

95. Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 24 March 1536 and 27 May 1536 (Aud. 1530).

96. For trials in Delft and Haarlem, see Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 27 December 1538, 12 February 1539 (Aud. 1532), and 1 January 1539 (Aud. 1528); Sheriff, burgomasters and schepenen of Haarlem to the Council of Holland, 30 May 1539, and Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 19 June 1539 (Aud. 1532).

97. Tracy, "A Premature Counter-Reformation," 162-165; Mellink, Amsterdam en de Wederdopers, 76-86; Grosheide, Bijdragen tot de Geschiedenis der Wederdopers in Amsterdam, 307 ff.

98. See the letter from officials in Haarlem cited above, note 96.

99. "Derde Mermoriaalboek van Jan de Jonge," 15-20 (22 September 1540); "Eerste Memoriaalboek van Jan van Dam," 89-92 (18 December 1544), 201-204 (30 June 1546); "Tweede Memoriaalboek van Jan van Dam," 55 ^v -56, renewal of the placards mentioned above (7 June 1549), 180-190 and 190-201v (29 April 1550). Council of Holland to Mary of Hungary, 15 November 1550, and Mary of Hungary to the Council, 23 November 1550 (Aud. 1646:2).

100. For capsule sketches, see Baelde, De Collaterale Raden, 288-289, 328-329, 240-241.

101. On the Regensburg Colloquy of 1541 and events leading up to it, see Peter Matheson, Cardinal Contarini at Regensburg (Oxford, 1972), and Cornelis Augustijn, De Godsdienstgesprekken tussen Rooms-Katholieken en Protestanten van 1538-1541 = Verhandelingen Uitgegeven door Teylers Godgeleerd Genootschap, n.s., 30 (Haarlem, 1967).

102. Mary of Hungary to the Marquis of Bergen, 5 March 1542 (Aud. 1533).

103. Mellink, ''Pre-Reformatie en Vroege Reformatie,'' 157; Mary of Hungary to the Council of Holland, 22 October 1546, and the Council to Mary, 29 October 1546 (Aud. 1646:1).

104. On two or possibly three "scandalous" rederijker plays performed in Amsterdam, see Mellink, Documenta Anabaptistica, 5, no. 16, p. 21, and nos. 37 and 39, paragraphs 8 and 24. Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 11 November 1534 (Aud. 1529); Mary of Hungary to Leiden, 26 May 1546 (Aud. 1656:1); Goudriaan to Mary of Hungary, 20 June 1646 (Aud. 1646:3); Mary of Hungary to Assendelft, 4 April 1551 (Aud. 1656:2).

105. "Criminele Sententieboek," "Hof van Holland," Rijksarchief van Zuid Holland, The Hague.

106. Le Cocq to the Privy Council, 8 February 1545 (Aud. 1533).

107. Duke, "The Face of Popular Religious Dissent," 46; Council of Holland to Mary of Hungary, 24 July 1544 (Aud. 1646:1); Woltjer, "Het Conflict tussen Willem Baerdes en Hendrik Dirkszoon," 183-190.

108. AJ, 20-24 April, 5-15 July, 21-30 October 1534; RSH, 1: 291 (May 1537).

109. RSH, 15 September, 6 November 1544, 9 April 1545; Mary of Hungary to the Council of Holland, 4 March 1545 (Aud. 1646: 1).

110. On the Cruningen family, see Van Nierop, Van Ridders tot Regenten, 20-24. On Engel Willemszoon, see W. Moll, Angelus Merula, de Hervormer en Martelaar des Geloofs (1530-1557) (Amsterdam, 1855), and R. Fruin, "Het Proces van Angelus Merula," Verspreide Geschriften, 1: 229-265. RSH, 10 July 1553, 21 March, 1 October 1554, 5 February 1555; "Tweede Memoriaalboek van Jan van Dam," 90-93 ^v (2 June 1553). Council of Holland to Mary of Hungary, 3 April 1554, 16 April 1554, and Mary to the Council, 16 June 1554 (Aud. 1646:2). Clarissimi Theologi D. Ruardi Tapperi Apotheosis, ed. F. Pijper, in Bibliotheca Reformatoria Neerlandica, 1 (The Hague, 1903), 567-636. The treatise, published anonymously in 1568, has been attributed to Hendrik van Geldorp, on whom see J. H. De Muinck Keizer, Hendrik van Geldorp (Croningen, 1893).

111. See the correspondence about the pastor of Rotterdam, at war with the magistrates and deemed unqualified by the Council of Holland, who was offered rewards by both if he would resign his post, but would not do so for anything less than a canonry in Utrecht: Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 7 November 1538 (Aud. 1527), 9 November 1539 (Aud. 1532), 16 November 1539 (Aud. 1528), 20 December 1539 (Aud. 1530), and 8 February 1540 (Aud. 1528); Hoogstraten to Assendelft, 25 November 1539 (Aud. 1532).

1. Recent studies include Peter Pierson, Philip II of Spain (London, 1975); Geoffrey Parker, Philip II of Spain (London, 1977); Miguel de Ferdinandy, Philipp II (Wiesbaden, 1977); and Robert van Roosbroeck, Filips II, Koning van Spanje, Soeverein der Nederlanden (The Hague, 1983).

2. J. J. W. Verhofstad, De Regering der Nederlanden, 82-107.

3. Ibid., 118-159; AFR, 99-107.

2. J. J. W. Verhofstad, De Regering der Nederlanden, 82-107.

3. Ibid., 118-159; AFR, 99-107.

4. R. Fruin, "Het Voorpsel van de Tachtig-Jarige Oorlog," in his Verspreide Geschriften, 1 (The Hague, 1900), 276-288; Verhofstad, De Regering der Nederlanden, 28-30; and G. Janssens, "De Eertse Jaren van Filips II, 1555-1566," NAGN, 6: 189-190.

5. Margaret of Parma to Philip II, 13 June 1562, in L. P. Gachard, Correspondance de Marguerite d'Autriche avec Philippe II, 2 vols. (Brussels, 1867-1870), Letter 165.

6. Philip II to Margaret of Parma, 24 August 1559, and Margaret of Parma to Philip, 4 October 1559, in Gachard, Correspondance de Marguerite d'Autriche, Letters 7, 8. What the King says is, "Je n'entens aucunement dissimuler."

7. The number of Calvinist and Anabaptist communities in Flanders ca. 1560 is graphically represented in S. Groenveld, De Kogel door de Kerk?, 61. For a case study, see Charlie R. Steen, A Chronicle of Conflict: Tournai, 1559-1567 (Utrecht, 1985), 23-26. I am not aware of any official notice of Calvinism in Holland prior to the complaint in Lindanus's 1565 report (see below, note 110) that "Anabaptists and Calvinists are increasing daily."

8. P. Th. van Beuningen, Willem Lindanus als Inquisiteur en Bisschop (Assen, 1966), 43-99; Woltjer, Friesland in Hervormingstijd, 91-97; Margaret of Parma to Philip II, 17 March, 23 April, and 27 August 1560, Gachard, Correspondance de Marguerite d'Autriche, Letters 29, 40, 60.

9. M. Dierickx, S.J., De Oprichting der Nieuwe Bisdommen in de Nederlanden onder Filips II, 1559-1570 (Antwerp, 1950) = L'Erection des Nouveaux Diocèses aux Pays Bas, 1559-1570 (Brussels, 1967).

10. Dierickx, Oprichting der Nieuwe Bisdommen, 15-37, 45-75, 92. N. M. Sutherland, "William of Orange and the Revolt of the Netherlands: a Missing Dimension," Archiv für Reformationsagechichte 74 (1983): 203-209, argues that Orange's breach with the Netherlands government traces to his fears of a "Catholic crusade," which were revived by formation of the Catholic "triumvirate" in France in March 1561, including the Duke of Guise and the Constable, Anne de Montmorency. She mentions the bishoprics only in passing, and does not cite the work

of Dierickx (above, n. 9), which has led to a scholarly consensus that the bishoprics were indeed the rock of division in the Council of State.

11. Dierickx, Oprichting der Nieuwe Bisdommen, 12-14, 39-40, 161-176; cf. Rogier, Geschiedenis van het Katholicisme, 1: 212-246, 402, 414. Dierickx rather skirts the issue raised by Rogier's contention that most of Philip II's new bishops were "servile." See Fruin, "Voorspel van de Tachtig-Jarige Oorlog," 312-320.

12. Geoffrey Parker, The Dutch Revolt (Ithaca, 1977), 51-54.

13. Ibid., 62-67; John Lothrop Motley, The Rise of the Dutch Republic, 3 vols. (New York, 1859), 1: 448-485.

12. Geoffrey Parker, The Dutch Revolt (Ithaca, 1977), 51-54.

13. Ibid., 62-67; John Lothrop Motley, The Rise of the Dutch Republic, 3 vols. (New York, 1859), 1: 448-485.

14. RSH, 15 July 1560, 17 January, 10 March 1562, 8 January 1564; See GRK, 3457-3462, the ordinaris bede accounts for the period 1560-1567. Assignations on the ordinaris bede at this time included interest on the renten sold between 1515 and 1533 (about 22,000 pounds), money for warships, and wages for the garrison of Vredenburg castle in Utrecht.

15. Minute by Suys, enclosed with Council of Holland to Margaret of Parma, 23 December 1560 ( HH, 381); Council of Holland to the Council of Finance, with identical letters to Viglius and Margaret of Parma, 6 July 1562 ( HH, 381); Council to Margaret, 5 May 1563 ( HH, 381); and Suys to Viglius, an autograph in Latin, 12 May 1563 (Aud. 1417/11).

16. The one extraordinaris bede granted by the States between 1560 and 1565 was a sale of renten (100,000) in 1565: see below, note 33.

17. For troubles with England, see RSH, 4 July 1560, 11 March 1562, 1 May 1565. Margaret of Parma to the Council of Holland, 23 May 1564 (Aud. 1704/1), Hollanders are not to resort to Emden (East Frisia) to buy English cloth. For problems in the Baltic, see RSH, 24 July 1563, 6 February 1564, 2 May, 14 September, 17 November 1565. Charles E. Hill, Danish Sound Dues and the Command of the Baltic (Durham, 1926), 63-68; Sven Cedergreen Bech, Reformation og Renaissance = Danmarks Historie, ed. John Danstrup, Hal Koch, (Copenhagen, 1963), 6: 364-446.

18. SH, 2343 and 2344, for the two tenth-pennies; the amounts entered as income were 266,593 and 278,855.

19. The Dominican cloister was where the accounts of the Receiver for the Common Land were heard, until the new office was built.

20. RSH, 21 May 1556, 4 May 1557, 17 August 1557, 23-24 June 1558, 28 September 1558, 5 May 1560.

21. RSH, 3 May 1557, 26-28 February, 6, 25 April, 18-19 May, 28 September 1558, 7 April, 14 July 1559, 27 October 1561, 10 March, 19 December 1562. For resistance by the Council of Holland to the

States' summoning themselves to meet, see Council of Holland to the Secret Council, 17 March 1561 ( HH, 381); Margaret of Parma to the Council of Holland, 5 November and 10 December 1562, and the Council to Margaret, 28 November 1562 (Aud. 327).

22. P. A. Meilink, "Remonstrantie van het Hof van Holland en de Rekenkamer nopens de Administratie van de Ontvanger-Generaal A. Coebel en de Staten van Holland," BMHGU 45 (1924): 157-183.

23. Bede figures from GRK, 3417-3434 (for Goudt) and SH, 2277-2288 (for Coebel); Mellink, "Remonstrantie van het Hof van Holland," 164.

24. Sandelijn, 12 December 1555. 6 January 1556; all of the income for this bede was in fact collected by Coebel: see SH, 2283.

25. On Philip II's financial problems at this time, see Modesto Ulloa, La Hacienda Real de Castilla en el Reinado de Felipe II (Madrid, 1977), 759-831. Vere to Savoy, 24 February 1557 (Aud. 325); cf. AVR, 5 June 1557 (Amsterdam is asked for a 50,000- obligatie "to strengthen the credit of his majesty"), and 15 July 1562 (request for a 200,000- obligatie "on the faith and credit" of the States of Holland).

26. Cf. the disquiet caused when Arent van Dale, a well-known Antwerp merchant-banker, purchased a large Holland rente on the secondary market: RSH, 26 February, 29 September 1556.

27. On Gaspar Schetz, see the references in Baelde, De Collaterale Raden, 307-308. For disputes between Schetz and the States of Holland, see RSH, 21 June, 6 October, 2 November 1558, 3 February 1559, 5 March 1560, and AVR, 27 January 1557,

28. RSH, 2 April, 5 May 1560, 27 October 1561, 12 March 1562.

29. One account might show Coebel paying out 38,000 less than he took in, another might show him paying out 66,000 more than he took in; these totals were combined and carried forward without regard to the distinction between beden owed to the prince, and impost and land tax revenue for the debts of the Common Land: cf. SH, 2282, 2294.

30. RSH, 27 July 1559; cf. 3 February 1559, orders to Coebel for the use of 25,000 in cash

31. RSH, 4-5 August 1558, 6-7 September 1559, 17-19 January 1560.

32. AFR, 93-99. When he was looking for investors who would accept conversion of their renten to a lower rate, instead of demanding to have the cash back, Coebel was instructed to try this approach "with rentiers, since they have nothing else to do with their money to make a profit, unlike the merchants" ( RSH, 5 March 1560).

33. SH, 2289 (the sale of renten ), 2304 (impost and land tax account for 1565/1566), and 2344 (tenth penny levied in 1564). The rentenier

was Duke Erich von Braunschweig, currently lord of Woerden in Holland.

34. Meilink, "Remonstrantie van het Hof van Holland," 169.

35. See column 7, "Gratuities," in Table 4, Tracy, "The Financial System of the County of Holland," 115-117.

36. RSH, 10-11 February, 30-31 March, 7-9 April 1559; SH, 2283.

37. RSH, 23-24 February, 4-5 May 1557, 5 March 1560; SH, 2303: 1,200 for Viglius, and 300 each for Philibert de Bruxelles and Albrecht van Loo, the same names and amounts indicated in discussions in the States in 1557. Cf. RSH, 6 June 1561, wine for Viglius.

38. RSH, 6 June 1560, Coebel is to pay for a "glass" given to the President [Suys]. GRK, 3440, under "Mandamenten," payment of 300 pounds to Aert van der Goes for his "services" to the Emperor, according to a payment order dated 30 September 1540.

39. E.g., RSH, 10 June 1558, Coebel is instructed to give his account for the sale of losrenten at 1: 12 to redeem lijfrenten at 1: 16 to Mr. Gerrit Hendrikszoon and the other commissioners, so they can notify the deputies when to meet to close the account. In this account ( SH, 2347), Mr. Gerrit himself is listed as having purchased four renten with a total value of 4,800 pounds.

40. Aud. 1659/3 has extensive correspondence on naval affairs in the early 1550s, between Brussels and Vere and his two deputies, Wackene and Scepper. Occasional letters to and from Vere occur in the folios devoted to correspondence with Holland and Zeeland in 1555-1558, Aud. 325 and 326.

41. For the history of the two branches of the family down to 1554, see Felix Rachfahl, Wilhelm von Oranien und der Niederländische Aufstand, 2 vols. (Halle, 1906-1907), 1: 7-126.

42. Rachfahl, 2: 85-128; Fruin, "Voorspel van de Tachtig-Jarige Oorlog," 318-320.

43. RSH, 27-28 June 1560, AVR, 10 December 1561.

44. On the taxation of Orange's fisheries in south Holland, see RSH, 5-6 May, 1-3 June 1559, 4-9 February 1561, 12 August 1562; on Holland's suit against the three personages, see RSH, 10 April 1557, 19 December 1562.

45. Council of Holland to the Secret Council, 17 December 1562 ( HH, 381).

46. Sandelijn, 5-9 August, 28 October, 25-26 November 1555, 9 May 1556; AVR, 25 September 1556; RSH, 3 January, 11 October 1556, 4 January 1562. "Jacob the land-measurer" was perhaps Jacob van Deventer, whose map of Holland, printed in Abraham Ortelius,

Theatrum Orbis Terrarum (Antwerp, 1570) shows the Spoeye as the main channel, and Bernis as much narrower.

47. Letters to the Council under Assendelft's leadership are addressed, "To the First Councillor and the Other Councillors," not "To the President and the Council."

48. When Mary of Hungary issued a placard renewing the obligation of military service by the Emperor's vassals, Assendelft declined to give an opinion, lest he incur "the indignation of the nobles here." Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 16 September 1536 (Aud. 1530).

49. F. A. Holleman, Dirk van Assendelft, Schout van Breda, en de Zijnen (Zutfen, 1953), 10-17 239-247; unsigned letter to Mary of Hungary, 25 February 1541, Zeghers's notes on a meeting of the Secret Council on the Assendelft case, at Binche on 18 March, and Mary of Hungary to the Council of Holland, 6 April 1541 (Aud. 1533).

50. Assendelft recommended Suys for promotion to the post of Councillor Ordinary (with salary) to replace Abel van Coulster, instead of the son-in-law to whom Coulster wished to resign his office. Assendelft to Lodewijk van Schore, 19 March 1543 (Aud. 1646:3). Suys got the job.

51. Suys's reply to articles presented by Snouckaert, dated 1 October 1555 (Aud. 1646:2).

52. Assendelft's reply to Snouckaert's charges, 7 December 1555 (Aud. 1646:3). Like Guilleyn Zeghers (see chap. 5), Snouckaert was evidently trusted by Brussels in the sensitive matter of preserving orthodoxy, for it was he whom the Council proposed, in place of the inquisitor Ruard Tapper, for the task of culling the Council's library for forbidden books: Mary of Hungary to the Council of Holland, 22 October 1546, and the Council to Mary, 29 October 1546 (Aud. 1646: 1). Assendelft's letters make no comment on Snouckaert, but show a definite coolness towards Zeghers: he declined to support Zeghers's candidacy for Councillor Ordinary, as well as the candidacy of one of his friends, and made fun of Zeghers for purchasing the right to call himself "lord" of Wassenhove. Assendelft to Hoogstraten, 12 September 1535 (Aud. 1529), 22 February 1539 (Aud. 1531), and 8 February 1540 (Aud. 1528).

53. Van Nierop, Van Ridders tot Regenten, Chapter 2, "Deugd en Afkomst," and Chapter 6, "Ambachtheren en Ambtenaren."

54. Hugo de Schepper, Belgium Nostrum, 1500-1650: Over de Integratie en Desintegratie van het Nederland (Antwerp, 1987).

55. HH, 381, the folder of correspondance between the Council of Holland and the Secret Council. Aud. has five folders of correspon-

dence with Holland for this period, but Aud. 325, covering the period from January through June 1557, is almost entirely occupied with the grain shortage, and Aud. 326-330 (1557-1566) has correspondence on Zeeland and Utrecht as well as Holland (the three provinces had the same Stadtholder). For Suys's Latin letters to Viglius, in an elegant humanist hand, see Suys to Viglius, 6 January 1550 (Aud. 1646:2), and 12 May 1563 (Aud. 1417/11).

56. Paul van Peteghem, "Centralisatie in Vlaanderen onder Karel V," 257-276.

57. Boussu to Savoy, 24 January 1559 (Aud. 326), a complaint that, with both the Stadtholderate and the Presidency of the Council vacant, there was no one in Holland "who dares speak for the service of his majesty, to push [the States] forward." For Suys as commissioner to the States of Holland, see Margaret of Parma to Suys, 10 May 1560 (Aud. 326), 20 June 1560 and 28 December 1560 (Aud. 1704/1), and 23 January 1561 (Aud. 327); Suys to Margaret, 1, 11 January 1561 (Aud. 327). For examples of Assendelft's success as a mediator of disputes within the States, see Assendelft to Mary of Hungary, 5, 15 August 1547 (Aud. 1646:3), and 10, 14 August 1552 (Aud. 1646:3).

58. Baerdes to Viglius, n.d. [probably 1553-1554] (Aud. 1441/1), to Suys, 13 February 1563 (Aud. 328), and to Margaret of Parma, 18 November 1565 (Aud. 329) and 14 January 1566 (Aud. 330).

59. AVR, 4 February 1557; Philip II to the Council and the Council's reply, 30 November 1557 (Aud. 1704/1), 16 December 1557 ( HH, 381); Council to Margaret of Parma, 18 January, 18 February, 9 March 1563, and to the Prince of Orange, 18 February 1563 ( HH, 381); Margaret of Parma to the Council, 24 February 1563 (Aud. 328) and 16 March 1563 (Aud. 1704/1); AVR, 16 February, 5, 6, 8, 16 March. 14 July 1563; Council to Orange, 14 May 1565 (Aud. 329), and Margaret to the Council, 5 September 1565 ( HH, 381).

60. Tracy, "Habsburg Grain Policy and Amsterdam Politics," 314-318.

61. Aud. 326, leaf 49, undated memo in Baerdes's distinctive hand, outlining the four alternatives, and leaves 61-62, copy of Savoy to the Council of Holland, 10 June 1568.

62. Woltjer, "Het Conflikt tussen Willem Baerdes en Hendrik Dirkszoon," 189. On the pursuit of Adriaan van Heemstede of Zierikzee, see Council of Holland to Margaret of Parma, 23 December 1560 ( HH, 381), and 11 January 1561, enclosing a copy of Baerdes's letter to Orange of 22 December (Aud. 327).

63. In 1539 the magistrates of Delft presented the Council of Holland with certain "articles" against Sheriff Jan de Heuter: Gemeentear-

chief Delft, Eerste Afdeling, "Memoriaalboek" of the burgomasters, entries for 11, 15 November 1539. For Sheriff Wouter Bekesteyn's quarrel with the magistrates of Haarlem, see Council of Holland to the Secret Council, 10 January 1550, and to Mary of Hungary, 15 November 1550 (Aud. 1646:2), an unsigned letter to Assendelft, 24 March 1551 (Aud. 1646:3). There were also disputes of this kind in smaller towns like Schoonhoven (Council of Holland to Vere, 18 November 1557, HH, 381) and Medemblik (Council of Holland to the Grand Council of Mechelen, 10 April 1564, HH, 381).

64. Ter Gouw, 4: 279-284, 414-416; Tracy, "Habsburg Grain Policy and Amsterdam Politics."

65. Aud. 1441:3, no. 13, undated memorandum [1554 or 1555] listing Baerdes's complaints against the magistrates; AVR, 6 May, 29 July 1556, 21 October 1557, 9 January, 27 August, 6 October, 3 November, 15 December 1558, 7 February 1560. Woltjer, "Het Conflikt tussen Willem Baerdes en Hendrik Dirkszoon," 190-195.

66. Vere to Philip II, 9 December 1557 (Aud. 325).

67. Council of Holland to Margaret of Parma, 27 September 1559, and to the Secret Council, 19 June 1560, and 27 October 1561 ( HH, 381); Margaret to the Council, 2 January 1562, and the Council to Margaret, 17 April 1562, with a copy of the Council's sentence against Engelbrechtszoon, dated 16 April (Aud. 327; as this letter makes clear, it was episcopal officials in Utrecht who denied permission for the pastor to be tortured); and Council of Holland to the Grand Council of Mechelen, 15 May 1564 ( HH, 381).

68. De Vries, The Dutch Rural Economy, 89-90.

69. AVR, 6 April, 5, 7 June, 8, 9, 14 August 1557, 27 March, 12, 23 April 1558; Savoy to Vere, 4 June 1557 (Aud. 325). ASR shows a surplus for every year from 1544 through 1564, ranging from a low of 6,306 for 1549 to a high of 66,798 in 1563. For both 1557 and 1558 the surplus was around 25,000.

70. Brouwer-Ancher, "De Doleantie van een Deel der Burgerij van Amsterdam;" Margaret of Parma to Amsterdam, 29 January 1565, and to the Council of Holland, 3 September 1565 (Aud. 329).

71. On Amsterdam's role in providing warships to protect the returning grain ships during the famine of 1557, see the following from Aud. 325: Council of Holland to Savoy, 18 and 20 February; Amsterdam to the Council, 20 February; Vere to Savoy, 21 February, 3, 15, 17, 29 March, 25, 28 April, 15, 22 May; Savoy to Vere, 12 March, 16 April, 3, 22 May, 4 June; Wackene and Quarré to Savoy, 1 May; and Quarré to Berlaymont, 4 May. See also RSH, 8, 19, 31 March, 13, 16, 27 April, 2-5 May 1557; for the sale of renten, see SH, 2285.

72. Philip II to Margaret of Parma, 15 June 1561, Gachard, Correspondance de Marguerite d'Autriche, Letter 112; Margaret of Parma to William of Orange, 15 June 1561, G. Groen van Prinsterer, Archives ou Correspondance Inédite de la Maison Orange-Nassau, (Leiden, 1835), 1:109-114.

73. RSH, 15 July, 26 October 1561, 24 July 1563; AVR, 21 March 1561. Elais, De Vroedschap van Amsterdam, 1: 176-177.

74. See above, note 60.

75. Woltjer, "Een Hollands Stadsbestuur in het Midden van de 16e Eeuw;" Tracy, "A Premature Counter-Reformation," 158-159.

76. Names of the Doleanten are given in Brower-Ancher, "De Doleantie van een Deel der Amsterdamse Burgerij," and names of those who paid taxes in 1563 on the roughly one hundred houses on either side of the street are given in Kam, Waar Was dat Huis op Warmoes Straat? By dividing the street arbitrarily in the middle, according to the modern house numbers Kam uses, one obtains the following picture:

77. Christopher Grayson, "The Common Man in the County of Holland, 1560-1572: Politics and Public Order in the Dutch Revolt," BMGN, 95 (1980): 45. The Doleanten were correct in charging the Dirkist government with nepotism in the choice of junior magistrates. See Tracy, "A Premature Counter-Reformation," 160-162.

78. See the references in Van Nierop, Van Ridders tot Regenten, for Niklaas van Assendelft, lord of Assendelft, Arend van Duvenvoirde (d. 1579), lord of Duvenvoirde, and Gijsbrecht van Duvenvoirde, lord of Warmond (d. 1580).

79. Schorl, Het Waddeneiland Callensoog, 67-72, describes the work done in north Holland in the 1550s by the Brabant dikage expert Andries Vierlingh; see also the modern edition of his Tractaet van Dyckagie, ed. J. Hullu, A. G. Verhoeven (The Hague, 1920 = 1 Rijksgeschiedkundige Publicatiën, Kleine Serie, no. 20).

80. Much of Schorl's discussion in Het Waddeneiland Callensoog, 67-130, deals with works relating to the Zijpe in the middle decades of the sixteenth century. RSH, 17 November 1562, presents a request from the tenants of "Heyman van der Ketels land," on the Moerdijk near Lage Zwaluwe.

81. Verhofstad, De Regering der Nederlanden, 74.

82. AVR, 30 June, 31 July 1556.

83. RSH, 6 April, 7, 22 May, 25 June, 29 September, 22 October, 2 December 1563, 9 April 1564, 2 May, 13 July 1565, 30 April 1566. Orange also offered to mediate the quarrel between the States and the Count of Hornes as Admiral of the Netherlands: RSH, 18 July, 2, 5 December 1563, 12 July 1565.

84. Holleman, Dirk van Assendelft, Schout van Breda; Rienk Vermij, " s Konings Stadhouder in Holland, Oranjes Trouw aan Filips II," Utrechtse Historische Cahiers 2/3 (1984): 43: RSH, 14 September 1565; see above, note 44.

85. Margaret of Parma to the Council of Holland, 29 January 1565; AVR, 7 May 1565.

86. RSH, 29 January, 10 February 1564, 2 May, 20 November, 1 December 1565.

87. RSH, 27 January, 15 July 1566; SH, 2305.

88. Vermij, " s Konings Stadhouder in Holland," 40.

89. See Woltjer, Friesland in Hervormingstijd, and De Cavele, Dagraad van de Reformatie in Vlaanderen .

90. Soutelande's complaint to the Stadtholder and the Council, 18 April 1557 (Aud. 1704: 1), and the reply of Haarlem's magistrates, 15 May 1557 (Aud. 1704:2).

91. Savoy to Vere and the Council, 25 September 1557 (Aud. 1704: 1), and to Haarlem, 17 October 1557 (Aud. 1715: 1); Council of Holland to Charles Count of Lalaing [Hoogstraten's nephew], 1 October 1557, and Lalaing to the Council, 17 October 1557 (Aud. 1704: 1).

92. Information on the Oudewater incident is contained in Savoy's letter to Vere and Lalaing's to the Council, cited in note 91.

93. On Coelthuyn's activity in Enkhuizen, see Geraerdt Brandt, Historie der Vermaerde Zee- en Koop-Stadt Enkhuizen, ed. S. Centen (Hoorn, 1740), 107-115.

94. On the ritual element in sixteenth-century popular protest, see Natalie Zemon Davis, "The Rites of Violence," in Society and Culture in Early Modern France (Palo Alto, 1975), 152-187.

95. Savoy to Vere and the Council, 25 September 1557, Council of Holland to Lalaing, 1 October 1557, and Lalaing to the Council, 17 October 1557 (Aud. 1704: 1); Council to Savoy, 20 December 1557, and to Philip II, 10 January 1558 ( HH, 381); copy of Lindanus's 1565 report, with replies by the Council entered in the margin at the appropriate point, under "Enkhuizen" (Aud. 1397:8).

96. Council of Holland to Philip II, 28 March, 30 March, 31 March 1558 (Aud. 1715/1), 11 April 1558, and [January] 1559 ( HH, 381);

Council to Vere, 29 March 1558 ( HH, 381); Boussu and Cruyningen to Philip II, 19 April 1558 (Aud. 326).

97. Margaret of Parma to Suys, 8 July 1564, and Suys to Margaret, 24 July 1564 (Aud. 328).

98. RSH, 19-20 June 1556, 24 February, 16 March 1557, 16-19 September 1558, 17-19 January, 19-20 November 1560. In one of the cases the States sided with Klaas van Berendrecht, Sheriff of Leiden, whose harassment of the Jewish-Christian physician Andries Salomonszoon was being challenged by Salomonszoon before the Grand Council of Mechelen: Jeremy D. Bangs, ''Andries Salomonsz, a Converted 'Rabbi and Doctor' in Leiden (1553-1561),'' Jewish Social Studies 40 (1978): 271-286. At the same time, the States backed Delft in demanding that an inquisitor show his commission from the King before summoning a burgher to The Hague: RSH, 3 July 1557, 9 January 1564.

99. Margaret of Parma to the Council of Holland, and to Suys, both dated 15 July 1562 (Aud. 327); Mellink, Documenta Anabaptistica, 2: nos. 254, 255. Lindanus's report, under "Amsterdam" (Aud. 1397/8).

100. RSH, 17 April 1564.

101. Council of Holland to Philip II, 27 May 1558 ( HH, 381), responding to the King's order that a confessed Anabaptist whom Dordrecht had already put to torture twice be tortured again by the Council: apart from the fact that the Council was busy with other matters, like the recent "tumult" in Rotterdam, "it is also very harsh, begging your majesty's leave, that one should torture for the third time a prisoner who has already been sharply examined twice."

102. Margaret of Parma to the Council of Holland, 15 July 1560 (Aud. 326), and 8 February 1561 (Aud. 327); Rijksarchief van ZuidHolland, HH, no. 138, "Criminele Sententiën," 371 ^v .

103. Council of Holland to Margaret of Parma, 31 March 1561, enclosing a copy of Boschhuysen's letter to the Council, 29 March 1561, and Margaret to the Council, 10 April 1561 (Aud. 1704/1); Council to William of Orange, 28 May 1561 ( HH, 381).

104. Margaret of Parma to the Council of Holland, 29 January 1562 (Aud. 327); Lindanus's report, under Enkhuizen (Aud. 1397/8); Brandt, Historie van Enkhuizen, 121-124 (in December 1562, ten men received light sentences from the city court for their part in this affair).

105. Aud. 328, leaves 198, 214, unsigned reports to Margaret, in French, [June] 1564 and 8 July 1564; HH, no. 138, "Criminele Sententiën," 385.

106. Council of Holland to Margaret of Parma, 15 January 1565, Margaret to the Council, 24 January 1565, and Medemblik to the Council, 12 January 1565 (Aud. 329).

107. Fruin, "Het Proces van Angelus Merula," 257; Nieuwland to Margaret of Parma [March 1564], and Margaret of Parma to Nieuwland, 17 March 1564 (Aud. 328).

108. Van Beuningen, Willem Lindanus als Inquisiteur en Bisschop, 112-131; Lindanus to Margaret of Parma, October 1562, and 10 November 1562, and Margaret to Lindanus, 27 October 1562 (Aud. 327); ? to Suys, 21 February 1563 (Aud. 1704/1).

109. Comment in the first of the anonymous memoranda cited in note 105; Margaret of Parma to the Council of Holland, 31 March 1565, 16, 27 November 1565 (Aud. 329); the Council to Margaret, 6 April, 30 June, 31 July, 3 September 1565 ( HH, 381), and 27 August 1565 (Aud. 329); Margaret to Lindanus, 20 July, and Lindanus to Margaret, 24, 29 July 1565 (Aud. 329).

110. Lindanus's report, with replies by the Council, Aud. 1397/8; on Medemblik, see above, note 106.

111. On Lindanus's report, see Margaret of Parma to Philip II, 12 April 1565, and Philip to Margaret, 13 May 1565, in M. R. C. Bakhuizen van den Brink, J. S. Theissen, Correspondance Française de Marguerite d'Autriche, 3 vols. (Utrecht, 1925-1942), 1: Letters CCCLXXIV, CCCLXXVIII: Council of Holland to Margaret, transmitting its reply to the charges, 17 February 1566 (Aud. 1397/8).

112. J. J. Woltjer, "De Vredemakers," Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis 89 (1976): 299-321.

1. Parker, The Dutch Revolt, 64-116.

2. The "non-patrimonial" provinces were Friesland, Utrecht, Overijssel, Guelders, and Groningen.

3. Hugo de Schepper, Belgium Nostrum .

4. Christopher Hibben, Gouda in Revolt, 149-152.

5. Vermij, " s Konings Stadhouder in Holland," 46; Poelhekke, "Het Naamloze Vaderland van Erasmus."

6. J. J. Woltjer, "Dutch Privileges, Real and Imaginary," Britain and the Netherlands 5 (1975): 19-35.

7. AVR, 15 July 1562.

8. Council of Holland to the Secret Council, 20 July 1562 (the quotation), 4 September 1565 ( HH, 381).

9. Aud. 328, leaves 168-169, complaint by Erich von Braunschweig, and Council of Holland to Margaret of Parma, 27 June 1564 ( HH, 381).

10. Council of Holland to Margaret of Parma, 2 March 1566, 8 April 1566, and Margaret to the Council, 27 June 1564 ( HH, 381).

11. For Braunschweig's brutal suppression of the Lutheran Reformation in Woerden in September 1566, see Nico Plomp, Woerden 500 Jaar Stad ([Haarlem: Gottmer], 1977), 100-103.

12. RSH, 12 September 1560; AJ, 18-21 June 1528.