1. Many of Galdós's novels have appeared in English. Translations that have appeared since 1950 include four by Karen Austin, The Shadow (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1980), Angel Guerra (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 1990), The Unknown (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 1991), and Reality (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 1992); two by John M. Cohen, Torment (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1952) and Miau (London: Methuen, 1963). Others are by Lester Clarke, The Disinherited (London: Folio Society, 1976); Agnés Moncy Gullón, Fortunata y Jacinta (New York: Viking, 1987); Jo Labanyi, Nazarín (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993); Frances López-Morillas, Torquemada (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986); Joan Maclean, Compassion (New York: American RDM Corporation, 1966); Harriet de Onis, Doña Perfecta (Woodbury, N.Y.: Barron's Educational Series, 1960); R. Selden Rose, Tristana (Peterborough, N.H.: R. R. Smith, 1961); Nicholas Round, Torquemada in the Fire (Glasgow: University of Glasgow, 1985); Walter Rubin, The Golden Fountain Café (New York: Latin American Literary Review Press, 1989); Robert Russell, Our Friend Manso (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987); Gamel Woolsey, The Spendthrifts (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1951).

2. See Appendix 1 for a list of the novels in question. For convenience, they are sometimes all referred to as the contemporary novels, in order to distinguish them from Galdós's four series of historical novels, the episodios nacionales (national episodes). The cutoff line between the early novels and the contemporary series is debatable, since it was changed by Galdós himself; originally, the contemporary series began with Doña Perfecta in 1876 but was later pushed back to La desheredada of 1881.

3. C. P. Snow, The Realists: Portraits of Eight Novelists (London: Macmillan, 1978), 167-94.

4. Anthony Percival, Galdós and his Critics (Buffalo: Toronto University Press, 1985), 6.

5. Susan Kirkpatrick, Las Románticas: Women Writers and Subjectivity in Spain , 1835-1850 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), 294.

6. Jane Flax, "Postmodernism and Gender Relations in Feminist Theory," Signs 12, no. 4 (1987): 627.

7. Elaine Showalter, Speaking of Gender (New York: Routledge, 1989), 1-2.

8. Showalter, Speaking of Gender , 4.

9. Showalter, Speaking of Gender , 4.

10. Fredric Jameson, "Symbolic Inference; or, Kenneth Burke and Ideological Analysis," The Ideologies of Theory: Essays 1971-1986—Situations of Theory (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988), 1:140.

11. Lynda Nead, Myths of Sexuality: Representations of Women in Victorian Britain (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988), 8.

12. Rosalind Coward, Patriarchal Precedents: Sexuality and Social Relations (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1983), 2.

13. Jane Tompkins, Sensational Designs: The Cultural Work of American Fiction, 1790-1860 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985).

14. Annette Kolodny, "Dancing Through the Minefield: Some Observations on the Theory, Practice, and Politics of a Feminist Literary Criticism," The New Feminist Criticism: Essays on Women, Literature, and Theory , ed. Elaine Showalter (New York: Pantheon, 1985), 163.

15. Stephen Gilman, "The Consciousness of Fortunata," Anales Galdosianos 5 (1970): 55-57.

16. Judith Fetterley, The Resisting Reader: A Feminist Approach to American Fiction (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1978), xx, xxii.

17. Adrienne Rich, On Lies, Secrets, and Silences: Selected Prose 1966-1978 (New York: Norton, 1979), 35.

18. For example, Daria J. Montero-Paulson, La jerarquía femenina en la obra de Pérez Galdós (Madrid: Pliegos, 1988), Josefina Acosta de Hess, Galdós y la novela de adulterio (Madrid: Pliegos, 1988), and Lisa Condé, Stages in the Development of a Feminist Consciousness in Pérez Galdós (1843-1920): A Biographical Sketch (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 1990).

19. Naomi Schor, Breaking the Chain: Women, Theory, and French Realist Fiction (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), 144.

20. Lou Charnon-Deutsch, Gender and Representation: Women in Spanish Realist Fiction (Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1990), xii.

21. Nancy Armstrong, Desire and Domestic Fiction: A Political History of the Novel (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 101.

22. Innumerable studies have appeared on the nineteenth-century domestic ideal of femininity in Britain and America, starting with the anthology edited by Martha Vicinus, Suffer and Be Still: Women in the Victorian Age (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1972). In contrast to the plethora of Anglo-American studies, there are only two book-length studies on this issue as it affected Spain: Alicia Andreu's work on the figure of the virtuous woman in Galdós y la literatura popular (Madrid: Sociedad General Española de Librería, 1982), and Bridget Aldaraca's study of domestic ideology in El ángel del hogar: Galdós and the Ideology of Domesticity in Spain (Chapel Hill: North Carolina Studies in the Romance Languages and Literatures, 1991), which appeared after this book was largely complete. Aldaraca's study breaks important new ground in its perceptive and illuminating Marxist analysis of the Counter-Reformation and eighteenth-century antecedents of the nineteenth-century ideal of the angel in the house, as well as in its textual analyses of a number of novels not examined in the present volume.

23. Armstrong, Desire and Domestic Fiction , 4.

24. Catherine Belsey, Critical Practice (London: Methuen, 1980), 109. Mikhail Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination , ed. Michael Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981).

25. Toril Moi, Sexual/Textual Politics: Feminist Literary Theory (London: Methuen, 1985), 26 (original emphasis); Belsey, Critical Practice , 46.

26. Nancy Cott, "Passionlessness: An Interpretation of Victorian Sexual Ideology, 1790-1850," Signs 4, no. 2 (1978): 219.

1. Nancy K. Miller, The Heroine's Text: Readings in the French and English Novel, 1722-1782 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1980), ix.

2. Sofía Tartilán, Páginas para la educación popular (Madrid: Imprenta de Enrique Vicente, 1877), 231. Although María del Carmen Simón Palmer's recent bibliographical studies list some two thousand surviving nineteenth-century works on the subject of woman, this material has become the subject of academic investigation only in the last decade.

3. Jane Rendall, The Origins of Modern Feminism: Women in Britain, France, and the United States, 1780-1860 (London: Macmillan, 1985), 8.

4. Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, "Tradition and the Female Talent," in The Poetics of Gender , ed. Nancy K. Miller (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986), 202-3.

5. See Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality , trans. Robert Hurley (1978; reprint, New York: Vintage Books, 1980); Carl Degler, "What Ought To Be and What Was: Women's Sexuality in the Nineteenth Century," American Historical Review 79, no. 5 (1974): 1467-90; Erna Olafson Hellerstein, Leslie Parker Hume, and Karen Offen, eds., Victorian Women: A Documentary Account of Women's Lives in Nineteenth-Century England, France, and the United States (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1981); and Peter Gay, The Bourgeois Experience: Victoria to Freud (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984-86).

6. Mary Nash, ed., Mujer, familia y trabajo en España (1875-1936) (Barcelona: Anthropos, 1983), 41.

7. The theory of the public sphere originates in the work of Jürgen Habermas, first published in English as The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Thought (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1991). Habermas's work has been extensively used by feminist historians and social scientists. See Joan B. Landes, Women in the Public Sphere (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988), who argues that in the passage from absolutism to bourgeois liberal democracy, women were generically excluded from constituting "the public," a body which monitored and discussed matters of common interest and was thus an important new political institution.

8. See, for example, J. R., La mujer: Lo que ha sido, lo que es, lo que debe ser (Barcelona: Manuel Sauri, 1865), 53.

9. Bridget Aldaraca, El ángel del hogar: Galdós and the Ideology of Domesticity in Spain (Chapel Hill: North Carolina Studies in the Romance Languages and Literatures, 1991), 27.

10. Carmen Martín Gaite, in Usos amorosos del dieciocho en España (Madrid: Siglo XXI, 1972), describes how during the eighteenth century even within their homes many Spanish women of the upper classes remained segregated to the estrado , a dais in the drawing room, enclosed by railings, where women sat on cushions and sewed (27-8). José María Blanco White's second letter, dated 1798, also attests to the reclusive life lived by middle-class women in Andalusia at the end of the eighteenth century but records that Spanish husbands had by this point undergone a "thorough change" as regards their proverbial jealousy, with the result that women's manners were a "strange mixture of caution and liberty" ( Letters from Spain [London: Henry Colburn, 1822], 48-49).

11. Aldaraca, El ángel del hogar , 61, 32.

12. Tartilán, Páginas para la educación popular , 232.

13. From Antonio Cánovas del Castillo's prologue to Miguel Guijarro, ed., Las mujeres españolas, portuguesas y americanas tales como son en el hogar doméstico  . . . (Madrid: Imprenta de Miguel Guijarro, 1872), 1:xiii.

14. Aldaraca, El ángel del hogar , 55.

15. María del Pilar Sinués de Marco, El ángel del hogar , 7th edition (Madrid: J. A. García [ca. 1890]), 1:243. See also Concepción Gimeno de Flaquer, who remarks in a similar vein "¡Oh madres, de vosotras es el reino de la tierra! . . . podeis purificar las costumbres y levantar las ideas, pues sois fuertes por medio de vuestro amor" (Oh mothers, it is you who rule the world! . . . you can purify customs and elevate ideas, for you are strong through your love) ( La mujer española: Estudios acerca de su educación y facultades intelectuales [Madrid: Imprenta de Miguel Guijarro, 1877], 210).

16. Juan P. Criado y Domínguez, Literatas españolas del siglo XIX: Apuntes bibliográficos (Madrid: Imprenta de Antonio Pérez Dubrull, 1889), 61. One of the popular anthologies of the day similarly credits the ángel del hogar with an inspirational, redemptive influence on those around her: "con el ejemplo, con la palabra, con la dignidad y la moral entereza que nacen de una conciencia limpia y serena, encamina al bien a su familia, y sirve como de regulador y de espejo en los pensamientos y en las acciones del hogar" (with her example, with her words, with the dignity and moral integrity born of a clear and tranquil conscience, she guides her family towards right and acts as a regulator and a mirror in the thoughts and actions of the household) (Leopoldo Augusto de Cueto, "La mujer de Guipúzcoa," in Las mujeres españolas , ed. Guijarro, 1:429).

17. It is worth noting that even in industrialized countries such as Britain, the separation of spheres remained an ideal for large segments of the population. Jane Rendall argues that many women's domestic chores—such as fetching water, washing clothes, buying bread, sewing, and gathering wood—"far from being private, individual ones, undertaken within the home as a refuge from the outside world, were impossible within the strictly limited resources of most working peoples' homes, and were as likely to be dependent on communal resources, and undertaken with other women" ( The Origins of Modern Feminism , 191).

18. Nancy Armstrong, Desire and Domestic Fiction: A Political History of the Novel (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987).

19. For a description of these new social types, see Charles Kany, Life and Manners in Madrid, 1750-1800 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1932), 174-208.

20. Martín Gaite states that numerous eighteenth-century writers mentioned the estrado with nostalgia as a thing of the past ( Usos amorosos , 28). Charles Kany mentions that by the second half of the century, the word estrado had come to refer simply to the drawing room, where the sexes mingled relatively freely, rather than the original women-only dais in the room ( Life and Manners in Madrid , 270).

21. See the excellent discussions of this process in Michelle Perrot, ed., A History of Private Life: From the Fires of Revolution to the Great War (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1990), 4:9, 100. Lawrence Stone, in The Family, Sex, and Marriage in England, 1500-1800 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1977), and Rudolf Trumbach, in The Rise of the Egalitarian Family: Aristocratic Kinship and Domestic Relations in Eighteenth-Century England (New York: Academic Press, 1978), argue that attitudes to marriage and the family were transformed in western societies into new models of companionship and affective ties with the rise of the bourgeoisie in the eighteenth century.

22. Olafson Hellerstein et al., Victorian Women , 2.

23. Rendall, The Origins of Modern Feminism , 206.

24. See Martín Gaite, Los usos amorosos del dieciocho , chap. 1, for a discussion of the custom of the cortejo , adopted in Spain around 1750.

25. John Ruskin, Sesame and Lilies (Philadelphia: Henry Altemus, 1893), 137.

26. E. Escartín y Lartiga, ''El triunfo de la anarquía: Los problemas del siglo XX," in Mujer, familia y trabajo en España (1875-1936) , ed. Mary Nash (Madrid: Anthropos, 1983), 65.

27. J. Sánchez de Toca, El matrimonio (Madrid: A. de Cárlos é hijo, 1875), 1:165.

28. Galdós's El audaz (1871) engages in a classic early bourgeois critique of the power and freedom of the eighteenth-century aristocratic woman in the unsympathetic portrayal of the haughty, independent, and undomestic heroine Susana Cerezuelo and the biting satire of two minor characters, the literata Pepita Sanahuja and the would-be diplomat Antonia de Gibraleón.

29. Thomas Laqueur, Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1990).

30. Cynthia Eagle Russett, Sexual Science: The Victorian Construction of Womanhood (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989).

31. Juan Valera, "Las mujeres y las academias: Cuestión social inocente" (1891), in Obras completas (Madrid: Aguilar, 1949), 2:861. See also Leopoldo Alas, "Nietzsche y las mujeres" (1899), reprinted in Clarín: Obra olvidada , ed. Antonio Ramos-Gascón (Madrid: Jucar, 1973), 206.

32. Escartín y Lartiga, "El triunfo de la anarquía," 65.

33. Susan Kirkpatrick, Las Románticas: Women Writers and Subjectivity in Spain, 1835-1850 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), 57.

34. Enrique Pérez Escrich, "La mujer de Valencia," in Las mujeres españolas , ed. Guijarro, 2:459.

35. Fernando de Castro, Discurso . . . en la inauguración de las conferencias dominicales para la educación de la mujer (Madrid: Rivadeneyra, 1869), 6.

36. Quoted in Criado y Domínguez, Literatas españolas , 37. Accent usage in the nineteenth century was more free than it is now. I have not modernized diacritics and spelling but have simply followed my sources throughout.

37. William Acton, The Functions and Disorders of the Reproductive Organs , 4th ed. (London, 1865), 112. Quoted in Laqueur, Making Sex , 196. The physician Pedro Felipe Monlau echoes this opinion in his Higiene del matrimonio, o el libro de los casados (Paris: Garnier, 1865), 180: "el instinto genésico es más imperioso en el hombre que en la mujer . . . de ahí que la continencia sea más fácil en ésta que en aquél" (the reproductive instinct is more powerful in man than in woman . . . thus continence is easier for her than for him).

38. In the 1870s medical practitioners tried to control what they considered to be excessive or abnormal female desire by performing ovariotomies and clitoridectomies on women.

39. Cánovas del Castillo, prologue to Las mujeres españolas , 1:xiii; F. de Alvaro, "De la castidad conyugal," La Guirnalda 10, no. 6 (20 March 1876): 43.

40. Fraser Harrison, The Dark Angel: Aspects of Victorian Sexuality (London: Sheldon Press, 1977), 42.

41. María del Pilar Sinués de Marco, Verdades dulces y amargas: Páginas para la mujer (Madrid: Viuda e hijos de J. A. García, 1882), 202-3.

42. Leopoldo Martínez Reguera, La mujer en su origen y organización es más perfecta que el hombre (Madrid: M. Romero, 1882), 49.

43. Barbara Taylor, Eve and the New Jerusalem: Socialism and Feminism in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Pantheon, 1983), 126.

44. Escartín y Lartiga, "El triunfo de la anarquía," 65.

45. Saturnino Estéban Collantes, "La mujer de Palencia," in Las mujeres españolas , ed. Guijarro, 2:271.

46. María del Pilar Sinués de Marco, La mujer en nuestros días: Obra dedicada a las madres y a las hijas de familia (Madrid: Agustín Jubera, 1878), 217.

47. Aldaraca, El ángel del hogar , 36-37.

48. Pérez Escrich, "La mujer de Valencia," 2:459.

49. Elizabeth Langland, "Nobody's Angels: Domestic Ideology and Middle-Class Women in the Victorian Novel," PMLA 107, no. 2 (1992): 291.

50. Sinués de Marco, El ángel del hogar , 1:240.

51. Augusto de Cueto, "La mujer de Guipúzcoa," in Las mujeres españolas , 1:432.

52. Martínez Reguera, La mujer , 27.

53. Mary Elizabeth Perry, Gender and Disorder in Early Modern Seville (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990), 37-44.

54. Padre Claret, Instrucción que debe tener la mujer para desempeñar bien la misión que el todopoderoso le ha confiado (Barcelona: Librería Religiosa, 1862), 31.

55. Vizconde de San Javier, "La mujer de Teruel," in Las mujeres españolas , ed. Guijarro, 2:414.

56. José Sélgas y Carrasco, "La mujer de Murcia," in Las mujeres españolas , ed. Guijarro, 2:201.

57. See for example Narciso Gay y Beya, who vilified the proponents of female emancipation in La mujer en su pasado, su presente y su porvenir: Memoria leída en la sesión pública de la sociedad filomática el día 6 de enero de 1857 (Barcelona: Administración del Plus Ultra, 1857), 23.

58. Sinués de Marco, El ángel hogar , 2:259-60.

59. María Dolores Torres Natria, "El feminismo," La Escuela Moderna 84 (1898): 178-87.

60. Sélgas y Carrasco, "La mujer de Murcia," 2:215.

61. Aldaraca, El ángel del hogar , 64.

62. Discussed by María Victoria López-Cordón Cortezo, "La situación de la mujer a finales del antiguo régimen (1760-1860)," in Mujer y sociedad en España 1700-1975 , ed. Rosa María Capel Martínez (Madrid: Ministerio de Cultura, 1982), 51.

63. Mary Poovey, The Proper Lady and the Woman Writer: Ideology as Style in the Works of Mary Wollstonecraft, Mary Shelley, and Jane Austen (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984).

64. Gregorio Martínez Sierra, "¿Qué deben estudiar las mujeres?" in Cartas a las mujeres (Madrid: Pueyo, 1916), 104. Alda Blanco argues convincingly that María Martínez Sierra was in fact the author of this and many other feminist essays which originally appeared under Gregorio's name (introduction to Una mujer por caminos de España , 3). Literacy rates are those mentioned in the Anuario Estadístico de España for 1915. Virginia Woolf, "Professions for Women," in Collected Essays (New York: Harcourt and Brace, 1967), 2:286-87.

65. This point is cogently argued by Kirkpatrick in Las Románticas and also by María del Carmen Simón Palmer in "Escritoras españolas del siglo XIX o el miedo a la marginación," in Anales de literatura española de la Universidad de Alicante 2 (1983): 477-90.

66. Alda Blanco, "The Moral Imperative for Women Writers," Indiana Journal of Hispanic Literatures 2, no. 1 (Fall 1993): 100.

67. See Adolfo Perinat and María Isabel Marrades, Mujer, prensa y sociedad en España, 1800-1939 (Madrid: CIS, 1980); M. Roig Castellanos, La mujer y la prensa desde el siglo XVIII a nuestros días (Madrid: M. Roig, 1977); María del Carmen Simón Palmer, "Revistas españolas femeninas del siglo XIX," in Homenaje a don Agustín Millares Carlo (Las Palmas: Caja Insular de Ahorros de Gran Canaria, 1975), 1:401-45; Christine Stopp, "Woman as Represented and Discussed in the Popular and Periodical Literature of Spain in the Period 1860-1900" (D.Phil. thesis, Oxford University, 1984).

68. Alicia Andreu, "Arte y consumo: Angela Grassi y 'El Correo de la Moda,' " Nuevo Hispanismo 1 (1982): 123-35.

69. See my essay "María del Pilar Sinués de Marco," in Spanish Women Writers: A Biobibliographical Sourcebook , ed. Linda Gould Levine, Ellen Engel-

      son Marson, and Gloria Feinman Waldman, 473-83 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1993).

70. Faustina Sáez de Melgar, Las mujeres españolas, americanas y lusitanas pintadas por sí mismas (Barcelona: Juan Pons, 1881), vii.

71. See the introduction to Grassi's novel El copo de nieve (Madrid: Castalia, 1992), by Iñigo Sánchez Llama, for more information on her life and work.

72. Faustina Sáez de Melgar, quoted by Criado y Domínguez in Literatas españolas , 61.

73. Quoted by Joaquín Nin y Tudó, Para la mujer: Hermosa colección de pensamientos, máximas, sentencias y escritos (Barcelona: J. Miret, 1881), 160.

74. Sarah Ellis, The Women of England (1838), quoted in Françoise Basch, Relative Creatures: Victorian Women in Society and the Novel , 1837-67 (London: Allen Lane, 1974), 5.

75. Gimeno de Flaquer quotes Michelet to the effect that "la niña . . . vivirá para los otros" (the little girl . . . will live for others) ( La mujer española , 252).

76. W. R. Greg, quoted by Basch in Relative Creatures , 5.

77. Faustina Sáez de Melgar, Deberes de la mujer: Colección de artículos sobre la educación (Madrid: R. Vicente, 1866), 21. María del Pilar Sinués de Marco, Hija, esposa y madre: Cartas dedicadas a la mujer acerca de sus deberes para con la familia y la sociedad , 5th ed. (Madrid: Librería General de Victoriano Suárez, 1904), 112.

78. Castro, Discurso , 11. The strategy is discussed by Judith Lowder Newton in Women, Power, and Subversion: Social Strategies in British Fiction, 1778-1860 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1981).

79. See López-Cordón Cortezo, "La situación de la mujer."

80. Quoted in Russett, Sexual Science , 32.

81. James McGrigor Allan, quoted in Russett, Sexual Science , 55.

82. See Nina Auerbach, Woman and the Demon: The Life of a Victorian Myth (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982), 70-71.

83. Florence Nightingale, Cassandra , ed. Myra Stark (New York: Feminist Press, 1979), 50.

84. Gregorio Martínez Sierra, Nuevas cartas a las mujeres (Madrid, 1932), 176. Quoted in Alda Blanco, ed., María Martínez Sierra: Una mujer por caminos de España (Madrid: Castalia, 1989), 32. Blanco believes this essay was written by María Martínez Sierra.

85. Emilia Pardo Bazán, "La educación del hombre y la de la mujer: sus relaciones y diferencias," in La mujer española , ed. Leda Schiavo (Madrid: Editora Nacional, 1981), 74-75; Concepción Arenal, La mujer de su casa (Madrid: Gras y Compañía, 1883), 53, 14, 82, and 20.

86. Kathryn Weibel, Mirror, Mirror: Images of Women Reflected in Popular Culture (New York: Anchor Books, 1977), 186, 176.

87. Langland, "Nobody's Angels," 294.

88. Carl Köhler, A History of Costume (New York: Dover, 1963), 431.

89. Duncan Crow, The Victorian Woman (London: Allen and Unwin, 1971), 27. Bonnie Smith maintains that the ballooning skirts, corsets, and bustles of mid- and late-Victorian fashions created an illusion that the wearer was pregnant or lactating ( Ladies of the Leisure Class , 78); Helene Roberts stresses the re-

      strictive nature of such dress in "The Exquisite Slave: The Role of Clothes in the Making of the Victorian Woman," Signs 2, no. 3 (1977): 557-58.

90. Fraser Harrison, The Dark Angel: Aspects of Victorian Sexuality (London: Sheldon Press, 1977), 229. As Rendall points out in The Origins of Modern Feminism , nineteenth-century constructions of the promiscuity of the poor also applied to those of other races; she reminds us of middle-class white Americans' belief in the unrestrained nature of black sexuality (196).

91. Sarah Ellis, quoted in Laqueur, Making Sex , 204.

92. Two celebrated examples of this in Spain were Concepción Arenal, who worked on prison reform, and Concepción Aleixandre, who worked as a doctor at Madrid's Hospital de la Princesa in the 1880s and 1890s.

93. Nancy Cott, "Passionlessness: An interpretation of Victorian Sexual Ideology," Signs 4, no. 2 (1978): 219-36; Barbara Corrado Pope, "Angels in the Devil's Workshop: Leisured and Charitable Women in Nineteenth-Century England and France," in Becoming Visible: Women in European History , ed. Renate Bridenthal and Claudia Koonz (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977), 296-326.

1. Jerónimo Morán, "Consejos," La Guirnalda 1, no. 1 (1 January 1867): 1-2.

2. Martina Castells, "Educación de la mujer," La Madre y el Niño 1 (1883): 21.

3. Brian Dendle shows how Galdós as contributor and editor defended conservative policies such as the strong role of the military in Spanish life, the brutal repression in Cuba, and bourgeois control of the working class, in his article "Albareda, Galdós, and the Revista de España (1868-1873)," in La Revolución de 1868: Historia, pensamiento, literatura , ed. Clara Lida and Iris Zavala (New York: Las Americas, 1970), 362-77.

4. Urbano González Serrano, "Una cuestión de actualidad," Revista de España 29, no. 115 (1872): 355, 352, 347.

5. Unpublished letter from María del Pilar Sinués de Marco to Galdós, 19 March 1872. Held in the Casa-Museo Pérez Galdós, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Sig ^a 14.54.59. The letter is catalogued as dating from 1912, which is impossible since Sinués died in 1893.

6. "Revista de la Semana" (19 January 1868), in Los artículos de Galdós en La Nación, ed. W. H. Shoemaker (Madrid: Insula, 1972), 386-87. This attitude seems to inspire the biting satire of the ludicrous and vaporous poet Pepita Sanahuja in El audaz (1871), creator of sickly pastoral verses, characterized as "lo que hoy designamos con la palabra romántica ; pero como entonces no existía el romanticismo, la sobreexcitación cerebral de la joven Sanahuja se alimentaba de interminables deliquios, en que todos los campos se le antojaban Arcadias" (what today we refer to as romantic ; but since at that time romanticism didn't exist, Miss Sanahuja's overheated brain was fed with interminable delusions, in which she would fancy that every field was an Arcadia [379]).

7. "El primero de mayo," in Ensayos de crítica literaria , ed. Laureano Bonet (Barcelona: Península, 1990), 167.

8. Concepción Sáiz de Otero, La revolución del 68 y la cultura femenina (Apuntes del natural): Un episodio nacional que no escribió Pérez Galdós (Madrid: Victoriano Suárez, 1929).

9. "La rosa y la camelia" (10 March 1866 and 13 March 1866), in Los artículos de Galdós en La Nación, 301.

10. Benito Pérez Galdós, "El suplicio de una mujer" (3 December 1865), in Los artículos de Galdós en La Nación, 227-28.

11. First published as Las españolas pintadas por los españoles , 2 vols., ed. Roberto Robert. Reprinted as Mujeres españolas del siglo XIX (Madrid: Ediciones Atlas, 1944). Citations are from the latter edition.

12. Benito Pérez Galdós, "Revista de Madrid" (17 December 1865), in Los artículos de Galdós en La Nación, 245.

13. Benito Pérez Galdós, "Discurso de Pérez Galdós," El Imparcial , 21 December 1905, 3.

14. Benito Pérez Galdós, "Confusiones y paradojas" (1893), in Obras inéditas , vol. 2, Arte y crítica , ed. Alberto Ghiraldo (Madrid: Renacimiento, 1923), 194-95.

15. Benito Pérez Galdós, "Confusiones y paradojas," 2:189.

16. Galdós, "La enseñanza superior en España," in Obras inéditas , vol. 2, Arte y crítica , ed. Alberto Ghiraldo (Madrid: Renacimiento, 1923), 245; emphasis added.

17. Reprinted in José Pérez Vidal, ed., Benito Pérez Galdós: Madrid (Madrid: Afrodisio Aguado, 1957), 223-49. Sections of this important essay are available in an English translation by Nick Caistor in Jo Labanyi, ed., Galdós (London: Longman, 1993), 29-34. Wherever possible I use Caistor's translations.

18. I discuss the new genre in "Disinheriting the Feminine: Galdós and the Rise of the Realist Novel in Spain," Revista de Estudios Hispánicos 27, no. 2 (1993): 225-48.

19. Leopoldo Alas, who launches a comprehensive attack on women writers as incompetent ("ninguna mujer ha escrito una obra de primera orden" [no woman has written a first-rate work]) as well as ugly, and ultimately unnatural, writes that "dejar el eterno femenino para escribir folletines, críticas de pacotilla, versos como otros cualesquiera, novelas y librejos de moralidad convencional, repugna a la naturaleza" (it is an insult to nature to abandon the Eternal Feminine to write hack novels, shoddy criticism, pedestrian poetry, and novels and tomes full of trite moralizing) ("Las literatas," La Unión 248 [17 June 1879], reprinted in Clarín político , ed. Yvan Lissorgues [Toulouse: Université de Toulouse, 1980], 1:123; original emphasis).

20. See Alicia Andreu, "Un model literario en la vida de Isidora Rufete," Anales Galdosianos , Anejo 15 (1980): 9. Andreu's reedition of the Sáez de Melgar novel occupies the rest of the journal.

21. Benito Pérez Galdós, "Conferencias de Emilia Pardo Bazán en el Ateneo" (1887), in Obras inéditas , vol. 2, Arte y crítica , ed. Alberto Ghiraldo (Madrid: Renacimiento, 1923), 204.

22. Galdós, who never married, perhaps resembled the lust-driven, spendthrift bourgeois men he often unflatteringly portrayed in his novels. His pen-

      chant for mistresses meant that he was constantly afflicted with money problems. His friend and servant declared, for example, that "Don Benito vivió a rastras de los prestamistas. . . . ¡No he conocido hombre más faldero! Aquí un lío, allá otro. Si no trajo al mundo diez o doce hijos naturales, no trajo ninguno" (Don Benito was always being harried by moneylenders. . . . I've never known such a womanizer! An affair here, another there. I'm telling you, he must have fathered ten or twelve illegitimate children) (in W. H. Shoemaker, "¿Cómo era Galdós?," Anales Galdosianos 8 [1973]: 21).

23. Terry Eagleton, Criticism and Ideology (London: Verso, 1978), 59.

24. Terry Lovell, Consuming Fiction (London: Verso, 1987), 2, 29.

1. José Montesinos's comments on Gloria are a good example. See his Galdós (Madrid: Castalia, 1968), 1:193-94.

2. Nancy K. Miller, The Heroine's Text: Readings in the French and English Novel, 1722-1782 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1980), xi. In the dysphoric plot, as Alicia Andreu remarks in Galdós y la literatura popular (Madrid: Sociedad General Española de Librería, 1982), social ostracism or death usually followed a heroine's fall from virtue (65-66).

3. Stephen Gilman, Galdós and the Art of the European Novel, 1867-1887 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981), 39.

4. Walter Pattison, in " La Fontana de Oro : Its Early History," Anales Galdosianos 15 (1980): 5-9, shows that the commonly accepted "happy ending" version of the novel supposedly published in 1870 is a fake, and that the real first edition, with a tragic ending, appeared in 1871.

5. Benito Pérez Galdós, La Fontana de Oro , in Obras completas: Novelas , ed. Federico Carlos Sáinz de Robles (Madrid: Aguilar, 1981), 1:63. An English translation of this novel has been done by Walter Rubin, The Golden Fountain Café (Pittsburgh: Latin American Literary Review Press, 1989).

6. Benito Pérez Galdós, Rosalía , ed. Alan Smith (Madrid: Cátedra, 1983). Smith estimates that this manuscript was probably written around 1872.

7. Citations from Gloria come from Galdós's Obras completas: Novelas , ed. Federico Carlos Sáinz de Robles (Madrid: Aguilar, 1981), vol. 1. Translations are my own.

8. Leopoldo Alas, Galdós (Madrid: Renacimiento, 1912), 1:52.

9. Lorenz Eitner, "Cages, Prisons, and Captives in Eighteenth-Century Art," in Images of Romanticism: Verbal and Visual Affinities , ed. Karl Kroeber and William Walling (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1978), 13-38. Susan Kirkpatrick republishes the poems by Coronado and Gómez de Avellaneda in Las Románticas: Women Writers and Subjectivity in Spain, 1835-1850 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), 187-88, 196-98, and appendix. Lisa P. Condé discusses the feminist implications of the bird imagery in Gloria in Stages in the Development of a Feminist Consciousness in Pérez Galdós (1843-1920): A Biographical Sketch (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 1990), 48-70, which appeared after this chapter was written. The information on Galdós's

      paper birds comes from H. Chonon Berkowitz, Pérez Galdós: Spanish Liberal Crusader (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1948), 56-57.

10. Alicia Andreu, Galdós y la literatura popular (Madrid: Sociedad General Española de Librería, 1982), 19.

11. For Menéndez y Pelayo, Gloria is "una bas-bleu , garrula y atarascada , librepensadora cursi, que ha leído La Celestina y discute luego sobre el latitudinarismo, y cae luego (ni era de suponer otra cosa con tales antecedentes) en brazos del primer judío . . . que se le pone delante" (an opinionated and promiscuous bluestocking, a pretentious freethinker, who has read La Celestina and argues about latitudinarianism, and then falls into the arms of the first Jew . . . who shows up [as one might have expected given her background]) (Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo, Historia de los heterodoxos españoles [1882; Madrid: Editorial Católica, 1956], 2:1172; original emphasis).

12. Galdós came under pressure to change course during the writing of Gloria . When part 1 appeared in January 1877, the author was accused by Pereda of anti-Catholicism, a charge repeated later by Menéndez y Pelayo. Galdós was sincerely distressed by Pereda's attack and expended considerable effort refuting it in his letters, edited by Carmen Bravo-Villasante in "Veintiocho cartas de Galdós a Pereda," Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos 250-52 (1970-1971): 9-51. Galdós consciously set out to make part 2 more acceptable (15). One of Pereda's specific complaints was that Galdós's characterization was morally unacceptable (Soledad Ortega, Cartas a Galdós [Madrid: Revista de Occidente, 1964], 51). Since the figure of the ángel del hogar was such a central part of the Catholic traditionalists' view of what should be presented in literature, we might feasibly attribute the change in the characterization of the heroine to Galdós's desire not to be seen as undermining Catholicism. To reverse the novel's liberal feminist ideology by having the heroine develop into a loving, suffering, angelic victim was perhaps Galdós's way of mitigating the novel's challenge to religious orthodoxy.

13. Jules Michelet, Woman , trans. J. W. Palmer (New York, 1860), 50, 81.

14. Richard Barickman, Susan MacDonald, and Myra Stark, Corrupt Relations: Dickens, Thackeray, Trollope, Collins, and the Victorian Sexual System (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), 246.

15. On Galdós's relations with Krausism, see Denah Lida, "Sobre el 'krausismo' de Galdós," Anales Galdosianos 2 (1967): 1-27; Juan López-Morillas, "Galdós y el krausismo: La familia de León Roch ," Revista de Occidente 60 (1968): 331-57; José Luis Gómez Martínez, "Galdós y el krausismo español," Nueva Revista de Filología Hispánica 32, no. 1 (1983): 55-79; Elena de Jongh-Rossel, El krausismo y la generación de 1898 (Valencia: Albatros Hispanófila, 1985), 65-73.

16. The most accessible studies of Krausism are Jongh-Rossel's El krausismo y la generación de 1898 , and Juan López-Morillas, El krausismo español: Perfil de una aventura intelectual (Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1956).

17. Page citations are to Benito Pérez Galdós, La familia de León Roch , in Obras completas: Novelas , ed. Federico Carlos Sáinz de Robles (Madrid: Aguilar, 1981), vol. 1. Translations are mine.

18. Benito Pérez Galdós, "Observaciones sobre la novela contemporánea en España" in Benito Pérez Galdós: Madrid , ed. José Pérez Vidal (Madrid: Afrodisio Aguado, 1957), 235-37.

19. María Victoria López-Cordon, "La literatura religiosa y moral como conformadora de la mentalidad femenina (1760-1860)," La mujer en la historia de España (siglos XVI-XX) (Madrid: Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 1984), 69; Padre Claret, Instruccion que debe tener la mujer para desempeñar bien la mision que el todopoderoso le ha confiado (Barcelona, 1862), 20-21. For a parallel to the situation in France see Bonnie Smith, Ladies of the Leisure Class (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981), 94.

20. Jules Michelet, Le Prêtre, la femme, et la famille (Paris, 1861), 2; original emphasis.

21. Karl Christian Friedrich von Krause, Ideal de la humanidad para la vida , 2d ed., introd. Julián Sanz del Río (Madrid, 1871), 44, 58.

22. See the excellent groundbreaking discussion of Krausism and women by Giuliana di Febo, "Orígenes del debate feminista en España: La escuela krausista y la Institución Libre de Enseñanza (1870-1890)," Sistema 12 (1976): 49-82.

23. Krause, Ideal , 94.

24. Gumersindo de Azcárate, Minuta de un testamento (Barcelona: Edns. de Cultura Popular, 1967), 227, 244-45.

25. Vicente Cacho Viu, La Institución Libre de Enseñanza: Orígenes y etapa universitaria (Madrid: Rialp, 1962), 1:5.

26. Azcárate, Minuta , 177-78.

27. Jongh-Rossel, El krausismo , 13, 66.

28. Krause's views on sexual equality appear in Ideal , 93. Aristotle laid the basis for western civilization's construction of gender by equating the formative artist with masculinity and pliant matter of creation with femininity: "the female always provides the material, the male provides that which fashions the material into shape; this is, in our view, the specific characteristic of each of the sexes; that is what it means to be male or female" (Aristotle, On the Generation of Animals , ed. A. L. Peck [London: Heinemann, 1931], 2:4, 738b). For feminist interpretations of the history of this idea see Marina Warner, Monuments and Maidens: The Allegory of the Female Form (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1985); and Susan Gubar, "'The Blank Page' and the Issues of Female Creativity," Critical Inquiry 8, no. 2 (1981): 243-63. One of the many to reiterate this view was St. Isidore of Seville, whose sixth-century Etymologiae falsely derived the very word for "woman" ( mulier ) from the notion of softness ( a mollitie ) (Warner, Monuments , 65).

29. Jules Michelet, L'amour (Paris: Calmann-Lévy Editeurs, 1910), 85-86.

30. Bridget Aldaraca, El ángel del hogar: Galdós and the Ideology of Domesticity in Spain (Chapel Hill: North Carolina Studies in the Romance Languages and Literatures, 1991), 75.

31. Benito Pérez Galdós, "La mujer del filósofo," in Mujeres españolas del siglo XIX , ed. Roberto Robert (Madrid: Atlas, 1944), 36-37. Repr. from Las españolas pintadas por los españoles (Madrid, 1871-1872).

32. Francisco Giner de los Ríos, "Sobre La familia de León Roch ," in Benito Pérez Galdós , ed. Douglass M. Rogers (Madrid: Taurus, 1979), 257-58. Leo-

      poldo Alas, Sólos de Clarín , 2d ed. (Madrid: Alfredo de Carlos Hierro, 1881), 183; original emphasis.

33. Azcárate, Minuta , 108.

34. Clarín depicts Ana Ozores's mysticism as intertwined with sensuality in La Regenta (1884-1885), as does Palacio Valdés in the characters María de Elorza of Marta y María (1883) and Obdulia of La fe (1892). Interestingly, Galdós suggested the title of Marta y María , which inverts the Biblical paradigm by valuing domesticity over religiosity in women.

35. Naomi Schor, Breaking the Chain: Women, Theory, and French Realist Fiction (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), 44-45. Commenting on the prevalence of imagery of women as marble or stone figures in Zola, Flaubert and Balzac, she argues provocatively if somewhat enigmatically that it constitutes a "hieratic code" and hypothesizes that "realism . . . draws its momentum from the representation of bound women, and that binding implicitly recognizes women's energy and the patriarchal order's dependence on it for the production of literature" (144).

36. John W. Kronik, "Feijoo and the Fabrication of Fortunata," in Conflicting Realities: Four Readings of a Chapter by Pérez Galdós (Fortunata y Jacinta, Part III, Chapter IV ), ed. Peter B. Goldman (London: Tamesis, 1984), 57; Noël Valis, "Art, Memory, and the Human in Galdos'[Galdós'] Tristana," Kentucky Romance Quarterly 31, no. 2 (1984): 209.

37. Lida, "Sobre el 'krausismo,' " 21.

1. The distinction was one that even contemporary commentators were making. "Gregorio" Martínez Sierra wrote in a perceptive 1905 essay on Galdós that while his first works were didactic, the author had later become a "sutil y sagaz escudriñador de complicadas psicologías" (subtle and wise observer of complicated psychologies) ("Benito Pérez Galdós," in Motivos [Paris: Garnier, 1905], 39-40).

2. Orlando, "Revista literaria: Lo prohibido de Pérez Galdós," Revista de España 104, no. 414 (1885): 299.

3. One late-eighteenth-century tract went so far as to propose a revival of the sumptuary laws, in the form of a national female uniform, to deal with the growing problem of feminine luxury, which it saw as a threat to the national economy through the acquisition of clothing from foreign rather than domestic sources ( Discurso sobre el luxô de las señoras, y proyecto de un trage nacional [Madrid: Imprenta Real, 1788]).

4. Bridget Aldaraca, El ángel del hogar: Galdós and the Ideology of Domesticity in Spain (Chapel Hill: North Carolina Studies in the Romance Languages and Literatures, 1991), 88. Aldaraca's study appeared after I had written my own analysis of the topic of el lujo .

5. Francisco Alonso y Rubio, La mujer bajo el punto de vista filosófico, social y moral: Sus deberes en relacion con la familia y la sociedad (Madrid: Gamayo, 1863), 148.

6. Terry Lovell, Consuming Fiction (London: Verso, 1987), 30.

7. Werner Sombart, Luxury and Capitalism (1917; Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1967), 171.

8. Alonso y Rubio, La mujer , 149.

9. Angel María Segovia, ''Del lujo," fourth lecture in Conferencias Dominicales sobre la educacion de la mujer (Madrid: Rivadeneyra, 1869), 12.

10. María del Pilar Sinués de Marco, "El lujo," Flores y Perlas 1, no. 2 (15 March 1883): 1.

11. Susan Sontag, Illness as Metaphor (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1978), 5, 62.

12. Thomas Laqueur, Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1990), 229. Krafft-Ebing's influential Psychopathia Sexualis (1889), for example, catalogued a number of new perversions such as nymphomania and homosexuality. Medical practitioners in the 1870s attempted to control excessive desire in "oversexed" women by constructing devices to prevent masturbation and performing ovariotomies or clitoridectomies on such patients.

13. Laqueur, Making Sex , 232.

14. Alda Blanco and Carlos Blanco Aguinaga, introduction to their edition of Benito Pérez Galdós: La de Bringas (Madrid: Cátedra, 1985), 44.

15. This reading is most powerfully presented by Peter Bly, Galdós's Novel of the Historical Imagination (Liverpool: Francis Cairns, 1983), 66-67.

16. Aldaraca, El ángel del hogar , 91.

17. Aldaraca, El ángel del hogar , 175.

18. Aldaraca, El ángel del hogar , 105.

19. This point has been cogently made by Luisa-Elena Delgado; "Más estragos que las revoluciones: Lo ornamental como construcción de la feminidad en La de Bringas ," paper given at the Midwest Modern Language Association convention, St. Louis, November 1992. Delgado also links the concepts of feminine disorder and revolution, as I do here.

20. Aldaraca, El ángel del hogar , 34.

21. The letter in question was printed in La Nación in 1884; in it Galdós is discussing a ball given by the duke and duchess of Fernán-Nuñez (Peter Bly, "From Disorder to Order: The Pattern of Arreglar References in Galdos'[Galdós'] Tormento and La de Bringas ," Neophilologus 62 [1978]: 405).

22. See my essay "Disinheriting the Feminine: Galdós and the Rise of the Realist Novel in Spain," Revista de Estudios Hispánicos 27. no. 2 (1993): 225-48.

23. Teresa de Lauretis, Technologies of Gender: Essays on Theory, Film, and Fiction (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 3.

24. Geraldine Scanlon, "Nuevos horizontes culturales: La evolución de la educación de la mujer en España 1868-1900," in Mujer y educación en España, 1868-1975 (Santiago: Universidade de Santiago, 1990), 727.

25. Page numbers refer to Benito Pérez Galdós, El amigo Manso in Obras completas: Novelas , ed. Federico Carlos Sáinz de Robles (Madrid: Aguilar, 1981), vol. 1. Translations are taken from Robert Russell, Our Friend Manso (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987).

26. La Discusión , 4 December 1857, 3; Angel Pulido, Bosquejos médico-sociales para la mujer (Madrid: Sáiz, 1874), 26.

27. The equation between the model woman and the honeybee was often drawn. In Antonio Pirala's popular book El libro de oro de las niñas (3d ed., Madrid, 1853), for example, the author declares that "lejos de mí la idea de dar á la mujer la educacion escolástica que al hombre; todo lo contrario, debe enseñársela á ser mujer; previsora como la hormiga, laboriosa como la abeja" (I reject the notion of giving a scholarly education to woman as to man; on the contrary, she should be taught to be a woman; prudent as the ant, industrious as the honeybee [59]).

28. Concepción Sáiz, Un episodio national que no escribió Pérez Galdós: La revolución del 68 y la cultura femenina . (Madrid: Victoriano Suárez, 1929), 17.

29. Congreso nacional pedagógico, Actas (Madrid: Hernando, 1882).

30. Joaquín Sánchez de Toca, El matrimonio (Madrid: A. de Carlos é hijo, 1875), 2:14.

31. Scanlon, "Nuevos horizontes culturales," 721-40.

32. Those who argue for a positive reading of Fortunata's trajectory are Stephen Gilman, in "The Birth of Fortunata," Anales Galdosianos 1 (1966): 71-83, and in Galdós and the Art of the European Novel: 1867-1887 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981); Peter B. Goldman, "Feijoo and Mr Singer: Notes on the aburguesamiento of Fortunata," Revista de Estudios Hispánicos 9 (1982): 105-114; Geoffrey Ribbans, Fortunata y Jacinta (London: Grant and Cutler, 1977); and John H. Sinnigen, "Individual, Class, and Society in Fortunata y Jacinta ," in Galdós Studies II, ed. Robert J. Weber (London: Tamesis, 1974), 49-68. Those who argue the opposing tragic view of the heroine's fate are Carlos Blanco Aguinaga, "Having No Option: The Restoration of Order and the Education of Fortunata,'' in Conflicting Realities: Four Readings of a Chapter by Pérez Galdós (Fortunata y Jacinta, Part III, Chapter IV ), ed. Peter B. Goldman (London: Tamesis, 1984), 13-38; Julio Rodríguez-Puértolas, Galdós: Burguesía y revolución (Madrid: Turner, 1975); and Anthony Zahareas, "El sentido de la tragedia en Fortunata y Jacinta ," Anales Galdosianos 3 (1968): 25-34.

33. Stephen Gilman speaks in "Feminine and Masculine Consciousness in Fortunata y Jacinta " ( Anales Galdosianos 17 [1982]: 63-70) of her "self-proclaimed spiritual metamorphosis" (64), while John Kronik defines an angel as "pure and everlasting spirit" in his essay "Feijoo and the Fabrication of Fortunata" in Conflicting Realities (68); and Sinnigen says that Fortunata is "tied to religious vocabulary on her death" ("Individual, Class, and Society," 66).

34. Page references to the original text are taken from Francisco Caudet's two-volume edition of the novel (Madrid: Cátedra, 1983). Translations are from Agnés Moncy Gullón's Fortunata and Jacinta: Two Stories of Married Women (New York: Viking, 1987). Mercedes López-Baralt's fascinating study, La gestación de Fortunata y Jacinta: Galdós y la novela como re-escritura (Río Piedras: Ediciones Huracán, 1992), shows that there is a marked difference between the alpha and beta manuscripts of the novel: in the alpha version, Jacinta is extremely voluptuous, but in beta she is transformed into the deli-

      cate, doll-like creature of the published version and the emphasis on sexuality has shifted to Fortunata (60-61).

35. One has only to think of Fortunata's first appearance, rapturously eating a slimy raw egg, or Juanito's memory of her nursing pigeon chicks in her bosom. The bird imagery was originally noted by Gilman in "The Birth," and examined in further detail by Roger Utt, " 'El pájaro voló': Observaciones sobre un leitmotif en Fortunata y Jacinta ," Anales Galdosianos 9 (1974): 37-50; by Agnes Moncy Gullón, "The Bird Motif and the Introductory Motif: Structure in Fortunata y Jacinta ," Anales Galdosianos 9 (1974): 51-75; and by Stephen Hart, "Galdós's Fortunata y Jacinta : An 'Inoffensive Hen'?" Forum for Modern Language Studies 22 (1986): 342-53. Marxist critics such as Caudet interpret the bird imagery as symbolizing the oppression of the working-class Fortunata by Juanito and other members of the bourgeoisie (introduction to Fortunata y Jacinta , 81).

36. Ricardo Gullón, "Estructura: La polaridad complementaria," Técnicas de Galdós (Madrid: Taurus, 1980), 144.

37. Harriet S. Turner, "Family Ties and Tyrannies: A Reassessment of Jacinta," Hispanic Review 51 (1983): 19-21.

38. Catherine Belsey, Critical Practice (New York: Methuen, 1980), 92.

39. Carlos Blanco Aguinaga, "On 'The Birth of Fortunata,' " Anales Galdosianos 3 (1968): 13-24. One of the semantic quirks of the term mona leads us back to the bird and egg imagery so prevalent in the novel: monas (de Pascua) are cakes baked with whole eggs on top.

40. Padre Nones and Guillermina believe that Fortunata's statement cannot be treated seriously. But Guillermina has, all along, told Fortunata that she is out of her mind whenever she makes statements that threaten the bourgeois status quo, even at points when she is clearly lucid (e.g., 2:490, 508).

41. Blanco Aguinaga, "Having No Option," 32; Caudet, introduction to Fortunata y Jacinta , 69.

42. Villalonga (1:433), Juanito (1:690, 693), and Guillermina (2:251) each liken the lower classes to a cantera (stone quarry) that supplies the raw materials of civilization, a notion seconded here by the narrator: "el pueblo . . . conserva las ideas y los sentimientos elementales en su tosca plenitud, como la cantera contiene el mármol, materia de la forma. El pueblo posee las verdades grandes y en bloque, y a él acude la civilización conforme se le van gastando las menudas, de que vive" (the common people . . . conserve basic ideas and feelings in their raw fullness, just as a quarry contains marble, the material for forms. The pueblo possesses truth in great blocks, and civilization, when it uses up the smaller pieces it lives on, goes back to the pueblo for more [2:251]).

43. See John H. Sinnigen, "Sexo y clase social en Fortunata y Jacinta : Opresión, represión, expresión," Anales Galdosianos 12 (1987): 53-70. Sinnigen points out that even though Jacinta's rebellious fantasies do not damage patriarchal order, the novel's ending celebrates the "feminine values" of relation and connection posited by Nancy Chodorow (64, 66).

44. Tony Tanner, Adultery in the Novel: Contract and Transgression (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979).

45. Susan Kirkpatrick, "More on the Narrator of Fortunata y Jacinta ," Revista de Estudios Hispánicos 9 (1982): 148.

1. Joaquín Sánchez de Toca, El matrimonio (Madrid: A. de Cárlos, 1875), 2:456.

2. Emilia Pardo Bazán, "Una opinión sobre la mujer" (first published March 1892), reprinted in La mujer española , ed. Leda Schiavo (Madrid: Editora Nacional, 1981), 156.

3. Carlos Blanco Aguinaga, Julio Rodríguez Puértolas, Iris Zavala, Historia social de la literatura española (Madrid: Castalia, 1987), 2:229.

4. Benito Pérez Galdós, "El primero de mayo," in Benito Pérez Galdós: Ensayos de crítica literaria , ed. Laureano Bonet (Barcelona: Península, 1990), 167; Bonet points out some confusion as to the date of this article and for the correct date suggests 1895, and not 1885 (57). The 1890 article by Galdós is "Confusiones y paradojas," in Arte y crítica , ed. Alberto Ghiraldo, 183.

5. The British scientists Patrick Geddes and J. Arthur Thomson published their widely quoted theory of female "anabolic" (or energy-conserving) versus male "katabolic" (or energy-burning) metabolisms and physiques in their first book, The Evolution of Sex , in 1889. The American Edward Clarke's Sex in Education; or, A Fair Chance for the Girls (1873) was one of the most famous works expounding the consequences of overtaxing the female bodily economy.

6. Susanna Barrows, Distorting Mirrors: Visions of the Crowd in Late Nineteenth-Century France (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981), 58.

7. Alejandro Pidal y Mon, "El feminismo y la cultura de la mujer," La Ciudad de Dios 59 (1902): 645.

8. Nancy F. Cott, The Grounding of Modern Feminism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), 14.

9. Adolfo Llanos, "Los Yankees: La mujer," La Ilustración Española y Americana , 8 July 1883, 11-14.

10. Pedro Felipe Monlau, Higiene del matrimonio (1853; Paris: Garnier, 1879), calls feminism "esa ridiculez insensata que, aun cuando cuenta con pocos partidarios, viene, sin embargo, reproduciéndose por intervalos en la esfera de la política" (12). El Liberal carried a piece by Miguel Moya ridiculing the national feminist conference in Palma de Mallorca, entitled "Congreso de mujeres," 31 July 1883, 3. In August 1881 the Catalan newpapers repeated a news item from El Imparcial on the upcoming Congreso Femenino Universal in Barcelona, both employing a satirical tone ( La Vanguardia , 1 August 1883, 5201; El Correo Catalán , 8 August 1883, 9).

11. "La víspera," La Ilustración de la Mujer , 1 August 1883, 34; in "O votos o rejas," 15 June 1883, the journal attacks the class basis of the notion of woman as an essentially and naturally fragile angel in the house by pointing to the fact that lower-class women habitually did backbreaking work.

12. "Esclavitud y derecho, ó sea, la emancipación de la mujer," Las Dominicales del Libre Pensamiento , 30 December 1883, 3.

13. Galdós, "El primero de mayo," 169.

14. See Rosa María Capel Martínez's excellent discussion of the conference, "La apertura del horizonte cultural femenino: Fernando de Castro y los congresos pedagógicos del siglo XIX," in Mujer y sociedad en España (1700-1975) , ed. R. M. Capel Martínez (Madrid: Ministerio de Cultura, 1982), 109-73.

15. See the illuminating discussion of these texts by Lou Charnon-Deutsch, The Nineteenth-Century Spanish Story: Textual Strategies of a Genre in Transition (London: Tamesis, 1985), 55-75.

16. Adolfo Posada, Feminismo (Madrid: Fernando Fé, 1899), 7-8.

17. Julio Alarcón y Meléndez, "Un feminismo aceptable," Razón y Fe 8 (January-April 1904): 447, 452; 9 (August 1904): 475.

18. Bram Dijkstra, Idols of Perversity: Fantasies of Feminine Evil in Fin-de-Siècle Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986).

19. Friedrich Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil , trans. R. J. Hollingdale (1886; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973), 144.

20. Judith Ginsberg, Angel Ganivet (London: Tamesis, 1985), 50; Angel Ganivet, Cartas finlandesas (Madrid: Victoriano Suárez, 1905), 147.

21. Juan Valera, "Las mujeres y las academias: Cuestión social inocente," in Obras Completas (Madrid: Aguilar, 1949), 2:863-75; Leopoldo Alas, "Palique" (1891), in Clarín político , ed. Yvan Lissorgues (Toulouse: Université de Toulouse, 1980), 1:135.

22. See Carmen Bravo-Villasante, Cartas a Benito Pérez Galdós, 1889-1890 (Madrid: Turner, 1975).

23. See Walter T. Pattison, "Two Women in the Life of Galdós," Anales Galdosianos 8 (1973): 23-31; and Gilbert Smith, "Galdós, Tristana , and Letters from Concha-Ruth Morell," Anales Galdosianos 10 (1975): 91-120.

24. Concepción Arenal, La mujer de su casa (Madrid: Gras y Compañía, 1883), 88.

25. From Pardo Bazán's article "Tristana" (first published May 1892), in La mujer española , ed. Leda Schiavo, 141.

26. Alfred Rodríguez discusses some of the symbolic ramifications of the novel's title in "Un título y una protagonista," Anales Galdosianos 15 (1980): 129-30. It is notable too that Concha-Ruth Morell, whose letters, as Gilbert Smith shows, served as the model for parts of Tristana , signed herself "Tristóna" [ sic ] ("Galdós, Tristana , and Letters from Concha-Ruth Morell," 100).

27. Joaquín Casalduero, Vida y obra de Galdós, 1843-1920 (Madrid: Gredos, 1951); Leon Livingstone, "The Law of Nature and Women's Liberation in Tristana ," Anales Galdosianos 7 (1972): 93-100; Carmen Bravo-Villasante, Galdós visto por sí mismo (Madrid: Editorial Magisterio Español, 1970); and María del Prado Escobar, "Galdós y la educación de la mujer," in Actas del Segundo Congreso Internacional de Estudios Galdosianos (Las Palmas: Cabildo Insular de Gran Canarias, 1980), 2:165-82.

28. Edward Friedman, " 'Folly and a Woman': Galdos'[Galdós'] Rhetoric of Irony in Tristana ," in Theory and Practice of Feminist Literary Criticism , ed. Gabriela Mora and Karen S. Van Hooft (Ypsilanti, Mich.: Bilingual Press, 1982), 201-28; Ruth Schmidt, " Tristana and the Importance of Opportunity," Anales Galdosianos 9 (1974): 135-44; John H. Sinnigen, "Resistance and Rebellion in Tristana ," MLN 91 (1976): 277-91; Emilia Miró, " Tristana o la imposibilidad de ser," Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos 250-52 (1970-1971): 505-22; and Carlos Feal Deibe, " Tristana de Galdós: Capítulo en la historia de la liberación femenina,'' Sin Nombre 7 (1976): 116-29.

29. As Akiko Tsuchiya notes, "The narrator's inconsistent vision makes it difficult for the reader to arrive at a clear-cut vision about the character's (or the implied author's) 'feminism' or 'anti-feminism' as so many critics have attempted to do" ("The Struggle for Autonomy in Galdós's Tristana ," MLN 104, no. 2 [1989]: 347).

30. Page references are to Benito Pérez Galdós, Tristana , in Obras completas Novelas , ed. Federico Carlos Sáinz de Robles (Madrid: Aguilar, 1982), vol. 3. Translations are mine.

31. Galdós's narrative at this point has much in common with nineteenth-century literature written by women. Annis Pratt writes that in the female Bildungsroman the heroine is typically "oppressed by a sense of enclosure and imprisonment," for "the novel of development portrays a world in which the young woman hero is destined for disappointment" ( Archetypal Patterns in Women's Fiction [Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1981], 33, 29). This emphasis on the confinement and immobility attendant on the ideal of the domestic woman is much stressed in the writings of the Spanish feminists Emilia Pardo Bazán and Concepción Arenal. Pardo Bazán writes, for example, that the social construction of gender "encierra a la mitad del género humano en el círculo de hierro de la inmovilidad" ( La mujer española , 74-75).

32. The mother hen is another analogy for the womanly woman idealized by nineteenth-century bourgeoisie. Pardo Bazán, in an article written in 1892, explicitly refers to the ideology of domesticity as equating woman with a hen: "esa vieja tesis del destino de la mujer, identificado con el de la gallina sumisa y ponedera" ( La mujer española , 158-59).

33. Susan Sontag, Illness as Metaphor (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1978), 11, 36, 22.

34. Sontag, Illness as Metaphor , 14.

35. Peter Goldman, "Galdós and the Aesthetic of Ambiguity: Notes on the Thematic Structure of Nazarín ," Anales Galdosianos 9 (1974), 99.

36. Feal Deibe, " Tristana de Galdós," 125.

37. George Orwell, "Charles Dickens," in The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell , ed. Sonia Orwell and Ian Angus (London: Secker and Warburg, 1968), 1:459.

38. Arenal, La mujer de su casa , 10.

39. Noël Valis, "Art, Memory, and the Human in Galdos'[Galdós'] Tristana ," Kentucky Romance Quarterly 31, no. 2 (1984): 217.

40. Virginia Woolf, "Professions for Women," in Virginia Woolf: Collected Essays (New York: Harcourt and Brace, 1967), 2:286-87.

41. Elaine Showalter, Sexual Anarchy: Gender and Culture at the Fin de Siècle (New York: Viking, 1990), 11.

42. Casalduero, Vida y obra de Galdós ; Alexander Parker, " Nazarín , or the Passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ According to Galdós," Anales Galdosianos 2 (1967): 83-101; G. G. Minter, "Halma and the Writings of St. Augustine," Anales Galdosianos 13 (1978): 73-97; John H. Sinnigen, "The Search for a New Totality in Nazarín, Halma, Misericordia ," MLN 93, no. 2 (1978): 233-51.

43. Benito Pérez Galdós, Halma , in Obras completas: Novelas , ed. Federico Carlos Sáinz de Robles (Madrid: Aguilar, 1982), vol. 3. Translations are mine.

44. Sáinz de Robles, preface to Halma , 3:578.

45. Barbara Corrado Pope, "Angels in the Devil's Workshop: Leisured and Charitable Women in Nineteenth-century England and France," in Becoming Visible: Women in European History , ed. Renate Bridenthal and Claudia Koonz (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977), 296-326; and Anne Summers, "A Home from Home: Women's Philanthropical Work in the Nineteenth Century," in Fit Work for Women , ed. Sandra Burman (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1979), 34-63.

46. Clarissa W. Atkinson, " 'Your Servant, My Mother': The Figure of Saint Monica in the Ideology of Christian Motherhood," in Immaculate and Powerful: The Female in Sacred Image and Social Reality , ed. C. Atkinson, Constance H. Buchanan, and Margaret R. Miles (Boston: Beacon Press, 1985), 159-62.

47. Minter, "Halma and the Writings," 84-85.

48. See John Ruskin's lecture on what he termed "woman's true place and power" ("Of Queen's Gardens," in Sesame and Lilies [London, 1864]). The metaphor of the wife as queen of the home is repeated by the Spanish conduct writers: Sinués de Marco observed that "la mujer en su casa, en medio de su familia . . . es la reina" (woman in her home, in the midst of her family . . . is a queen) ( El ángel del hogar , 2:395).

49. J. E. Varey, "Man and Nature in Galdó's Halma ," Anales Galdosianos 13 (1978): 71; Minter writes that "it is only when Urrea unites with her to form their family that Halma comes to terms with the world and has her spirituality complemented by his humanity so that she is thenceforth empowered to act constructively without temporal hindrance" ("Halma and the Writings," 91). Casalduero argues similarly in Vida y obra de Galdós , 124.

50. Juan P. Criado y Domínguez, Literatas españolas del siglo XIX: Apuntes bibliográficos (Madrid: Imprenta de Antonio Pérez Dubrull, 1889), 61.

51. For studies of the history of hysteria see Ilza Veith, Hysteria: The History of a Disease (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965); George F. Drinka, The Birth of Neurosis: Myth, Malady, and the Victorians (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984); and Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985). The period 1870-1914 was, as Showalter puts it, "the golden age of hysteria"

      (130) with large numbers of middle-class women manifesting what Drinka describes as a "psychocultural disturbance" (150).

52. Varey speaks of Halma's acceptance of marriage as her coming "to realise her true path" ("Man and Nature," 69); Minter argues that Halma "has assumed a pontifical role for which she is imperfectly equipped" ("Halma and the Writings," 91) and that she is ''guilty of setting herself up in judgement" over Nazarín (8), who fortunately brings the novel to a resoundingly happy ending by correcting the countess's "earlier mistaken idea" (89).

53. Showalter, The Female Malady , 154.

54. The word frequently used to refer to Halma's institution, ínsula , is the same word used by don Quijote to describe the imaginary country he has promised to Sancho Panza. The intertextual echo here provides another indication that Halma's dreams are unrealistic.

55. James Mandrell notes in a perceptive analysis of Misericordia , a novel written soon after Halma , that far from "deconstructing" the binarisms it begins with, the work reinstitutes them, so that "Galdó's world is still Manichaean in outlook, although occasionally scrambled" (Paper presented at Modern Language Association convention, 28 December 1992).

56. Francie Cate, "El espacio novelesco y la creación simbólica: Un estudio de Halma ," Hispanic Journal 6, no. 2 (1985): 116.

57. Lou Charnon-Deutsch, "Gender-specific Roles in Pepita Jiménez ," Revista de Estudios Hispánicos 19, no. 2 (1985): 89.

58. Sinnigen, "The Search for a New Totality," 250.

59. Frederick DeRosset, " Nazarín and Halma : A Study of Ambiguity and Resolution" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Kentucky, 1981), Dissertation Abstracts International 42, no. 2 (August 1981): 727A.

1. Michelle Perrot, "The New Eve and the Old Adam: Changes in French Women's Condition at the Turn of the Century," in Behind the Lines: Gender and the Two World Wars , ed. Margaret R. Higonnet, Jane Jenson, Sonya Michel, and Margaret C. Weitz (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), 52.

2. Urbano González Serrano, La amistad y el sexo: Cartas sobre la educación de la mujer por Adolfo Posada y Urbano González Serrano (Madrid: Fernando Fe, 1893), 24-25. In another piece entitled "Los derechos de la mujer" ( La Ilustración Española y Americana , 30 September 1896), Gónzalez Serrano associated feminism with socialism and anarchism and raised the spectre of countries such as Britain and Russia dominated by a "third sex" of monstrous spinsters.

3. Some of the more notable examples include George Gissing's Odd Women (1894), Grant Allen's Woman Who Did (1895), Thomas Hardy's Jude the Obscure (1895), and, of course, Galdó's own Tristana (1892).

4. Rata Felski, "The Counterdiscourse of the Feminine in Three Texts by Wilde, Huysmans, and Sacher-Masoch," PMLA 106, no. 5 (1991): 1094.

5. Damián Isern, Del desastre nacional y sus causas (1899), quoted in Enrique Tierno Galván, Costa y el regeneracionismo (Barcelona: Editorial Barna, 1961), 81.

6. Manuel Tuñón de Lara, Medio siglo de cultura española (1885-1936) , 3d ed. (Madrid: Tecnos, 1984), 57.

7. Both these concepts of Costa's are cited by Tuñón de Lara, Medio siglo de cultura española , 61.

8. Tierno Galván, Costa , 148, 91.

9. Tierno Galván, Costa , 238; Ricardo Macías Picavea, El problema nacional (Madrid: Suárez, 1899), 368-70.

10. Lucas Mallada, Los males de la patria y la futura revolución española (Madrid: Alianza, 1969), 56-58.

11. Benito Pérez Galdós, "La sociedad presente como materia novelable," in Benito Pérez Galdós: Ensayos de crítica literaria , ed. Laureano Bonet (Barcelona: Ediciones Península, 1990), 159.

12. Carmen Bravo-Villasante writes in Galdós (Madrid: Mondadori, 1988) that Galdós considered women's rights and workers' rights purely utopian until around 1895, at which point she believes that he became a feminist (88-89). Lisa Condé also sees the year 1895, with the staging of Voluntad , as Galdó's triumphant celebration of the new woman, arguing that the new heroine Isidora is modelled on Galdó's leading lady, María Guerrero ( Stages in the Development of a Feminist Consciousness in Pérez Galdós [1843-1920] [Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 1990], 257, and Women in the Theatre of Galdós: From Realidad [1892] to Voluntad [1895] [Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 1990]). The same broad line of argument is pursued by Josefina Acosta de Hess in Galdós y la novela de adulterio (Madrid: Pliegos, 1988), although she situates Galdós's conversion somewhat earlier, beginning in 1889 (88).

13. Maryellen Bieder, "El sacrificio: Tema y recurso dramático en la obra teatral de Benito Pérez Galdós, 1892-1903," in Actas del Tercer Congreso Internacional de Estudios Galdosianos (Las Palmas: Excmo. Cabildo Insular, 1989), 2:384.

14. Benito Pérez Galdós, La loca de la casa , in Obras completas: Novelas , ed. Federico Carlos Sáinz de Robles (Madrid: Aguilar, 1982), vol. 3. Translations are my own.

15. Angel del Río, "La significación de La loca de la casa ," in Estudios Galdosianos (Zaragoza: General, 1953), 37.

16. Bonnie Smith analyzes how, in northern France, women in the early phases of the rise of capitalist enterprise contributed to running the family business, a phenomenon that was phased out as women became more and more purely domestic ( Ladies of the Leisure Class: The Bourgeoises of Northern France in the Nineteenth Century [Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981], 36, 49).

17. Galton's first work in the direction of eugenics began in 1869, with a book entitled Hereditary Genius .

18. Río, "La significación de La loca de la casa ," 44-45.

19. See Geraldine Scanlon, La polémica feminista en la España contemporánea, 1868-1974 (Madrid: Akal, 1986), 215-22.

20. E. Inman Fox, "Galdos'[Galdós'] Electra : A Detailed Study of its Historical Significance and the Polemic Between Martínez Ruiz and Maeztu," Anales Galdosianos 1 (1966): 137.

21. Page references are taken from Benito Pérez Galdós, Electra (Madrid: Hernando, 1981). Translations are mine.

22. Librada Hernández, "Electra y su Máximo: Galdós y la libertad de la mujer en Electra ," in Crítica Hispánica 15, no. 2 (1993).

23. See Librada Hernández for a more detailed version of this reading.

24. Julio Rodríguez-Puértolas, introduction to Benito Pérez Galdós, El caballero encantado (Madrid: Cátedra, 1982), 14. All citations from the novel will refer to this edition. Translations are mine.

25. H. Chonon Berkowitz, Pérez Galdós: Spanish Liberal Crusader (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1948), 204.

26. Rodríguez-Puértolas, 17. Although Rodríguez-Puértolas does not mention this, the pendulum was later to swing the other way again, and Galdós, who in 1912 began vainly seeking a rapprochement with the monarchy, would deny testily by 1915 that he had ever seen anything useful in Republicanism (Berkowitz, Pérez Galdós , 403, 446).

27. Scanlon, La polémica feminista , 232; she gives other examples of the phenomenon on 236-37 and 246.

28. Anne Martin-Fugier, La bourgeoise: Femme au temps de Paul Bourget (Paris: Grasset, 1983), 284.

29. Perrot, "The Old Adam and the New Eve," 57.

30. Martin-Fugier, La bourgeoise , 283.

31. Benito Pérez Galdós, prologue to Casandra , in Ensayos de crítica literaria , ed. Laureano Bonet (Barcelona: Ediciones Península, 1990), 193.

32. Diane Urey, The Novel Histories of Galdós (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989), 156.

33. Noël Valis contests the view that the metafictional elements in Galdós signal his renunciation of historical signification ("Fabricating Culture in Cánovas ," MLN 107, no. 2 [1992]: 250-73).

34. Mallada, Los males de la patria , 42. Translation is mine.

35. Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780-1850 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 191-92.

36. Benito Pérez Galdós, La razón de la sinrazón , in Obras completas: Novelas , ed. Federico Carlos Sáinz de Robles (Madrid: Aguilar, 1982), vol. 3. Translations are mine.

37. Joaquín Costa, "Discurso en los Juegos Florales de Salamanca" (1901), in Joaquín Costa: Oligarquía y cacicismo, Colectivismo agrario y otros escritos (Antología) , ed. Rafael Pérez de la Dehesa (Madrid: Alianza, 1969), 217-18.

1. Roberto Sánchez, "Galdos'[Galdós'] Tristana , Anatomy of a 'Disappointment,' " Anales Galdosianos 12 (1977): 112.

2. John Kronik, "Feijoo and the Fabrication of Fortunata," Conflicting Realities: Four Readings of a Chapter by Pérez Galdós (Fortunata y Jacinta, Part III, Chapter IV ) (London: Tamesis, 1984), 39, 50.

3. Richard Barickman, Susan MacDonald, and Myra Stark, Corrupt Relations: Dickens, Thackeray, Trollope, Collins, and the Victorian Sexual System (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), viii.

4. See Bridget Aldaraca's excellent chapter on Lo prohibido entitled "The Literary Creation of an Angel," in El ángel del hogar: Galdós and the Ideology of Domesticity in Spain (Chapel Hill: North Carolina Studies in the Romance Languages and Literatures, 1991).

5. Peter Bly, Vision and the Visual Arts in Galdós (Liverpool: Francis Cairns, 1986), 4.

6. Roland Barthes, Image, Music, Text , trans. Stephen Heath (New York: Hill and Wang, 1977), 146.

7. Mikhail Bakhtin, "Discourse in the Novel," The Dialogic Imagination , ed. Michael Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981), 271, 299-300, 293.

8. The legislation of universal suffrage in 1890, for example, never mentioned women; the nineteenth-century educational programs proposing free, universal education for all Spanish children always laid out a different proposal for girls.

9. Alicia Andreu, Modelos dialógicos en la narrativa de Benito Pérez Galdós (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1989).

10. The formulation that gender and class may operate together but are never a perfect fit is that of Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, in Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780-1850 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 13.