1. I want to thank the following friends for their comments and suggestions on this introduction: Chris Bull, E. G. Crichton, Jim Green, Amber Hollibaugh, Robert Hughes, Terrence Kissack, Loring McAlpin, Molly McGarry, Kevin Murphy, Matt Rottnek, Andrew Spieldenner, and Leith ter Meulen. I would especially like to thank Matthew Lore, who guided me through its many drafts. I remain responsible for its shortcomings.

2. These structures reflect the temporality of the longue durée—the slower, often hidden social developments, as opposed to the temporality of current events. See p. 31 of Fernand Braudel, "History and the Social Sciences: The Longue Durée," in his book of essays On History (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1980). See also Raymond Williams on structures of feeling in Marxism and Literature (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), pp. 128-35.

3. For a rare first-person account of a homosexual life originally published in 1901, see Claude Hartland, The Story of a Life (San Francisco: Grey Fox Press, 1985). See also the documents in Jonathan Ned Katz, Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the U.S.A. (New York: Crowell, 1976), and in Martin Bauml Duberman, About Time: Exploring the Gay Past (New York: Gay Press of New York, 1986), pp. 5-48.

4. Barbara Welter, "The Cult of True Womanhood: 1820-1860," in The American Family in Social-Historical Perspective, ed. Michael Gordon (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1973); Carol Smith-Rosenberg, "The World of Love and Ritual," in Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America (New York: Knopf, 1985); and Lillian Faderman, Surpassing the Love of Men: Romantic Friendship and Love between Women from the Renaissance to the Present (New York: Morrow, 1981).

5. Ben Barker-Benfield, "The Spermatic Economy: A Nineteenth-Century View of Sexuality," in American Family, ed. M. Gordon.

6. See Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, Between Men: English Literature and Male Homosocial Desire (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), pp. 83-96.

7. For example, see Estelle B. Freedman, Maternal Justice: Miriam van Waters and the Female Reform Tradition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996); and John D'Emilio, "Homophobia and the Trajectory of Postwar American Radicalism: The Case of Bayard Rustin," Radical History Review, no. 62 (spring 1995).

8. See Edward Carpenter, "The Intermediate Sex," in Selected Writings, vol. 1, Sex (1908; reprint, London: Gay Men's Press, 1984), pp. 217-19. See also John Addington Symonds, A Problem in Modern Ethics, reprinted along with Symonds's letters to Carpenter in Male Love: A Problem in Greek Ethics and Other Writings (New York: Pagan Press, 1983), pp. 93-103, 153-54. For a fuller sense of the historical background and Walt Whitman's role, see Sheila Rowbotham and Jeffrey Weeks, Socialism and the New Life: The Personal Politics of Edward Carpenter and Havelock Ellis (London: Pluto Press, 1977).

9. My view of homoeroticism as an American cultural semiotic was suggested by Houston A. Baker's study of blues as a cultural semiotic in Blues, Ideology, and Afro-American Literature: A Vernacular Theory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), pp. 1-14; and from Thomas E. Yingling's discussion of homosexuality as a cultural semiotic (he cites Baker) in Hart Crane and the Homosexual Text (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), pp. 1-23.

10. Michael Moon, "Disseminating Whitman," South Atlantic Quarterly 88, no. 1 (winter 1989): 248.

11. Ibid., p. 251.

12. For a pioneering discussion of the social implications of this mix of dread and desire from the perspective of French philosophers of desire Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, see Guy Hocquenghem, The Problem Is Not So Much Homosexual Desire as the Fear of Homosexuality (London: Allison & Busby, 1978; reprint, Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1994).

13. See the two documentary histories that Jonathan Ned Katz edited. One section of Gay American History ("Trouble: 1566-1966," pp. 11-128) documents the repression of homosexual behavior throughout U.S. history. A more focused exploration of repression during the colonial period appears in Gay/Lesbian Almanac: A New Documentary (New York: Harper & Row, 1983), pp. 66-133.

14. George Chauncey documents Roosevelt's investigation of sexual perversion in the Navy. See Chauncey, "Christian Brotherhood or Sexual Perversion? Homosexual Identities and the Construction of Social Boundaries in the World War I Era," in Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past, ed. Martin Bauml Duberman, Martha Vicinus, and George Chauncey, Jr. (New York: New American Library, 1989), pp. 294-317.

In addition to the findings in lesbian and gay history, works of broad cultural interpretation reveal a powerful current of homoeroticism in American culture and history. See especially Leslie A. Fielder, Love and Death in the American Novel (New York: Criterion Books, 1960). See also F. O. Mathiessen's correspondence with his lover Russell Cheney: Rat and the Devil: Journal Letters of F. O. Mathiessen and Russell Cheney, ed. Louis Hyde (Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1978) on the homosexual background to Mathiessen's magnum opus, American Renaissance: Art and Expression in the Age of Emerson and Whitman (New York: Oxford University Press, 1941). For other historical work documenting American homoeroticism, see the following: Steven Watson, The Harlem Renaissance: Hub of African-American Culture, 1920-1930 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1995); Georges-Michel Sarotte, Like a Brother, Like a Lover: Male Homosexuality in the American Novel and Theatre from Herman Melville to James Baldwin (New York: Anchor Press, 1978); and Sandra M. Gilbert and Susan Gubar, No Man's Land: The Place of the Woman Writer in the Twentieth Century (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988-89). Texts documenting the history of homophobia are somewhat scarcer, but see again works of lesbian and gay history, particularly Katz's documentary histories, Gay American History and Gay/Lesbian Almanac.

15. In Between Men, Sedgwick explores a similar pattern of interlocking social structures—homosocial desire and homophobia—in the hundred years between the mid-eighteenth century and the mid-nineteenth century.

16. New York Times, February 11, 1996. See also Frank Rich's op-ed piece "Bashing to Victory," New York Times, February 14, 1996.

17. Jonathan Ned Katz, The Invention of Heterosexuality (New York: Dutton, 1995).

18. Herbert Marcuse, Eros and Civilization: A Philosophical Inquiry into Freud (Boston: Beacon Press, 1966); and Norman O. Brown, Life against Death: The Psychoanalytical Meaning of History (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1959).

19. Karl Marx, "The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon," in Surveys from Exile: Political Writings (New York: Penguin Books, 1973), 2:146.

20. Paul Berman discusses this phenomenon in A Tale of Two Utopias: The Political Journey of the Generation of 1968 (New York: Norton, 1996).

21. See Marshall Berman, The Politics of Authenticity: Radical Individualism and the Emergence of Modern Society (New York: Atheneum, 1972); James Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987); and Lionel Trilling, Sincerity and Authenticity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971).

22. Frederick A. Olafson, "Authenticity and Obligation," in Sartre: A Collection of Critical Essays, ed. Mary Warnock (New York: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1971), p. 138.

23. See Jean-Luc Nancy, The Inoperative Community (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991); and The Miami Theory Collective, eds., Community at Loose Ends (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991).

24. Berman, Politics of Authenticity, pp. 284-320.

25. Gerald Early, ed., Lure and Loathing: Essays on Race, Identity, and the Ambivalence of Assimilation (New York: Allen Lane, 1993). This collection of essays explores W.E.B. DuBois's notion of the "double consciousness" of African-Americans.

26. Bruce Bawer, A Place at the Table: The Gay Individual in American Society (New York: Poseidon Press, 1993). Other writers share many of Bawer's positions, including Andrew Sullivan, Virtually Normal: An Argument about Homosexuality (New York: Knopf, 1995), and Marshall Kirk and Hunter Madsen, After the Ball: How America Will Conquer Its Fear and Hatred of Gays in the Nineties (New York: Doubleday, 1989).

27. Urvashi Vaid, Virtual Equality: The Mainstreaming of Gay and Lesbian Liberation (New York: Anchor Books, 1995), p. 3.

28. See "Queer/Nation," the brief article I wrote with Allan Bérubé. See also articles on Queer Nation in OUT/LOOK: National Lesbian and Gay Quarterly, no. 11 (winter 1992); and Lauren Berlandt and Elizabeth Freeman, "Queer Nationality," in Fear of a Queer Planet: Queer Politics and Social Theory, ed. Michael Warner (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993), pp. 193-229.

29. Warner, introduction to Fear of a Queer Planet, p. xxvi. See also Steven Seidman, "Deconstructing Queer Theory or the Under-Theorization of the Social and the Ethical," in Social Postmodernism: Beyond Identity Politics, ed. Linda Nicholson and Steven Seidman (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 123-31.

30. Warner, introduction to Fear of a Queer Planet, p. xxvii.

31. For a discussion of queer theory, see chapter 8 in this volume: "Under the Sign of the Queer."

32. Hocquenghem, Problem Is Not Desire, p. 36.

33. Sigmund Freud, Three Essays on Sexuality (New York: Basic Books, 1962). See also Freud's 1908 essay "'Civilized' Sexual Morality and Modern Nervousness," in a collection of his essays, Sexuality and the Psychology of Love, ed. Philip Reiff (New York: Collier Books, 1963), pp. 20-40.

34. Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents (New York: Norton, 1961).

35. In a series of essays and books, Leo Bersani has explored the significance of perverse, transgressive sexuality. See Bersani, The Freudian Body: Psychoanalysis and Art (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986); idem, "Is the Rectum a Grave?" in AIDS: Cultural Analysis, Cultural Activism, ed. Douglas Crimp (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1988); idem, The Culture of Redemption (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990); and idem, Homos (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995). Jonathan Dollimore has also explored these issues in Sexual Dissidence: Augustine to Wilde, Freud to Foucault (Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, 1991).

36. Roland Barthes, The Pleasure of the Text (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1975), p. 19. The "perverse," or polymorphous perversity, represents what might also be called "the homosexual sublime," which Yingling examines in Hart Crane, pp. 145-85. Fredric Jameson characterizes the sublime as "something like the pleasure in pain" in his essay "Baudelaire as Modernist and Postmodernist," in Lyric Poetry: Beyond New Criticism, ed. C. Hosek and P. Park (Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell University Press, 1985), p. 262.

37. John Rechy, Sexual Outlaw (New York: Grove Press, 1977).

38. Bersani, Freudian Body, pp. 81-106, and Culture of Redemption, pp. 29-46.

39. Bersani, Homos, pp. 2-3.

40. Ibid., p. 4.

41. Ibid., p. 4.

42. Ibid., p. 69.

43. Tony Kushner, Thinking about the Longstanding Problems of Virtue and Happiness: Essays, a Play, Two Poems, and a Prayer (New York: Theatre Communications Group, 1995), p. 78.

44. Erving Goffman explored identity ambivalence in Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963).

45. Hannah Arendt developed a post-Holocaust theoretical framework within which to examine Jewish identity politics. See Ron H. Feldman, ed., The Jew as Pariah: Jewish Identity and Politics in the Modern Age (New York: Grove Press, 1978).

1. Jean-François Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984), pp. 37-41.

2. There is a small body of work on the term sexual revolution. I have adopted the argument that Gayle Rubin made in "Thinking Sex: Notes for a Radical Theory of the Politics of Sex," in Pleasure and Danger: Exploring Female Sexuality, ed. Carole Vance (Boston: Routledge, 1984). See also Jeffrey Weeks, Sexuality and Its Discontents (London: Routledge, 1985), esp. pp. 15-32. More recently, Weeks discusses the sexual revolution as an interrupted historical process in "An Unfinished Revolution: Sexuality in the Twentieth Century," in Pleasure Principles: Politics, Sexuality, and Ethics, ed. Victoria Harwood, David Oswell, Kay Parkinson, and Anna Ward (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1993). See the use of the term in Barbara Ehrenreich, Elizabeth Hess, and Gloria Jacobs, Remaking Love: The Feminization of Sex (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Press, 1986). On the historical evidence for a sexual revolution, see Daniel Scott Smith, "The Dating of the American Sexual Revolution: Evidence and Interpretation," in American Family (2d ed.), ed. M. Gordon. For an argument against using the term sexual revolution, see Albert D. Klassen et al., Sex and Morality in the U.S. (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1989), pp. 3-16.

3. Perry Anderson, Lineages of the Absolute State (London: New Left Books, 1974), p. 8.

4. Gayle Rubin, "The Traffic in Women: Notes on the 'Political Economy' of Sex," in Toward an Anthropology of Women, ed. Rayna R. Reiter (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1975). See also John Gagnon and William Simon, Sexual Conduct: The Social Sources of Human Sexuality (Chicago: Aldine, 1973), pp. 287-88.

5. Gagnon and Simon, Sexual Conduct, pp. 287-307.

6. 6. Weeks, Sexuality and Its Discontents , p. 16.

1. I would never have written this essay without the constant encouragement of four people: Dick Bunce, Mark Leger, Ilene Philipson, and Gayle Rubin. In addition to thanking them, I would like to thank Dennis Altman, Jeanne Bergman, Allan Bérubé, George Chauncey, Donald Lowe, William Simon, Howard Winant, and the Bay Area Socialist Review Collective for their extensive comments and suggestions. I owe a special debt to the students in my course on homosexuality and social change at the University of California, Berkeley, during the summer and fall of 1983; their critical, passionate, and intelligent arguments helped me develop many of the ideas in this essay.

2. For a theoretical discussion of the political ontology of identities, see Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe, Hegemony and Socialist Strategy: Towards a Radical Democratic Politics (London: Verso, 1985), pp. 114-22.

3. Rubin, "Traffic in Women," pp. 159, 199-200. Recently, Rubin has modified her earlier formulation to distinguish between the sex and gender components of the sex/gender system and to outline a model of "sexual transformation." See Rubin, "Thinking Sex," pp. 284-87, on sexual transformation; and see pp. 307-9 for modifications to her conceptualization of the sex/gender system.

George Chauncey, Jr., has also used the sex/gender system as an analytical framework in his history of medical theories of gender deviance and homosexuality. See George Chauncey, Jr., "From Sexual Inversion to Homosexuality: Medicine and the Changing Conceptualization of Female Deviance," Salmagundi, nos. 58-99 (fall 1982-winter 1983): 114-46. Chantal Mouffe has argued that the sex/gender paradigm is more useful than concepts of "patriarchy" or the "social relations of reproduction" for understanding the different practices, discourses, and institutions by which women's subordination is constructed. See Mouffe, "The Sex/Gender System and the Discursive Construction of Women's Subordination," in Rethinking Ideology: A Marxist Debate, ed. I. Bessenyei et al. (New York: International General/IMMRC, 1983), pp. 139-43.

4. Anthony Giddens's analysis specifies these three dimensions (domination, normative regulation, and coding) as aspects of social reproduction. See his Central Problems in Social Theory: Action, Structure, and Contradiction in Social Analysis (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), esp. pp. 96-115 and 225-33, for his discussion of the analysis I draw on here.

5. For an account of racial formation, see Michael Omi and Howard Winant, "By the Rivers of Babylon: Race in the United States," Socialist Review, no. 71 (September-October); no. 72 (November-December 1983). For an analysis of class formation in the same spirit, see Adam Przeworski, "Proletariat into a Class: The Process of Class Formation from Karl Kautsky's The Class Struggle to Recent Controversies," Politics and Society 7, no. 4 (1977). Authors who have mapped some of the interactions of the sex/gender system with other sectors of society include Jeffrey Weeks, Sex, Politics, and Society: The Regulation of Sexuality since 1800 (London: Longman, 1981), pp. 12-16; and Gagnon and Simon, in their pioneering work Sexual Conduct, pp. 287-307.

6. Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, vol. 1, An Introduction (New York: Pantheon Books, 1978), pp. 15-50.

7. Clellon S. Ford and Frank A. Beach, Patterns of Sexual Behavior (New York: Harper & Row, 1951).

8. K. J. Dover, Greek Homosexuality (New York: Vintage Books, 1980), pp. 39-57.

9. Will Roscoe, Zuni Man-Woman (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1991).

10. Jeffrey Weeks, Coming Out: Homosexual Politics in Britain, from the Nineteenth Century to the Present (London: Quartet Books, 1977); John D'Emilio, Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities: The Making of a Homosexual Minority in the United States, 1940-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983); Kenneth Plummer, ed., The Making of the Modern Homosexual (London: Hutchinson, 1981).

11. Lionel Trilling, "The Kinsey Report," in The Liberal Imagination (New York: Anchor Books, 1953), p. 234.

12. Alfred C. Kinsey, Wardell B. Pomeroy, and Clyde E. Martin, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1948), and Alfred C. Kinsey et al., Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1953), p. 10.

13. Paul Robinson, The Modernization of Sex (New York: Harper & Row, 1976), p. 51.

14. Ibid., pp. 49-51, 115-19.

15. Ira L. Reiss, "Standards of Sexual Behavior," in The Encyclopedia of Sexual Behavior, ed. Albert Ellis and Albert Abarbanel (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1961). This was calculated from unpublished data from the Institute for Sex Research, which were quoted in D. Smith, "Dating of the American Sexual Revolution"; also Linda Gordon discusses the dating of sexual behavioral changes in Woman's Body, Woman's Right: Birth Control in America (New York: Penguin, 1977), p. 193.

16. Lewis M. Terman, Psychological Factors in Marital Happiness (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1938), quoted in L. Gordon, Woman's Body, Woman's Right, p. 193.

17. For discussions of the distinction between homosexual persons and homosexual acts, see Claude J. Summers on Gore Vidal, in Gay Fictions: Wilde to Stonewall (New York: Continuum, 1990), p. 113; and Richard Goldstein's interview with James Baldwin in Goldstein, "Go the Way Your Blood Beats," Village Voice, June 26, 1984, p. 14.

18. D'Emilio, Sexual Politics, pp. 57-91.

19. Two books by Robert J. Corber explore the connection between anticommunism and homophobia. See In the Name of National Security: Hitchcock and the Political Construction of Gender in Postwar America (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993); and Homosexuality in Cold War America: Resistance and the Crisis of Masculinity (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1997).

20. Recently, Daniel Harris has explored the role of gay culture as the basis for group consciousness. See Harris, The Rise and Fall of Gay Culture (New York: Hyperion, 1997).

21. The quotations from and material about the Mattachine Society are from D'Emilio, Sexual Politics, pp. 65, 77-91.

22. Donald Webster Cory, The Homosexual in America: A Subjective Approach (New York: Castle Books, 1951; reprint, 1960).

23. Ira L. Reiss, Premarital Sexual Standards in America (New York: Free Press, 1960); Robert R. Bell, Premarital Sex in Changing Society (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1966).

24. Barbara Ehrenreich, The Hearts of Men (New York: Doubleday/Anchor, 1984), pp. 42-51.

25. H. W. Arndt, The Rise and Fall of Economic Growth (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), p. 27.

26. Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis, "The Crisis of Liberal Democratic Capitalism: The Case of the United States," Politics and Society 11, no. 1 (1982): 65-66.

27. Richard A. Easterlin, "What Will 1984 Be Like? Socioeconomic Implications of Recent Twists in Age Structure," Demography 15, no. 4 (November 1978). See also idem, "American Population since 1940," in The American Economy in Transition, ed. Martin Feldstein (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980).

28. Robert A. Gordon, Economic Instability and Growth: The American Record (New York: Harper & Row, 1974), pp. 105-7; Harry N. Scheiber, Harold G. Vatter, and Harold Underwood Faulkner, American Economic History (New York: Harper & Row, 1976), pp. 422-27.

29. See Ruth Milkman, "Organizing the Sexual Division of Labor: Historical Perspectives on Women's Work and the American Labor Movement," Socialist Review, no. 49 (vol. 10, no. 1; January-February 1980): 128-41; and idem, "Women's Work and the Economic Crisis: Some Lessons from the Great Depression," in A Heritage of Her Own, ed. Nancy F. Cott and Elizabeth H. Pleck (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1979), p. 532.

30. See Winifred D. Wandersee, Women's Work and Family Values, 1920-1940 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981), esp. pp. 27-54, 103-17.

31. William H. Chafe, "Looking backward in Order to Look forward," in Women and the American Economy, ed. Juanita Kreps (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1976), p. 17.

32. See Wandersee, Women's Work, pp. 111-117.

33. John Modell, Frank Furstenberg, and Douglas Strong, "The Timing of the Marriage in the Transition to Adulthood, 1860-1975," American Journal of Sociology 84, supplement (1978); and Andrew Cherlin, Marriage, Divorce, Remarriage (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 8-12, 19-21.

34. Easterlin, "American Population since 1940."

35. Norman Ryder, "Recent Trends and Group Differences in Fertility," in Toward the End of Growth: Population in America, ed. Charles F. Westoff (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1973), p. 61; see also Judith Blake, "Coercive Pronatalism and American Population Policy" (paper prepared for the commission on Population Growth and the American Future, 1972).

36. Rubin, "Thinking Sex," pp. 269-70; see also Allan Bérubé, "Marching to a Different Drummer," in Powers of Desire: The Politics of Sexuality, ed. Ann Snitow, Christine Stansell, and Sharon Thompson (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1983); D'Emilio, Sexual Politics; idem, "Gay Politics, Gay Community: San Francisco's Experience," Socialist Review, no. 55 (vol. 11, no. 1; January-February 1981).

37. Eileen Applebaum, "Women in the Stagflation Economy," in Reaganomics in the Stagflation Economy, ed. Sidney Weintraub and Marvin Goodstein (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1983), p. 38. For more recent data, see George Masnick and Mary Jo Bane, The Nation's Families: 1960-1990 (Boston: Auburn House, 1980).

38. Daniel Bell, The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism (New York: Basic Books, 1976), pp. 33-84.

39. Mark Poster, Critical Theory of the Family (New York: Seabury Press, 1978), pp. 166-205; and Masnick and Bane, Nation's Families, pp. 95-116.

40. Ehrenreich, Hearts of Men, pp. 14-28.

41. Ilene Philipson, "Heterosexual Antagonisms and the Politics of Mothering," Socialist Review, no. 66 (vol. 12, no. 6; November-December 1982.

42. For example, see Daniel Bell, Work and Its Discontents, reprinted in his collection The End of Ideology (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1960); and Ely Chinoy, Automobile Workers and the American Dream (New York: Random House, 1955).

43. Marcuse, Eros and Civilization, p. 50. See Paul Goodman, Growing Up Absurd: Problems of Youth in the Organized System (New York: Random House, 1960).

44. Quoted in Richard King, The Party of Eros: Radical Social Thought and the Realm of Freedom (New York: Dell, 1973), p. 84.

45. Chauncey, "Sexual Inversion," pp. 114-46.

46. Ibid., p. 120.

47. See James D. Steakley, The Homosexual Emancipation Movement in Germany (New York: Arno Press, 1975).

48. Carpenter, "Intermediate Sex."

49. For a critical discussion of this assumption, see Gagnon and Simon, Sexual Conduct, pp. 132-36.

50. Barbara Ponse, Identities in the Lesbian World: The Social Construction of Self (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978), pp. 24-30; see also Gagnon and Simon, Sexual Conduct, pp. 99-109.

51. John Money and Anke Ehrhardt, Man and Woman, Boy and Girl: The Differentiation and Dimorphism of Gender Identity from Conception to Maturity (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972); see also Nancy Chodorow, The Reproduction of Mothering (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978) for an analysis of the social construction of gender identity.

52. See Esther Newton and Shirley Walton, "The Misunderstanding: Toward a More Precise Sexual Vocabulary," Pleasure and Danger, ed. Vance.

53. Michel de Certeau, The Practice of Everyday Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), pp. 29-42.

54. John Rechy, City of Night (New York: Grove Press, 1963), p. 22.

55. Quoted in Sacha G. Lewis, Sunday's Women: Lesbian Life Today (Boston: Beacon Press, 1979), p. 30.

56. See Elizabeth Lapovsky Kennedy and Madeline D. Davis, Boots of Leather, Slippers of Gold: The History of a Lesbian Community (New York: Routledge, 1993).

57. William Simon and John H. Gagnon, "Sexual Scripts," Transaction/Society, November-December 1984.

58. Joan Nestle, "Butch/Femme Relationships: Sexual Courage in the 1950s," Heresies, no. 12 (1981): 21-24.

59. See Amber Hollibaugh and Cherríe Moraga, "What We're Rollin around in Bed with: Sexual Silences in Feminism," Heresies, no. 12 (1981): 58-62; reprinted in Powers of Desire, ed. Snitow et al., pp. 394-405.

60. For the best account of camp and its importance in gay male culture of the 1950s and early 1960s, see Esther Newton, Mother Camp: Female Impersonators in America (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1972). For a somewhat priggish critique of camp from an early gay liberationist perspective, see Jeffrey Escoffier, "Breaking Camp," Gay Alternative, no. 4 (1973): 6-8.

61. "Notes on Camp," reprinted in Susan Sontag, A Susan Sontag Reader (New York: Vintage Books, 1983), p. 117.

62. For an excellent analysis of subcultures as counterhegemonic cultural responses, see Dick Hebdige, Subculture: The Meaning of Style (New York: Methuen, 1979), esp. pp. 73-99.

63. Erving Goffman, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (New York: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959), pp. 106-40.

64. Laud Humphries, Tearoom Trade: Impersonal Sex in Public Places (Chicago: Aldine, 1970). See Michel de Certeau's discussion of "tactics" versus spatial "strategies" in Practice of Everyday Life, especially pp. 34-39.

65. See Allan Bérubé, "Behind the Spectre," Body Politic, April 1981, and idem, "The History of Gay Bathhouses," Coming Up! December 1984, 18; reprinted in Dangerous Bedfellows, eds., Policing Public Sex (Boston: South End Press, 1996). See also Ellen Klages, "When the Bar Was the Only Place in Town," in 1984 International Lesbian/Gay Freedom Day Parade Celebration (San Francisco: 1984), pp. 39-41.

66. Toby Marotta, The Politics of Homosexuality (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1981), esp. pp. 48-68.

67. Mary McIntosh, "The Homosexual Role," Social Problems 16, no. 2 (fall 1968).

68. See the interview with Mary McIntosh, "Postscript: The Homosexual Role Revisited," in Making of the Modern Homosexual, ed. Plummer, pp. 44-49.

69. Antonio Gramsci, "Problems of Philosophy and History," in Selections from the Prison Notebooks (New York: International Publishers, 1971), pp. 366-67. Sartre also identified the significance of such a moment as the transition from "being-in-itself" to "being-for-itself." See Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness (New York: Citadel Press, 1971), pp. 65-77.

70. Dennis Altman, Homosexual: Oppression and Liberation (reprint, New York: Avon Books, 1973). Altman later published another important evaluation of the lesbian and gay movements, The Homosexualization of America (Boston: Beacon Press, 1983).

71. Altman, Homosexual, pp. 13-41.

72. Ibid., p. 98.

73. Ibid., p. 94.

74. Ibid., pp. 108-51.

75. Ibid., pp. 234, 237.

76. Katz, Gay American History (reprint, New York: Avon Books, 1978), p. 1.

77. Gay Left Collective, Homosexuality: Power and Politics (London: Allison & Busby, 1980).

78. See Kenneth Plummer, Sexual Stigma: An Interactionist Account (London: Routledge, 1975), and Making of the Modern Homosexual, the essay collection that Plummer edited, which included many of the Gay Left authors.

79. John D'Emilio, "Capitalism and Gay Identity," in Powers of Desire, ed. Snitow et al.

80. Alan Crawford, Thunder on the Right: The New Right and the Politics of Resentment (New York: Pantheon Books, 1980), pp. 144-64.

81. Robert Reilly, "Homosexual Rights and the Foundations of Human Rights," Family Policy Insights 1, no. 3 (December 1981): 539-40.

82. The sex/gender system is organized, according to the principle of consistency, into a plurality of autonomous practices and identities that involve age, gender, sexuality, and form of family. The breakdown of this system suggests the rise of a new sex/gender code that could be called the combinatorial principle. In this new code, the social relations of gender and sex will be more fluid. Thus, distinct sexualities would emerge based on permutations of the elements (not necessarily immutable elements) of the sex/gender system—for example butch heterosexual women and femme heterosexual men. The combinatorial principle of the sex/gender system would offer an ideological framework for these permutations of diverse components of sexualities and genders.

83. Goffman, Stigma, p. 111.

84. Michel Foucault, "A Preface to Transgression," in Language, Counter-Memory, Practice (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1977), pp. 34-36.

1. This essay was both very difficult and quite fun to write. I am grateful for the encouragement of Amy Gluckman and Betsy Reed, who solicited it for a collection of essays on "homo economics" and who allowed me to write such a speculative essay. The comments of Terence Kissack, Regina Kunzel, Matthew Lore, Molly McGarry, Kevin Murphy, and Michael Rothberg were, as always, extremely helpful and stimulating.

2. Regina Kunzel suggested the term hypercommodification to me. It refers to the way in which mainstream corporations promote identification with brand names and the lesbian and gay communities.

3. See Amy Gluckman and Betsy Reed, "The Gay Marketing Moment: Leaving Diversity in the Dust," Dollars and Sense, November—December 1993; and Grant Lukenbill, Untold Millions: Gay and Lesbian Markets in America (New York: HarperCollins, 1995).

4. See the section on employment discrimination in William Rubenstein, ed., Lesbians, Gay Men, and the Law (New York: New Press, 1993), pp. 243-375. There is now a series of books about gay men and lesbians in the workplace. See James Woods with Jay Lucas, The Corporate Closet: The Professional Lives of Gay Men in America (New York: Free Press, 1993).

5. For a survey of economic issues, see Jeffrey Escoffier, "Homo/Economics: A Survey of Issues," in Out in All Directions: The Almanac of Gay and Lesbian America, ed. Lynn Witt, Eric Marcus, and Sherry Thomas (New York: Warner Books, 1995). See also M. V. Lee Badgett, "Thinking Homo/Economically" (paper presented at "Homo/Economics: Market and Community in Lesbian and Gay Life," a conference sponsored by the Center of Lesbian and Gay Studies at the City University of New York, New York, May 7, 1994). On employment discrimination, see idem, "The Wage Effects of Sexual Orientation Discrimination," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 48, no. 4 (July 1995): 726-39; and for an early discussion, see Jeffrey Escoffier, "Stigma, Work Environment, and Economic Discrimination against Homosexuals," Homosexual Counseling Journal 2, no. 1 (January 1975). For a discussion of the gay market, see Gluckman and Reed, "Gay Marketing Moment," as well as Lukenbill, Untold Millions.

6. D'Emilio, "Capitalism and Gay Identity," in Powers of Desire, ed. Snitow et al.; and Jeffrey Escoffier, "Sexual Revolution and the Politics of Gay Identity," Socialist Review, nos. 82-83 (vol. 15, nos. 4-5; July-October 1985).

7. See D'Emilio, Sexual Politics; Kennedy and Davis, Boots of Leather; Esther Newton's Cherry Grove, Fire Island: Sixty Years in America's First Gay and Lesbian Community (Boston: Beacon Press, 1993); Gayle Rubin, "The Valley of the Kings: San Francisco's Gay Male Leather Community" (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1994); and the recent dissertations on Philadelphia (Marc Stein, University of Pennsylvania) and San Francisco (Nan Almilla Boyd, Brown University).

8. In reconstructing the history of gay and lesbian communities, a number of recent studies have begun to provide a portrait of gay and lesbian economic life. See Martin Bauml Duberman, Stonewall (New York: Dutton, 1993), especially the chapter on the Stonewall bar, pp. 181-90; Kennedy and Davis, Boots of Leather; Newton, Cherry Grove; and Rubin, "Valley of the Kings."

9. Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1965); Douglass C. North and Lance Davis, Institutional Change and American Economic Growth (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1971); Douglass C. North, Structure and Change in Economic History (New York: Norton, 1981); and idem, Institutions, Institutional Change, and Economic Performance (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1990).

10. Goffman, Stigma.

11. Georg Simmel, "The Secret and the Secret Society," in The Sociology of Georg Simmel (New York: Free Press, 1950), pp. 307-78.

12. Georg Simmel, "The Stranger," and "The Metropolis and Mental Life," in Sociology of Georg Simmel, pp. 402-27.

13. Harold Beaver, "Homosexual Signs (in Memory of Roland Barthes)," Critical Inquiry 8, no. 1 (fall 1981).

14. Maurice Leznoff and William Westley, "The Homosexual Community," Social Problems 3 (April 1956): 257-63.

15. These patterns of social life predated World War II. See George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World, 1890-1940 (New York: Basic Books, 1994).

16. See Escoffier, "Stigma." See also ibid. For a discussion of how informal social networks play a role in landing jobs, see Mark Granovetter, Getting a Job: A Study of Contacts and Careers (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974).

17. Blackmail and extortion have been features of homosexual life as long as it has been stigmatized. For an account from the early twentieth century, see Edward Stevenson, The Intersexes: A History of Similisexualism as a Problem in Social Life (private printing, 1908; reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1975), p. 478. See also the example of police harassment in Jonathan Weinberg, Speaking for Vice: Homosexuality in the Art of Charles Demuth, Marsden Hartley, and the First American Avant-Garde (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), p. 57. Homophile publications such as One or the Mattachine Review frequently referred to the extortionist aspects of gay and lesbian life; I owe this reference to Kevin Murphy. See also the chapter on blackmail in Jess Stern, The Sixth Man (New York: Doubleday, 1961), pp. 176-88.

18. See the chapters on bars and cruising in Donald Webster Cory and John P. LeRoy, The Homosexual and His Society: A View from Within (New York: Citadel Press, 1963), pp. 105-29; and Evelyn Hooker, "The Homosexual Community," in Sexual Deviance, ed. John Gagnon and William Simon (New York: Harper & Row, 1967).

19. For a good, general discussion of social norms and behavior in bars, see Sherri Cavan, Liquor License: An Ethnography of Bar Behavior (Chicago: Aldine, 1966).

20. To read about the role of protection (as well as other topics), see Martin S. Weinberg and Colin J. Williams, "Gay Baths and the Social Organization of Impersonal Sex," Social Problems 23, no. 2 (December 1975): 124-36.

21. Bob Dameron, the publisher of a national gay bar guide, estimated that by 1975, between 75 and 80 percent of San Francisco's gay bars were gay owned. See Wayne Sage, "Inside the Colossal Closet," Human Behavior, August 1975, reprinted in Gay Men: The Sociology of Male Homosexuality, ed. Martin P. Levine (New York: Harper & Row, 1979).

22. Christopher Gunn and Hazel Dayton Gunn, Reclaiming Capital: Democratic Initiatives and Community Development (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991), pp. 3-6.

23. For a discussion of the relationship between economic behavior and social norms, see Jon Elster, Nuts and Bolts for the Social Sciences (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 113-23.

24. Theorists have classified such social situations under the name of "the prisoner's dilemma." In game theory, the prisoner's dilemma is about two people who are arrested and questioned separately. They cannot communicate with one another, and each must choose whether or not to betray the other. Each would seem to benefit individually from giving away the other, but if they both chose to protect each other, they would both go free. For a brief discussion of this famous game, see Elster, Nuts and Bolts, p. 29.

25. The argument is made in Gagnon and Simon, Sexual Conduct, pp. 153-54, and Kenneth E. Read, Other Voices: The Style of a Homosexual Tavern (Novato, Calif.: Chandler & Sharp, 1980), pp. xvii-xviii. For a discussion, see Joseph Harry and William B. DeVall, The Social Organization of Gay Males (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1978), pp. 151-54.

26. Richard Dyer, "Entertainment and Utopia," in Only Entertainment (New York: Routledge, 1992), p. 25.

27. In particular, see Karl Marx, "Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts," in Early Writings, ed. Quintin Hoare (New York: Vintage Books, 1975); and Carol Gould, Marx's Social Ontology (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1976).

28. See Francis E. Kobrin, "The Fall in Household Size and the Rise of the Primary Individual in the United States," Demography 13 (February 1976): 127-38; and D'Emilio, "Capitalism and Gay Identity," in Powers of Desire, ed. Snitow et al.

29. This process is analyzed and empirically tested in Martin P. Levine, "Gay Ghetto," in Gay Men, ed. M. Levine; and in Joseph Harry and William B. DeVall, "Urbanization and the Development of Homosexual Communities," in Social Organization, pp. 134-54.

30. Even before Stonewall, gay and lesbian bar owners in San Francisco formed their own business association—the Tavern Guild.

1. Georg Simmel, "How Is Society Possible?" in On Individuality and Social Forms, ed. Donald N. Levine (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971), p. 11. The imagined gay social world is a projection of the possibility of gay community, an ensemble of shared lifestyle that differs from that of the mainstream society. For a discussion of this concept in terms of "the social imaginary," see John Thompson, Studies in the Theory of Ideology (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), pp. 23-38. See Hans Joas, Pragmatism and Social Theory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), p. 167, for a discussion of Cornelius Castoriadis's recognition of the social a priori. For a critical discussion of the imaginary and its relationship to Lacan's psychoanalytic theory and ideology, see Paul Smith, Discerning the Subject (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988), pp. 18-23.

2. Simmel, "How Is Society Possible?" p. 9.

3. Allen Young, "Out of the Closets, into the Streets," in Out of the Closets, ed. Karla Jay and Allen Young (New York: Douglas/Links, 1972), pp. 17-20; Edmund Bergler, Homosexuality: Disease or a Way of Life? (New York: Hill & Wang, 1957); Irving Bieber, Homosexuality (New York: Basic Books, 1962); Albert Ellis, Homosexuality: Its Causes and Cure (New York: Lyle Stuart, 1964); Charles Socarides, The Overt Homosexual (Philadelphia: Grune & Stratton, 1968); Lionel Ovesey, Homosexuality and Pseudo-Homosexuality (New York: Science House, 1969); Lawrence Hatterer, Changing Homosexuality in the Male (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970); and Cory, Homosexual in America.

4. Pierre Bourdieu, "The Social Space and the Genesis of Groups," Theory and Society 14, no. 6 (November 1985): 729.

5. A parallel discourse on race also emerged in this period. Gunnar Myrdal's The American Dilemma (New York: Harper & Row, 1944) marked the renewed recognition of race as a social issue in American life.

6. Alfred M. Kinsey et al., Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1948). See the useful commentaries on the Kinsey report by Morris Ernst and David Loth, American Sexual Behavior and the Kinsey Report (New York: Educational Book Co., 1948); and Donald P. Geddes, ed., An Analysis of the Kinsey Reports on the Human Male and Female (New York: New American Library, 1954).

7. Roger Austen, Playing the Game: The Homosexual Novel in America (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1977), pp. 93-94.

8. For a survey of the fiction that explored homosexuality in this period, see the following studies: John W. Aldridge, After the Lost Generation: A Critical Study of the Writers of Two Wars (New York: Noonday Press, 1951); Austen, Playing the Game; and Sarotte, Like a Brother.

9. Aldridge, After the Lost Generation, pp. 90, 99-104.

10. Vito Russo, The Celluloid Closet: Homosexuality in the Movies, rev. ed. (New York: Harper & Row, 1987), pp. 120-22, 140-43; Paul Welch, "Homosexuality in America," Life, June 26, 1964, pp. 68-80; Tom Burke, "The New Homosexual," Esquire, December 1969.

11. Kenneth Lewes, The Psychoanalytic Theory of Male Homosexuality (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1988).

12. Ibid., pp. 122-73.

13. See the essays collected in Lary May, ed., Recasting America: Culture and Politics in an Age of Cold War (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1989), and in Elaine May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (New York: Basic Books, 1988).

14. Richard Dyer, "Homosexuality and Film Noir," in A Matter of Images, (London: Routledge, 1993); and Frank Krutnik, In a Lonely Street: Film Noir, Genre, Masculinity (New York: Routledge, 1991).

15. David Savran, Communists, Cowboys, and Queers: The Politics of Masculinity in the Work of Arthur Miller and Tennessee Williams (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992).

16. For writing about alienation, see Eric Josephson and Mary Josephson, eds., Man Alone: Alienation in Modern Society (New York: Dell, 1962), which contained essays by Marx, Dostoyevsky, W.E.B. DuBois, C. Wright Mills, and James Baldwin, among others. This volume was one of my first introductions to modern social thought. Albert Camus's The Rebel (New York: Knopf, 1956) and Colin Wilson's The Outsider (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1956) were the other two books central to my intellectual development in the late 1950s and early 1960s.

17. Lindner's essay on homosexuality was reprinted in the important and influential collection of sociological and psychological articles that Hendrik M. Ruitenbeek edited: The Problem of Homosexuality in Modern Society (New York: Dutton, 1963).

18. Robert Lindner, Must You Conform? (reprint, New York: Black Cat Book, 1961), pp. 40-41.

19. Ibid., p. 42.

20. Ibid., p. 43.

21. Ibid., p. 73.

22. Ibid., p. 75.

23. For an account of sexual radicalism in the 1950s and 1960s, see King, Party of Eros.

24. Lindner, Must You Conform? pp. 123-45.

25. In contrast to Lindner's emphasis on the urgency of sexual instincts, Mary McIntosh first elaborated the social constructionist approach to homosexuality in academic sociology during this period. See her influential article "The Homosexual Role." McIntosh was very much influenced by the interactionist tradition in sociology.

26. For a useful discussion of the effects of a discursive formation on the individual, see Michel Pecheux, "The Subject-Form of Discourse in the Subjective Appropriation of Scientific Knowledges and Political Practice," in Language, Semantics, and Ideology, trans. Harbens Nagpal (London: Macmillan, 1982), pp. 155-70.

27. Cory, Homosexual in America; A. M. Krich, ed., The Homosexuals: As Seen by Themselves and Thirty Authorities (New York: Citadel Press, 1954); J. Mercer, They Walk in Shadow (New York: Comet Books, 1959); Stern, Sixth Man; idem, The Grapevine: A Report on the Secret World of the Lesbian (New York: Doubleday, 1964); Alfred A. Gross, Strangers in Our Midst (Washington, D.C.: Public Affairs Press, 1962); R.E.L. Masters, The Homosexual Revolution: A Challenging Exposé of the Social and Political Directions of a Minority Group (New York: Julian Press, 1962); Cory and LeRoy, Homosexual and His Society; idem, The Lesbian in America (New York: Citadel Press, 1964); Ruitenbeek, Problem of Homosexuality; Martin Hoffman, The Gay World: Male Homosexuality and the Social Creation of Evil (New York: Basic Books, 1968).

28. Hoffman, Gay World, p. 3.

29. The increase in popular sociology literature was paralleled by the growth of an academic sociology in the interactionist tradition that treated homosexuality as a social phenomenon, without moralism. Academic sociology books on the subject included Howard Becker, Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1963); Goffman, Stigma; Edwin Schur, Crimes without Victims (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1965); Gagnon and Simon, Sexual Deviance.

30. For a brief history of the interactionist perspective, see Randall Collins, Three Sociological Traditions (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), pp. 180-222, and Nicholas C. Mullins with Carolyn J. Mullins, Theories and Theory Groups in Contemporary American Sociology (New York: Harper & Row, 1973), pp. 75-104. In 1963, two of the most influential symbolic interactionist books on "deviant identities" appeared: Becker's Outsiders and Goffman's Stigma.

31. Becker's famous definition from Outsiders was quoted in David Jary and Julia Jary, The Harper Collins Dictionary of Sociology (New York: Harper Collins, 1991), p. 263.

32. Georg Simmel, "The Problem of Sociology," in Essays on Sociology, Philosophy, and Aesthetics, ed. K. H. Wolff (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1959), pp. 327-40.

33. Frank Caprio, Female Homosexuality (New York: Citadel Press, 1954); George Henry, All the Sexes (New York: Rinehart, 1955); Edmund Bergler, Homosexuality; idem, One Thousand Homosexuals (Paterson, N.J.: Pageant Books, 1957); Bieber, Homosexuality; Ellis, Homosexuality; Socarides, Overt Homosexual; Ovesey, Homosexuality and Pseudo-Homosexuality; and Hatterer, Changing Homosexuality in the Male.

34. Cory, Homosexual in America, p. 63. Cory's most extended discussion of effeminacy appears on pp. 62-64.

35. Ibid., pp. 129-34.

36. As a sociologist, Sagarin specialized in deviance and criminology. He completed his dissertation, "The Structure and Ideology in an Association of Deviants," in 1966. Arno Press published it in 1975.

37. Cory, Homosexual in America, pp. 230-31, 258-59.

38. Ibid., p. 264.

39. Stern, Sixth Man, p. 13.

40. Ibid., p. 16.

41. Ibid., pp. 13-18.

42. Ibid., p. 16.

43. Ibid., pp. 76-92.

44. Ibid., pp. 189-90.

45. See D'Emilio, "Gay Politics, Gay Community."

46. For a discussion of this process, see Pecheux, "Subject-Form of Discourse," pp. 110-29.

47. Michel de Certeau discusses reading as an active process in Practice of Everyday Life, pp. 165-76.

48. From Roland Barthes's thoughtful and suggestive essay "On Reading," in The Rustle of Language, trans. Richard Howard (New York: Hill & Wang, 1986), p. 35.

49. Ibid., pp. 33-43.

50. Ibid., pp. 42-43.

51. James Baldwin, Giovanni's Room (New York: Dial Press, 1956).

52. Somewhere during that time, I also came across an essay by liberal newspaper columnist Max Lerner called "The Gay Crucifixion," reprinted in The Unfinished Country: A Book of American Symbols (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1959). This, along with Baldwin, was the start of my search to learn as much as I could about homosexuality.

53. Ibid., p. 12.

54. Norman Mailer, Advertisements for Myself (New York: Putnam, 1959).

55. Norman Mailer, "The Homosexual Villain," in Advertisements for Myself, p. 194.

56. Ibid., p. 196.

57. For James Baldwin's contemptuous dismissal of Mailer's essay "The White Negro," see "The Black Boy Looks at the White Boy," in Nobody Knows My Name (New York: Doubleday, 1961). Then, for Eldridge Cleaver's praise of Mailer's essay and his attack on Baldwin for his homosexuality, see Eldridge Cleaver, Soul on Ice (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968), pp. 97-111.

58. James Baldwin, Another Country (New York: Dial Press, 1962), pp. 301-2.

59. See Richard Goldstein's interview with Baldwin in Goldstein, "Go the Way Your Blood Beats," in James Baldwin: The Legacy, ed. Quincy Troup (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1989), p. 174. When Goldstein asked Baldwin if he felt like "a stranger in gay America," Baldwin responded: "Well, first of all I feel like a stranger in America from almost any conceivable angle except, oddly enough, as a black person. The word 'gay' has always rubbed me the wrong way.... I simply feel it's a world that has very little to do with me, with where I did my growing up. I was never at home with it."

60. Undoubtedly, these interests also influenced me to pursue a graduate degree in African studies.

61. Participation in consciousness-raising groups and study groups during the early years of the women's and gay movements socialized the relatively private experience of reading.

62. Barthes, "On Reading," p. 42.

63. It is necessary to remember that Baldwin's rejection of the "gay community" is always compensated for by his deep commitment to the African American historical experience.

64. Pierre Bourdieu and Loïc J. C. Wacquant, An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 45.

1. The distinction between the two projects of the homosexual emancipation movement is parallel to Hans Blumenberg's original distinction between the two projects of the Enlightenment in The Legitimacy of the Modern Age (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1983).

2. Lisa Duggan, "The Discipline Problem: Queer Theory Meets Lesbian and Gay History," GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies 2, no. 3 (1995), reprinted in Duggan and Nan D. Hunter's collection of essays, Sex Wars: Sexual Dissent and Political Culture (New York: Routledge, 1995).

3. Seidman, "Deconstructing Queer Theory," p. 118.

4. Newton, Cherry Grove, Fire Island; Kennedy and Davis, Boots of Leather; Chauncey, Gay New York; Katz, Invention of Heterosexuality.

5. For a sample of this work, see Lawrence Grossberg, Cary Nelson, and Paula Treichler, eds., Cultural Studies (New York: Routledge, 1992).

1. Charles Silverstein, "The Origin of the Gay Psychotherapy Movement," in A Queer World, ed. Martin Duberman (New York: New York University Press, 1997), pp. 358-80.

2. Arthur Evans, Witchcraft and the Gay Counterculture (Boston: Fag Rag Books, 1978).

3. Homosexuality: Power and Politics, edited by the Gay Left Collective, was published in 1980, and The Making of the Modern Homosexual, edited by Kenneth Plummer, was published in 1981.

4. Pleasure and Danger was published in 1984, and Powers of Desire appeared in 1983.

5. Edelman's essays are reprinted in Lee Edelman, Homographesis: Essays in Gay Literary and Cultural Theory (New York: Routledge, 1994).

6. The fourth annual Lesbian, Bisexual, and Gay Studies Conference took place October 26-28, 1990.

7. David F. Greenberg, The Construction of Homosexuality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988).

8. The Journal of the History of Sexuality first appeared in 1990. Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities was published in 1983, and Mother Camp was published in 1985. See Estelle B. Freedman, Barbara C. Gelpi, Susan L. Johnson, and Kathleen M. Weston, eds., The Lesbian Issues: Essays from SIGNS (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985).

1. See Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckman, The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge (New York: Doubleday, 1966), pp. 19-46, for a thorough discussion of the construction and use of knowledge in everyday life.

2. Although I have long believed in the power of such contributions, I owe this sharp formulation to Ara Wilson. On the significance of The Well of Loneliness, see Esther Newton, "The Mythic Mannish Lesbian: Radclyffe Hall and the New Woman," Signs 9, no. 4 (summer 1984). On Whitman's impact on Wilde, Symonds, and Carpenter, see Weeks, Coming Out, pp. 45-83.

3. Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks; Stuart Hall, The Hard Road to Renewal: Thatcherism and the Crisis of the Left (London: Verso, 1988).

4. The Center for Lesbian and Gay Studies, CLAGS Directory of Lesbian and Gay Studies (New York: Center for Lesbian and Gay Studies, CUNY, 1994).

5. Chapter 4, "Inside the Ivory Closet," gives a sketch of the earlier attempt. See also John D'Emilio, "The Universities and the Gay Experience," in his collection Making Trouble, pp. 117-27.

6. See the essays by Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, ed. Paul Kecskemeti (New York: Oxford University Press, 1952); Annie Kriegel, "Generational Difference: The History of an Idea," Daedalus: Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 107, no. 4 (fall 1978): 23-38; and Matilda White Riley, "Aging, Social Change, and the Power of Ideas," Daedalus: Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 107, no. 4 (fall 1978): 39-52. For an excellent example of generational history, see Robert Wohl, The Generation of 1914 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1979).

7. Two books brought together some of these influences: C. Wilson, Outsider; and the anthology The Beat Generation and the Angry Young Men, ed. Gene Feldman and Max Gartenberg (New York: Greenberg Books, 1958).

8. For two opposing testimonials on the significance of this issue, see Berman, Politics of Authenticity, and Trilling, Sincerity and Authenticity.

9. For a critical discussion of the model implicit in this approach, see Olafson, "Authenticity and Obligation," pp. 121-75.

10. See Ronald Bayer, Homosexuality and American Psychiatry: The Politics of Diagnosis (New York: Basic Books, 1981), pp. 67-101.

11. Altman, Homosexual; and Kate Millett, Sexual Politics (New York: Doubleday, 1970).

12. George Weinberg, Society and the Healthy Homosexual (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1972).

13. For an account of the gay movement's confrontation with the psychiatric profession, see Bayer, Homosexuality and American Psychiatry.

14. New York University Press has issued an anniversary edition of Jay and Young's Out of the Closets.

15. "The Homosexual Imagination," special issue, College English 36, no. 3 (November 1974).

16. Jonathan Ned Katz, interview by Jeffrey Escoffier and David Hathwell, in Gay Alternative, no. 6 (1974).

17. First appearing in the Body Politic, a Canadian gay journal, their work was eventually published in book form: Steakley, Homosexual Emancipation Movement; and D'Emilio, Sexual Politics. See also John Lauritsen and David Thorstad, The Early Homosexual Rights Movement, 1864-1935 (New York: Times Change Press, 1974).

18. McIntosh, "Homosexual Role." In the same volume, see the interview with Mary McIntosh, pp. 44-49. See also Carole S. Vance, "Social Construction Theory: Problems in the History of Sexuality," in Which Homosexuality? Essays from the International Conference on Lesbian and Gay Studies, Dennis Altman et al. (London: Gay Men's Press, 1989).

19. Erving Goffman explored the discursive formation of identities and social interaction. See Goffman, Stigma.

20. Foucault, History of Sexuality, vol. 1, Introduction.

21. For essays on the feminist debates about pornography by two important activists, see Duggan and Hunter, Sex Wars.

22. Steven Epstein, "Gay Politics, Ethnic Identity: The Limits of Social Constructionism," Socialist Review, nos. 93-94 (vol. 17, nos. 3-4; May—August 1987); and see Diana Fuss's essay "The Question of Identity Politics" in her book Essentially Speaking: Feminism, Nature, and Difference (New York: Routledge, 1989). For a cross section of the debate, see Edward Stein, ed., Forms of Desire: Sexual Orientation and the Social Constructionist Controversy (New York: Routledge, 1992).

23. Radicalesbians, The Woman-Identified Woman (Somerville, Mass.: New England Free Press, 1970); and Jill Johnston, Lesbian Nation: The Feminist Solution (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1973).

24. Adrienne Rich, "Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence," Signs 5, no. 4 (1980), and Catherine MacKinnon, "Feminism, Marxism, Method, and the State," Signs 7, no. 3 (spring 1982).

25. John Boswell, "Revolutions, Universals, and Sexual Categories," Salmagundi, nos. 58-59 (fall 1982-winter 1983); and Will Roscoe, "Making History: The Challenge of Gay and Lesbian Studies," Journal of Homosexuality 15, nos. 3-4 (1988).

26. Judy Grahn, In a Mother Tongue (Boston: Beacon Press, 1984).

27. Simon LeVay, Queer Science: The Use and Abuse of Research into Homosexuality (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996), pp. 11-40.

28. Simon LeVay, "A Difference in Hypothalamic Structure between Homosexual and Heterosexual Men," Science 253 (August 30, 1991): 1034-37; see also Dean Hammer and P. Copeland, The Science of Desire: The Search for the Gay Gene and the Biology of Behavior (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994); and Chandler Burr, A Separate Creation: The Search for the Origins of Sexual Orientation (New York: Hyperion Books, 1996).

29. Simon LeVay, The Sexual Brain (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1993); Simon LeVay and Elizabeth Nonas, City of Friends: A Portrait of the Gay and Lesbian Community in America (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1995); and LeVay, Queer Science.

30. LeVay, Queer Science, pp. 195-209.

31. Adrienne Rich, "Disloyal to Civilization: Feminism, Racism, Gynephobia," in On Lies, Secrets, and Silence (New York: Norton, 1979), p. 229. See also Elizabeth V. Spelman, The Inessential Woman: Problems of Exclusion in Feminist Thought (Boston: Beacon Press, 1988), for an exploration of the relation of racial difference to feminism.

32. Audre Lorde, Sister Outsider: Essays and Speeches (Trumansberg, N.Y.: Crossing Press, 1984).

33. Cherríe Moraga and Gloria Anzaldúa, eds., This Bridge Called My Back (New York: Kitchen Table / Women of Color Press, 1981), pp. 105-6. See also Norma Alarcon, "The Theoretical Subject(s) of This Bridge Called My Back and Anglo-American Feminism," in Making Face, Making Soul, Hacienda Caras, ed. Gloria Anzaldúa (San Francisco: Aunt Lute, 1990).

34. Tomas Almaguer, "Chicano Men: A Cartography of Homosexual Identity and Behavior," Differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies 3, no. 2 (summer 1991).

35. Essex Hemphill, ed., Brother to Brother: An Anthology of Writings by Black Gay Men (Boston: Alyson Publications, 1991).

36. Kobena Mercer has several excellent discussions of these issues in Welcome to the Jungle: New Positions in Black Cultural Studies (New York: Routledge, 1994), particularly in his introduction and in "Black Art and the Burden of Representation." See also my essay on representation, "The Limits of Multiculturalism," which is now chapter 9 in this volume.

37. Kobena Mercer, "Black Britain and the Cultural Politics of Diaspora," in Welcome to the Jungle, p. 21.

38. K. Mercer, "Black Art," pp. 234-36.

39. Robert F. Reid-Pharr, "The Spectacle of Blackness," Radical America 24, no. 4 (April 1993).

40. Paul Gilroy has explored these transnational exchanges in The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993); see especially p. 85.

41. See Kobena Mercer's essays, especially "Black Britain" and "Diaspora Culture and the Dialogic Imagination," in Welcome to the Jungle.

42. Joseph M. Carrier, "Gay Liberation and Coming Out in Mexico," in Gay and Lesbian Youth, ed. Gilbert Herdt (Binghamton, N.Y.: Haworth Press, 1989); and Almaguer, "Chicano Men."

43. Moraga and Anzaldúa, eds., This Bridge Called My Back; and Gloria Anzaldúa, Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (San Francisco: Spinsters, 1987).

44. Many such accounts are included in A Lotus of Another Color: An Unfolding of the South Asian Gay and Lesbian Experience, ed. Rakesh Ratti (Boston: Alyson Publications, 1993). In this volume, see especially the coming-out narratives, pp. 167-293; the interview with Urvashi Vaid, pp. 103-12; and the discussion of this history in Nayan Shah, "Sexuality, Identity, and the Uses of History," pp. 116-18.

45. Ukiko Hanawa, "Guest Editor's Introduction," Circuits of Desire, special issue of positions: east asia cultures critique 2, no. 1 (spring 1994): viii.

46. Henry Louis Gates discusses these issues in response to Isaac Julien's film Looking for Langston. See Gates, "The Black Man's Burden," in Black Popular Culture, ed. Gina Dent (Seattle: Bay Press, 1992), pp. 75-84, as well as Julien's essay "Black Is, Black Ain't: Notes on De-essentializing Black Identities," in the same volume, pp. 255-63. Ross Posnock explores these issues; see Posnock, "Before and after Identity Politics," Raritan 15, no. 1 (summer 1995): 95-115. See also Scott Bravmann, "Telling (Hi)stories: Rethinking the Lesbian and Gay Historical Imagination," OUT/LOOK: National Lesbian and Gay Quarterly, spring 1990, 68-75; idem, "Queer Historical Subjects," Socialist Review 25, no. 1 (1995): 47-68.

47. Yingling, Hart Crane, p. 25.

48. For background on these developments, see Patrick Brantlinger, Crusoe's Footprints: Cultural Studies in Britain and America (New York: Routledge, 1990). See also these influential works on cultural studies, the new historicism, and related topics: H. Aram Veeser, ed., The New Historicism (New York: Routledge, 1989); and Grossberg et al., eds., Cultural Studies.

49. A good sampling of the work of this new generation can be found in several anthologies: Ronald R. Butters, John M. Clum, and Michael Moon, eds., Displacing Homophobia (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1990); Diana Fuss, Inside/Outside: Lesbian Theories, Gay Theories (New York: Routledge 1991); Henry Abelove, Michele Aina Barale, and David M. Halperin, eds., The Lesbian and Gay Studies Reader (New York: Routledge, 1993).

50. Beaver, "Homosexual Signs," 104.

51. Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, Epistemology of the Closet (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), p. 1. See also her recent essays collected in Tendencies (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993).

52. Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York: Routledge, 1990), pp. 147-49. See also her collection of essays, Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of "Sex" (New York: Routledge, 1993).

53. See Douglas Crimp with Adam Rolston, AIDS Demo Graphics (Seattle: Bay Press, 1990); Crimp, ed., AIDS; and Tessa Boffin and Sunil Gupta, eds., Ecstatic Antibodies (London: Rivers Oram Press, 1990).

54. Walt W. Odets, In the Shadow of the Epidemic (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1996); and Gabriel Rotello, Sexual Ecology: AIDS and the Destiny of Gay Men (new York: Dutton, 1997).

55. Steven Epstein, Impure Science: AIDS, Activism, and the Politics of Knowledge (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996).

56. Crimp, ed., AIDS; and Crimp with Rolston, AIDS Demo Graphics.

57. Cindy Patton, Sex and Germs: The Politics of AIDS (Boston: South End Press, 1985); idem, Inventing AIDS (New York: Routledge, 1990); idem, Fatal Advice: How Safe Sex Education Went Wrong (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1996).

58. Paula A. Treichler, "AIDS, Homophobia, and Bio-Medical Discourse: An Epidemic of Signification," in AIDS, ed. Crimp, pp. 31-70; and idem, "AIDS, Gender, and Biomedical Discourse: Current Contests of Meaning," in AIDS: The Burdens of History, ed. Elizabeth Fee and Daniel M. Fox (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), pp. 190-266.

59. Fee and Fox, eds., AIDS; the same editors later assembled AIDS: The Making of a Chronic Disease (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992). See also Catherine J. Kudnick, "One Epidemic, Many Histories," Socialist Review 21, no. 2 (April-June 1991): 165-70.

60. Epstein, Impure Science; idem, "Moral Contagion and the Medicalizing of Gay Identity: AIDS in Historical Perspective," Research in Law, Deviance, and Social Control 9 (1988): 3-36.

61. Patton's books are cited above. See Simon Watney, Policing Desire: Pornography, AIDS, and the Media (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987); idem, Practices of Freedom: Selected Writings on HIV/AIDS (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1994). See also Amber Hollibaugh, "Lesbian Leadership and Denial in the Age of the AIDS Epidemic," in Women Resisting AIDS: Feminist Strategies of Empowerment, ed. Beth Schneider and Nancy Stoller (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994); idem, "Seducing Women into 'A Lifestyle of Vaginal Fisting,'" in Policing Public Sex, ed. Dangerous Bedfellows; and Amber Hollibaugh and Carmen Vasquez, "The Myth of Invulnerability: Lesbians and HIV Disease," Focus 8, no. 9 (1994).

1. Two writers have explored this subject very suggestively: Mary Douglas, How Institutions Think (Syracuse, N.Y.: University of Syracuse Press, 1986); and, in many essays, Pierre Bourdieu. See in particular Bourdieu's essay "Social Space," 723-44.

2. See Carlos Munoz, Jr., Youth, Identity, Power: The Chicano Movement (London: Verso, 1989).

3. For discussions of nationalism and its cultural politics, see Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections of the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983); and the essays in Homi K. Bhabha, ed., Nation and Narration (New York: Routledge, 1990).

4. For example, the environmental movement has stimulated new conceptions of the interdependence between human life and nature in scientific disciplines. It has also stimulated the elaboration of new forms of spirituality, such as "deep ecology" with its religious conception of human responsibility to nature, or the belief in Gaia as the spiritual unity of nature. See Will Wright, Wild Knowledge: Science, Language, and Social Life in a Fragile Environment (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992), for an examination of some of these issues.

5. For a discussion of one study, see Chris Bull, "Mom's Fault," Advocate: The National Gay & Lesbian Newsmagazine, August 24, 1993, 30-33.

6. I have adapted these terms somewhat loosely from Foucault. The terms power effects and truth effects both result from any discursive operation that creates power/knowledge. See in particular Michel Foucault, "Truth and Power," in Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1980); pp. 108-33. Barry Smart discusses the relation between Foucault's conception of power/knowledge and Gramsci's concept of hegemony; see Smart, "The Politics of Truth and the Problem of Hegemony," in Foucault: A Reader, ed. David Couzens Hoy (Oxford: Blackwell, 1986), pp. 157-74.

7. I derived this distinction from a similar one that Richard Rorty made in "Solidarity or Objectivity?" in Objectivity, Relativism, and Truth (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp. 21-34. I do not mean, however, to equate "legitimacy" with "objectivity."

8. We have few sociological discussions of authority. There are, of course, the classic contributions by Max Weber in his essays on bureaucracy and charisma. See Hans Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds., From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1946). For more recent discussions, see Richard T. De George, The Nature and Limits of Authority (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1985); and Robert Dahl, After the Revolution? Authority in a Good Society, rev. ed. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990).

9. See Sedgwick, Epistemology of the Closet; and Michelangelo Signorile, Queer in America: Sex, Media, and the Closets of Power (New York: Random House, 1993).

10. For example, literary works deeply rooted in the camp sensibility include the plays of Oscar Wilde and the poetry of Frank O'Hara. On the latter, see Bruce Boone, "Gay Language as Political Praxis: The Poetry of Frank O'Hara," Social Text, no. 1 (winter 1979): 59-92; and Rudy Kikel, "The Gay Frank O'Hara," in Frank O'Hara: To Be True to a City, ed. Jim Elledge (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1990).

11. Susan Sontag, "Notes on Camp," in Against Interpretation (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1966); and Newton, Mother Camp. One early discussion of camp as an indigenous form of vernacular commentary appeared in Christopher Isherwood's novel The World in the Evening (New York: Noonday Books, 1954).

12. For an exploration of the ways in which vernacular knowledge is translated into the disciplinary knowledge of anthropology, see the essays in James Clifford and George E. Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986).

13. David Bergman, "Strategic Camp: The Art of Gay Rhetoric," in Gaiety Transfigured: Gay Self-Representation in American Literature (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1991), pp. 103-21.

14. In New York, Michael Callen and Richard Berkowitz also drew on their vernacular knowledge of gay men's sexuality to-propose new forms of safer sex. They published a series of pieces in a New York gay newspaper and as pamphlets. See "We Know Who We Are," New York Native, November 8-21, 1992; idem, How to Have Sex in an Epidemic (New York: From the Front Publications, 1983).

15. Steven Epstein, "Nature versus Nurture and the Politics of AIDS Organizing," OUT/LOOK: National Lesbian and Gay Quarterly, fall 1988, 46-53. See also Patton, Inventing AIDS.

16. Michael Callen's book Surviving AIDS (New York: Harper Collins, 1990) is a survey of the vernacular knowledge about the long-term survival of people with AIDS. Patton's Inventing AIDS is a study of power and truth effects in the construction of AIDS knowledge.

17. For documentation of the impact that AIDS activists and community intellectuals have had on medical research and federal policy, see Bruce Nussbaum, Good Intentions: How Big Business and the Medical Establishment Are Corrupting the Fight against AIDS (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1990); and Steven Epstein, "Democratic Science? AIDS Activism and the Contested Construction of Knowledge," Socialist Review 21, no. 2 (April-June 1991). For an exploration of the influence of activist-artists on AIDS education and political mobilization, see Crimp with Rolston, AIDS Demo Graphics.

18. Pierre Bourdieu, "Social Space and Symbolic Power," in In Other Words: Essays toward a Reflexive Sociology (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1990), especially pp. 134-39.

19. For a detailed discussion of the relationship between the university as an institution of cultural legitimation and intellectuals outside the university, see Pierre Bourdieu, "The Market of Symbolic Goods," Poetics 14 (April 1985): 13-44.

20. Alvin W. Gouldner, The Future of Intellectuals and the Rise of the New Class (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), esp. pp. 28-43.

21. See, for example, a number of the interviews and lectures in Foucault, Power/Knowledge. See also Basil Bernstein, Class, Codes, and Control: Theoretical Studies towards a Sociology of Language (New York: Schocken Books, 1975).

22. Basil Bernstein's work offers an illuminating exploration of disciplinary knowledge. See particularly "On the Classification and Framing of Educational Knowledge," "Class and Pedagogies: Visible and Invisible," and other essays in part 2 of Class, Codes, and Control, vol. 3, Towards a Theory of Educational Transmissions (London: Routledge, 1975).

23. See the excellent book on this topic by John Guillory: Cultural Capital: The Problem of Literary Canon Formation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993).

24. See Jerry Herron, Universities and the Myth of Cultural Decline (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1988); the essays in Darryl J. Gless and Barbara Herrnstein Smith, eds., The Politics of Liberal Education (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1992), particularly the essay by Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, "Pedagogy in the Context of an Antihomophobic Project."

25. For a discussion of these issues, see John D'Emilio, "Part Two: Remaking the University," in Making Trouble, pp. 117-78.

26. For another take on the relation between lesbian and gay studies and the university's power/knowledge regime, see Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick's discussion of the university's representational economy: Kosofsky, "Gender Criticism," in Redrawing the Boundaries: The Transformation of English and American Literary Studies, ed. Stephen Greenblatt and Giles Gunn (New York: Modern Languages Association of America, 1992), pp. 294-98.

27. See my discussion of the exclusion of community intellectuals from mainstream public spheres in Jeffrey Escoffier, "Pessimism of the Mind: Intellectuals, Universities, and the Left," Socialist Review 18, no. 1 (January-March 1988), reprinted in this book as chapter 7.

28. Sedgwick, "Gender Criticism," pp. 297-98.

29. "Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy," in Habermas and the Public Sphere, ed. Craig Calhoun (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1992), pp. 109-42.

30. See Foucault, "Intellectuals and Power," in Language, Counter-Memory, Practice. Disciplinary intellectuals and community intellectuals sometimes work within different theoretical paradigms. The disciplinary intellectual working within the norms of disciplines such as cultural studies and the social sciences is usually committed to the theory that identity is socially constructed. In contrast, the community intellectual, who is often an autodidact and who works outside the university, frequently thinks in terms of authenticity and an essentialist concept of identity. For a partial explanation, see S. Epstein, "Gay Politics," pp. 9-54.

31. Antonio Gramsci, "Formation of the Intellectuals," in Selections from the Prison Notebooks, pp. 5-14.

1. Richard Reeves, "How New Ideas Shape Presidential Politics," New York Times Magazine, July 15, 1984; and idem, The Reagan Detour (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985), pp. 9-14, 23-32.

2. One of the first books about the deteriorating state of intellectual life was Neil Postman, Amusing Ourselves to Death: Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business (New York: Viking Press, 1985).

3. Thomas Byrne Edsall, The New Politics of Inequality (New York: Norton, 1984); see especially the chapter on the politicization of the business community, pp. 107-40. See also Sidney Blumenthal, The Rise of the Counter-Establishment: From Conservative Ideology to Political Power (New York: Times Books, 1986).

4. See Stephen H. Balch and Herbert I. London, "The Tenured Left," Commentary, October 1986. This belief was a major theme of conservative editors at The Nation's "Conference on Journals of Critical Opinion." See Garry Adams, "Insults Fly at Editors' Conference," Oakland Tribune, April 20, 1985; also see the report by Socialist Review editors in their sustainer's newsletter, the Public Sphere June 1985. This dogma is also documented in Adam Gussow, "Joseph Epstein and Company: The Rise of the Literary Right," Boston Review 9, no. 2 (March-April 1984): 7-10.

5. Edwin McDowell, "The Making of a Scholarly Best Seller," New York Times, November 17, 1987; Michael Hirschorn, "Bestselling Book Makes the Collegiate Curriculum a Burning Public Issue," Chronicle of Higher Education 34, no. 3 (September 16, 1987): A1.

6. Lionel Trilling, "On the Teaching of Modern Literature," in Beyond Culture (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1965), p. 23.

7. Ibid., p. 23; D. Bell, Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism, pp. 40-41; Irving Kristol, "The Adversary Culture of Intellectuals," Encounter, October 1979, reprinted in Irving Kristol, Reflections of a Neoconservative (New York: Basic Books, 1983), pp. 27-42; Joseph Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy (New York: Harper & Row, 1942), pp. 145-55.

8. Allan Bloom, The Closing of the American Mind: How Higher Education Has Failed Democracy and Impoverished the Souls of Today's Students (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987).

9. Bloom claims that "Heidegger's teachings are the most powerful intellectual force of our times." Ibid., p. 312.

10. Hirschorn, "Bestselling Book," p. A22.

11. Bloom, Closing of the American Mind, pp. 47-137.

12. Ibid., p. 147.

13. Ibid., pp. 151-52.

14. Ibid., pp. 217-26.

15. Ibid., p. 260.

16. Ibid., pp. 311-14.

17. Leo Strauss, Natural Right and History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1950).

18. I was an undergraduate at St. John's College in Annapolis, Maryland, where the curriculum consists solely of the Great Books Program (that is, there are no electives, only seminars and tutorials devoted to reading "great books"). Its faculty often took the attitude that social thought after Machiavelli was hopelessly corrupt. When I studied at St. John's, many (but by no means most) of the influential faculty members were students of Leo Strauss. Mortimer Adler, Allan Bloom, and Strauss were frequent guest lecturers at St. John's.

I am deeply ambivalent about the Great Books approach. I disliked the conservative educational philosophy that framed the St. John's program, but I benefited enormously from its disavowal of specialized training as prerequisite to reading important books. The Great Books Program actually teaches students how to study intellectual subjects in an interdisciplinary way. It can also inculcate a certain textual dogmatism.

19. Everett C. Ladd and Seymour Martin Lipset examine evidence showing that whereas university professors are more liberal (45 percent liberal, 30 percent conservative, 20 percent moderate) than the population at large, academics' convictions range across the political spectrum. See "Professors Found to Be Liberal but Not Radical," Chronicle of Higher Education, January 16, 1978.

20. Russell Jacoby, The Last Intellectuals: American Culture in the Age of Academe (New York: Basic Books, 1987). See chapters 2 and 3: "The Decline of Bohemia," and "On the Road to Suburbia: Urbanists and Beats."

21. On the cultural radicals of the early 1900s, see: Christopher Lasch, "Randolph Bourne and the Experimental Life," in The New Radicalism in America, 1889-1963: The Intellectual as Social Type (New York: Knopf, 1965); Arthur Frank Wertheim, The New York Little Renaissance: Iconoclasm, Modernism, and Nationalism in American Culture, 1980-1917 (New York: New York University Press, 1976); and Edward Abrahams, The Lyrical Left: Randolph Bourne, Alfred Stieglitz, and the Origins of Cultural Radicalism (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1986). On the New York intellectuals, see James Gilbert, Writers and Partisans (New York: Wiley, 1968).

22. In just two years—1986 and 1987-at least eight books in addition to Jacoby's Last Intellectuals appeared on public intellectuals; four alone (not counting memoirs or biographies) are about the New York intellectuals. The eight books are: Terry A. Cooney, The Rise of the New York Intellectuals: Partisan Review and Its Circle, 1934-1945 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1986); Alexander Bloom, Prodigal Sons: The New York Intellectuals and Their World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Howard Brick, Daniel Bell and the Decline of Intellectual Radicalism: Social Theory and Political Reconciliation in the 1940s (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1986); Alan M. Wald, The New York Intellectuals: The Rise and Decline of the Anti-Stalinist Left from the 1930s to the 1980s (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987); one about New York as an intellectual capital—Thomas Bender, New York Intellect: A History of Intellectual Life in New York City, from 1750 to the Beginnings of Our Own Time (New York: Knopf, 1987); one on leftist intellectuals of the World War I period—Abrahams, The Lyrical Left; and two literary theoretical explorations of the intellectual's role—Paul A. Bove, Intellectuals in Power: A Genealogy of Critical Humanism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986); and Jim Merod, The Political Responsibility of the Critic (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1987).

23. I say neointellectuals so that we can discuss them as a group but also because they share a critical stance toward the 1960s model of political culture and social movements.

24. For evidence of this development, see Gregg Easterbrook, "Ideas Move Nations," Atlantic Monthly, January 1986, 66-80; and Joseph G. Peschek, Policy-Planning Organizations: Elite Agendas and America's Rightward Turn (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987). Blumenthal, Rise of the Counter-Establishment, also documents this trend.

25. Although it is a little dated now, see Randall Rothenberg, "The Neoliberal Club," Esquire, February 1982.

26. Chuck Lane, "The Manhattan Project," New Republic, March 25, 1985, 14-15.

27. See Jan Clausen, A Movement of Poets: Thoughts on Poetry and Feminism (Brooklyn: Long Haul Press, 1982) for an interesting analysis of poets' role in leading the women's movement.

28. See Harold Cruse, The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual (New York: Morrow, 1967)—one of the all-time great histories of intellectuals.

29. Cornel West, "The Dilemma of the Black Intellectual," Cultural Critique, no. 1 (fall 1985); Martin Kilson, "Paradoxes of Blackness: Notes on the Crisis of Black Intellectuals," Dissent, winter 1986, 70-78; Greg Tate, "Cult Nats Meet the Freaky Deke: The Return of the Black Aesthetic," Village Voice, Voice Literary Supplement, December 1986, 5-8.

30. Kilson, "Paradoxes of Blackness," p. 74, and West, "Dilemma of the Black Intellectual," p. 112. Greg Tate also makes this point in "Cult Nats." In his plea for a "popular poststructuralism for black culture," Tate argues that there "are artists for whom black consciousness and artistic freedom are not mutually exclusive but complementary, for whom 'black culture' signifies a multicultural tradition of expressive practices" (p. 7).

31. Kilson, "Paradoxes of Blackness," p. 77.

32. Esther Newton, "Academe's Homophobia: It Damages Careers and Ruins Lives," Chronicle of Higher Education, March 11, 1987, 104.

33. Lisa Duggan, "History's Gay Ghetto: The Contradictions of Growth in Lesbian and Gay History," in Presenting the Past: Essays on History and the Public, ed. Susan Porter Benson, Stephen Brier, and Roy Rosenzweig (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986), pp. 281-91.

34. One of the earliest articles that brought together lesbians who had studied the history of sexuality was Deirdre English, Amber Hollibaugh, and Gayle Rubin, "Talking Sex," Socialist Review, no. 58 (July-August 1981). Both Amber Hollibaugh and Gayle Rubin were members of the San Francisco Lesbian and Gay History Project. The two most influential anthologies of feminist writings on sexuality include pieces by veterans of the lesbian and gay history projects: Allan Bérubé, Amber Hollibaugh, John D'Emilio, Joan Nestle, and Gayle Rubin.

35. Bérubé, "History of Gay Bathhouses," pp. 15-19. A longer version of this piece was submitted as an exhibit in court cases in New York City, San Francisco, and Los Angeles.

36. Gouldner, Future of Intellectuals, pp. 28-43.

37. "The culture of critical discourse" is not without value as a set of norms for intellectual discourse, but adopting its norms can inhibit intellectuals' participation in the hurly-burly of the public sphere.

38. Both Victor Navasky, "The Role of the Journal of Critical Opinion," and Ilene Philipson, "On Critical Journals," appear in Socialist Review, nos. 82-83: 15-29.

1. Warner, ed., Fear of a Queer Planet, p. xii.

2. Cindy Patton, "Tremble Hetero Swine," in Fear of a Queer Planet, ed. Warner, p. 173.

3. Sedgwick, Epistemology of the Closet; Butler, Gender Trouble; idem, Bodies That Matter.

4. Sedgwick, Between Men.

5. Laclau and Mouffe, Hegemony and Socialist Strategy; and Slavoj i, The Subhme Object of Ideology (London: Verso, 1989).

6. Patton, "Tremble Hetero Swine," pp. 166-67.

7. Ibid., p. 173.

8. Berlandt and Freeman, "Queer Nationality."

9. Douglas Crimp, "Right on, Girlfriend!" in Fear of a Queer Planet, ed. Warner, pp. 300-320.

10. Sedgwick, Epistemology of the Closet, p. 1.

11. Warner, introduction to Fear of a Queer Planet, pp. xxi-xxv.

12. For Gayle Rubin's discussion of the sex/gender system and its "heteronormativity," see "Traffic in Women."

13. Warner, ed., Fear of a Queer Planet, pp. ix-x, xxiii-xxiv.

14. Marcuse, Eros and Civilization; Brown, Life against Death; Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1983); idem, A Thousand Plateaus (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987).

15. Anthony Giddens, The Transformation of Intimacy: Sexuality, Love, and Eroticism in Modern Societies (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1992), pp. 13-16, 28, 144-47; idem, Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Identity in the Late Modern Age (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1991).

16. Rubin, "Traffic in Women."

17. See the discussion of sublimation in Marcuse, Eros and Civilization, pp. 206-12.

18. James Davison Hunter, Culture Wars: The Struggle to Define America (New York: Basic Books, 1991).

19. Foucault, History of Sexuality, vol. 1, Introduction, pp. 15-50, 83-85.

1. Gayle Rubin sketches long-term historical "sexual transformations" in her influential essay "Thinking Sex." My 1985 essay "Sexual Revolution and the Politics of Gay Identity," which is now chapter 1 in this book, draws on her work. In John D'Emilio and Estelle Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York: Harper Collins, 1988), esp. pp. 300-325, the authors also identify the sexual revolution as a long-term historical process.

2. On the link between strategy and cultural politics, see Barbara Epstein, Political Protest and Cultural Revolution: Nonviolent Direct Action in the 1970s and 1980s (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), pp. 18-20.

3. "All reification is a forgetting," according to Max Horkheimer and Theodore Adorno, Dialectic of Enlightenment (New York: Continuum, 1972), p. 230. As Theodore Adorno noted, although society encompasses individual subjectivity, it is also "objective because, on account of its underlying structure, it cannot perceive its own subjectivity, because it does possess a total subject and through its organization thwarts the installation of such a subject." See page 33 of the introduction and page 74 of "Sociology and Empirical Research" in Theodore W. Adorno et al., The Positivist Dispute in German Sociology (New York: Harper & Row, 1976).

4. Dollimore explores the "perverse dynamic" in Sexual Dissidence, pp. 103-30; and Bersani takes up this line of thinking in Homos.

5. K. Mercer, Welcome to the Jungle, pp. 21-22, 233-58.

1. In its original form, this essay was a talk I delivered at Ohio State University, Columbus, on February 26, 1991, during Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Awareness Week. For revisions to this version, I am particularly indebted to Barbara Epstein, Leslie Kauffman, and Ilene Philipson. I would also like to thank the Socialist Review Bay Area Collective for their comments.

2. For one of the best explorations of nationalism and the cultural politics it inspires, see B. Anderson, Imagined Communities.

3. I owe this point to L. A. Kauffman.

4. See Stokely Carmichael and Charles Hamilton, Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America (New York: Vintage Books, 1967), and Robert L. Allen, Black Awakening in Capitalist America (New York: Doubleday, 1969).

5. See Robin Morgan, ed., Sisterhood Is Powerful (New York: Random House, 1970); and Munoz, Youth, Identity, Power.

6. Fred Block, Postindustrial Possibilities: A Critique of Economic Discourse (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).

7. Horace M. Kallen, "Democracy versus the Melting Pot," Nation, 1915; Randolph Bourne, "Transnational America," published originally in the Atlantic Monthly, July 1911-1918, ed. Olaf Hansen (New York: Urizen Books, 1977). Whether people from different races and with diverse sexualities can live together in the same society is an important theme in James Baldwin's work. See his essay The Fire Next Time (New York: Dial Press, 1963) and his fiction, especially Another Country (New York: Dial Press, 1962). British-Pakistani writer Hanif Kureishi has self-consciously taken up Baldwin's line of thought in his screenplays and essays, such as "The Rainbow Sign," in My Beautiful Laundrette and The Rainbow Sign (London: Faber & Faber, 1986), and Sammy and Rosie Get Laid (New York: Penguin Books, 1988).

8. See Georg Simmel, Conflict and the Web of Group Affiliations (New York: Free Press, 1955), pp. 125-95.

9. Moraga and Anzaldúa, eds., This Bridge Called My Back; Alarcon, "Theoretical Subject(s)," pp. 356-69.

10. Cherríe Moraga, Loving in the War Years (Boston: South End Press, 1983); Anzaldúa, Borderlands; Audre Lorde, Zami: A New Spelling of My Name (Trumansberg, N. Y.: Crossing Press, 1982).

11. See the discussion of "heteroglossia" in the novel, poetry, and other cultural forms in M. M. Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981), pp. 259-331.

12. Kureishi, "Rainbow Sign," pp. 30-31.

13. Ibid., p. 31.

14. Ben H. Bagdikian, "Cornering Hearts and Minds: The Lords of the Global Village," Nation 248, no. 23 (June 12, 1991).

15. Barbara Epstein, "'Political Correctness' and Collective Powerlessness," Socialist Review 21, nos. 3-4 (July-December 1991).

16. See the articles on the politics of multiculturalism and the OutWrite conferences by Andrea Lewis, "Who's Afraid of Edward Albee?" and by Lisa Hall, "Chockful of Irony," in OUT/LOOK: National Lesbian and Gay Quarterly, no. 14 (fall 1991).

17. Louise Sloan, "Beyond Dialogue," San Francisco Bay Guardian, literary supplement, March 1991, 3-5.

18. Bernice Johnson Reagon, "Coalition Politics: Turning the Century," in Home Girls: A Black Feminist Anthology, ed. Barbara Smith (New York: Kitchen Table/Women of Color Press, 1983), pp. 356-68.

19. This line of thought owes something to the writings of Bakhtin, Dialogic Imagination; V. N. Volosinov, Marxism and the Philosophy of Language (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1973); and Jurgen Habermas, "What Is Universal Pragmatics?" in Communication and the Evolution of Society (Boston: Beacon Press, 1979).

1. This essay emerged from my despondency after the Right's victory in the November 1994 elections, but it was also inspired by the political and theoretical originality of Lisa Duggan's and Nan Hunter's individually and jointly written essays. I want to thank Chris Bull, Amber Hollibaugh, Loring McAlpin, Esther Newton, and Michael Rothberg for their comments on earlier versions of this essay. I owe special thanks to Matthew Lore, my companion in conversations about so many things, for his comments, encouragement, and company as I wrote this essay. I'm afraid that I never would have written it without David Trend's encouragement (and persistent but gentle nagging).

2. See J. Hunter, Culture Wars. For a view of these issues from the Left in the United Kingdom, see the essays in Jeffrey Weeks, ed., The Lesser Evil and the Greater Good: The Theory and the Politics of Social Diversity (London: Rivers Oram Press, 1994).

3. Todd Gitlin, The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage (New York: Bantam, 1987).

4. See Josh Gamson, "Silence, Death, and the Invisible Enemy: AIDS Activism and Social Movement 'Newness,'" Social Problems 34, no. 6 (October 1989).

5. For a history of the Religious Right, see Sara Diamond, Spiritual Warfare: The Politics of the Christian Right (Boston: South End Press, 1989); and Dallas A. Blanchard, The Anti-Abortion Movement and the Rise of the Religious Right: From Polite to Fiery Protest (New York: Twayne, 1994).

6. For an assessment of the Religious Right's effect on U.S. politics, see E. J. Dionne, Why Americans Hate Politics (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991).

7. Irving Kristol, "My Cold War," National Interest (spring 1993), p. 86.

8. For a thorough analysis of the family values agenda, see Judith Stacey, In the Name of the Family: Rethinking Family Values in the Postmodern Age (Boston: Beacon Press, 1996), particularly pp. 52-82.

9. Duberman, Stonewall.

10. Arlene Stein, "Three Models of Sexuality: Drives, Identities, and Practices," Sociological Theory 7, no. 1 (1989).

11. Randy Shilts, The Mayor of Castro Street (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1983).

12. Alice Echols, Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967-1975 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989).

13. The conservative antigay rhetoric has used marketing research on gay and lesbian purchasing power to argue that gay men and lesbians are a privileged and economically powerful group that has no need of civil rights protections. For a critique, see M. V. Lee Badgett, "Beyond Biased Samples: Challenging the Myths on the Economic Status of Lesbians and Gay Men," in Amy Gluckman and Betsy Reed, eds., Homo Economics: Capitalism, Community, and Lesbian and Gay Life (New York: Routledge, 1997), pp. 65-72.

14. For the political, medical, and cultural context, see the essays by Douglas Crimp and Paula Treichler in Crimp, ed., AIDS. For some historical and political background on GMHC, see Philip Kayal, Bearing Witness: Gay Men's Health Crisis and the Politics of AIDS (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1993).

15. See Shilts, Mayor of Castro Street.

16. Larry Kramer, Reports from the Holocaust, rev. ed. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995).

17. Douglas Crimp, "How to Have Promiscuity in an Epidemic," in AIDS, ed. Crimp.

18. See Crimp with Rolston, AIDS Demo Graphics (Seattle: Bay Press, 1990).

19. See Eric Rofes, "Gay Liberation versus AIDS: Averting Civil War in the 1990s," OUT/LOOK: National Lesbian and Gay Quarterly (spring 1990); also see Crimp's discussion of these issues in his article "Right on, Girlfriend!"

20. See the special section on Queer Nation with articles by Allan Bérubé and Jeffrey Escoffier, Alexander Chee, Steve Cossen, and Maria Maggenti in OUT/LOOK: National Lesbian and Gay Quarterly, no. 11 (winter 1991); 12-23; Lisa Duggan, "Making It Perfectly Queer," Socialist Review 22, no. 1 (January-March 1992): 11-31. See also Warner's introduction to Fear of a Queer Planet, pp. vii-xxxi, and Berlandt and Freeman, "Queer Nationality."

21. The broadside "Queers Read This: I Hate Straights" is reprinted in Mark Blasius and Shane Phelan, eds., We Are Everywhere: A Historical Sourcebook of Gay and Lesbian Politics (New York: Routledge, 1997), pp. 773-80.

22. For an extensive exploration of this issue, see Larry Gross, Contested Closets: The Politics and Ethics of Outing (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993).

23. Sloan, "Beyond Dialogue," 3.

24. See Warner, introduction to Fear of a Queer Planet.

25. Lisa Duggan, "Queering the State," Social Text, no. 39 (1994): 1-14.

26. For a comparable discussion of racial politics, see Howard Winant, "Postmodern Racial Politics in the United States: Difference and Inequality," Socialist Review 20, no. 1 (January-March 1990): 121-47.

27. Hunter's analysis is discussed in Duggan, "Queering the State"; see also Nan D. Hunter, "Identity, Speech, and Equality," Virginia Law Review 79, no. 7 (October 1993).

28. Badgett, "Wage Effects." For a general survey of economic issues, see Escoffier, "Homo/Economics."

29. Michael Nava and Robert Dawidoff, Created Equal: Why Gay Rights Matter to America (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994), p. 112.

30. Bruce Bawer, "The Road to Utopia," Advocate, September 20, 1994, 80. Both a detailed critique of the lesbian and gay movement and a detailed working out of the "moderate" strategy appear in Kirk and Madsen, After the Ball; see also Bawer, Place at the Table.

31. I owe this point to Matthew Lore.

1. "Gay Rights Laws Can't Be Banned, High Court Rules," New York Times, May 21, 1996, p. 1; excerpts from the Court's decision on p. A20.

2. Ibid., p. A20.

3. See Chris Bull and John Gallagher, Perfect Enemies: The Religious Right and the Gay Movement and the Politics of the 1990s (New York: Crown, 1996).

4. On the impact of the Helms amendment and the Religious Right on AIDS prevention education, see Duggan and Hunter, Sex Wars, pp. 134-37; and the essays by Ephen Glenn Colter, "Discernibly Turgid: Safer Sex and Public Policy," in Policing Public Sex, ed. Dangerous Bedfellows; and Hollibaugh, "Seducing Women."

5. See Bull Gallagher, Perfect Enemies, pp. 1-38.

6. Michel Foucault made this general point more than twenty years ago in Discipline and Punish (New York: Pantheon Books, 1977), pp. 222-23.

7. Michel Foucault, "Politics and Reason," in Politics, Philosophy, Culture: Interviews and Other Writings, 1977-1984, ed. Lawrence D. Kritzman (New York: Routledge, 1988), pp. 57-85, see especially p. 67. This consists of the published version of Foucault's Tanner Lectures on Human Values delivered at Stanford University on October 10 and October 16, 1979. See also the discussion of Foucault by Jean L. Cohen and Andrew Arato in their important book Civil Society and Political Theory (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1992), especially pp. 263-65 and pp. 290-91.

8. Michael Walzer, "The Civil Society Argument," in Dimensions of Radical Democracy: Pluralism, Citizenship, Community, ed. Chantal Mouffe (London: Verso, 1992); see especially pp. 97-102. In the same volume, see also Kirstie McClure, "On the Subject of Rights: Pluralism, Plurality, and Political Identity," esp. p. 115.

9. Poet Frank O'Hara refused such forms of transcendence for these structures. See Yingling, Hart Crane, pp. 130-31.

10. See Tony Kushner, "On Pretentiousness," in Thinking about the Longstanding Problems, p. 78, and in the same volume, "A Socialism of the Skin (Liberation, Honey!)," pp. 19-32.

11. Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks, pp. 229-40, 245-64; and Chantal Mouffe, "Hegemony and the Integral State in Gramsci: Towards a New Concept of Politics," in Silver Linings: Some Strategies for the Eighties, ed. George Bridges and Rosalind Brunt (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1981), pp. 167-87.