The Problem

Economically, teachers ranked among the lowest-paid professionals in the country during the post-Mao years (Zhishifenzi Wenti Wenxian Xuanbian 1983, 136; ZGJYB, 6 September 1988, 1). Politically and socially, their position—never high—was very low. Professionally, they represented poorly trained and demoralized individuals. The resultant problem of recruitment, noted above, coupled with school expansion, has produced shortages, especially in rural areas, particular subject areas, and vocational and technical education, clearly an impediment to national efforts to transform the once virtually uniform academic secondary school system into a highly differentiated, multitrack system in which a majority of students receive vocational or technical training.^[23]

Compounding the problem is teacher attrition. Particularly since 1978, discouraged teachers have left teaching in large numbers. Of special concern is the fact that departing teachers tend to be strong, experienced, middle-aged faculty, known as "backbone teachers" (gugan jiaoshi ). Though aggregate national figures are not available, frequent reports from individual provinces, counties, and districts suggest that the scale of the problem is large.^[24] Between 1985 and 1988, 100,000

[23] At the 1985 National Work Meeting on Elementary and Secondary School Teachers, He Dongchang listed history, geography, biology, physical education, music, art, foreign languages, and political science as areas of particular concern and estimated that one million new elementary, 750,000 new junior high, and 300,000 new senior high teachers would be needed over the next five years (ZGJYB, 23 November 1985, 1). For more on vocational education, see RMRB, 7 July 1986; ZGJYB, 30 August 1986; Zhou 1985; Jiningshi jiaoyuju 1985; and ZGJYB, 2 October and 15 November 1986. For more on the reform of the secondary system, see Rosen 1985.

[24] ZGJYB, 23 November 1985. In Liaoning, for example, more than 6,300 teachers left or retired between 1979 and 1984, and about half of these were "backbone teachers." Between 1980 and 1984 one small city in the province had more than 2,000 teachers leave their jobs (Zheng Guanjian 1984). Recently in Hunan 3,850 "backbone teachers" changed jobs or were transferred (FBIS, 27 June 1986, P5). In just the Dongcheng district of Beijing, 103 of the teachers assigned upon graduation have already left their jobs (Chen 1988).

secondary school teachers a year (or approximately 3–4 percent of that group) have left their jobs (Xiang 1989). Of the remaining teachers, it is estimated that only 37.5 percent are qualified ("Zhongxue xiaozhang" 1988, 17).

The SEdC described this situation as a major obstacle to education reform and diagnoses the problem as having social, political, and economic roots (ZGJYB, 23 August 1988). The prescription has been a series of policy moves aimed at reversing the devaluing of teachers. But, as the narrative below suggests, horizontal or cross-sectoral action has been essential. Only when the SEdC could move the issue onto the agenda of other ministries and the State Council has any substantive progress been made.