Reconcilable Differences "d0e7525"

INDEX

A

Abortion rights, 267 , 296 n32;

backlash and, 19 , 125 ;

CARASA and, 256 -257;

feminism and, 33 , 48 , 245 , 269 ;

Roe v. Wade and, 68 . See also Reproductive rights

Accused, The , 235

Adult videos, 64

Advertising, 111

Affirmative action, 290 n66

African Americans, 30 , 144 , 145 , 147 , 148 -149, 301 n6

Against Our Will (Brownmiller), 230

Against Sadomasochism , 11 , 207 , 208

Age discrimination: looks-ism and, 96 , 122 -123, 137 , 149 -155;

media and, 150 -151, 263 ;

of men vs. women, 84 , 99 , 150 -151, 291 n88

Aging: cosmetic surgery and, 87 , 96 , 135 , 287 n22;

fear of, 87 , 119 -120, 135 , 289 n61;

sexuality and, 65 , 84 , 99 , 102 , 135 , 150 -151

AIDS, 234

Ain't I a Woman? (hooks), 246 , 269

Alcoholics Anonymous, 234

Amazon Odyssey (Atkinson), 160 , 247 -248

"American apartheid," 22 , 38

American Booksellers Association v. Hudnut , 68

American Psycho (Easton), 72

American Society of Criminology, 183

Anorexia, 85 -86, 160 , 286 n3

Antioch College, 229 , 237

Asian American women, 87 , 119

Atkinson, Ti-Grace, 29 ;

on beauty, 160 , 163 ;

on marriage as prostitution, 178 ;

Marxist feminism and, 253 ;

on sadomasochism, 207 ;

on traditional families, 34 ;

on women as a class, 247 -249, 250

Attraction: beauty vs., 90 -91, 157 , 165 -167, 170 -171;

biologically-based, 95 -96, 101 -108, 167 ;

as dynamic, 168 -169, 170 -171;

looks-based, 97 -101, 289 n56;

physical vs. social, 113 -117.

Autobiography of Malcolm X , 147

B

Backlash, 281 n18;

conservatism and, 19 , 51 , 55 , 124 -125, 244 ;

defensiveness of feminism and, 19 , 238 , 268 ;

defined, 233 ;

within feminism, 10 , 19 , 55 -57, 259 ;

looks-ism and, 124 -129;

as male-dominated countermovement, 258 -259;

man-hating and, 45 ;

media on, 19 -20;

Morning After (Roiphe) as part of, 12 -13, 232 -236;

sex debates influenced by, 4 , 7 , 10 , 18 , 19 -20, 62

― 314 ―

Backlash (Faludi), 19 , 55 , 87 , 92 , 124 -125, 233

Backstreets (Hoigard and Finstad), 180 -181, 182 , 193 -194

Barnard College, Scholar and the Feminist Conference, 11 , 62 , 67 , 207 -208, 211

Barry, Kathleen, 177

Barry, Marion, 296

Bartky, Sandra, 84 , 108 , 162

Baudrillard, Jean, 161

Beauty: achieved, 118 -120, 121 , 129 ;

attraction vs., 90 -91, 157 , 165 -167, 170 -171;

biologically based, 95 -96, 101 -108, 167 ;

control and, 91 , 131 ;

as cultural capital, 117 -121, 126 ;

fear of loss of, 65 ;

health and, 91 , 118 , 167 ;

images of, 8 , 65 , 150 , 161 -162, 169 -170, 263 ;

inexplicable, 99 -100;

intelligence and, 134 -135;

love and, 171 ;

men's evaluations of, 99 -100, 286 n6;

as physical trait, 166 -167, 168 , 169 ;

pleasures of recognition vs., 167 -168;

race and, 87 , 145 -149, 162 ;

self-worth and, 113 -114, 120 -121, 129 , 152 ;

technology and, 118 -119, 131 ;

third-wave feminism and, 275 . See also Looks-ism

Beauty industry, 89 , 108 -111

Beauty Myth (Wolf): on backlash, 124 -126;

on beauty, 124 -128, 157 ;

on cosmetic surgery, 87 ;

Fire with Fire (Wolf) vs., 163 -164, 230 , 267 ;

limitations of argument in, 127 -128;

as political work, 162 ;

popularity of, 92 , 124 ;

Power of Beauty (Friday) vs., 95 , 157

Beauty Secrets (Chapkis), 162

Beauvoir, Simone de: on attraction, 98 ;

on beauty, 159 -160;

as a feminist, 45 ;

on marriage as prostitution, 178 ;

on objectification of women, 82 , 261 ;

relationship with Sartre, 43 -44;

"second sex" described by, 209 ;

on socialization of gender, 34 , 35 , 107 , 226 -227

Being and Nothingness (Sartre), 69

Bell Curve (Herrnstein and Murray), 96

Bellingham (Washington), antipornography laws in, 68

Benjamin, Jessica, 153 , 201 , 289 n55, 298 n21

Between Women (Rollins), 193 , 222

Biological determinism: in beauty, 95 -96, 101 -108, 167 ;

gender differences and, 237 ;

gender subordination and, 31 ;

in sadomasochism, 211 -213

Birth control, 71

Bisexuality, 2 , 3 , 42 , 273 . See also Sexual orientation

Black Feminist Thought (Collins), 162 , 270

Black Macho and the Myth of the Superwoman (Wallace), 30 , 147

Blepharoplasty, 87 , 119

Bly, Robert, 19

Body/Politics (ed. Martin), 107 -108

Body vs. mind, 25 , 100

Bordo, Susan, 84 -85, 91 , 93 -94, 131 , 160 , 286 n3, 286 n10

Bourdieu, Pierre, 117 , 119 , 121 , 193 , 261

Bra-burning, 292 n93

Brontë, Emily, 210 -211

Brownmiller, Susan, 230 , 231

Buchanan, Pat, 128

Bulimia, 85

Butler, Anne, 176

Butler, Judith, 121

Butler v. the Queen , 68 , 71

C

Califia, Pat, 11 , 207 , 212 -213, 217

California, prostitutes' rights in, 176 -177

Cambridge (Massachusetts), antipornography laws in, 68

Canada, antipornography laws in, 9 , 64 , 68 , 71 -72.

Capital: bodily, 117 , 289 n61;

cultural, 117 -121, 126 ;

sexual, 193 , 195 , 261 -263

Capitalism: beauty industry and, 109 -111;

gender/class relationships within, 13 , 242 -243, 262 -263;

global, 128 -129;

liberal feminism on, 244 -246, 254 ;

as male-dominated, 242 -243, 262 ;

Marxist feminism on, 254 -256;

radical feminism against, 246 -251, 262 -263, 268 ;

sadomasochistic character of, 221 -222, 227 ;

socialist feminism on, 253 -256;

social movements against, 241 -242;

women as property in, 260 -261

CARASA (Committee for Abortion Rights and Against Sterilization Abuse), 256 -257, 262 , 301 n7

Carby, Hazel, 269

Carmen, Arlene, 179 -180, 184 , 190 , 196

Carmichael, Stokely, 30

Censorship: of popular culture, 72 ;

Supreme Court on, 69 ;

used against women, 70 -71

Center for the Study of Anorexia and Bulimia (New York), 84 -85

Chancer, Lynn, 11 , 213 -214

― 315 ―

Chapkis, Wendy: on beauty, 161 -163, 164 , 165 ;

on feminist divisions, 3 -4, 21 ;

sex workers studied by, 21 , 198 , 199

Chernin, Kim, 160

Child care, 48 , 245 , 248 , 274

Chodorow, Nancy, 153 , 154 , 237

Civil rights, 6 , 21 -22, 268

Class: death and, 122 ;

good woman/bad woman dichotomies and, 140 -143;

of liberal feminists, 245 -246, 300 -301n3;

looks-ism and, 83 -84, 91 -92, 112 -123, 132 -144, 154 -156, 171 -172, 286 n5, 290 n74;

postmodernism and, 243 ;

prostitution and, 195 ;

race and, 6 , 145 -146, 249 -250;

women as a, 31 -32, 47 -48, 242 , 243 -244, 246 -249, 250 , 262 -263

Class discrimination, 6 , 26 , 35 -36, 37 -38, 249 -250, 273

Cleaver, Eldridge, 30 , 147

Cleveland Art Museum, 71

Clinique, 109

Clinton, Bill, 128 , 267 , 270 , 281 n18

Clinton, Hillary Rodham, 55 , 281 n18

Cocaine Kids (Williams), 193 , 296 n35

Codependency, 225

COINTELPRO (Counter Intelligence Program), 22 , 241

Collins, Patricia Hill, 52 , 162 , 250 , 269 -270, 300 n7

Coming to Power , 207

Committee for Abortion Rights and Against Sterilization Abuse (CARASA), 256 -257, 262 , 301 n7

Communism, 21 , 112 , 241 , 243 , 299 n3

Comparable worth, 252

Connell, R. W., 7 , 115 , 129 -130, 141

Conservatism, 162 ;

backlash and, 19 , 51 , 55 , 124 -125, 244 ;

pornography and, 21 , 63 -64, 68 , 69 , 73 ;

sadomasochism and, 203 , 227 -228

Corbin, Alain, 176

Cosmetics, 88 -89, 158

Cosmetic surgery: to achieve beauty, 118 -119;

aging and, 87 , 96 , 135 , 287 n22;

judging women who elect, 129 ;

prevalence of, 87 -88;

racial discrimination and, 87 ;

sex debates on, 9 -10, 50 , 94 -95, 96 , 156 , 287 -288n31, 288 n35

Counter Intelligence Program (COINTELPRO), 22 , 241

Cowley, Geoffrey, 95 -96

COYOTE (Call Off Your Old Tired Ethics), 177

Crime, organized, 220 -221

Critique of Dialectical Reason (Sartre), 285 n26

Cultural feminism, 161 -162

Culture. See Imagery; Media; Popular culture

D

Date rape, 12 , 186 , 229 -230, 235 -236

Daughters, mothers and, 151 -154, 291 n87

Davis, Angela, 266 , 269

Davis, Kathy: on cosmetic surgery, 9 -10, 87 , 88 , 94 , 118 , 135 , 156 , 287 n19, 288 n35;

Morgan vs., 94 , 156

Death: class and, 122 ;

fear of, 106 -107, 119 -120, 122 , 131 ;

sadomasochism and, 204 -205

Deceptive Deceptions (Epstein), 236 -237

Deconstructionism, 161

Defending Pornography (Strossen), 9 , 21 , 62 -64, 65 -66, 67 -74, 80

de Lauretis, Teresa, 161

Denton, Nancy, 22 , 38

Depression, 85 -86

Deutsch, Helene, 211 -212

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual , 200

Dialectic of Sex, The (Firestone), 37 , 160 , 246 -247, 268

Dieting, 89 , 131 , 286 n10

Discrimination. See Age discrimination; Class discrimination; Gender discrimination; Oppression; Racial discrimination

Domestic violence: feminism and, 169 , 271 ;

heterosexuality and, 42 -43, 49 ;

resources for, 47 , 263 ;

as sadomasochistic dynamic, 224 -225. See also Violence against women

Domestic workers, 193 , 222 -223

Dominelli, Lena, 177

Double standards, 2 , 140 -143

Drug dealing, 193 , 195 , 197 , 296 n35

Duggan, Lisa, 21

Durkheim, Emile, 75 , 83 , 166 , 281 n17

Dworkin, Andrea: antipornography laws inspired by, 64 , 68 , 71 , 72 , 284 n10;

conservatism and, 63 -64, 73 ;

critics of, 23 , 75 ;

demonization of, 81 ;

on imagery, 80 , 283 -284n3;

on pornography, 9 , 10 -11, 63 -64, 66 -67, 73 , 79 , 81 , 231 , 283 -284n3;

radical feminism and, 20 , 66 -67, 81 ;

on sadomasochism, 207 , 210 -211, 212 ;

supporters of, 66 -67, 73 -74, 78 ;

on "Uncle Toms," 18 ;

victim feminism and, 231

E

Easton, Bret Ellis, 72

Eating disorders, 85 -86, 160 , 286 n2

― 316 ―

Echols, Alice, 9 , 207 -208, 232

Eisenstein, Zillah, 51 , 245 , 248

"Emotional labor," 221

Employment, fear of losing, 221

Engels, Friedrich: on elimination of oppression, 247 ;

Firestone on, 246 -247, 259 ;

on gender subordination, 260 , 261 -262;

on labeling women as madonnas or whores, 189 ;

on marriage as prostitution, 178 ;

Marxist feminism and, 252 , 254 , 259 ;

radical feminism and, 259 -262

Epstein, Cynthia, 236 -237

Equality, liberal feminism on, 244 -246, 270

Essentialism, 12 , 215 , 236 -237, 249

Eulenspiegel society, 217

Evans, Sarah, 30

Existentialism, 70 -71, 75

Eyelid surgery, 87 , 119

F

Face of Love (Lambert), 165

Face Value (Scherr), 162 -163, 164

FACT (Feminist Anti-Censorship Taskforce), 64 , 67

Faludi, Susan: on backlash, 10 , 19 , 55 , 124 -126, 127 , 244 , 258 -259;

on beauty, 124 -128;

on cosmetic surgery, 87 ;

popularity of, 92

Families: ideology of, 33 -36;

radical feminism on, 31 , 33 -36, 243 -244;

sexism within, 271 ;

single parent, 35 -36, 248

Family values, 19 , 35 , 125 , 244 , 296 n33

Fashion-beauty complex, 84 , 108 -109, 162

FBI, 6 , 22 , 56 , 241

Female Sexual Slavery (Barry), 177

Femininity, masculinity vs., 6 , 25 , 136

Feminism: ambivalence over, 272 ;

backlash within, 10 , 19 , 55 -57, 259 ;

as collective movement, 17 -18, 48 -51, 265 -266, 271 -272;

commonalities vs. differences among women in, 25 -26, 29 , 31 -32, 35 -36, 37 , 40 -41, 48 -50, 257 -258, 267 -274, 300 n16;

connection and autonomy of, 273 ;

cultural, 161 -162;

defensiveness of, 4 , 17 , 19 , 29 , 66 , 236 , 238 , 265 , 268 ;

economic vs. sexual issues in, 66 , 80 -81, 267 , 270 -271, 274 , 300 -301n3;

either/or dichotomies in, 56 , 66 , 73 , 268 , 272 -274, 275 , 277 n4, 278 n6, 280 n6;

gender subordination and, 28 -29;

generational solidarity in, 151 -152;

history of, 29 -36, 268 -269;

lesbians and, 187 , 273 ;

libertarian, 277 n2-3;

man-hating in, 40 -41, 45 , 282 n15;

media influenced by, 86 ;

polarization of positions in, 18 -19;

postmodernism and, 19 , 25 -26;

rape-crisis, 234 -235;

relative emphases in, 3 -4, 17 , 62 , 267 , 270 , 274 ;

social movements and, 13 , 30 , 243 , 273 ;

splitting within, 21 -24, 28 -29, 51 -58;

structure vs. agency in, 4 -5, 24 -25, 46 -52, 57 ;

in theory vs. practice of, 5 , 24 -25, 46 -52;

weakening of, 13 -14, 41 , 258 -259, 271 -272;

women of color in, 30 , 273 . See also Liberal feminism; Marxist feminism; Power feminism; Radical feminism; Second-wave feminism; Sex debates; Social feminism; Third-wave feminism; Victim feminism

Femimst Anti-Censorship Taskforce (FACT), 64 , 67

Feminists, The, 158 , 246 , 263

Femmist Theory (hooks), 246 , 269

Ferguson, Ann, 277 n1-3

Film industry, 150 -151, 291 n88

Finstad, Liv, 180 -181, 191 , 193 -194

Firestone, Shulamith, 29 ;

on beauty, 160 , 163 ;

on capitalism, 268 ;

on Engels, 246 -247, 259 ;

on gender as "deepest" form of oppression, 37 ;

on marriage as prostitution, 178 ;

Marxist feminism and, 253 ;

as standpoint theorist, 247 , 300 n7;

on women as a class, 31 , 247 , 250

Fire with Fire (Wolf), 18 , 61 , 163 -164, 230 -231, 267

Fitness, 91 , 118

Fitzgerald, F. Scott, 168

Foucault, Michel, 82 , 161 , 200 -201, 202 , 203

Fraser, Donald, 68

Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), 22

Freud, Sigmund, 154 , 211 , 212 , 215 , 297 n14

Friday, Nancy, 95 , 157

Friedan, Betty, 245 , 290 n68

Fromm, Erich, 201

G

Galbraith, John Kenneth, 109

Gangs, 174 , 175 , 193 , 195

Gender/class relationship, 13 , 242 -243, 262 -263. See also Class

Gender differences, 236 -237

Gender discrimination, 6 , 24 , 249 -250, 271 -272, 273 . See also Gender subordination; Sexism

Gender gap, 50

Gender relations: clichés in, 114 ;

domi-

― 317 ―

nant/subordinate character of, 237 ;

sadomasochistic dynamics in, 224 -227. See also Heterosexuality

Gender subordination: biological determinism and, 31 ;

feminism and, 28 -29;

heterosexuality and, 7 , 37 , 38 -39;

labor and, 254 , 255 -256, 260 ;

objectification of women and, 260 -262;

private property and, 260 -261;

race/class discrimination and, 35 -36;

radical feminism on, 32 -33

Gender Trouble (Butler), 121

Germany, cosmetic surgery in, 87

Giddings, Paula, 269

Gilligan, Carol, 237

Gingrich, Newt, 201 , 202 , 203

Glamour , 85

Goldberg, Stephen, 105

Goldman, Emma, 71

Good Girls/Bad Girls , 177

Good woman/bad woman dichotomies: class and, 140 -143;

heterosexuality and, 140 -143;

looks-ism and, 140 -143;

male fantasies and, 141 -142, 226 , 291 n79;

prostitution and, 188 -191, 195 , 197 ;

racial discrimination and, 144 -146, 162 ;

sadomasochism and, 226

Gramsci, Antonio, 76 , 77

Great Britain: cosmetic surgery in, 87 ;

prostitution in, 177

Great Gatsby, The (Fitzgerald), 168

H

Hall, Stuart, 19 , 20 , 75 -76

Halprin, Sara, 165

Handsomeness, 115

Harding, Sandra, 250 , 300 n7

Hartmann, Heidi, 253 -255, 260

Hartsock, Nancy, 52 , 250 , 300 n7

Health, 91 , 118 , 167

Health care, 248

Hegemony, 76 , 77 ;

beauty imagery and, 75 -76;

masculinity and, 115 , 136 ;

in pornography, 77 -78, 79 , 80

Herrnstein, Richard, 96

Heterosexuality: compulsory, 33 , 137 -138, 139 , 269 , 271 ;

domestic violence and, 42 -43, 49 ;

double standards in, 2 , 140 -143;

gender subordination and, 7 , 37 , 38 -39;

good woman/bad woman dichotomies in, 140 -143;

looks-ism and, 8 , 84 , 136 -140;

pornography and, 78 ;

radical feminism on, 37 , 39 , 45 -46;

relationships in, 3 , 37 , 38 -40, 42 -46, 47 , 48 -49;

reproduction and, 102 -103;

second-wave feminism on, 31 . See also Gender relations

Heyl, Barbara, 178

Hill, Anita, 282 n15

Hobson, Barbara, 176

Hochschild, Arlie Russell, 221

Hoigard, Cecilie, 180 -181, 191 , 193 -194

Homosexuality. See Lesbians

hooks, bell, 52 , 144 , 246 , 269 -270

Hoover, J. Edgar, 6 , 13 , 23 , 56 , 241 , 263 -264

Hustler , 64

Hyde Amendment of 1976, 245

I

Image, women as, 161 -162

Imagery: of beauty, 8 , 65 , 150 , 161 -162, 169 -170, 263 ;

clichés in, 114 ;

effects of, 75 , 76 -77, 80 ;

hegemony and, 75 -76;

in popular culture, 8 , 75 -76, 80 , 161 -162;

in pornography, 67 , 75 -77, 80 ;

transforming, 161 , 164 , 169 -170. See also Media

Indianapolis, antipornography laws in, 68 , 284 n10

Individualism, 205

Inland Books, 71

Intelligence, sexuality and, 134 -135, 290 n75

Is It Love or Is It Addiction? (Schaeffer), 225

J

Jungle Fever , 148

K

Kaw, Eugenia, 87

Kinsie, Paul, 178 , 179 -180

Kiss of the Spider Woman , 219 , 285 n27

Koedt, Anne, 29 , 163

L

Labeling Women Deviant (Schur), 89

Labor, 254 , 255 -256, 260

Lakoff, Robin, 162 -163, 164 , 165

Lambert, Ellen Zetzel, 165

Learning to Labor (P. Willis), 194

Lee, Spike, 148 , 149

Leftist social movements, 6 , 21 -24, 241 , 246

Lesbians: discrimination against, 2 , 3 , 40 ;

feminism and, 187 , 273 ;

looks-ism and, 138 -140;

in pornography, 78 ;

relationships with men, 41 -42;

rights of, 48 , 262 . See also Sexual orientation

Levine, Judith, 40 -41, 282 n15

Lewis, Michael, 223

Liberal feminism: backlash and, 51 , 55 ;

on capitalism, 244 -246, 254 ;

class and, 245 -246, 300 -301n3;

on equality, 244 -246, 270 ;

radical feminism vs., 51 , 55 , 247

― 318 ―

Libertarian-feminism, 277 n2-3

Lively Commerce (Winick and Kinsie), 178 , 182

Live Sex Acts (Chapkis), 21 , 198

Look at My Ugly Face! (Halprin), 165

Looks-ism: age discrimination and, 96 , 122 -123, 137 , 149 -155;

backlash and, 124 -129;

as class system, 83 -84, 91 -92, 112 -123, 132 -144, 154 -156, 171 -172, 286 n5, 290 n74;

cultural feminism on, 161 -162.;

as damaging, 97 , 164 -165;

defined, 83 -84;

eating disorders and, 85 -86, 160 , 286 n3;

economic class and, 142 -144;

fears of death and, 106 -107, 119 -120, 122 , 131 ;

feminist influences on, 92 , 124 ;

feminist protests against, 157 -159;

between generations of women, 151 -154;

good woman/bad woman dichotomies in, 140 -143;

heterosexuality and, 8 , 84 , 136 -140;

masculinity and, 114 -116, 119 -130;

men vs. women and, 83 -84, 115 -117, 126 -130, 164 -165, 289 n56, 289 n60;

mind vs. body in, 100 ;

persistence of, 121 -124;

political feminist works on, 162 -166;

racial discrimination and, 87 , 145 -149, 162 , 290 n66;

radical feminism on, 157 -160;

sex debates on, 9 -10, 92 -97, 155 -156, 157 ;

sexual orientation and, 8 , 84 , 138 -140;

as social fact, 83 -84, 111 , 121 , 124 , 136 , 156 , 166 ;

socialist feminism on, 162 ;

socialization of, 104 -105, 107 -108, 111 -112;

types of, 160 ;

worsening of, 82 -83, 84 -90, 124 , 128 -131, 163 . See also Beauty

Lorber, Judith, 7

Love, 112 , 171

Lyotard, Jean-François, 161

M

MacDworkinism, 18 , 21 , 70 , 74 , 285 n24

MacKinnon, Catherine, 29 ;

antipornography laws inspired by, 64 , 68 , 71 , 284 n10;

conservatism and, 21 , 63 -64, 73 ;

critics of, 21 , 23 , 75 ;

on debating feminists, 20 -21, 52 -53;

demonization of, 23 , 81 ;

on imagery, 80 , 283 -284n3;

on pornography, 9 , 10 -11, 21 , 63 -64, 66 -67, 73 , 79 , 81 , 283 -284n3;

on prostitution, 186 ;

radical feminism and, 20 , 23 , 66 -67, 81 ;

on rape correlated with pornography, 70 ;

supporters of, 66 -67, 73 -74, 78 ;

on "Uncle Toms," 18 , 23 , 67 ;

victim feminism and, 231

Madam as Entrepreneur (Heyl), 178 , 181 , 200

Madonna, 9 , 93 -94, 96 , 122 , 157 , 195 , 200

Madonna Connection, The , 93

Mailer, Norman, 105

Makeup. See Cosmetics

Malcolm X, 30 , 147

Male-dominated societies: capitalism and, 242 -243, 262 ;

patriarchy vs., 7 ;

sexuality and sexism in, 3 . See also Patriarchy

Managed Heart, The (Hochschild), 221

Man-hating, 40 -41, 45 , 282 n15

Mapplethorpe, Robert, 71

Marriage, 34 , 38 , 178 , 255 , 260 , 286 n4

Martin, Emily, 107 -108

Marx, Karl: on class, 166 , 247 ;

on elimination of oppression, 247 ;

on gender subordination, 260 , 261 -262;

on social change, 162 ;

on social psychology, 221 -222

Marxism: beauty industry and, 109 , 111 ;

inadequacy of, 241 ;

postmodernism vs., 49 ;

sadomasochism and, 221 -222, 226 ;

on social distinctions, 121

Marxist feminism: on capitalism, 254 -256;

on comparable worth, 252 .;

criticism of, 252 ;

differences between women emphasized in, 251 -252;

emergence of, 242 ;

Engels and, 252 , 254 , 259 ;

race and, 252 ;

radical feminism vs., 251 -252;

socialist feminism vs., 252 -256, 258 , 259

Masculinity, 13 ;

dominant/subordinate relationships in, 285 n30;

femininity vs., 6 , 25 , 136 ;

feminism and, 126 ;

hegemonic, 115 , 136 ;

looks-ism and, 114 -116, 129 -130;

marginalized, 129 -130;

sadism and, 209 . See also Men

Masochism, 211 -213, 215 -216. See also Sadomasochism

Massey, Douglas, 22 , 38

Material Girls (Walters), 158 , 161

Media: advertising, 111 ;

age discrimination and, 150 -151, 263 ;

on backlash, 19 -20;

family ideals in, 34 ;

feminist influences on, 86 ;

images of women in, 161 -162;

objectivity of, 19 -20, 280 n9;

sadomasochism in, 200 -201, 202 -203, 206 , 225 ;

on sex debates, 12 , 19 -21, 61 , 230 , 287 -288n31;

women's control of, 263 . See also Imagery; Popular culture

Medicaid, 257

Meese Commission, 64

Men: aging and, 84 , 99 , 150 -151, 291 n88;

on beauty, 99 -100, 286 n6;

― 319 ―

fantasies of, 78 , 141 -142, 226 , 291 n79;

feminism and, 126 ;

as head of households, 35 ;

looks-ism and, 83 -84, 115 -117, 126 -130, 164 -165, 289 n56, 289 n60;

naturally aggressive, 236 -237;

power of, 285 n30;

propertied, 262 ;

prostitution arrests of, 181 , 190 -191, 296 n33;

prostitution by, 181 ;

prostitution studies of, 181 -182;

socialism and, 249 ;

in third-wave feminism, 13 . See also Masculinity

Men's movement, 19

Men's studies, 164 -165, 182

Merton, Robert, 193

Miller, Eleanor, 178 -179, 183

Millett, Kate, 29 ;

on beauty, 159 -160;

on gender as "deepest" form of oppression, 37 ;

Mailer on, 105 ;

on male dominance, 208 ;

on marriage as prostitution, 178 ;

Marxist feminism and, 253 ;

on patriarchy, 7 ;

on traditional families, 34

Millman, Marcia, 160

Mind vs. body, 25 , 100

Minneapolis (Minnesota), antipornography legislation in, 68 , 284 n10

Miss America Pageant, 158 -159, 162

Mitchell, Juliet, 253

Mobilization theories, 188

Modleski, Tania, 161

Moody, Howard, 179 -180, 184 , 190 , 196

Morgan, Kathryn, 94 , 156 , 163

Morning After (Roiphe): as backlash, 12 -13, 232 -236;

media attention paid to, 12 , 20 , 229 , 230 ;

methodological and theoretical flaws in, 235 ;

structure vs. agency in, 233 ;

on victim feminism, 229 -232;

on violence against women, 12 -13, 229 -230, 236 -238;

Wolf on, 230 -231

Mortality. See Death

Mothers: daughters and, 151 -154, 291 n87;

single, 35 -36, 248

Mulvey, Laura, 161

Mundane sexism, 46

Murakawa, Naomi, 87

Murray, Charles, 96

My Enemy, My Love (Levine), 40 -41

N

National Abortion Rights Action League (NARAL), 256 -257

National Organization for Women (NOW), 187 , 245 , 256 -257

Netherlands: cosmetic surgery in, 87 , 88 , 287 n19;

prostitution in, 191

Nevada, prostitution in, 191

Newsweek , 95 -96

New York, antipornography laws in, 68

New York Center for the Study of Anorexia and Bulimia, 84 -85

New York magazine, 200 , 202 -203, 206 , 225 , 228

New York Times , 20

New York University conference (1987), 67

"No More Miss America," 158 -159, 162

Norway, prostitution studied in, 180 -181

NOW (National Organization for Women), 187 , 245 , 256 -257

O

Obesity, 167

Objectification of women, 8 , 82 , 157 , 256 , 260 -262

Ohrbach, Susie, 160

Only Words (MacKinnon), 80

Oppression: elimination of, 247 , 248 -251, 258 , 263 , 268 ;

ranking, 30 , 37 , 251

Organized crime, 220 -221

Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State (Engels), 246 -247, 252 , 259 -262

Ortner, Sherry, 208 -209

P

Paglia, Camille, 95

Parsons, Talcott, 118 , 119

Patriarchy: capitalist, 253 -256;

defined, 208 , 255 ;

male-dominated societies vs., 7 ;

pornography and, 76 -77, 79 ;

rape and, 230 ;

sadomasochistic, 206 , 208 -213, 227 ;

sex and sexism within, 263 ;

sexual repression under, 32 -33;

sexual vs. economic controls under, 255 -256;

structural enormity of, 54 ;

structure vs. agency in, 25 ;

usage of term, 243 , 248 , 251 , 255 ;

women as property under, 260 -261. See also Male-dominated societies

Pay equity, 126 , 244 , 245

Peirce, Kate, 86

Penthouse , 64

Personal Politics (Evans), 30

Pheterson, Gail, 185

Pipher, Mary, 85 -86

Planned Parenthood, 256

Playboy , 64

Pleasers, The (Leman), 225

Political correctness, 207 , 229 , 235 , 237

Pollitt, Katha, 235

Popular culture: censorship of, 72 ;

imagery in, 8 , 75 -76, 80 , 161 -162;

pornog-

― 320 ―

Popular culture (continued)

raphy in, 75 -77;

sadomasochism in, 200 -201, 225 , 228 , See also Media

Pornography: alienation of women by, 64 , 78 -79;

anticensorship views and, 66 , 67 -74, 79 -80;

civil liberties threatened by censorship of, 65 , 70 -71;

conservatism and, 21 , 63 -64, 68 , 69 , 73 ;

domination/subordination in, 77 -78;

effects of, 69 -70, 73 , 75 , 76 -77;

enjoyed by women, 74 ;

hegemonic, 77 -78, 79 , 80 ;

heterosexuality and, 78 ;

imagery in, 67 , 75 -77, 80 ;

laws against, 64 , 65 -66, 68 -69, 71 -72, 73 , 284 n10, 284 n13;

lesbians in, 78 ;

as male-dominated business, 9 , 64 , 77 -78;

male fantasies depicted in, 78 ;

objectionable, 74 , 76 -77, 79 ;

patriarchal character of, 76 -77, 79 ;

in popular culture, 75 -77;

procensorship views and, 63 -64, 66 , 73 -74, 75 -79;

rape correlated with, 70 ;

sadomasochistic dynamics in, 285 n31;

sex debates on, 9 , 20 , 50 , 62 -67, 77 , 80 -81;

sexual orientation and, 8 ;

sexual repression by censorship of, 63 , 67 -68, 70 -71;

as single issue in feminism, 68 , 71 -72, 73 -74, 80 -81;

third-wave feminism and, 275 ;

videos, 64 ;

women's control of, 48 , 77 -78, 80 -81

Pornography (Dworkin), 72

Pornography Victims' Compensation Act, 68

Postmodernism: class and, 243 ;

feminism and, 19 , 25 -26;

Marxism vs., 49 ;

sadomasochism and, 202

Poverty, 248 , 262

Power, sadomasochism and, 214 -215, 218 -219, 223 -224, 226

Power feminism: defined, 231 ;

third-wave feminism as, 267 ;

victim feminism vs., 18 , 163 -164, 230 -231, 238 , 267

Power of Beauty (Friday), 95 , 157

Powers of Desire , 207

Princeton University, 234

Programme for the Reform of the Law on Soliciting, 177

Property: gender subordination and, 260 -261;

women as, 260 -261

Prostitutes' rights movement, 188

Prostitution: as alienating, 180 ;

ambivalence over, 176 , 177 , 183 -184, 185 -188, 195 -196;

as antifeminist, 185 -186;

arrests in, 181 , 190 -191, 296 n33;

class and, 195 ;

dangers in, 174 -175;

decriminalization of, 10 , 177 , 180 , 190 -192, 196 ;

economically motivated, 193 , 196 , 296 n34;

in feminist theory, 175 -176, 177 , 185 -188, 190 -192;

gay liberation vs., 187 -188;

good woman/bad woman dichotomies and, 188 -191, 195 , 197 ;

literature review of, 176 -184;

male, 181 ;

male clients studied in, 181 -182, 295 n22;

marriage as, 178 ;

participant observation research on, 10 , 173 -175, 179 , 184 -185, 197 , 198 -199, 295 n20, 295 n22;

power in, 193 -194;

professionalization of, 192 ;

prostitutes judged in, 179 , 180 , 194 , 195 -196;

prostitutes' writings on, 10 , 176 -177;

rape and, 186 -187, 295 n25;

sex debates on, 10 -11, 177 , 185 -188;

sex-economic exchanges in, 191 -196;

socialist feminism on, 177 -178;

sociological studies of, 173 -176, 177 -184, 194 -195, 198 -199;

studies of vs. studies of prostitutes, 181 , 182 -183, 186 , 196 -197;

United States studies of, 180 , 182 , 198 , 294 n3;

venereal diseases and, 179 -180;

as victimless crime, 295 n19. See also Sex work; Sex workers

Prostitution and Feminist Theory (Chancer), 197

Psychology of Women (Deutsch), 211 -212

Puig, Manuel, 285 n27

Q

Quayle, Dan, 73

R

Race: beauty and, 87 , 145 -149, 162 ;

class and, 6 , 145 -146, 249 -250;

gender vs., 24 , 270 ;

Marxist and socialist feminism on, 252

Racial discrimination: cosmetic surgery and, 87 ;

gender discrimination and, 24 , 26 , 37 -38, 270 ;

gender subordination and, 35 -36;

good woman/bad woman dichotomies and, 144 -146, 162 ;

looks-ism and, 87 , 145 -149, 162 , 290 n66

Racial segregation, 22 , 38

Radical feminism: on beauty, 157 -160;

against capitalism, 246 -251, 262 -263, 268 ;

emergence of, 30 -32;

Engels and, 259 -262;

essentialism and, 249 ;

on families, 31 , 33 -36, 243 -244;

on gender subordination, 32 -33;

on heterosexuality, 37 , 39 , 45 -46;

history of, 232 -233, 268 -269;

liberal feminism vs., 51 , 55 , 247 ;

MacKinnon and Dworkin associated with, 20 , 23 , 66 -67, 81 ;

man-hating in, 45 ;

Marxist and

― 321 ―

socialist feminism vs., 251 -252;

against oppression, 248 -251, 258 , 263 , 268 ;

"personal is political" in, 43 ;

on rape, 230 ;

sadomasochism and, 210 ;

sex radical feminism vs., 3 -4;

in theory vs. practice of, 46 -52;

as victim feminism, 230 ;

women as a class in, 31 -32, 47 -48, 242 , 243 -244, 246 -249, 250 , 262 -263. See also Second-wave feminism

Radical Future of Liberal Feminism, The (Eisenstein), 51 , 248

Rape: date, 12 , 186 , 229 -230, 235 -236;

fantasies among women, 237 -238;

patriarchy and, 230 ;

pornography correlated with, 70 ;

prostitution and, 186 -187, 295 n25;

radical feminism on, 230 ;

rapists' attitudes on, 291 n79, 299 n10;

victim blaming in, 237 -238;

as violent vs. sexual crime, 235 , 237 . See also Violence against women

Rape-crisis feminism, 234 -235

Réage, Pauline, 207 , 216 , 289 n55

Redstockings, 158 , 246 , 263

Reproduction, 31 , 102 -103, 211 -212

"Reproduction of mothering," 153 -154

Reproductive rights, 13 -14, 48 , 51 , 245 , 256 -257, 268 -269, 301 n7

Reshaping the Female Body (K. Davis), 9 -10, 94

Reviving Ophelia (Pipher), 85 -86

Rhode, Deborah, 75

Rich, Adrienne, 33 , 137 , 139 , 187 , 269

Right to Life movement, 125

Roe v. Wade , 68

Roiphe, Katie: on Brownmiller, 230 ;

on date rape, 229 -230, 235 ;

media attention to, 12 , 20 , 229 , 230 ;

as symbolic of backlash against feminism, 12 -13, 232 -236;

on victim feminism, 229 -232;

on violence against women, 12 -13, 219 -230, 236 -238;

Wolf on, 230 -231

Rollins, Judith, 174 , 193 , 222

Romance novels, 225

Rosen, Ruth, 176 , 190

Roth, Philip, 146

Rubin, Gayle, 11 , 177 -178, 181 , 207 , 217

Rust, Paula, 42

S

Sacher-Masoch, Leopold yon, 216

Sadism, 209 -211. See also Sadomasochism

Sadomasochism: biological determinism and, 211 -213;

in capitalism, 221 -222, 227 ;

conservatism and, 203 , 227 -228;

death and, 204 -205;

defined, 214 -216;

desires in, 12 , 204 -205, 228 ;

dual character of, 201 -205;

essentialism and, 215 ;

in everyday life, 11 -12, 204 , 213 - 227;

good woman/bad woman dichotomies and, 226 ;

Mapplethorpe and, 71 ;

Marxism and, 221 -222, 226 ;

masochism in, 211 -213, 215 -216;

in media, 200 -201, 202 -203, 206 , 225 ;

patriarchy and, 206 , 208 -213, 227 ;

in popular culture, 200 -201, 225 , 228 ;

post-modernism and, 202 ;

radical feminism and, 210 ;

sadism in, 209 -211;

sex debates on, 11 -12, 203 , 204 , 206 -214, 227 -228;

sexual orientation and, 3 , 8 ;

sexual repression and, 207 -208;

sexual vs. social, 201 -214, 227 -228;

in social theories, 201 ;

third-wave feminism and, 275 ;

victimization of women and, 215 -216

Sadomasochism in Everyday Life (Chancer), 11 , 213 -214

Sadomasochistic dynamics: characteristics of, 216 -220;

defined, 214 ;

dependency in, 204 -205, 217 -219, 220 , 225 , 226 -227;

domestic violence as, 224 -225;

in gender relations, 224 -227;

hierarchical relationships in, 216 -217, 220 -221, 298 n20;

internally transformable, 215 -216, 218 -219, 222 -223, 226 ;

mutual recognition in, 219 -220, 223 -224, 226 -227, 298 n21;

in pornography, 285 n31;

power relations in, 214 -215, 218 -219, 223 -224, 226 ;

push/pull character of, 219 , 225 -226, 227 ;

sexual harassment as, 221 ;

threats as underlying, 217 , 221 , 224 -225;

in workplace, 220 -224

Samois, 207 -208

Sanchez-Jankowski, Martin, 174 , 194

Sanger, Margaret, 71 , 256

Sartre, Jean-Paul, 43 -44, 69 , 75 , 285 n26

Scherr, Raquel, 162 -163, 164 , 165

Scholar and the Feminist Conference (Barnard College), 11 , 62 , 67 , 207 -208, 211

Schrage, Laurie, 185 -186, 187 , 191

Schur, Edwin, 89 , 295 n19

Schwichtenberg, Cathy, 93

Scully, Diana, 291 n79, 299 n10

Second Sex, The (Beauvoir): on beauty, 159 -160;

feminism since, 82 ;

on objectification, 261 ;

Sartre's encouragement of, 43 -44;

on socialization of gender, 34 , 35 , 226 -227

Second Stage, The (Friedan), 245

― 322 ―

Second-wave feminism: criticism of, 266 -267;

emergence of, 30 -32, 128 , 268 ;

on heterosexuality, 31 ;

history of, 232 -233;

standpoint theories in, 247 , 250 -251, 300 n7;

third-wave feminism on, 266 -256. See also Radical feminism

Segal, Lynne, 279 n20

Self-esteem, 164

Senate Judiciary Committee, 68

Service industry, 221

Seventeen magazine, 86

Sex, labor and, 255 -256

Sex (Madonna), 93 , 200

Sex debates: backlash and, 4 , 7 , 10 , 18 , 19 -20, 62 ;

bridging over, 3 -4, 8 -9, 25 -27;

on cosmetic surgery, 9 -10, 50 , 94 -95, 96 , 156 , 287 -288n31, 288 n35;

economic issues vs., 66 , 80 -81, 270 -271, 274 ;

either/or dichotomies in, 5 -6, 18 -19, 24 -25;

emergence of, 46 ;

emphases in, 3 -4, 17 , 62 ., 267 , 270 , 274 ;

feminism weakened by, 13 -14;

issues m, 7 -8;

on looks-ism, 9 -10, 92 -97, 155 -156, 157 ;

media on, 12 , 19 -21, 62 , 230 , 287 -288n31;

on pornography, 9 , 50 , 62 -67, 77 , 80 -81;

on prostitution, 10 -11, 177 , 185 -188;

on sadomasochism, 11 -12, 203 , 204 , 206 -214, 227 -228;

sexism strengthened by, 10 ;

on sexual freedom vs. sexism, 1 -4, 8 -9, 52 , 61 -62, 65 , 277 n1-3;

sexual orientation and, 3 ;

on sex work, 10 -11;

splitting in, 18 , 21 -24;

structure vs. agency in, 4 -5, 8 , 18 , 24 -25, 233 ;

in third-wave feminism, 266 , 275 ;

on victim feminism, 230 -231;

on violence against women, 12 -13, 230 , 238

Sexism: as commonality among women, 271 -272;

in families, 271 ;

mundane, 46 ;

sexual freedom vs., 1 -4, 8 -9, 52 , 61 -62, 65 , 277 n1-3. See also Sex debates

"Sex radical feminism," 3 -4

Sex therapy, 192

Sexual assault. See Rape

Sexual capital, 193 , 195 , 261 -263

Sexual freedom, sexism vs., 1 -4, 8 -9, 52 , 61 -62, 65 , 277 n1-3. See also Sex debates; Sexual repression

Sexual harassment, 186 , 221 , 255 , 263 , 269 , 271

Sexuality: aging and, 65 , 84 , 99 , 102 , 135 , 150 -151;

intelligence and, 134 -135, 290 n75;

pleasure and, 103 -104, 279 n20;

racism and, 144 ;

reproduction vs., 102 -103;

socialist feminism on, 253 ;

studies on, 197 -199

Sexual Liberals and the Attack on Radical Feminism conference, 67

Sexual orientation: commonalities among women vs., 41 ;

individual experiences of, 48 -49;

looks-ism and, 8 , 84 , 138 -140;

pornography and, 8 ;

relationships with men and, 41 -42;

reproduction and, 102 -103;

sadomasochism and, 3 , 8 ;

sex debates and, 3 . See also Lesbians

Sexual Politics (Millett), 37 , 105 , 159 -160

Sexual repression: by censorship of pornography, 63 , 67 -68, 70 -71;

under patriarchy, 32 -33;

sadomasochism and, 207 -208

Sex wars, 277 n1. See also Sex debates

Sex Wars: Sexual Dissent and Political Culture (ed. Duggan), 21

Sex work: as male-dominated business, 64 , 77 -78;

sex debates on, 10 -11;

studies on, 21 , 175 , 182 -183, 197 -199;

third-wave feminism and, 275 ;

women's control of, 77 -78, 80 -81. See also Pornography; Prostitution; Sex workers

Sex Work: Writings by Women in the Sex Industry , 177

Sex workers, 255 ;

class and, 142 -143;

degradation of, 185 ;

employer/employee relationships of, 193 -194;

good woman/bad woman dichotomies and, 141 -143;

as professionals, 192 ;

support for, 50 , 74 , 263 ;

third-wave feminism and, 275 . See also Pornography; Prostitution; Sex work

Single mothers, 35 -36, 248

Slavery, 38 , 144

Smith, William Kennedy, 12

Snitow, Ann, 64

Soap operas, 225

Socialism, 249 -250, 299 n3

Socialist feminism: on beauty, 162 ;

on capitalist patriarchy, 253 -256;

dual vs. unified theories in, 253 -254;

emergence of, 242 ;

on Engels, 259 ;

Marxist feminism vs., 252 -256, 258 , 259 ;

on prostitution, 177 -178;

radical feminism vs., 251 -252;

on reproductive rights, 256 -257;

on sexuality, 253

Social movements: against capitalism, 241 -242;

class- vs. gender-based, 243 ;

defensiveness of, 235 ;

feminism and, 13 , 30 , 243 , 273 ;

gender and race in, 24 ;

infiltration of, 6 , 22 , 56 ;

Leftist, 6 , 21 -24, 241 , 246 ;

marginalization of, 22 , 23 ;

against oppression in general, 248 -251, 263 , 268 ;

sexism within,

― 323 ―

268 ;

splitting within, 6 , 18 , 21 -24, 54 -55;

structure vs. agency in, 4 -5, 278 n9

Sociology, prostitution studies in, 173 -176, 177 -184, 194 -195, 198 -199

Soul on Ice (Cleaver), 147

South Africa, apartheid in, 38

Speaking of Sex (Rhode), 75

Steinem, Gloria, 95 , 266 , 301 n5

Sterilization abuse, 13 -14, 48 , 256 , 262 , 301 n7

Story of O (Rßage), 207 , 216 , 280 n55

Street Woman (Miller), 178 -179, 183

Strossen, Nadine: on censorship used against women, 70 -71;

on imagery, 76 ;

on MacDworkinism, 18 , 21 , 70 , 74 , 285 n24;

on pornography, 9 , 62 -74, 79 , 80 , 81 , 283 -284n3, 284 n10, 284 n13

Students for a Democratic Society, 22

Suffolk County (New York), antipornography laws in, 68

Suicide, 285 n27

Sullivan, Mercer, 194

Supreme Court (Canada), 9 , 68

Supreme Court (United States), 68 , 69 , 284 n13

Sweeney, John, 128

Synanon, 234

T

Take Back the Night demonstrations, 234

Third-wave feminism: commonalities and differences among women in, 13 -14, 266 -268, 270 , 274 -276;

democratization in, 265 ;

men in, 13 ;

power feminism as, 267 ;

as revitalization of feminism, 27 , 57 -58, 265 -266, 275 -276;

on second-wave feminism, 266 -267;

sex debates in, 266 , 275 ;

sexual and economic issues in, 274 -275;

usage of term, 266 -267, 279 n22;

younger generation and, 266 -267

Thomas, Clarence, 282 n15

Thompson, Becky, 85 , 87 , 160

Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (Freud), 211 , 215

To Be Real (ed. Walker), 266 -267

Tong, Rosemary, 252

Two Live Crew, 71

Tyson, Mike, 12 .

U

Unbearable Weight (Bordo), 84 -85, 131

Unions, 221

V

Vance, Carol, 9 , 64 , 207

Venereal disease, 179 -180

Venus in Furs (Sacher-Masoch), 216

Victim feminism: defined, 230 , 231 ;

power feminism vs., 18 , 163 -164, 230 -231, 238 , 267 ;

radical feminism as, 230 ;

sex debates on, 230 -231;

violence against women and, 12 , 230 , 234 -236

Victimization, sadomasochism and, 215 -216

Videos, adult, 64

Vindication of the Rights of Whores, A (Pheterson), 177 , 185

Violence against women: domestic, 42 -43, 47 , 49 , 224 -225, 263 , 269 , 271 ;

essentialism and, 12 , 236 -237;

feminism and, 244 , 268 -269, 271 ;

as focus of feminism, 12 , 238 ;

laws against, 8 ;

prevalence of, 235 ;

sex debates on, 12 -13, 230 , 238 ;

third-wave feminism and, 275 ;

victim feminism and, 12 , 230 , 234 -236. See also Rape

W

Wacquant, Loic J. D., 174

Walker, Rebecca, 266

Walkowitz, Judith, 176 , 190

Wallace, Michele, 29 , 30 , 147 , 301 n6

Walters, Suzanna Danuta, 158 , 161 , 164 , 291 n87

WAP (Women Against Pornography), 63 , 190 , 207

Washington, antipornography laws in, 68

Weathermen, 21 -22

Weber, Max, 112

Weitzer, Ronald, 188

Welfare, 48 , 51 , 66 , 80 -81, 267 , 270 , 274

White, Deborah Gray, 269

Whore (term), 189

Williams, Terry, 174 , 193 , 194 , 196 , 296 n35

Willis, Ellen, 29 , 67 , 282 n15;

on mundane sexism, 46 ;

on pornography, 9 , 63 -64, 67 ;

on sadomasochism, 207 -208

Willis, Paul, 99 , 194

Winick, Charles, 178 , 179 -180

Wolf, Naomi: as attractive, 97 -98, 163 -164;

on backlash, 124 -126, 127 ;

on beauty, 84 , 124 -128, 157 , 162 -164, 165 , 189 ;

on beauty industry, 89 , 109 ;

on cosmetic surgery, 87 , 89 , 109 , 118 ;

Friday vs., 95 , 157 ;

popularity of, 92 ;

on pornography, 64 ;

on post-victim feminism, 61 ;

on power vs. victim feminism, 18 , 163 -164, 230 -231, 267 ;

on Roiphe, 230 -231

― 324 ―

Women Against Pornography (WAP), 63 , 190 , 207

Women Who Love Too Much (Norwood), 225 , 226

Working Women (Carmen and Moody), 179 -180, 181

Workplace, sadomasochistic dynamics in, 220 -224

Wuthering Heights (Brontë), 210

Y

Young, Iris, 52 , 254 -255

Z

Zaftig, 146

Indexer:	Amy Harper
Compositor:	Maple-Vail Book Manufacturing Group
Text:	10/13 Sabon
Display:	Sabon
Printer and binder:	Maple-Vail Book Manufacturing Group

1. The term "sex wars" is the title of Lisa Duggan and Nan D. Hunter's recent edited collection Sex Wars: Sexual Dissent and Political Culture (New York: Routledge, 1995). But its usage began much earlier. See, for example, Ann Ferguson, "Sex War: The Debate between Radical and Libertarian Feminists," Signs 10 (1984): 106-12, written as part of that issue's forum on the sexuality debates.

2. Ferguson, "Sex Wars," summarizes what she calls this "libertarian-feminist" position in seven points, each of which stresses the importance of specifically sexual freedoms for all women (109). None of these points involves sexist injustices per se—for example, workplace discrimination or racial segregation.

3. As Ferguson describes this point on what she calls the "radical feminist" side of the debate, "In patriarchal societies sexuality becomes a tool of male domination through sexual objectification" ("Sex Wars," 108; my emphasis). Unlike the libertarian-feminist position, this suggests that sexuality becomes a focal concern because of its discriminatory consequences, not necessarily proclaiming sexual pleasure as a good in and of itself. However, as will be increasingly apparent, these are differences in relative emphases rather than necessarily contradictory dichotomies.

4. See, in particular, the interesting and important collection edited by Nan Bauer Maglin and Donna Perry, "Bad Girls"/"Good Girls": Women, Sex, and Power in the Nineties (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996). The editors begin their introduction by stating, "This book is an action" (xiii), and proceed clearly to explain their hope of moving feminist thought and political practice beyond an overly dichotomized impasse, an impasse with which this book is concerned as well.

5. See Wendy Chapkis, Live Sex Acts: Women Performing Erotic Labor (New York: Routledge, 1997), 21, but also chap. 1, "The Meaning of Sex," in its entirety.

6. Ibid. Of course, this observation regarding the unavoidability of acknowledging dualisms in the very act of calling attention to their limitations can be applied to most if not all feminist theory. The observation can be applied both to early works of feminist thought that challenged sexist gender socialization (e.g., Simone de Beauvoir's Second Sex , ed. and trans. H. M. Parshley [1952; rpt., New York: Vintage, 1974]), and to more recent feminist theory that challenges the binarism of "sex" itself (e.g., Judith Butler's Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity [New York: Routledge, 1990]).

7. See Susan Faludi, Backlash: The Undeclared War against American Women (New York: Crown, 1991).

8. One excellent statement of the structure versus agency problem can be found in Margaret R. Somers and Gloria D. Gibson, "Reclaiming the Epistemological 'Other': Narrative and the Social Constitution of Identity," in Social Theory and the Politics of Identity , ed. Craig Calhoun (Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1994), 37-99.

9. This usage of "resistance" as rebellion from domination originated with the University of Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies in England, and has since made its way into a number of studies that focus on the "agency" side of the structure versus agency debate in contemporary cultural theory.

10. The significance of this shift from either/or to both/and modes of thought is chronicled in Joan Alway, "The Trouble with Gender: Tales of the Still-Missing Feminist Revolution in Sociological Theory," Sociological Theory 13 (1995): 209-28.

11. Ibid.; but see also Patricia Hill Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment (Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1990), and Dorothy Smith, The Everyday World as Problematic: A Feminist Sociology (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1977). The need to go beyond "either/or" dichotomies with regard to the concept of gender per se informs other important work, including Butler, Gender Trouble; Marjorie Garber, Vested Interests: Cross-Dressing and Cultural Anxiety (New York: Routledge, 1992); Donna Haraway, Primate Visions: Gender, Race, and Nature in the World of Modern Science (New York: Routledge, 1989) and Simians, Cyborgs, and Women: The Reinvention of Nature (New York: Routledge, 1991); Judith Lorber, Paradoxes of Gender (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994); and Paula Rust, Bisexuality and the Change to Lesbian Politics (New York: New York University Press, 1995). Lorber also deals with the problem of binary either/or distinctions in "Beyond the Binaries: Depolarizing the Categories of Sex, Sexuality, and Gender," Sociological Inquiry 66 (1996): 143-59.

12. Susan Bordo discusses the history of the mind/body and culture/nature dualisms that permeate the development of gender in her introduction to Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture, and the Body (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 1-42.

13. See, in particular, bell hooks's critiques of feminism in Ain't I a Woman:

Black Women and Feminism (Boston: South End, 1981) and Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center (Boston: South End, 1984). The problem of race in relation to gender is also described in terms of developing a more complex approach to feminist theory in Collins, Black Feminist Thought .

14. One manifestation of this race/class debate is the stress on class found in William Julius Wilson's Truly Disadvantaged (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), as contrasted with the emphasis on race in Stephen Steinberg's article critiquing Wilson, "The Underclass: A Case of Color Blindness," New Politics 2, no. 3 (1989): 42-60.

15. Two histories of the Left that document these splits from the beginning of the century through the 1960s are John P. Diggins, The American Left in the Twentieth Century (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973), and James Weinstein, Ambiguous Legacy: The Left in American Politics (New York: New Viewpoints, 1975). A general history of the sixties, which includes the emergence of black power, can be found in Peter B. Levy, The New Left and Labor in the 1960s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994). A classic work on the history of the civil rights movement, including the splits within it, is Clayborne Carson's In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981). With regard to feminism and the development of the split I have been describing in this introduction, see also Alice Echols, Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967-1975 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989).

16. See Ward Churchill and Jim Vander Wall, The COINTELPRO Papers: Documents from the FBI's Secret Wars against Domestic Dissent (Boston: South End, 1990). Also see the introductory note to chapter 8.

17. See Kate Millett, Sexual Politics (1969; rpt., New York: Simon and Schuster, 1990), 25.

18. See R. W. Connell, chap. 1, titled "Introduction: Some Facts in the Case," in Gender and Power: Society, the Person, and Sexual Politics (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987).

19. See Lorber's discussion of this point in Paradoxes of Gender , 3.

20. See, for example, Lynne Segal's interesting work Straight Sex: Rethinking the Politics of Pleasure (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), especially the preface and chap. 1. Segal makes a strong case for the importance of pleasure and sexual freedom in feminist politics. Questions of sexuality are the overall focus of Straight Sex , but, like Ellen Willis (see, e.g., No More Nice Girls , a set of her essays published in 1992), Segal is concerned about both "saying yes to sex" and saying "no to sexism." However, the basic orientation of her book addresses sexuality more than sexism: Segal is concerned about how to incorporate heterosexuality into a feminism from which heterosexual women and their pleasures may have been excluded in the past.

21. See Robin R. Linden, ed., Against Sadomasochism: A Radical Feminist Analysis (San Francisco: Frog in the Well, 1982).

22. To my knowledge, I may have been one of the first people to use the term "third-wave feminism," which later seems to have caught on. For instance, an organization of young feminists planning a "Freedom Summer 96" voter registration drive called itself Third Wave .

1. See, for example, Karen de Witt's descriptions of a recent conference in Washington, D.C., hosted by NOW and other feminist organizations to create an agenda for the 1990s: "New Cause Helps Feminists Appeal to Younger Women," New York Times , 5 February 1996, sec. 1, p. 10, and "Feminists Gather to Affirm Relevancy of Their Movement," New York Times , 3 February 1996, sec. 1, p. 9. On building greater political effectiveness, see also such recent books as Rebecca Walker, ed., To Be Real: Telling the Truth and Changing the Face of Feminism (New York: Anchor, 1995), especially Walker's introduction; and Naomi Wolf, Fire with Fire: The New Female Power and How It Could Change the Twenty-first Century (New York: Ballantine, 1993).

2. See the opening of my essay "Pornography Debates Reconsidered," New Politics 2, no. 1 (1988): 72-84, for a more detailed description of a conference at which this occurred.

3. See chapter 3, which discusses Strossen's book Defending Pornography: Free Speech, Sex, and the Fight for Women's Rights (New York: Scribner, 1995) in some detail.

4. Laurie Schrage, "Should Feminists Oppose Prostitution?" Ethics 99 (1989): 356-57. For the views of sex workers, see, for example, Laurie Bell, ed., Good Girls/Bad Girls: Feminists and Sex Trade Workers Face to Face (Seattle: Seal, 1987).

5. See especially part 3 of Wolf, Fire with Fire . I also discuss this problem in greater detail in chapter 7.

6. I write "even" because much feminist theory is explicitly concerned with this problem. From its beginnings, feminists have tried to explode either/or categories and binary distinctions, from nature/culture to masculinity/femininity itself.

7. See Susan Faludi, Backlash: The Undeclared War against American Women (New York: Crown, 1991).

8. Stuart Hall, Chas Critcher, Tony Jefferson, John Clarke, and Brian Roberts, Policing the Crisis: Mugging, the State, and Law and Order (London: Macmillan, 1978), 106; see also the entire chapter titled "Balancing Accounts" in this classic work.

9. In conducting over twenty-five interviews with print journalists while researching a book on high-profile crime cases, I was struck by how strongly contemporary reporters continue to believe in objectivity.

10. In this context, see Todd Gitlin's The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), esp. chap. 5, "Certifying Leaders and Converting Leadership to Celebrity." The Whole World Is Watching argues that the focus on certain spokespersons for Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) contributed to that organization's eventual undoing.

11. See Nadine Strossen's Defending Pornography: Free Speech, Sex, and the Fight for Women's Rights (New York: Scribner, 1995), 82.

12. See Lisa Duggan, introduction to Sex Wars: Sexual Dissent and Political

Culture , ed. Lisa Duggan and Nan D. Hunter (New York: Routledge, 1995), 1-14.

13. Wendy Chapkis, Live Sex Acts: Women Performing Erotic Labor (New York: Routledge, 1997), 2.

14. See Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981); Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching .

15. See Ward Churchill and Jim Vander Wall, The COINTELPRO Papers: Documents from the FBI's Secret Wars against Domestic Dissent (Boston: South End, 1990), and Nelson Blackstock, COINTELPRO: The FBI's Secret War on Political Freedom (New York: Vintage, 1976).

16. See Douglas S. Massey and Nancy A. Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993).

17. I here follow Emile Durkheim, who argued, in his famous chapter on differentiating the "normal" from the "pathological," that the creation of the other is intimately connected with creating social cohesiveness (The Rules of Sociological Method , trans. W. D. Halls, ed. Steven Lukes [New York: Free Press, 1982], 85-107).

18. We might note that when Bill Clinton was running for president in 1992, one of the first attacks made on Hillary Clinton charged her with being a "radical feminist": clearly, this form of feminism was the gender equivalent to the "L" word as it was used against Michael Dukakis when he ran for president as a Democrat four years earlier.

19. See the introduction. Among many others, two especially clear examples of feminist theory moving toward explicit acknowledgment of complexity, in the process incorporating both/and rather than either/or conceptions of thought, can be found in Patricia Hill Collins's Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment (Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1990) and in Dorothy Smith's Everyday World as Problematic: A Feminist Sociology (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1987).

20. A good summary of postmodern theory, including its doubts about the possibility of historical agency (especially in the work of Baudrillard and Lyotard), can be found in Craig Calhoun's Critical Social Theory (Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1995), chap. 4.

21. See, for example, Collins, Black Feminist Thought , chap. 2, "Defining Black Feminist Thought."

1. See, for example, Sara Evans, Personal Politics: The Roots of Women's Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement and the New Left (New York: Knopf, 1979); Alice Echols, Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967-1975 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989); and Ellen Willis, "Radical Feminism and Feminist Radicalism," in The 60s without Apology , ed. Sohnya Sayres et al. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984), 91-118.

2. See, e.g., Shulamith Firestone, The Dialectic of Sex: The Case for Feminist Revolution (New York: Morrow, 1970); Kate Millett, Sexual Politics (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1970); Ti-Grace Atkinson, Amazon Odyssey (New York: Links, 1974); and Michele Wallace, Black Macho and the Myth of the Superwoman (1979; rpt., London: Verso, 1990).

3. See E. Willis, "Radical Feminism."

4. See, for instance, Lise Vogel, Woman Questions: Essays for a Materialist Feminism (New York: Routledge, 1995), chap. 8. Louise Bernikow's American Almanac: An Inspiring and Irreverent Women's History (New York: Berkeley, 1997) is also helpful on this question.

6. See Firestone, Dialectic of Sex, chap. 1.

7. See Adrienne Rich, "Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence," Signs 5 (1980): 631-6o.

8. See Millett, Sexual Politics , 33.

9. Ibid., 37.

10. See Simone de Beauvoir, The Second Sex , ed. and trans. H. M. Parshley (1952; rpt., New York: Vintage Books, 1974), especially chaps. 12 and 13 of book 2. On women's socialization toward cooperation and connection, see Carol Gilligan, In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982).

11. For a superb analysis of the ongoing effects of dominant ideologies about "the" family, centering on the institutionalization of marriage in family law, see Martha Albertson Fineman, The Neutered Mother, the Sexual Family, and Other Twentieth-Century Tragedies (New York: Routledge, 1995).

12. For an excellent quantitative and qualitative account of ongoing disparities of gender, see chap. 1 of R. W. Connell, Gender and Power: Society, the Person, and Sexual Politics (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987).

13. See Firestone, Dialectic of Sex , chap. 1, and Millett, Sexual Politics , chap. 2.

14. I think here of the astute title of Jessica Benjamin's first book on psychoanalysis and gendered relations, The Bonds of Love: Psychoanalysis, Feminism, and the Problem of Domination (New York: Pantheon, 1988).

15. Ellen Willis begins an excellent essay on the sex debates by describing how the subtitle of Levine's work was changed from "Man-Hating and Ambivalence in Women's Lives" to "Women, Men, and the Dilemmas of Gender" when the book came out in paperback. According to Willis's account of Levine's personal explanation, "The Word had become a total conversation stopper: too many readers, including female readers, saw it, freaked out, and either refused to go near the book (as if it harbored a contagious disease) or substituted their fantasy of what the author must be saying for what she had actually said. In the interest of communication of any sort, she decided, 'manhating' had to go." Yet Levine's book was published soon after the Hill-Thomas affair had brought tremendous female rage to the surface, suggesting, Willis argues, "a troubling distortion in the public conversation about feminism." See "Villains and Vic-

tims: 'Sexual Correctness' and the Repression of Feminism," in "Bad Girls"/ "Good Girls": Women, Sex and Power in the Nineties , ed. Nan Bauer Maglin and Donna Perry (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996), 44-45.

16. See Judith Levine, My Enemy, My Love: Man-Hating and Ambivalence in Women's Lives (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 4.

17. An excellent discussion of the importance for all feminists of analyzing the complexity of heterosexual relationships is found in Lynne Segal, Straight Sex: Rethinking the Politics of Pleasure (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994).

18. See Paula C. Rust, "The Politics of Sexual Identity: Sexual Attraction and Behavior among Lesbian and Bisexual Women," Social Problems 39 (1992): 375-76.

19. See the accounts provided of the relationship between de Beauvoir and Sartre both in Deirdre Bair's exhaustive biography, Simone de Beauvoir. A Biography (New York: Summit, 1990), and in the superb account of the intellectual context of this famous couple's interaction by Toril Moi, Simone de Beauvoir: The Making of an Intellectual Woman (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994).

20. See E. Willis, "Villains and Victims," 46.

21. See Connell, Gender and Power .

22. See Zillah Eisenstein, The Radical Future of Liberal Feminism (New York: Longman, 1981).

23. Joseph D. Lichtenberg and Joseph William Slap, "Notes on the Concept of Splitting and the Defense Mechanism of the Splitting of Representations," Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 21 (1973): 781, 780-81.

24. See the account of this FBI interest in Ward Churchill and Jim Vander Wall, The COINTELPRO Papers: Documents from the FBI's Secret Wars against Domestic Dissent (Boston: South End, 1990).

1. Nadine Strossen, Defending Pornography: Free Speech, Sex, and the Fight for Women's Rights (New York: Scribner, 1995).

2. A history of radical feminism, including splits over sexuality, can be found in Alice Echols, Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967-1975 (Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press, 1989). I have also written about the politics of the Barnard conference elsewhere; in particular, see Lynn Chancer, "The Current State of the Feminist Movement," in Socialist Perspectives , ed. Phyllis Jacobson and Julius Jacobson (New York: Karz-Cohl, 1983), 97-117.

3. Though I am arguing that indeed real debates have existed inside feminism, Strossen's shorthand reference to a "procensorship" side is also a bit of a

misnomer. Whether or not one concurs with their views, it is not accurate to say that MacKinnon and Dworkin are in favor of censoring all sexual images, but rather only those that fit the proposed ordinances' criteria.

4. Ellen Willis was making this point as early as I979. See her essay titled "Feminism, Moralism, and Pornography," reprinted in Snitow, Stansell, and Thompson, Powers of Desire , 460-67, esp. 467. An excellent and detailed description of the local politics surrounding the passage of the antipornography ordinance in Indianapolis, which gives special attention to the peculiar alliances forged in that process, is found in Donald Alexander Downs, The New Politics of Pornography (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), chap. 4, aptly titled "Strange Bedfellows."

5. Naomi Wolf, Fire with Fire: The New Female Power and How It Could Change the Twenty-first Century (New York: Ballantine, 1994); Katie Roiphe, The Morning After: Sex, Fear, and Feminism on Campus (New York: Little, Brown, 1993).

6. Strossen, Defending Pornography , 160; Deborah L. Rhode, Speaking of Sex: The Denial of Gender Inequality (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997), 131.

7. Strossen, Defending Pornography , 159; Rhode, Speaking of Sex , 131.

8. The idea of "mutual recognition" has been wonderfully developed in Jessica Benjamin's Bonds of Love: Psychoanalysis. Feminism, and the Problem of Domination (New York: Pantheon, 1988).

9. Lynn Chancer, "Pornography Debates Reconsidered," New Politics 2, no. 1 (1988): 75.

10. It should be noted that "anticensorship" and "procensorship," the terms Strossen uses and which I have borrowed upon here, do not precisely summarize the MacKinnon/Dworkin position and the ordinances then passed, first in Minneapolis (where it was vetoed by the mayor) and later in Indianapolis. Rather, the ordinances would censor only those instances of sexual imagery, usually classified as pornographic, that were "graphic sexually explicit subordination of women through pictures and words" (as quoted in Strossen, Defending Pornography , 75). While one can and should question the vagueness of such a definition, the stated intention was not to censor all pornography.

11. E. Willis, "Feminism, Moralism, and Pornography."

12. These arguments are considered in detail in Chancer, "The Pornography Debates Reconsidered."

13. See Strossen, Defending Pornography , 75-79. Strossen notes that the antipornography was first struck down by a federal trial court judge in 1984, a decision affirmed by a panel of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit in 1985 before the case reached the Supreme Court in 1986.

14. Ibid., 77. See also Downs, The New Politics of Pornography , chap. 4, "Strange Bedfellows: The Politics of the Ordinance in Indianapolis."

15. Strossen, Defending Pornography , 80, 81-82.

16. Ibid., 19, 77.

15. Strossen, Defending Pornography , 80, 81-82.

17. Ibid., 39.

18. See Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness , trans. Hazel E. Barnes (New York: Philosophical Library, 1956), part 1.

19. Strossen, Defending Pornography , 39-40.

20. See ibid., chap. 11, "Lessons from Enforcement."

21. Rhode, Speaking of Sex , 131.

22. Strossen, Defending Pornography , 231, 234, 237.

23. I have paraphrased Strossen's last paragraphs of Defending Pornography , where she concludes: "The appeal of any censorship movement, including the one directed at pornography, is understandable insofar as it appears to offer a simple, inexpensive solution to complex troubling societal problems. In contrast, measures that are designed to redress the root causes of these problems are less dramatic, more cumbersome, and more costly than censorship" (279).

24. Here I again borrow from Strossen's terminology; references to the "MacDworkin" side or the "MacDworkinite movement" are scattered throughout Defending Pornography (e.g., see 82).

25. Rhode, Speaking of Sex , 134.

26. The work generally associated with Sartre's efforts at showing the limitations on human freedom bequeathed by social constraints, and with Marxism's influence on him, is his Critique of Dialectical Reason (1960).

27. I find myself thinking here of Manuel Puig's novel Kiss of the Spider Woman (1976) and the 1986 film version. Even when the main character is imprisoned—when he has been tortured, cut off from all external possibilities— the jailers cannot enforce total captivity on this political prisoner, because he still has the power of his imagination and dreams. Of course, suicide represents the ultimate assertion of freedom—though at the terrible cost of the self—even amid the worst horrors.

28. Stuart Hall, "The Rediscovery of 'Ideology': Return of the Repressed in Media Studies," in Culture, Society, and the Media , ed. Michael Gurevitch, Tony Bennett, James Curran and Janet Woollacott (New York: Routledge, 1992), 85.

29. Other visions of pornography may remain relatively subordinated by contrast, or unrealized, or even not yet able to be imagined.

30. This should not be taken as implying that all men have equal power. Clearly, masculinity itself is divided along complex axes that impose other forms of dominant/subordinate relationships. See, for example, R. W. Connell's recent Masculinities (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995).

31. In an earlier work, I tried to describe this pattern as one that not only may make its way into pornography but pervades much of contemporary culture through common "sadomasochistic dynamics." See chaps. 2 and 5 of Lynn S. Chancer, Sadomasochism in Everyday Life (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1992).

32. Catharine MacKinnon, Only Words (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993), 13, 31.

1. De Beauvoir begins book z of The Second Sex , ed. and trans. H. M. Parshley (1952; rpt., New York: Vintage, 1974) with this statement, as she

begins to chronicle the development of the young girl through myriad life stages and social influences (301).

2. See Emile Durkheim, "What Is a Social Fact?" in The Rules of Sociological Method , trans. W. D. Halls, ed. Steven Lukes (New York: Free Press, 1982), 50-59.

3. See, for instance, Susan Bordo's essay on anorexia nervosa, in which she cites three axes that influence social concerns about this particular form of appearance expectations: the "control axis" affects men as well as women because the insecurities that cause it cross gender lines (Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture, and the Body [Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993], 148-54).

4. By this I mean the disproportionate importance placed on marriage and coupledom for women (see de Beauvoir's chapter "The Married Woman," in The Second Sex , 475-540). The point is also clearly made in Adrienne Rich's classic essay, "Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence," Signs 5 (1980): 631-6o.

5. This claim that looks and traditional expectations determine women's lives is in general analytically apt—even if it varies to some extent depending on the position of a particular woman. At one end of the socioeconomic spectrum, the rich woman may be able to evade this imperative; at another, the poor or racialized man may be subject to it. But these exceptions do not undermine the rule itself. As we will see later in more detail, men of differing classes and races feel a common right to evaluate women's bodies. Simultaneously, and ironically, men facing class and race discrimination are more likely to find that they are assessed too much in terms of bodily endowments. see, on this point, Robert Connell's discussion of these difference in Masculinities (Berkeley: University of California Press 1995), esp. chaps. 3, 8, and 10.

6. Michael A. Messner, for example, in Power at Play: Sports and the Problem of Masculinity (Boston: Beacon, 1992), shows the different ramifications of looks for men relative to a particular man's class and race position in society. Thus, in certain circumstances, men may find themselves not only judges (of women's beauty) but judged themselves. See also Sandra Bartky, "Narcissism, Femininity, and Alienation," in Femininity and Domination (New York: Routledge, 1990), 40; and Naomi Wolf, The Beauty Myth: How Images of Beauty Are Used against Women (New York: Morrow, 1991).

7. Bordo, Unbearable Weight , 140, 154.

8. See Becky Wangsgaard Thompson, "'A Way Outa No Way': Eating Problems among African-American, Latina, and White Women," Gender and Society 6 (1992): 546-61.

9. See Thompson, "'A Way Outa No Way,'" and A Hunger So Wide and So Deep- American Women Speak Out on Eating Problems (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994). Racism is cited not only by Thompson but by several of my students in papers for undergraduate courses.

10. Bordo, Unbearable Weight , 61. In this essay, "Whose Body Is This?" Bordo writes that "this is a culture in which rigorous dieting and exercise are being engaged in by more and younger girls all the time—girls as young as seven or eight, according to some studies."

11. Ibid., 154.

12. Mary Pipher, Reviving Ophelia: Saving the Selves of Adolescent Girls (New York: Ballantine, 1995), 27, 28, 184, 185.

13. Kate Peirce, "A Feminist Theoretical Perspective on the Socialization of Teenage Girls through Seventeen Magazine," Sex Roles 23 (1990): 491-500.

14. Susan Faludi, Backlash: The Undeclared War on American Women (New York: Crown, 1991), 217; Wolf, The Beauty Myth , 251.

15. See Kathy Davis's overview of this boom in Reshaping the Female Body: The Dilemma of Cosmetic Surgery (New York: Routledge, 1995), 20-21.

16. Ibid., 21.

17. See Eugenia Kaw, "Medicalization of Racial Features: Asian American Women and Cosmetic Surgery," Medical Anthropological Quarterly 7 (1993): 74-89.

18. Naomi Murakawa, "The Politics of Looking: Unveiling Asian Blepha-roplasty and Exposing the Fallacies of Liberal Choice" (senior thesis, Columbia College, 1995).

19. In the introduction to Reshaping the Female Body , Kathy Davis describes the research opportunity she saw when, after the Netherlands had covered cosmetic surgery in its national health insurance plan for many years, budgetary considerations led policy makers to seek cuts in insurance coverage: how would these be made, and on what basis? Observing this decision-making process became part of Davis's research.

20. Ibid., 3.

21. For a good overview of ongoing class stratification among women in the United States, see Ruth Sidel, Women and Children Last: The Plight of Poor Women in Affluent America (New York: Penguin, 1987).

22. An exception to the exception, however, may be found among those women who quite reasonably discover that their jobs seems to demand such surgery: say, a newscaster or actor moving into her forties and fifties whose very livelihood demands looking still young.

23. See Edwin M. Schur, Labeling Women Deviant: Gender, Stigma, and Social Control (New York: Random House, 1984), 77.

24. Wolf, The Beauty Myth , 17.

25. See the introduction; also, see Lisa Duggan and Nan D. Hunter, Sex Wars: Sexual Dissent and Political Culture (New York: Routledge, 1995).

26. See chapter 7.

27. Cathy Schwichtenberg, "Madonna's Postmodern Feminism: Bringing the Margins to the Center," in The Madonna Connection: Representational Politics, Subcultural Identities, and Cultural Theory , ed. Cathy Schwichtenberg (Boulder: Westview, 1993), 141.

28. Susan Bordo, "'Material Girl': The Effacements of Postmodern Culture," in Schwichtenberg, The Madonna Connection , 285, 288.

29. Ibid., 288-89.

30. Davis, Reshaping the Female Body , 174, and more generally 174-81. See Kathryn Pauly Morgan, "Women and the Knife: Cosmetic Surgery and the Colonization of Women's Bodies," Hypatia 6, no. 3 (1991): 25-53.

31. See, for instance, Lily Burana, "Bend Me, Shape Me," New York , 15

July 1996, 28-34, in which a clearly beautiful reporter describes being told she nevertheless needed $20,000 worth of cosmetic surgery reforms; and Charles Siebert, "The Cuts That Go Deeper," New York Times Magazine , 7 July 1996, 20-35, in which the author attempts to interpret rises in cosmetic surgical operations performed on both men and women. Around the same time, National Public Radio did an hour-long program on the subject of beauty and its meaning for feminists across class and race as well as gendered lines.

32. See Holly Brubach, "The Athletic Esthetic," New York Times Magazine , 23 June 1996, 48-51, written this same summer.

33. Nancy Friday, The Power of Beauty (New York: HarperCollins, 1996), 320- 21, 337.

34. Geoffrey Cowley, "The Biology of Beauty: What Science Has Discovered about Sex Appeal," Newsweek , 3 June 1996, 65, 66.

35. It should be emphasized that Davis herself, in treating cosmetic surgery, wishes to avoid such dichotomizing (even if her position eventually becomes perceived, despite her intentions, as taking sides in the debate).

36. See the section on the professional beauty qualification, from the "Work" chapter in Wolf's Beauty Myth , esp. 27-48.

37. Paul E. Willis writes of "lads" who "penetrate" their own situation in Learning to Labour: How Working Class Kids Get Working Class Jobs (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981). But why wouldn't such penetration be possible for women, and perhaps to other groups in situations across gender lines?

38. See the useful work of R. W. Connell in this regard, both in Gender and Power: Society, the Person, and Sexual Politics (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987) and Masculinities .

39. Regarding the immensity of this cultural influence, see, for example, two recent articles: Melissa K. Rich and Thomas F. Cash, "The American Image of Beauty: Media Representations of Hair Color for Four Decades," Sex Roles 29 (1993): 113-23, and Barry Vacker and Wayne R. Key, "Beauty and the Beholder: The Pursuit of Beauty through Commodities," Psychology and Marketing 10 (1993): 471-93.

40. A good summation of this literature is found in Bryan S. Turner, The Body and Society: Explorations in Social Theory (New York: Blackwell, 1984).

41. See Steven Goldberg, The Inevitability of Patriarchy (New York: Morrow, 1973), and Norman Mailer, The Prisoner of Sex (New York: Little, Brown, 1971), chap. 3, esp. 93-95.

42. See Lois Banner, In Full Power: Aging Women, Power, and Sexuality (New York: Knopf, 1992).

43. Emily Martin, "Science and Women's Bodies: Forms of Anthropological Knowledge," in Body/Politics: Women and the Discourses of Science , ed. Mary Jacobus, Evelyn Fox Keller, and Sally Shuttleworth (New York: Routledge, 1990), 69.

44. See chapter 3, especially with regard to how a hegemonic pornography can come to dominate a given society.

45. Bartky, "Narcissism, Femininity, and Alienation."

46. Wolf, The Beauty Myth , 17 (my emphases); for the $10 billion figure,

see Nadine Strossen, Defending Pornography: Free Speech, Sex, and the Fight for Women's Rights (New York: Scribner, 1995), 160.

47. See John Kenneth Galbraith, The Affluent Society , 4th ed. (New York: New American Library, 1985).

48. In this context, see especially Michel Foucault's Discipline and Punish , trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Pantheon, 1977) and History of Sexuality , vol. 1, An Introduction , trans. Robert Hurley (New York: Pantheon, 1978).

49. See Stanley Aronowitz and William DiFazio, The Jobless Future: Sci-Tech and the Dogma of Work (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994).

50. I mean "distinction" in the sense used by Pierre Bourdieu in Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste , trans. Richard Nice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1984).

51. See the overview concerning the inadequate exploration of race in classic sociological theory provided by Robert Blauner at the opening of Racial Oppression in America (New York: Harper and Row, 1972). Also, see Max Weber, Economy and Society (1922; rpt., Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978).

52. See Connell's explanation of the distinction between hegemonic and marginalized masculinities in Masculinities , chaps. 3, 8, 10.

53. Banner, In Full Power .

54. See Connell, Masculinities , chap. 3, in which hegemonic and marginalized forms of masculinities are distinguished.

55. Jessica Benjamin noted this beautifully when describing the relation between Stephen and Rene, characters in The Story of O . See chap. 2, "Master and Slave," in The Bonds of Love: Psychoanalysis, Feminism, and the Problem of Domination (New York: Pantheon Books, 1988).

56. To be sure, in many cases a woman's attraction to a man is indeed primarily based upon looks. However, the man with power but without good looks is able to translate that combination into attractiveness to women far more easily than a woman likely can who has power without good looks.

57. See Pierre Bourdieu, "Social Space and the Genesis of Groups," Theory and Society 14 (1985): 723-44.

58. Talcott Parsons, Social Systems and the Evolution of Action Theory (New York: Free Press, 1977).

59. Murakawa, "The Politics of Looking."

60. The irony for the many men who fall into this category is especially acute, because (as we have seen) throughout their lives such values of physical attractiveness were not equally important for them as for women.

61. For that matter, if I am a man whose race or class position makes such constructed "bodily capital" only differentially available to him (perhaps a young man of color for whom sports may seem the only way out of the ghetto, given the relative inaccessibility of other forms of social capital), I may find myself suffering from a similar sense of poignant obsolescence and possibilities forever lost as I age—even if gender's own insidious effects allow me some comforts, in terms of the relative power I still have over women.

62. For an explanation of performativity, see Judith Butler, Gender Trouble:

Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York: Routledge, 1990), esp. 24-25.

63. Wolf, The Beauty Myth , 10-11.

64. Connell does a good job of summing up this lack of progress in "Introduction: Some Facts in the Case," in Gender and Power , 1-11.

65. Again, an important exception to viewing beauty only as a feminist issue can be found in the writings of Becky Thompson.

66. Let me be clear that I fervently believe in the political validity and necessity of affirmative action, especially since the larger class and economic structures of American society have remained largely unaltered despite the existence of legal equality. Yet the same argument I am making about looks-ism holds here too: the strong reaction against affirmative action may in part be because social movements have fought for gender- and race-related interests within too narrowly challenged economic limits.

67. On "mutual recognition," see Benjamin, The Bonds of Love , chap. 1.

68. I think here of a speech given by Betty Friedan on a panel organized by Amitai Etzioni at the American Sociological Association meetings in August 1995. Friedan argued that it had been a mistake for feminists to keep emphasizing distinctively gender-specific issues like violence against women: she proposed taking a recess from doing so. But this is an unfortunately either/or proposition in itself: why can't women press for class-related reforms at the same time they unapologetically keep issues about gender at the surface of public consciousness?

69. Many feminists are already recognizing the need to act on several fronts at once: in political terms, see Kristal Brent Zook, "A Manifesto of Sorts for a Black Feminist Movement," New York Times Magazine , 12 November 1995, 86-89; in academic terms, see Joan Alway, "The Trouble with Gender: Tales of the Still-Missing Feminist Revolution in Sociological Theory," Sociological Theory 13 (1995): 209-28.

70. See the introduction to Aronowitz and DiFazio, The Jobless Future .

71. See Messner, Power at Play , and Connell, Masculinities .

72. Bordo discusses the control axis in her essay on anorexia nervosa in Unbearable Weight , 142, 148-54.

73. See Butler's Gender Trouble for a critique of speciously separating "gender" from "sex" in feminist analyses (e.g., 6-7).

74. I do not mean to imply that no one manages to minimize the effects of looks-ism—but even defining oneself against the beauty system is to acknowledge its prior effects and to admit it is something against which one had to make very strenuous efforts to rebel.

75. I realize, of course, that men experience this split between the sexual and intellectual too: it is simply a part of life that one feels sexual at some moments, intent on projects that have little to do with being sexual at others. But for women, as the discussion of Faludi and Wolf above makes clear, the ability to experience one and the other—intellectuality and sexuality—is often compromised, so that too often a woman feels she must be entirely one or the other in a society structured to be at once sexist and looks-ist.

76. The sociological necessity for which I am arguing is made clear in Rich, "Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence," as well as more generally in the writings of Durkheim.

77. See the "methodology" of life stage development that de Beauvoir approached in parts 4 and 5 of The Second Sex .

78. See, for example, the interesting analysis of this complex question found in Holly Devor's Gender Blending: Confronting the Limits of Duality (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989), esp. chaps. 4-7.

79. An excellent description of these projected fantasies can be found in chaps. 5 and 6 of Diana Scully, Understanding Sexual Violence: A Study of Convicted Rapists (New York: Routledge, 1994). Scully shows that convicted rapists were convinced that the women they assaulted had really "wanted it"; she lists the varied mythologies regarding women's sexuality which that projected belief entailed.

80. See, in particular, chap. 3 in Cecilie Hoigard and Liv Finstad, Backstreets: Prostitution, Money, and Love (College Park: University of Pennsylvania State University Press, 1992), esp. 69-75, 90, 95-97.

81. Ibid.

82. My analysis here is indebted to the analysis of sociological distinctions that is found in Bourdieu's Distinctions . Obviously, I intend to illuminate only the specific question of beauty distinctions in the contemporary U.S. context.

83. See, for example, Patricia Hill Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment (Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1990), and Deborah Gray White, Ar'n' I a Woman: Female Slaves in the Plantation South (New York: Norton, 1985).

84. See bell hooks, Ain't I a Woman: Black Women and Feminism (Boston: South End, 1981), 33.

85. Ibid.

86. See Malcolm X, The Autobiography of Malcolm X , as told to Alex Haley (New York: Ballantine Books, 1964); Eldridge Cleaver, Soul on Ice (1968; rpt., New York: Laurel/Dell, 1992); and Michele Wallace, Black Macho and the Myth of the Superwoman (1979; rpt., London: Verso, 1990).

87. See Suzanna Danuta Walters, Lives Together/Worlds Apart: Mothers and Daughters in Popular Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), for an account of mothers and daughters that offers an entirely different and much more mutually supportive conception of this relationship. Walters shows that a negative depiction of mother/daughter relationships has frequently characterized popular cultural representations: it has been imposed from without, even though the actual experiences of many mothers and daughters are quite different.

88. In researching other topics, I have carried out several interviews in Los Angeles among women who seek acting jobs after entering their mid-forties and fifties. Their experience of age discrimination is frequently worse than for their male peers.

89. See, for example, reports on a Washington conference attended by 3,000 feminists: Karen de Witt, "New Cause Helps Feminists Appeal to

Younger Women," New York Times , 5 February 1996, sec. 1, p. 10, and "Feminists Gather to Affirm Relevancy of Their Movement," New York Times , 3 February 1996, sec. 1, p. 9.

90. Nancy Chodorow's best-known work is The Reproduction of Mothering: Psychoanalysis and the Sociology of Gender (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978).

91. See not only ibid., especially Chodorow's description of hypersymbiosis as may often affect the development of young girls and their relationships with primary caretakers (usually mothers; 100), but also chaps. 1, 5, and 6 of Benjamin, The Bonds of Love .

92. Suzanna Danuta Walters, Material Girls: Making Sense of Feminist Cultural Theory (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 30-31.

93. "No More Miss America!" is taken from the section titled "Historical Documents" in Sisterhood Is Powerful: An Anthology of Writings from the Women's Liberation Movement , ed. Robin Morgan (New York: Vintage, 1970), 584-88. To this reprint, Morgan added a note: "Bras were never burned. Bra-burning was a whole-cloth invention of the media."

94. Interview with Lila Karp, who was in the early 1970s a member of the Feminists. For a more specific history of these groups, see, e.g., Alice Echols's Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967-1975 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989) and a theoretically and historically important essay by Ellen Willis, "Radical Feminism and Feminist Radicalism," in The 60s without Apology , ed. Sohnya Sayres et al. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984), 91-118.

95. "No More Miss America!" 584-85, 586, 587-88.

96. For a good description of current debates over such usages of "woman," see Judith Grant, Fundamental Feminism: Contesting the Core Concepts of Feminist Theory (New York: Routledge, 1993), especially the first two chapters; for a more detailed argument for the term's necessity in historical contexts, see chapter 8 of this volume.

97. Kate Millett, Sexual Politics (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1970); Shulamith Firestone, The Dialectic of Sex: The Case for Feminist Revolution (New York: Morrow, 1970); and Ti-Grace Atkinson, Amazon Odyssey (New York: Links, 1974).

98. These essays themselves respond to the dominant psychological approach that characterizes the "medical model's" approach to anorexia, an individualized lens that ignores the relevance of more sociological and feminist interpretations that stress social construction. See Bordo, Unbearable Weight , 139-65, 185-215. See also Kim Chernin, The Obsession: Reflections on the Tyranny of Slenderness (New York: Perennial Library, 1982), 139-64.

99. On obesity see, in addition to Thompson's works, Marcia Millman, Such a Pretty Face: Being Fat in America (New York: Norton, 1980), and Susie Orbach, Fat Is a Feminist Issue: The Anti-Diet Guide to Permanent Weight Loss (1978; rpt., New York: Berkley, 1990). For a sense of the main positions on cosmetic surgery and the relationship between them, see K. Morgan, "Women and the Knife," and Kathy Davis, "Remaking the She-Devil: A Critical Look at Feminist Approaches to Beauty," Hypatia 6, no. 2 (1991): 21-43.

100. I have shamelessly lifted the title of this section from chap. I of Walters, Material Girls .

101. See, e.g., Laura Mulvey, Visual and Other Pleasures (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989); Tania Modleski, Loving with a Vengeance: Mass-Produced Fantasies for Women (Hamden, Conn.: Archon, 1982), and Teresa de Lauretis, Alice Doesn't: Feminism, Semiotics, Cinema (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984).

102. Walters, Material Girls , esp. chap. 3.

103. Ibid., 143, 155.

104. Karl Marx, "Concerning Feuerbach," in Early Writings (New York: Vintage, 1975), 423.

105. See Collins, Black Feminist Thought , chap. 4.

106. Bartky focuses on narcissism in "Narcissism, Femininity, and Alienation," 33-44.

107. Robin Tolmach Lakoff and Raquel L. Scherr, Face Value: The Politics ofBeauty (Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1984), and Wendy Chapkis, Beauty Secrets: Women and the Politics of Appearance (Boston: South End, 1986).

108. See Naomi Wolf, Fire with Fire: The New Female Power and How to Use It (New York: Ballantine, 1993), esp. part 3, "Victim Feminism versus Power Feminism." See also chapter 7 of this volume.

109. See "Beyond the Beauty Myth," which concludes Wolf's Beauty Myth; chap. 5, "Toward a More Colorful Revolution," which ends Chapkis's Beauty Secrets; and chap. 10, "Some Final Thoughts," in Lakoff and Scherr, Face Value .

110. See, in their entireties, Sara Halprin, "Lookat My Ugly Face"! Myths and Musings on Beauty and Other Perilous Obsessions with Women's Appearance (New York: Penguin, 1995), and Ellen Zetzel Lambert, The Face of Love: Feminism and the Beauty Question (Boston: Beacon, 1995).

1. See Judith Rollins, Between Women: Domestics and Their Employers (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1985); Terry Williams, The Cocaine Kids: The Inside Story of a Teenage Drug Ring (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1989), and Crack House (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1992); Martin Sanchez Jankowski, Islands in the Street: Gangs and American Urban Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991); and Loic J. D. Wacquant, "Corps et âme: notes ethnographiques d'un apprenti-boxeur," Actes de la recherch en sciences sociales 80 (November 1989): 33-67.

2. My friend Eric, an economics Ph.D. candidate, arrived for dinner while I was beginning this essay, read these first paragraphs, and remarked: "What is this, a joke? She's a whore, right? I'd give her a job right now—lying down." Another guest, a Legal Aid lawyer, also suddenly reverted to the state of a

sexually embarrassed and rather mindless fourteen-year-old, adding with a laugh, "Ditto—I disagree with you, Lynn, there'd be lots of openings for her (hee hee) . . ."

3. Of course, works cited do not exhaust or complete include all studies of prostitution in the United States. However, those mentioned are a good sampling of the more academic, frequently cited, and better-known writings I found on the subject.

4. See Judith Walkowitz, Prostitution and Victorian Society: Women, Class, and the State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980); Ruth Rosen, The Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1990-1918 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982); Anne Butler, Daughters of Joy, Sisters of Misery: Prostitution in the American West (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985); Barbara Meil Hobson, Uneasy Virtue: The Politics of Prostitution and the American Reform Tradition (New York: Basic Books, 1987); and Alain Corbin, Women for Hire: Prostitution and Sexuality in France after 1850 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1990).

5. Laurie Bell, ed., Good Girls/Bad Girls: Feminists and Sex Trade Workers lace to Face (Seattle: Seal, 1987); Frederique Delacoste and Priscilla Alexander, eds., Sex Work: Writings by Women in the Sex Industry (Pittsburgh: Cleis, 1987); and Gall Pheterson, ed., A Vindication of the Rights of Whores (Seattle: Seal, 1989).

6. Kathleen Barry, Female Sexual Slavery (New York: New York University Press, 1979); see also Laurie Schrage, "Should Feminists Oppose Prostitution?" Ethics 99 (1989): 347-61.

7. On feminists, see Michael Musheno and Kathryn Seely, "Prostitution Policy and the Women's Movement: Historical Analyses of Feminist Thought and Organization," Contemporary Crises 10 (1986): 237-55; on college students, see Bell, Good Girls/Bad Girls .

8. Lena Dominelli, "The Power of the Powerless: Prostitution and the Reinforcement of Submissive Femininity," Sociological Review 34 (1986): 65-92. On images of prostitution, see Valerie Jenness, "From Sex as Sin to Sex as Work: COYOTE and the Reorganization of Prostitution as a Social Problem," Social Problems 37 (1990): 403-20; on feminists' failure to effect significant change, see Ronald Weitzer, "Prostitutes' Rights in the United States: The Failure of a Movement," Sociological Quarterly 32 (1991): 23-41.

9. See Gayle Rubin, "The Traffic in Women: Notes on the 'Political Economy' of Sex," in Toward an Anthropology of Women , ed. Rayna Reiter (New York: Monthly Review, 1975), 157-210.

10. Charles Winick and Paul M. Kinsie, The Lively Commerce: Prostitution in the United States (Chicago: Quadrangle, 1971), 57, 29.

11. Barbara Sherman Heyl, The Madam as Entrepreneur: Career Management in House Prostitution (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1979).

12. Eleanor M. Miller, Street Woman (Philadelphia: Temple University Press), 10, 25.

13. Arlene Carmen and Howard Moody, Working Women: The Subterranean World of Street Prostitution (New York: Harper and Row, 1985).

14. Ibid., xi.

13. Arlene Carmen and Howard Moody, Working Women: The Subterranean World of Street Prostitution (New York: Harper and Row, 1985).

15. Ibid., 12-13.

13. Arlene Carmen and Howard Moody, Working Women: The Subterranean World of Street Prostitution (New York: Harper and Row, 1985).

16. Ibid., 27.

17. Cecelie Hoigard and Liv Finstad, Backstreets: Prostitution, Money, and Love (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1992).

18. I would include films here as well: Lizzie Borden's Working Girls (Miramax Films, 1988) comes to mind as an example of the same misleading equation operative within a cinematic representation.

19. Edwin Schur defined prostitution as one of three "victimless crimes" in his book Crimes without Victims (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1965).

20. Here, the reader might wish to reflect on the interesting question, again in the realm of fantasy, of whether a male sociologist undertaking a participant observation of male customers (again in Amsterdam, say) would fare any better at an ASA conference, or worse, than the hypothetical feminist sociologist with whom I commenced. He, too, would have to be brave indeed.

21. See Erving Goffman, Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1963).

22. While it is certainly possible that a male might choose to do a study of prostitutes, participant observation à la the Amsterdam scenario would be unlikely, since most prostitutes appear to be women. As for our hypothetical sociologist being feminist, this seems a fair assumption for two reasons: not only would an interest in a participant observation study imply a preexisting sympathy with the subjects, but the ethnographic process itself would probably forge empathy and some collective sense of identification among women.

23. Shrage, "Should Feminists Oppose Prostitution?" 347, 356-57 (my emphasis).

24. See, for instance, Catharine A. MacKinnon, Feminism Unmodified: Discourses on Life and Law (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1987).

25. In an interview with a high-level New York City Police Department official conducted in connection with general research I am undertaking on rape cases, I was told that if a prostitute were raped in Central Park, her case would be unlikely ever to receive much public attention. However, if I were raped, this official continued, it would be different since I'm a professor.

26. See Helen Benedict, The Virgin and the Vamp: How the Press Covers Sex Crimes (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).

27. See Lynn S. Chancer, "New Bedford, Massachusetts, 6 March 1983-22 March 1984: The 'Before and After' of a Group Rape," Gender and Society 1 (1987): 239-60, and Diana Scully, Understanding Sexual Violence: A Study of Convicted Rapists (New York: Routledge, 1994), esp. 171-82.

28. Adrienne Rich, "Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence," Signs 5 (1980): 631-60.

29. Weitzer, "Prostitutes' Rights in the United States"; quotation, 36.

30. Naomi Wolf, The Beauty Myth: How Images of Beauty Are Used against Women (New York: Morrow, 1991).

31. Walkowitz, Prostitution and Victorian Society; Rosen, The Lost Sisterhood ; and Carmen and Moody, Working Women .

32 A feminist pro-choice banner I noticed displayed at several abortion rights demonstrations comes to mind here: it said that if men could get pregnant, abortion would be a sacrament.

33. This may change under certain conditions, e.g., when "family values" campaigns aim at arresting anyone, male or female, who is involved. Sometimes, too, male political figures are discredited for associating with prostitutes, e.g., the case of Marion Barry in Washington, D.C. For the most part, however, prostitutes are still the parties most likely to be prosecuted for prostitution.

34. See Mercer L. Sullivan, Getting Paid: Youth, Crime, and Work in the Inner City (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1989). In his well-known essay, "Social Structure and Anomie" (in Social Theory and Social Structure [Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1957]), sociologist Robert Merton defined an innovator as someone who feels compelled to turn to illegal means in order to obtain the goal of wealth that is allegedly available to all in the U.S. social context.

35. It is interesting that the only female member of the group of "cocaine kids" studied by Williams, Kitty, was employed in making contacts with prostitutes for clients (see Cocaine Kids , 111-13). In merging drugs with sex, her job reflected a typically gendered division of labor.

36. Rollins, Between Women , 168-70; and Hoigard and Finstad, Backstreets , 74, 90-91.

37. Jankowski, Islands in the Street , and Sullivan, Getting Paid .

38. Paul Willis, Learning to Labour: How Working Class Kids Get Working Class Jobs (1977; rpt., New York: Columbia University Press, 1981).

39. See Wendy Chapkis, Live Sex Acts: Women Performing Erotic Labor (New York: Routledge, 1997), 6-7.

40. Ibid., viii.

1. Melinda Blau, "Ordinary People," New York , 28 November 1994, 38-46.

2. See, in particular, Erich Fromm, Escape from Freedom (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1941), and Jessica Benjamin, The Bonds of Love: Psychoanalysis, Feminism, and the Problem of Domination (New York: Pantheon, 1988).

3. See, e.g., a prominently displayed article by Louis Uchitelle, "Insecurity Forever: The Rise of the Losing Class," New York Times , 20 November 1994, sec. 4, p. 1. For a more theoretical account of why economic insecurities may be rising, see also Stanley Aronowitz and William DiFazio, The Jobless Future: Sci-Tech and the Dogma of Work (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994), esp. the introduction.

4. See, for instance, Ruth Sidel's latest work that documents the increasing stigmatization of poor women on welfare, Keeping Women and Children Last: America's War against the Poor (New York: Penguin, 1996).

5. See Lynn S. Chancer, Sadomasochism in Everyday Life (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1992).

6. See, for example, Pat Califia, "Feminism and Sadomasochism" and

"Genderbending: Playing with Roles and Reversals," in Public Sex: The Cultureof Radical Sex (Pittsburgh: Cleis, 1994), 165-74, 175-82.

6. See, for example, Pat Califia, "Feminism and Sadomasochism" and

"Genderbending: Playing with Roles and Reversals," in Public Sex: The Cultureof Radical Sex (Pittsburgh: Cleis, 1994), 165-74, 175-82.

7. Ibid., e.g., 168.

8. For feminist writings on social sadomasochism, see the essays in Robin R. Linden, ed., Against Sadomasochism: A Radical Feminist Analysis (San Francisco: Frog in the Well, 1982). On sexual sadomasochism, see Califia, Public Sex; also, noting that the stress on sexuality links women of diverse sexual orientation, hetero and bisexual as well as lesbian, see Sallie Tisdale's Talk Dirty to Me: An Intimate Philosophy of Sex (New York: Doubleday, 1994), esp. 147-66, where Tisdale takes issue with the Dworkin/Mackinnon approach to "sex debates."

9. See Linden, Against Sadomasochism; Coming to Power: Writings and Graphics on Lesbian S/M (San Francisco: Samois, 1981); and Powers of Desire: The Politics of Sexuality , ed. Ann Snitow, Christine Stansell, and Sharon Thompson (New York: Monthly Review, 1983).

10. The implicit argument I am about to make could be drawn out of a radical feminist work such as Kate Millett's Sexual Politics (New York: Doubleday, 1970); compare the overt association of sadomasochism with oppression that we find in a text like Andrea Dworkin's Letters from a War Zone (New York: Lawrence Hill, 1993), e.g., 81.

11. Millett, Sexual Politics , 24-26.

12. See Sherry B. Ortner, "Is Female to Male as Nature Is to Culture?" in Women, Culture, and Society , ed. Michelle Zimbalist Rosaldo and Louise Lamphere (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1974), 67-87.

13. Andrea Dworkin, "Wuthering Heights," in Letters from a War Zone , 81.

14. Sigmund Freud, Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality , trans. and ed. James Strachey (New York: Basic Books, 1962). He specified three types of masochism, of which feminine masochism was the second, in "The Economic Problem of Masochism," in Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud , ed. James Strachey (London: Hogarth Press, 1964), 164-69.

15. See Helene Deutsch, The Psychology of Women: A Psychoanalytic Interpretation , 2 vols. (New York: Grune and Stratton, 1944-45).

16. Pat Califia, Sapphistry: The Book of Lesbian Sexuality , 3d ed.(Tallahassee, Fla.: Naiad, 1988), 118.

17. Ibid., 119.

18. For a fuller description, see the interpretation of sadomasochism found in Freud, Three Essays on Sexuality , 25.

19. Chancer, Sadomasochism in Everyday Life; see chap. 2, "A Basic Dynamic." In addition to Pauline Réage's Story of O (New York: Ballantine Books, 1965) and Leopold yon Sacher-Masoch's Venus in Furs (New York: Sylvan, 1947) the other examples from which I drew the definition about to be provided (which uses the conventional associations of sadomasochism with a specifically sexual example to glean more generally applicable possible conclusions) were Sade's Juliette , trans. Austryn Wainhouse (New York: Grove Press, 1968), Jenni Diski's Nothing Natural (London: Methuen, 1986) and Elizabeth

McNeill's Nine and a Half Weeks: A Memoir of a Love Affair (New York: Dutton, 1978).

20. The terms "secondary" and "inessential" link this analysis with that made by Simone de Beauvoir in The Second Sex , ed. and trans. H. M. Parshley (1952; rpt., New York: Vintage, 1974), which immediately brings up the particular application of this theoretical perspective to the world of gender.

21. I am indebted here to Jessica Benjamin, who used "mutual recognition" to describe this state of simultaneously acknowledged dependence on, and independence of, two parties in relation to one another. See esp. "The First Bond," chap. 1 of The Bonds of Love: Psychoanalysis, Feminism, and the Problem of Domination (New York: Pantheon, 1988).

22. See Arlie Russell Hochschild, The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feelings (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), 11, 25. See the Delta training seminar described on 25.

23. Judith Rollins, Between Women: Domestics and Their Employers (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1985), 182-83.

24. See, e.g., L. N. Newell, Contemporary Industrial/Organizational Psychology (St. Paul, Minn.: West, 1983). I elaborate this dynamic in greater detail in Sadomasochism in Everyday Life , chap. 4, "Employing Chains of Command."

25. Michael Lewis, Liar's Poker (New York: Penguin, 1989), 43, 46-47.

26. See, for example, Robin Norwood, Women Who Love Too Much (New York: Pocket, 1986); Kevin Leman, The Pleasers: Women Who Can't Say No—And the Men Who Control Them (New York: Bantam Doubleday Dell, 1987); and Brenda Schaeffer, Is It Love or Is It Addiction?: Falling into Healthy Love (New York: Harper/Hazelton, 1987). I describe these examples in greater detail in Sadomasochism in Everyday Life , chap. 5, "Engendering Sadomasochism."

27. See Chancer, Sadomasochism in Everyday Life , chap. 5, "Engendering Sadomasochism."

1. Katie Roiphe, The Morning After: Sex, Fear and Feminism on Campus (Boston: Little, Brown, 1993), 5-6.

2. See Susan Brownmiller, Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1975).

3. Naomi Wolf, Fire with Fire: The New Female Power and How to Use It (New York: Ballantine Books, 1993), 135.

4. Ibid., 135-36.

3. Naomi Wolf, Fire with Fire: The New Female Power and How to Use It (New York: Ballantine Books, 1993), 135.

5. Ibid., 137-38, 136-37, 65, 120-21.

6. See Susan Faludi, Backlash: The Undeclared War against American Women (New York: Crown, 1991).

7. Alice Echols's Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967-1975 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989) provides one of the best historical chronicles available of the boldness that characterized early radical feminism. One can also sense the flavor of the period from original docu-

ments of the time, collected in Sisterhood Is Powerful , ed. Robin Morgan (New York: Vintage, 1970).

8. Katha Pollitt, "The Morning After ," New Yorker , 4 October 1993, 220-24.

9. See, for example, Diana Scully, Understanding Sexual Violence: A Study of Convicted Rapists (New York: Routledge, 1994), chap. 2; Julie A. Allison and Lawrence S. Wrightsman, Rape: The Misunderstood Crime (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1993), chap. 1; Diana E. H. Russell, The Politics of Rape: The Victim's Perspective (New York: Stein and Day, 1975), and Rape in Marriage (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990), esp. chap. 1.

10. See Scully's Understanding Sexual Violence , regarding a troubling correspondence she found between the attitudes of convicted rapists (their stereo-typed views of women and their rationalizing tendency to hold their victims partly or fully responsible for the violence they commit) and stereotypical attitudes still dominant in American culture on the whole.

11. See Cynthia Epstein, Deceptive Distinctions: Sex, Gender, and the Social Order (New Haven: Yale University Press; New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1988).

1. See, for example, Stanley Aronowitz, The Crisis of Historical Materialism (New York: Praeger, 1983).

2. Numerous summaries of Marxist and socialist feminisms have stressed this point. Two excellent such accounts are Rosemarie Tong, Feminist Thought: A Comprehensive Introduction (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1989), and an older book by Alison M. Jaggar, Feminist Politics and Human Nature (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Allanheld, 1983).

3. Many socialists would object that the communist societies that have hitherto existed have not corresponded to a genuinely democratic vision of socialism or communism, and thus should not be taken to illustrate much of anything. To this, I would respond that however flawed (and I believe that they were—fatally so), there are historical examples of states that were at least consciously "Communist"; there have been no such entities structured on a consciously "Antipatriarchal" ideology. Had more genuinely socialist societies existed, though, they would have been more likely to recognize that feminism's autonomy from class-based movements is defensible on both theoretical and empirical grounds.

4. See Zillah R. Eisenstein, The Radical Future of Liberal Feminism (New York: Longman, 1981), esp. 3-8.

5. See Betty Friedan, The Second Stage (New York: Summit, 1981).

6. See bell hooks, Ain't I a Woman: Black Women and Feminism (Boston: South End, 1981), and Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center (Boston: South End, 1984).

7. See Shulamith Firestone, The Dialectic of Sex: The Case for Feminist Revolution (New York: Morrow, 1970). I am contending that Firestone took a standpoint perspective much earlier than that position became better known in the socialist feminist writings of Nancy Hartsock and Sandra Harding, as well as in black feminist thought as clearly presented by Patricia Hill Collins. For those later views, see Hartsock, Money, Sex, and Power: Toward a Feminist Historical Materialism (1983; rpt., Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1985); Harding, Whose Science? Whose Knowledge? Thinking from Women's Lives (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991); and Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment (Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1990).

8. Ti-Grace Atkinson, Amazon Odyssey (New York: Links Books, 1974).

9. Tong, Feminist Thought 182.

10. Ibid., 58-61.

11. See, e.g., the set of essays in Capitalist Patriarchy and the Case for Socialist Feminism , ed. Zillah Eisenstein (New York: Monthly Review, 1979).

12. In addition to the already-discussed works by Firestone and Atkinson, see Kate Millett, Sexual Politics (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1970).

13. See Juliet Mitchell's Psychoanalysis and Feminism (New York: Vintage, 1974), and Heidi Hartmann's essay, "The Unhappy Marriage of Marxism and Feminism: Towards a More Progressive Union," in Women and Revolution: A Discussion of the Unhappy Marriage of Marxism and Feminism , ed. Lydia Sargent (Boston: South End, 1981), 1-41.

14. See Iris Young, "Beyond the Unhappy Marriage: A Critique of the Dual Systems Theory," in Sargent, Women and Revolution , 43-69.

15. Hartmann, "The Unhappy Marriage," 18; my emphasis.

16. I do not mean that women should be politically organized in a way that subordinates race or class to gender, nor, as I have already made clear, that the work of groups of women subdivided along whatever lines is not important. I am simply emphasizing the point that if commonality as well as difference is not asserted, then the rationale for feminism's existence is in danger of being lost.

17. Friedrich Engels, The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State , trans. Alec West (1942; rpt., New York: International, 1972), 120-21.

18. See Pierre Bourdieu, "Social Space and the Genesis of Groups," Theory and Society 14 (1985): 723-44.

19. See chapter 9.

1. Lynn S. Chancer, "Third Wave Feminism," Village Voice , 21 May 1991, 28.

2. See, for example, the account provided by Louise Bernikow in The American Woman's Almanac: An Inspiring and Irreverent Women's History (New York: Berkeley, 1997).

3. As noted in earlier chapter, the women's movement is often stereotyped as having been more "white" and "upper class" in the backgrounds and con-

cerns of its participants than is historically accurate. See the important corrective provided by, among others, Lise Vogel in Woman Questions: Essays for a Materialist Feminism (New York: Routledge, 1995), chap. 8.

4. See To Be Real: Telling the Truth and Changing the Face of Feminism, ed. Rebecca Walker (New York: Anchor, 1995), esp. the introduction, forword, and afterword.

5. Ibid. Perhaps reflecting this problem, Gloria Steinem in her introduction seems both to support and to feel a bit of discomfort with some of the volume's essays. At points, she appears respectful of but slightly puzzled by younger feminists' perception of second-wave feminism as a movement that necessarily subordinated differences as it asserted commonalities.

6. In an interesting Village Voice article written in 1995, Michele Wallace argued for the importance of crediting a number of black intellectuals, including Carby, Davis, Giddings, and others, with influencing a move toward incorporating race into feminist analysis. See Wallace, "For Whom the Bell Tolls: Why We Can't Deal with Black Intellectuals," Village Voice , 7 November 1995, ss 19-24.

7. Indeed, the issue of reproductive rights is not even itself adequately secured for women of unequal class resources. The aim of ensuring reproductive freedom for all women therefore remains relevant, as it was in the early 1970s when the New York City-based organization CARASA (Committee for Abortion Rights and Against Sterilization Abuse) attempted to connect difficulties encountered by women when desiring not to bear a child with the hardships suffered by women forcibly sterilized when wishing to bear a child.