1. Robert G. Petersdorf et al., eds., Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, 10th ed. (New York: McGraw Hill, 1983), 1136-1138. See also the chapter on rabies virus in Bernard Davis and Renato Duibecco, eds., Microbiology, 2d ed. (Hagerstown, Md.: Harper and Row, 1973), 1368-1375.

2. Guy-Raoul, La Rage: Son meilleur préservatif, d'après MM. Tardieu, Sanson, Hertwig, Youatt (Paris, 1862), 1-2.

3. These figures may well be an underestimation. About the same number of deaths were occasionally reported for Paris—twenty-one in 1881, twenty-two in 1885. See Georges Dujardin-Beaumetz, Rapport sur les cas de rage bumaine constatés dans le département de la Seine de 1881 à 1891 (Paris, 1892), 5. And only forty-nine departments are known to have submitted figures during the period 1863-1868. See Constantin James, M. Pasteur, sa nouvelle méthode dite intensive: Peutelle communiquer la rage? (Paris, 1887), 16. Nonetheless, even if actual deaths were five, ten, or even one hundred times the number of reported ones—and the highly publicized and public nature of known deaths militates against this last supposition—the figure is still small when measured against a population of some thirty-six million. The public health officer responsible for the first set of reports to the Comité consultatif—Ambroise Tardieu, first member and then president of the Conseil d'hygiène publique et de salubrité du département de la Seine and also of the Academic de médecine—hoped in vain however when he suggested in 1863 that his statistics would be reassuring: "The figure of twenty-five cases must be set against numbers six or eight times higher that must no longer be allowed to strike fear in people's hearts"; Tardieu's Rapport sur la rage appeared in 1863. Portanier estimates seventy to eighty deaths in 1886 (La Rage [Nice, 1886], 43). Xavier Raspail estimates nineteen deaths each year (Les Inoculations de M. Pasteur contre la rage [Paris, 1886], 6); an anonymous work cites twelve to fifteen deaths per year before Pasteur (La Rage: Questions à M. Pasteur par un médecin [Paris, 1886], 10). J. Bourrel cites an average of two deaths per annum in Paris-Seine 1853-1858 (Traité complet de la rage, chez le ch ien et chez le chat: Moyen de s'en préserver [Paris, 1874], 90). For statistics see also R. Repiquet, Méthode de M. Pasteur pour prévenir la rage après morsure (Saint-Etienne, 1890, 14; and Auguste-Adrien Ollivier, Rapport mr la rage chez les enfants (Paris, 1887), 14.

4. Jean Robert, Le Chien d'appartement et d'utilitè (Paris, 1888), 149.

5. Portanier, La Rage ,36.

6. As described by Renaud Suzor in his Hydrophobia (London, 1887), 3: "Those who escaped death still had to live for years with a feeling as if the sword of Damocles was ever hanging over their heads, an uncertainty of life which led not a few to commit suicide." For obsessive fears among Parisian veterinarians see Bourrel, Trait é complet, 48: "Vatel, Barthélémy, Leblanc senior each have experienced the most painful emotions after having been bitten either by a rabid dog or by one suspected of being rabid"; and André Sanson, in his work Le Meilleur Préservatif de la rage (Paris, 1860), 76, cites the case of Dr. Barthélémy who from that time on displayed an obsessive fear of rabies. Robert, Chien d'appartement, 149, discusses the fear of dogs, "when they do not drink and when they do drink, when they bite and when they caress, when they hide themselves, and when they do anything at all." Bourrel, Traité complet, 47-48, gives an example: "Mme X., rue Dauphine, was bitten by a six-month-old dog who only had convulsions but who she believed was rabid. For a long time she remained gripped by fear, not being able to sleep, for instance, and her mind was relieved only after I demonstrated to her in my office how little basis there was for her apprehensions."

7. See for example the warning of Guy-Raoul in La Rage, 145: "It is therefore always a bad habit, often a risk, to let these animals lick one's face and hands. Without a doubt, this is one of the ways rabies is most frequently transmitted to man." Guy-Raoul also cites Tardieu: "In the case of two of the victims, the disease had been transmitted by little pet dogs that, trained to lick the face of their master, had impregnated the master's slightly peeling lips with the virus. This mode of contagion, observed already more than once, cannot be signaled too strongly as an example of the danger of such habits." See also Sanson, Le Meilleur Préservatif, 24, 77; and Paul Levasseur, Observation d'un cas de rage (Rouen, 1882), 8.

8. Bourrel, Traité complet , 50: "And that idea had so strongly possessed him that he took to his bed and was manifestly wasting away."

9. See the case described by Henri Sabarthez, Un Cas de rage atténuée produite très probablement par les inoculations parteuriennes (Perpignan, 1901), 5-6. Attending doctors seek Pasteur's advice. Pasteur is uncertain whether it is a case of rabies or hysteria.

10. Jules Lecoeur, Etudes sur la rage (Caen, 1856), 46. Aside from respiratory problems that most experts identified uniquely in rabies, only a longer incubation period distinguished the true from the false. In hysterical rabies, symptoms invariably followed on the heels of a bite.

11. A. Latché, Un Village enragé (Avignon, 1895). For panics triggered by the press see Guy-Raoul, La Rage, inside front cover; Félix Bron, La Muselière et la vaccination rabique (Lyons, 1892), 5-4; Lecoeur, Etudes , vii, 3, 21; and Sanson, Le Meilleur Préservatif, 1.

12. In 1879 in Paris, 9,479 dogs were slaughtered (Levasseur, Observation, 10). Terms are those of Levasseur, Bron, and Jules Maret-Leriche (Les Chiens [Paris, 1864], 7).

13. See also René Vallery-Radot, Life of Pasteur, translated by Mrs. R. L. Devonshire (New York: Doubleday, 1926), 390.

14. For a statement of the case against Pasteur see Edouard Potin, Observation d'un cas de rage mortelle après le traitement Pasteur (Paris, 1890), 4.

15. See Arthur Kleinman's letter to the editor, Times Literary Supplement , 31 January 1986, 114, on the meaning of illness. Useful works on this subject include Kleinman, Patients and Healers in the Context of Culture: An Exploration of the Borderland between Anthropology, Medicine, and Psychiatry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); J. B. Loudon, ed., Social Anthropology and Medicine (London: Academic Press, 1976); and Eliot Freidson, Profession of Medicine: A Study of the Sociology of Applied Knowledge (New York: Harper and Row, 1970).

16. G. E. Fredet, La Rage: Deux jours chez M. Pasteur (Clermont-Ferrand, 1861), 12.

17. Emile Littré and Charles Robin, Dictionnaire de médecine (Paris, 1865, 1878, 1884), s.v. "la rage."

18. Ollivier, Rapport sur la rage, 8.

19. Bourrel, Trait é complet, 48.

20. Lecoeur, Etudes, 34.

21. Albert Charrin, "Les récents travaux sur la rage," Archives généales de médecine (Paris, 1887), 3; Fredet, La Rage, 12.

22. J. Amédée Arnaud de Fabre, "Une observation de rage" (Paper read at the Société de médecine de Vaucluse, 13 December 1882), 1, 3-5.

23. Portanier, La Rage , 189.

24. Fredet, La Rage, 4. The victim "remains rational, appreciating fully the gravity of his condition and, while suffering the most horrible torments, sees the hour of his death approach."

25. Levasseur, Observation, 7.

26. Lecoeur, Etudes , 34.

27. Lucien Richard, Annuaire Richard pour 1898: Chiens célèbres et chiens de célébrités (Paris, 1898), 121.

28. For instance Lecoeur, Etudes; and François-Joseph Bachelet and C. Froussart, Cause de la rage et moyen d'en préserver l'humanité (Valenciennes, 1857).

29. Bachelet and Froussart, Cause de la rage, 78-79, 113 (original emphasis); on 81 they cite cases of nymphomaniacs who try to have sex with dogs.

30. Bachelet and Froussart, Cause de la rage, 82.

31. Albrecht yon Haller is the authority quoted in Littré and Robin, Dictionnaire, s.v. "la rage." Lecoeur (Etudes , 34) notes the connection with satyriasis; Bachelet and Froussart (Came de la rage, 82) refer to Antoine Portal's observations of "la fureur utérine" and discuss findings of such autopsies.

32. Bachelet and Froussart, Cause de la rage, 113-114.

33. Levasseur, Observation, 8-9. In the nineteenth century, the term virus could be used in a nonspecific sense to describe any pathogen, as Le Petit Robert (1984) concisely notes.

34. Lecoeur, Evades, 72.

35. Bachelet and Froussart, Cause de la rage, 110 (original emphasis); Lecoeur, Etudes, 73.

36. Portanier, La Rage, 16-18. See also John Farley and Gerald Geison, "Science, Politics, and Spontaneous Generation in Nineteenth-Century France: The Pasteur-Pouchet Debate," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 48 (Summer 1974): 161-198.

37. Bulletin 16 (1870-71): 22Iff. for the history of the Société protectrice des animaux and the problem of rabies; on 221 Sociétaires refer to Lecoeur's Etudes.

38. Their work is noted in Littré and Robin, Dictionnaire, s.v. "la rage."

39. Bulletin 8 (1862): 405; Bulletin 12 (1866): 18; Bulletin 18 (1873): 276, which also summarizes Belleville's argument.

40. Bulletin 16 (1870-71): 221. The quote is from Henri Blatin, Nos Cruautés envers les animaux (Paris, 1867), 111.

41. See Thomas Laqueur, "Orgasm, Generation, and the Politics of Reproductive Biology," Representations, no. 14 (Spring 1986), esp. on menstruation and heat, 26-32; Laqueur quotes a phrase Jean Borie applies to nineteenth-century medical writers, "une gynécologie militante."

42. Blatin, Nos Cruautés, 111. For Blatin's proposal see also Bulletin 16 (1870-71): 221; for members' response, 18 (1873): 275.

43. Bourrel, Traité complet, 33; Littré and Robin, Dictionnaire, s.v. "la rage."

44. Quoted in Bourrel, Traité complet, 23.

45. Paul Simon, Observations sur la spontanéité de la rage dans la race canine (Paris, 1874), 9.

46. Bourrel, Traité coraplet, 25.

47. Bourrel, Traité complet, 25.

48. Bourrel, Trait é complet, 25: "Often the information they give is intentionally false, and even when offered in good faith, their reports are always inadequate."

49. Richard, Annuaire Richard, 120-121.

50. Oscar Honoré, Le Coeur des bêtes (Paris, 1863), 17. The Moniteur universel is quoted in Bulletin 20 (Paris, 1875): 254-255. For the unwholesome conditions of domesticity and Turkish dogs see Maret-Leriche, Les Chiens, 23. Bulletin 19 (1874): 155; Bulletin 6 (1860): 39; Bulletin 21 (1876): 43-44. Dujardin-Beaumetz, Rapport sur les cas de rage, 31.

51. Alfred Bonnardot, Des petits chiens de dames, spécialement de l'épagneul nam (Paris, 1856), 5. More exactly, Bonnardot's is the first French dog-care book about pets.

52. Bulletin 1 (Paris, 1855): 62.

53. Nicholas Fétu, Requite à mes concitoyens pour l'extinction de la race canine à Dijon (Dijon, 1866), 8.

54. Blatin, Nos Cruautés, 108; Pierre Magnin, Le Chien: Histoire, hygiène, médecine (Paris, 1877), 120.

55. Bulletin 10 (1864): 254, 383.

56. Pierre Larousse, Le Grand Dictionnaire universel (Paris, 1869), s.v. "le chien."

57. Alfred Barbou, Le Chien: Son histoire, ses exploits, ses aventures (Paris, 1883), 203.

58. Barbou, Le Chien, 260.

59. The quote is from Henri Lautard, Zoophilie ou sympathie envers les ani-maux: Psychologie du chien, du chat, du cheval (Paris, 1909), 105. See "La Fourrière de Paris," Revue Britannique 5 (1873): 343-54, for a good description of the Parisian dog pound. Richard Thomson discusses class in dogdom in "'Les Quat' Pattes': The Image of the Dog in Late Nineteenth-Century French Art," Art History 5, no. 3 (September 1982): 323-325.

60. Bulletin 12 (1866): 333.

61. Paul-Juvenal Richard, Notice mr la rage de chien (Saumur, 1899), 30.

62. Bulletin 10 (1864): 311.

63. Sanson, Le Meilleur Préservatif, 64-65.

64. Bourrel, Traité complet, 100.

65. Bulletin 16 (1870-71): 220; Bulletin 17 (1872): 306-307, 323; Bulletin 18 (1873): 313, 373.

66. Bourrel, Traité complet , 100.

67. Bulletin 11 (1865): 78-79 and 17 (1872): 300.

68. Richard, Notice mr la rage, 30.

69. Rabies in Britain is discussed by Harriet Riwo in her book on animals in Victorian culture, The Animal Estate: The English and Other Creatures in the Victorian Age (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1987).

70. Bulletin 1 (1855): 61. Note that in eighteenth-century France, rabies was perceived as a problem of policing. Des Essarts (Nicolas Toussaint Le Moyne), the author of the Dictionnaire universel de police (Paris, 1786-1789) called for measures prohibiting poor people from owning dogs. Jean-Pierre Lenoir, the indefatigable lieutenant general of police in Paris from 1776 to 1785, offered a gold medal for possible rabies antidote. A plethora of folk remedies was still popular in nineteenth-century rural France.

71. La Grande Encyclopédie (Paris, 1886-1902), s.v. "la rage."

72. Fredet, La Rage, 6.

73. Bulletin 9 (1863): 365.

74. Fredet, La Rage, 6; Richard, Annuaire Richard, 119.

75. Sanson, Le Meilleur Préservatif, 2.

76. Grande Encyclopédie , s.v. "la rage."

77. Portanier, La Rage, 44.

78. For Sociétaires' discussion of the "hurlement de la rage," see the Bulletin 20 (1875): 57; Suzor, Hydrophobia , 111; Grande Encyclopédie , s.v. "la rage"; and Fredet, La Rage, 6. Its musical notation appears in Sanson, LeMeilleur Préservatif ,

34. who describes the three most common types of rabic howls. A more elaborate musical notation representing the "hurlement de la rage" is offered by the Parisian veterinarian Alexandre Landrin, in a supplement m Barbou, Le Chien, 306.

79. Kleinman refers to cynosural illnesses in his Times Literary Supplement letter on the meaning of illness.

80. La Grande Encyclopédie , s.v. "la rage."

81. Portanier, La Rage, 10.

82. Walter Benjamin makes this suggestion throughout his writings.

83. Vallery-Radot, Life of Pasteur , vi.

84. See especially Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents , trans, and ed. James Strachey (New York: Norton, 1961). It should also be remembered that Anna O's hysterical symptoms, to which Freud ascribed a sexual basis, included hydrophobia.