1. Odile Marcel, Une Education française (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1984), 28, 13, 14; her grandfather was the Christian existentialist philosopher Gabriel Marcel.

2. Marcel, Education française, 17, 15, 18, 16.

3. Marcel, Education française, 29, 16-17; Marcel's reference to a "univers de précautions" is on 19. For a recent encyclopedic instance, see the formidably documented From the Fires of Revolution to the Great War, ed. Michelle Perrot, vol. 4 of Philippe Ariès and Georges Duby, eds., History of Private Life (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1990).

4. Paul Mégnin, Nos Chiens: Races, dressage, é levage, hygiène, maladies, 2d ed. (Paris, 1909), 327. For dogs as eternal children see Alfred Bonnardot, Des petits chiens de dames, spécialement de l'épagneul nain (Paris, 1856), 37, 38, 61; ex-chef d'institution, Chat et chien, ou les enfants volontaires (Rouen, 1858); A. L. A. Fée, Les Misères des animaux (Paris, 1863), xiii: "With respect to intelligence, they remain in a never-ending childhood, it's a minority without end."

5. Alfred Barbou, Le Chien: Son histoire, ses exploits, ses aventures (Paris, 1883), 272. Guides to Paris also discuss the dog market: Alb. [Richard Whiteing], Living Paris and France: A Guide to Manners, Monuments, Institutions, and the Life of the People (London, 1886), 293.

6. Didot-Bottin (1863, 1873, 1883, 1910), s.v. "le chien."

7. Terry Eagleton speaks of the aesthetic but his remark holds equally true for domesticity and its crystallization in pets ("The Ideology of the Aesthetic," Times Literary Supplement, 22-28 January 1988; see also The Ideology of the Aesthetic [Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1990]).

8. Marcel, Education française, 29.

9. Edward of Norwich (second duke of York), The Master of Game (1406-1413; reprint 1909).

10. Jacques du Fouilioux, La Vénerie de Jacques du Fouilloux: Avec plusieurs receptes et remèdes pour guerir les chiens de diverses maladies. Plus l'adolescence de l'auteur (1562; cardinal de Rohan's copy, 1566; reprint, Anger, 1844): "Prenez deux tests d'aulx et un demy couillon d'une beste qui se nomme Cator, avec de ius de cresson alenois, et une douxaine de mouches cantharides [sic ]," 7.

11. Pierre Mégnin, Le Chien: Histoire, hygiène, médecine (Paris, 1877), 17, 18.

12. Solange Bélin, "Une Vie de chien sous l'ancien régime," Historia 456 (December 1984): 54-59. On the care of noble dogs, she explains that Henry. III maintained a baker for his little dogs. The counts of Artois in the sixteenth century collected a special manorial due in oats, for dog feed.

13. See Caroline Hannaway, "Veterinary Medicine and Rural Health Care in Pre-Revolutionary France," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 51 (1977): 431-447.

14. On British dog breeding see Harriet Ritvo, The Animal Fatate: The English and Other Creatures in the Victorian Age (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1987), 82-115.

15. Jean Robert, Le Chien d'appartement et d'utilité: Education, dressage, hygiène, maladies (Paris, 1888), 96, 97.

16. Bonnardot, Des petits chiens de dames, 3-4. The book by Delabere Pritchett Blaine, Canine Pathology (London, 1817), was published in Paris by Raynal in 1828.

17. Ritvo, The Animal Estate, 87.

18. Bormardot, Des petits chiens de dames, 4.

19. Laure Desvernays, Les Animaux d'agrément (Paris, 1913), ii.

20. Robert, Chien d'appartement, 7-8.

21. Pierre Mégnin, Le Chien, i.

22. Paul Mégnin, Nos Chien, 8.

23. In Nelson Goodman's terms in Ways of Worldmaking (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1978).

24. Bonnardot, Des petits chien de dames, 3, 25.

25. Mine Charles Boeswillwald, Le Chien de lure: Comment élever, dresser, et soigner nos chiens (Paris, 1907), 204. This chapter is informed by Wolfgang Iser, The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), 98ff.

26. Fée, Les Misères des animaux, xiii.

27. Ex-chef d'institution, Chat et chien.

28. See his illustration, "children playing." E. Leroy, L'Enfance du chien (Paris, 1896), 31. See also postcards in Cabinet des estampes, Bibliothèque Nationale, Jb mat 1—les chiens.

29. Bonnardot, Des petits chiens de dames, 69.

30. Boeswillwald, Chien de luxe, 193.

31. Robert, Chien d'appartement, 99, 106.

32. Desvernays, Animaux d'agrénent, 37.

33. Boeswillwald, Chien de luxe, 203; Leroy, Enfance du chien, 34-35. For Jean Robert's prosaic description of "Fais le beau!" see Chien d'appartement, 108.

34. Boeswillwald, Chien de lure, 201-202. See also her illustrations of obedience lessons, 200-221.

35. Boeswillwald, Chien de lure, 199; she pointed out that the size of apartment dogs could vary: "Certain greyhounds and terriers are not at all small yet are chien d'appartement by virtue of their cleanliness and beauty" (212). Leroy, Enfance du chien, 21-22.

36. Robert, Chien d'appartement, 109, 110.

37. Paul Mégnin, Nos Chiens, 327; Robert, Chien d'appartement, 71, 72; on the miniature greyhound, 70-73. Mallarmé gave Julie Manet a miniature greyhound around 1893: see Berthe Morisot: Impressionist, exhibition catalog by Charles Stuckey and William P. Scott assisted by Suzanne Lindsay (Mount Holyoke College Art Museum and National Gallery of Art, 1987), 164.

38. For the elegant toutou see Paul Mégnin, Nos Chiens, 325: "The toutou élégant must have a complete wardrobe that will differ according to breed"; Barbou, Le Chien, 257; Didot-Bottin (1910), s.v. "colliers, muselières, et articles pour chiens"; Robert, Chien d'appartement, back page.

39. Paul Mégnin, Nos Chiens, 325, 326; Boeswillwald, Chien de luxe, 236.

40. This comment is based on Said's paraphrase of Lévi-Strauss (Edward Said, Orientalism [New York: Vintage, 1978], 53).

41. Note the detail, for instance, in the costume of this elegant beast dressed for evening by its mistress "in marvelous black with a flared stand-up collar and over all, three strands of Isigny lace, ruffles interlaced with black satin, its lining in old-rose colored fabric" (Paul Mégnin, Nos Chiens, 326).

42. See Philippe Perrot's chapter on women's clothing in Jean-Paul Aron, ed., La Femme du XIXème siècle (Brussels: Editions Complexe, 1984). For a fuller treatment of clothing in the nineteenth century see Philippe Perrot, Les Dessus et les dessous de la bourgeoisie (Paris: Fayard, 1981).

43. Boeswillwald, Chien de lure, 232; she gave sewing directions on 231. For the well-connected pet, the practice of wearing livery was current (Paul Mégnin, Nos Chiens, 188; Barbou, Le Chien, 257-258).

44. Paul Mégnin describes poodle hairstyles and their popularity in Nos Chiens, 322. The Empress Eugénie wore her hair in the coil shape (tonte en macarons ), which grew Fashionable during the Second Empire.

45. Desvernays, Animaux d'agrément, 14.

46. Paul Mégnin, Nos Chiens, 322-323; his description of the tonte à la zoave is detailed: "In place of cuffs and sides, pantaloons of fur, blunt cut . . . the middle of the body is completely shaved, the eyes are left free, open to view, and a very prominent mustache [is given him] . . .. And of course, a pompom on the tail, more or less long, more or less puffed, according to taste" (323); La Vie élégante [1880], 377.

47. Paul Mégnin, Nos Chiens, 257, 323, 324.

48. The poodle was "le meilleur client du coiffeur" (Paul Mégnin, Nos Chiens, 257); on the importance of hairstyling see 249-250.

49. Boeswillwald, Chien de luxe, 45. See also Leroy, Enfance du chien, 13-14. Barbou in Le Chien and Robert in Chien d'appartement also discuss the barbet and the poodle in their sections on the poodle.

50. Barbou, Le Chien, 259.

51. Bélin, "Vie de chien," 58.

52. Gaston Bachelard, The Poetics of Space, trans. M. Jolas (New York: Orion, 1964), 2IIff.

53. Bonnardot, Des petits chiens de dames, 76, 77.

54. Robert, Chien d'appartement, 97.

55. Bonnardot, Des petits chiens de dames, 78. Photographers advertised in dog show catalogs; see, for instance, Société centrale pour l'amélioration des races de chiens, Catalogue officiel illustré: 9ème Exposition canine du 21 au 28 mai 1890 sur la terrasse de l'Orangerie du jardin des Tuileries (Paris, 1890).

56. Boeswillwald, Chien de luxe, 239; she also recommended the pet cemetery and included a photograph of the monument to "chère Emma" on 177 (see figure 2).

57. The fate of dogs' bodies is explained in a pamphlet of the 1920s on the pet cemetery: L. Durfalc, "Une curiosité: Le cimefière des chiens d'Asnières" [n.d], 6-7, in Bibliothèque Marguerite Durand, dossier Durand—cimefière des chiens. Proposals for a dog cemetery are discussed in an article by L. Dubois, in the otherwise unidentified journal, L'Ami des chiens (Bibliothèque Marguerite Durand, dossier Durand—cimetière des chiens).

58. Dossier Durand—cimetière des chiens. See also an advertisement in La Fronde, 13 July 1899.

59. As the Michelin guide accurately notes, "The monuments are surprising and the epitaphs often quaint" (Guide vert Michelin: Paris, 5th ed., s.v. "Curiosités de banlieu: Asnières"). See also Boeswillwald, Chien de luxe, 177, for a good illustration of one of these monuments.

60. Henri Blatin, Nos Cruautés envers les animaux (Paris, 1867), 298.

61. Pierre Mégnin, Le Chien, 124.

62. Ritvo, The Animal Estate, 86. In Paris their oudet was at 38, rue Caumartin; see Pathfinder and Dalziel, Dressage et élevage des chiens, appendix to the French edition, whose title page reads: "Conseils pratiques sur l'hygiène et l'alimentation des chiens, communiqués par Spratts Patent" (Paris: Dumoulin, 1906); appendix, 4-5.

63. See Pierre Méguin, Le Chien, 123.

64. Maret-Leriche, A bas la muselière: Pétition de messieurs les chiens et leurs maitres adressie à M. le prefer de police (Paris, 1861), 7.

65. Pathfinder and Dalziel, appendix, 1.

66. La Grande Encyclopédie (Paris, 1886-1902), s.v. "le chien."

67. Pierre Mégnin, Le Chien: Elevage, bygiène, médecine (hereafter Elevage, hygiene, médecine ) (Paris, 1899-1901), 1:72.

68. Robert, Chien d'appartement, 151, 152.

69. Desvernays, Animaux d'agrément, 26-27; P. J. Cadiot et F. Breton, Mé- decine canine (Paris, 1901), 111: "When satyriasis and nymphomania occur independently of any infection of the genitals (tumours, vaginitis), reduce feed to the bare minimum and eliminate meat from the diet."

70. "It is too generally forgotten that the systems of animals—above all of those that live with people—have the same requirements (exigences ) as the human system" (Boeswillwald, Chien de luxe, 95 ) ; Robert, Chien d'appartement, 152; Leroy, Enfance du chien, 21-22; Bonnardot, Des petits chiens de dames, 31.

71. [Desvignes], Les Chiens par un de leurs amis (Dijon, 1869), 13; Bonnardot, Des petits chiens de dames, 62; Boeswillwald, Chien de luxe, 61.

72. See Pierre Mtgnin's chapter 10, "Mals nerveuses," in vol. 2 of Elevage, bygiène, médecine; for the ataxic terrier see 332.

73. Bonnardot, "Mariage des épagueuls," Des petits chiens de dames, 61; and 326-327.

74. Bonnardot, "Mariage des épagneuls," Despetits chiens de dames, especially 61-63.

75. Harriet Ritvo, "Sex and the Single Animal," Grand Street 7, no. 3 (Spring 1988): 131.

76. Boeswillwald, Chien de luxe, 61, 56-57.

77. Joanny Pertus, Le Chien: Races, hygiène, et maladies (Paris, 1893), 16.

78. Boeswillwald, Chien de lure, 62; Mme H. Ducret-Baumann, L'Education et l'bygiène du chien: Ses maladies, ses misères, reproduction, élevage des chiots (Paris, 1913), 11. Ducret-Baumann is mostly concerned about the size of the unwanted puppies and their effect on the health of the bitch.

79. Boeswillwald, Chien de luxe, 155. See also Leroy, Enfance du chien, 128.

80. Robert, Chien d'appartement, 152.

81. Robert, Chien d'appartement, 152; Desvernays, Animaux d'agriément, 19; Bonnardot, Des petits chiens de dames, 40-41; Boeswillwald, Chien de luxe, 99; Desvernays, Animaux d'agrément, 19. On women and illness in the nineteenth century see Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York: Penguin, 1985). See also Helena Michie, The Flesh Made Word: Female Figures and Women's Bodies (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987). Boeswillwald's solution was a doggy litter box, "le plateau de sciure de bois" (Chien de luxe, 72-75).

82. Catalogue officiel illustré: 9ème exposition canine du 21 au 28 mai 1890 sur la terrasse de l'Orangerie du jardin des Tuileries (Paris, 1890).

83. Mme Roseline de Cazis, Plaintes des chiens à Sir Richard Wallace (Paris, 1877), 63.