1. La Voix du peuple, May 1, 1906, 3. (Ellipsis in original.)

2. See chap. 1, above, and Coleman, Death Is a Social Disease.

3. For example, Henri Napias, Le Mal de misère (Paris, 1876).

4. Several articles in the 1880 incarnation of Benoît Malon’s Revue socialiste exemplify this tendency, including Louis Bertrand, “L’Influence de l’alimentation sur la mortalité,” Revue socialiste, August 20, 1880, 481–492; and César de Pæpe, “De l’excès du travail et de l’insuffisance d’alimentation dans la classe ouvrière,” Revue socialiste, June 5, 1880, 321–330.

5. Jules Thiercelin, “La Lutte contre la tuberculose,” Le Mouvement socialiste, September 1, 1901, 291–292.

6. Ibid., 292–293.

7. Ibid., 293.

8. Ibid., 293–294.

9. Octave Tabary, “Le Parti socialiste et la lutte contre la tuberculose,” Le Mouvement socialiste, October 15, 1901, 486–487.

10. Ibid.

11. Ibid., 483–484, 486.

12. Jules Thiercelin, “La Classe ouvrière et la tuberculose: Réponse au Docteur Tabary,” Le Mouvement socialiste, October 15, 1901, 488. (Emphasis in original.)

13. Ibid., 488–491.

14. Ibid., 491–494.

15. Ibid., 493. (Emphasis in original.)

16. Ibid., 494–495.

17. Ibid.

18. Octave Tabary, La Lutte contre la tuberculose dans la classe ouvrière (Paris, 1900), 70–85.

19. F. F. Ridley, Revolutionary Syndicalism in France: The Direct Action of Its Time (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), 45–55; R. D. Anderson, France 1870–1914: Politics and Society (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1977), 125–136.

20. Text of bill in A.N., C 5623: dossier 386, 9. (Emphasis added.)

21. Ibid.

22. Journal officiel:Chambre des députés, Débats parlementaires, June 4, 1901 (session of June 3, 1901), 1223–1224.

23. Ibid.

24. Ibid., 1224.

25. Ibid., 1224–1225; A.N., C 5623: procès-verbaux de la Commission d’assurance et de prévoyance sociales.

26. Text of bill in A.N., C 7255: dossier 12, 95.

27. The industries included porcelain and ceramic manufacture; lime, plaster, and cement work; stone and glass cutting; stone grinding; metal buffing and polishing (all of which involve “mineral” dusts); milling and baking; linen, hemp, and cotton carding and weaving (“vegetable” dusts); and the wool, silk, hide, feather, and mother-of-pearl industries (“animal” dusts). Ibid., 95–96.

28. Ibid. The report of the Commission d’hygiène industrielle is quoted at length in the bill’s text, 243–245.

29. A.N., C 7343: dossier 245 (procès-verbaux de la Commission d’assurance et de prévoyance sociales).

30. The extent to which the syndicalist understanding of tuberculosis penetrated each of these means of communication is difficult to ascertain, with the exception of the two periodical publications. Word of mouth is the only one of those cited for which no hard evidence exists, but certain circumstantial evidence indicates that tuberculosis, its causes, and its prevention were discussed frequently among friends and co-workers. For example, numerous sources refer to the common nickname for tuberculosis among “the people”: le mal de misère, “the illness of poverty.” Beyond such basic formulas, it is impossible to know in exactly what terms workers—whether union activists or not—talked about the disease among themselves.

31. According to one of Pelloutier’s biographers, Jacques Julliard, the contents of the posthumously published (1900) book, La Vie ouvrière en France, first appeared between 1894 and 1897 as articles in the journals La Revue socialiste,La Société nouvelle, and L’Ouvrier des deux mondes. I have not been able to determine exactly when the different parts of the book (including the parts dealing with tuberculosis) originally appeared. Fernand Pelloutier and Maurice Pelloutier, La Vie ouvrière en France (Paris: Schleicher Frères, 1900); Jacques Julliard, Fernand Pelloutier et les origines du syndicalisme d’action directe (Paris: Seuil, 1971), 273–276.

32. Pelloutier, La Vie ouvrière en France, 256.

33. Ibid.

34. On the history of this group and on Pierrot’s leading role in particular, see Jean Maitron, “Le Groupe des Etudiants socialistes révolutionnaires internationalistes de Paris (1892–1902),” Le Mouvement social, no. 46 (1964): 3–26.

35. Groupe des Etudiants socialistes révolutionnaires internationalistes de Paris, Misère et mortalité (Paris: Imprimerie Jean Allemane, 1897), 5, 15.

36. Procès-verbaux du Comité général de l’Union des syndicats de la Seine (meeting of June 15, 1904), Bulletin officiel de la Bourse du travail de Paris, August 1, 1904, 2.

37. Raymond Dubéros, La Tuberculose, mal de misère (Paris: Union des Syndicats du Département de la Seine, n.d.[1904]), 12, 16; on publicity efforts after the pamphlet’s publication, see, for example, Bulletin officiel de la Bourse du travail de Paris, September 1, 1904, 3.

38. Marc Pierrot, “La Lutte contre la tuberculose et la question des sanatoriums,” Les Temps nouveaux, 19 installments between July 23–29 and December 10–16, 1904.

39. Groupe des ESRI, Misère et mortalité, 10–11.

40. Ibid., 8–10.

41. See Marc Pierrot, Travail et surmenage (Paris: Les Temps nouveaux, 1911).

42. Dubéros, La Tuberculose, mal de misère, 6–7.

43. Ibid., 7–8.

44. Pierrot, “La Lutte contre la tuberculose et la question des sanatoriums,” October 22–28, 1904, 3–4.

45. Groupe des ESRI, Misère et mortalité, 8–10.

46. Pierrot, “La Lutte contre la tuberculose et la question des sanatoriums,” September 3–9, 1904, 3–5, and September 10–16, 1904, 2.

47. Ibid.

48. Ibid., September 17–23, 1904, 3.

49. Ibid., September 24–30, 1904, 2–3.

50. Dubéros, La Tuberculose, mal de misère, 10.

51. Ibid., 10–11, 14–16.

52. Groupe des ESRI, Misère et mortalité, 32.

53. Dubéros, La Tuberculose, mal de misère, 10–11.

54. Ibid., 11–13.

55. Pierrot, “La Lutte contre la tuberculose et la question des sanatoriums,” October 1–7, 1904, 4.

56. Ibid. (Ellipses in original.)

57. Ibid.

58. Ibid., December 24–30, 1904, 2–3.

59. Dr. E.D., “Le Congrès: Conte pour les grands enfants,” Les Temps nouveaux, May 27, 1905, 2. Petit actually betrayed his own pseudonym to some extent by using his real initials in the byline of this piece. After the congress, when he wrote a follow-up article (see below) that referred to his authorship of this initial story, he signed it “Michel Petit,” thereby inadvertently conceding that “Dr. E.D.” and “Michel Petit” were one and the same. He is referred to as Michel Petit in the text because the bulk of his work throughout his career appeared under that name.

60. Ibid., 3.

61. Michel Petit, “Le Congrès de la tuberculose,” Les Temps nouveaux, October 28, 1905, 1–2.

62. Ibid., 2.

63. Calmette, Verhæghe, and Woehrel, Les Préventoriums, 62–63. Verhæghe thereby cleverly defined surmenage as an average workday longer than eight hours, practically guaranteeing a result near 100 percent.

64. Max, “Contre la tuberculose,” Le Travailleur (organe officiel de la Fédération du Nord, Parti socialiste, S.F.I.O.), October 19, 1905, 1.

65. This question was a prominent theme, for example, at the conference “Mouvement ouvrier et santé,” Paris (Centre Malher), December 16–17, 1988.

66. Foucault hints at this role in Discipline and Punish, 297–305, and David Armstrong examines it in his Political Anatomy of the Body. See also the discussion of discipline and surveillance in chaps. 3 and 4, above.