Modes Of Recruitment

Among the continuities between the prewar and postwar civil-service systems is the reliance on both competitive examinations and evaluation (senko ) in recruiting government officials. The national public-service law makes the use of competitive examinations the rule and permits the use of evaluation only in those cases where the National Personnel Authority has certified that the use of competitive examination would be inappropriate (article 36). Competitive examinations are administered by the National Personnel Authority. There are four general categories of exceptions: (1) top-level executive positions such as administrative vice-minister that call for managerial and supervisory abilities and competence to deal with external groups; (2) positions requiring licenses or certificates issued by the state, such as physicians, dentists, and nurses; (3) positions for which the candidates have already demonstrated their suitability by performing satisfactorily either in equivalent positions or in those requiring a greater degree of expertise and responsibility; and (4) special positions for which there is a scarcity of qualified candidates.^[10] It should be noted that evaluation does not preclude but frequently entails some kind of written examination.

Although the first civil-service examination for the recruitment of national public employees under the national public-service law was not held until January 1949, there were other examinations both prior to and following that date. In 1946 and 1947 a modified version of the higher examination (koto shiken ) was given three times.^[11] As noted in the preceding chapter, competitive examinations were also held in 1948 to recruit staff members of the temporary National Personnel Authority. Then in 1950 there were "S-1 examinations," which was a unique experiment designed to further the Occupation's policy of democratiza-

[9] bid.; "Sanko shiryo (kyuyo kankei)" [Reference Material (Related to Salary)], Jinji-in geppo 440 (Sept. 1987): 30.

[10] Jinji yogo haya wakari: senko [A Quick Guide to Personnel Terms: Evaluation], Jinji-in geppo 87(May 1958): 17. For a more technically oriented explanation, see "Senko ni yoru shokuin no saiyo" [Selection of Public Employees by Evaluation], ibid. 94 (Dec. 1958), 20-23.

[11] ada, "Bunkan nin'yo seido no rekishi," III, p. 13.

tion. Meanwhile, the regular civil-service examinations under the new law have been held every rear since 1949. Although they have undergone many changes over the years, their principal characteristics are nonetheless worth noting.

First, there are three distinct levels. The highest level (jokyu until 1984, isshu since 1985) is aimed at graduates of four-year colleges; the intermediate level (chukyu until 1984, nishu since 1985) at graduates of junior colleges; and the lower level (shokyu until 1984; sanshu since 1985) at high-school graduates. From 1960 to 1984 the jokyu examinations were divided into two types: A (koshu ) and B (otsushu ).^[12] During this period, then, there were in effect four levels of examinations, each of which led to appointment at a different grade. Of the four levels, the type-A higher examination was equivalent to the prewar higher civil-service examination, and the lower examination approximated the ordinary civil-service examination. The remaining two—the type-B higher exam and the intermediate exam—must be viewed as postwar innovations.

It is noteworthy that none of these examinations has ever had a formal educational requirement. The type-A higher civil-service examination, for example, was open to anyone between the ages of twenty-one and thirty-three regardless of educational attainments. In practice, however, the educational level of candidates taking the civil-service examinations has been quite high, reflecting the rising level of educational attainments in the general population. Between 15 and 16 percent of applicants for the type-A (or I) higher civil-service examination in recent years have had postgraduate education. The proportion increases to about 40 percent among the successful candidates. Moreover, the success rates of candidates with graduate education seem much higher than those of university graduates. For graduates of junior colleges and high schools, the probability of passing the higher examination seems negligible. Most striking of all, perhaps, are the statistics pertaining to the intermediate examination. Although geared to junior-college graduates, it has attracted growing numbers of applicants with four years of university education and more. By the 1980s, the latter accounted for

[12] he type-B higher civil-service examination was originally designed to serve as a supplemental means of recruiting scientists and engineers into the higher civil service. So far as administrative personnel were concerned, it was intended to be a gateway for future midlevel managers. However, until 1966 nearly all of those who passed the type-B examination in the administrative fields were those who had failed the type-A higher civil-service examination, which applicants were allowed to take in tandem. In 1967 this privilege was rescinded. Jinji-in, Jinji gyosei nijunen no ayumi , p. 123.

more than 90 percent of the successes in the examination. Even the lower examination has attracted a sizable number of university and junior-college graduates. These two groups together have accounted for about 17 percent of the successes in the lower examination in recent years.^[13]

It was partly in response to the changing character of the intermediate examination that the examination system was reorganized in 1985. The intermediate examination having effectively been turned into a vehicle for recruiting university graduates, there was a need to come to grips with that reality. Specifically, its prestige needed to be upgraded in order that the national government might compete successfully with local governments and private firms in the recruitment arena. Moreover, the demand for graduates of the type-B higher civil-service examination had steadily decreased over the years. On the other hand, the implementation of a mandatory retirement system beginning in 1985 would pave the way for generational change in the middle echelons of the national-government bureaucracy, making it necessary to increase the supply of capable middle-level administrators. Given these considerations, the National Personnel Authority decided to abolish the type-B higher examination, upgrade the intermediate examination, and rename all three examinations. The type-A higher examination became simply type I, the intermediate became type II, and the lower examination became type III.^[14]

A second noteworthy feature of the civil-service examinations pertains to specialization, for all candidates are required to choose a specific field of specialization. In the higher (type I) examination, candidates must choose one of the following twenty-eight fields: public administration, law, economics, psychology, education, sociology, mathematics, physics, geology, information engineering, electrical engineering, electronics and communications, mechanical engineering, civil engineering, architecture, chemistry, metallurgy, energy engineering, pharmacy, agriculture, agricultural economics, agricultural chemistry, agricultural engineering, animal husbandry, forestry, fishery science, erosion control (sabo ), and landscape design (zoen ).^[15]

[13] or relevant statistics, see Jinji-in, Komuin hakusho , 1985, p. 28; ibid., 1986, pp. 29-31; ibid., 1987, pp. 35-36.

[14] Saiyo shiken taikei no saihen seibi ni tsuite" [On the Reorganization and Adjustment of the Recruitment Examination System], Jinji-in geppo 411(Apr. 1985): 10-17.

[15] inji-in, Komuin hakusho , 1987, p. 29.

From 1949 to 1954, candidates for the higher examination opting for the field of public administration were allowed to choose an additional field of specialization. Now candidates for the type-II examination are given a choice of twelve fields: public administration, library science, physics, electrical engineering and electronics, mechanical engineering, civil engineering, architecture, chemistry, energy engineering, agriculture, agricultural civil engineering (nogyo doboku ), and forestry. All but three of these fields are also available for type-III-examination candidates. The exceptions are library science, physics, and energy engineering. Two fields that are unique to the type-III examination are postal affairs (yusei jimu ) and taxation.^[16]

Table 5 presents some statistics regarding the fields of specialization represented in the hiring of those who have passed the higher civil-service examination (HCSE) in the 1960-86 period. Note that this table pertains not to the successful applicants but to those who were actually hired by the various ministries and agencies. As we shall see below, only about half of the successful applicants receive appointments. The table shows that those choosing law and the social sciences as their fields of specialization in the HCSE, most of whom become administrative officials (jimukan ), have always been a minority. In fact, until 1972 they were eclipsed by those choosing engineering and the natural sciences. In subsequent years, although "law and the social sciences" has become the largest of the three categories, it has nonetheless remained well below the 50-percent mark, hovering around 40 percent.

A third feature of the examination system is that all examinations have multiple stages. The first stage in the higher examination consists of two sets of multiple-choice tests. The first set, known as kyoyo shiken (general-culture test), is made up of sixty questions designed to test general knowledge, aptitude, and intelligence; it lasts three hours. The second set, called senmon shiken (specialized test), contains the same number of questions and is designed to measure the level of expertise in the candidate's chosen field of specialization and lasts three and a half hours. Between 90 and 95 percent of candidates are eliminated in this initial phase.^[17]

[16] or the type-Ill examination, public administration is subdivided into administrative affairs (gyosei jimu ) A and B. See ibid., pp. 30-31 and "Saiyo shiken taikei no saihen," pp. 14-15.

[17] uken Shinpo Henshubu, Komuin shiken mondai to taisaku: Jokyu shiken, '85-nenban [Questions and Strategies for Civil-Service Examinations: The Higher Examination, 1985 Edition] (Tokyo: Hogaku Shoin, 1984), pp. 2-206.

In the second phase, candidates are again subjected to two sets of tests, one specialized and the other general. But unlike the previous tests, these consist of essay-type or problem-solving-type questions. Those opting for the field of public administration, for example, must choose three subjects out of five (constitutional law, political science, social policy, public administration, and principles of economics) and answer one essay question in each subject. They are given three hours in which to compose three essays. To give some examples of questions: "discuss equality and discrimination in democracy" (political science), "discuss the similarities and differences between public administration and private management" (public administration), "discuss measures for dealing with the aging of the work force" (social policy), and "discuss

the microeconomic foundations of the Keynesian macroeconomics" (economics).^[18]

The general test (sogo shiken ) in this phase typically requires the applicant to answer two questions in two and a half hours. Its aim is to test the candidate's ability to synthesize ideas and his judgment, analytic ability, and ability to think. A frequently used device is to present long excerpts from an article, often in English, and then ask the candidate to summarize and evaluate the main arguments.^[19] There is then a brief oral examination (jinbutsu shiken ) during which the candidate is questioned about his motives for choosing government service, his interests and hobbies, and other matters. About half of the candidates surviving the first round are eliminated in the second round of competition.^[20]

A fourth and final feature of the examination system that needs to be explained is the decentralization of hiring. Officially, recruitment activities should not commence until early October after the final results of the higher examination have been announced. The National Personnel Authority compiles rosters of successful candidates (saiyo kohosha meibo ) for each field of specialization; names are listed in the order of the scores earned. Upon receipt of requests from the ministries and agencies, the authority forwards lists of eligible candidates, whose numbers typically exceed the number of vacancies by a ratio of five to one. Actual hiring is supposed to begin in early November.^[21]

Unofficially, however, the process begins in early August immediately after the completion of the second phase of the higher examination. Even though half of them will be eliminated in the competition, the candidates nonetheless begin to pound the pavement in Kasumigaseki—a section of Tokyo's Chiyoda district where government offices are located—in a ritual known as kancho homon (visits to government

[18] omuin Shiken Joho Kenkyukai, ed. 88 nendo-han komuin saiyo shiken shirizu: Isshu kokka komuin shiken [1988 Edition, Civil-Service-Examination Series: Type-I National Public-Employee Examination] (Tokyo: Hitotsubashi Shoten, 1986), p. 46. All of these questions are from the tests intended for applicants taking the public-administration option.

[19] or examples of questions in the general test, which are too long to be translated here, see ibid., pp. 382-99.

[20] ashiro Ku, "Nihon gyoseikan kenkyu, III: gyoseikan no kyaria keisei katei (1)" [A Study of Japanese Public Administrators, Part III: The Making of Administrator's Career (1)], Kankai , Dec. 1981, pp. 69-71; Juken Shinpo Henshubu, ed., Watashi no totta kokka jokyu shiken toppaho, 86-nenban [How I Passed the National Higher (Civil-Service) Examination, 1986 Edition] (Tokyo: Hogaku Shoin, 1984). The last-mentioned source is a collection of essays by nineteen persons who passed the higher examination in 1984.

[21] Komuin shiken gokaku kara saiyo made" [From Passing the Civil-Service Examination to Being Hired], Jinji-in geppo 103 (Sept. 1959): 14-15.

agencies). It is widely believed that candidates from top-rated universities enjoy an edge, particularly if they have strong academic records and are likely to receive high scores in the examination. A participant-observer notes that grades received at Todai's Law Faculty carry more weight than scores in the higher examination, for, in his view, the former is a more reliable gauge of the candidate's intellectual ability than the latter. Inasmuch as the level of difficulty is about the same in both the higher examination and examinations taken in Todai's Law Faculty, he states, how one has performed over a two-and-a-half-year period ought to mean more than one's score in a single examination.^[22] Another observer notes, however, that one's rank in the higher examination is far more important than one's grades in college. He speculates that to have a good chance of being selected by the Ministry of Finance, which hires only twenty-five or so elite-track civil servants a year, one must rank among the top fifty successful candidates in HCSE.^[23]

Government ministries and agencies are known to seek out outstanding candidates from time to time, utilizing their kone (connections). Senpai (seniors) from the same university, especially from athletic or other clubs, and professors can play the role of match-maker. A candidate who had earned the third highest scores in the higher examination in the mid-1960s, for example, received a telephone call from a senpai , a former member of Todai's English Speaking Society. Over lunch, the senpai made a pitch for the Finance Ministry, which the candidate eventually chose over the Ministry of International Trade and Industry.^[24]

During the unofficial visits to government ministries and agencies, some candidates receive signals about possible appointment. Typically, a candidate visits a number of ministries and agencies and then narrows his choice to a few. After repeated visits to a ministry or agency, he may even receive a signal about a possible offer of appointment. Some candidates report having received an informal decision (nainaitei ) as early as late August—a full month before the final results of the HCSE are published and formal ministerial examinations (oral) begin.^[25]

As we shall see later in the chapter, there are signs that the gap

[22] ato, Kanryo -desu, yoroshiku , pp. 39-40.

[23] Kuribayashi, Okurasho shukeikyoku , p. 30. Kato served in the Home Ministry, whereas Kuribayashi is referring to the Finance Ministry.

[24] bid., pp. 19-22. In this case the recruitment activity took place after the final results of the higher civil-service examination were announced.

[25] uken Shinpo Henshubu, ed., Watashi no totta kokka jokyu shiken , pp. 120-21.

between Todai and the other universities is slowly being narrowed and that the disadvantages of private-university graduates are becoming increasingly less severe.

Table 6 presents some statistics about the higher civil-service examinations. It is plain that they are keenly competitive. As column D shows, only a small proportion of the applicants pass the examinations. What needs to be stressed is that the number of applicants is invariably greater than the number of those who actually take the examinations. During the years for which relevant statistics are available, about 18 percent of those who submitted their applications failed to show up. This means that the numbers in column D overstate the extent of competition during the years 1967 and 1973-1988. Nonetheless, during most years, over 95 percent of those who took the examinations failed. The number of applicants peaked in 1979 and leveled off in subsequent years, whereas the number passing increased steadily during the same period. This led to a notable increase in the proportion of successful candidates (column D), although it still remains well below 10 percent even after allowance is made for the discrepancy between the number of applicants and the number of those taking the examinations.

The table also demonstrates that passing the highly competitive examinations by no means ensures an appointment to a civil-service position. As column E shows, only about half of the successful candidates are actually hired. This does not mean, however, that the remainder are simply bypassed. In the 1976-84 period, three out of ten candidates who had passed the type-A higher examination and four out of ten candidates who had passed the type-B higher examination either withdrew their names from the rosters of eligibles or failed to respond to further communication from the government. In the 1981-86 period, the withdrawal rate of type-A candidates increased sharply, to about 37 percent. The proportion of type-B candidates withdrawing from the roster also increased, from 33 percent in 1981 to 52 percent in 1984.^[26]

The higher withdrawal rate of type-B candidates reflected their somewhat limited career prospects as compared with those of type-A candidates. Not only did the former have relatively limited choice in terms of potential employers, but they were not expected to rise to the apex of the bureaucratic pyramid. Type-A candidates, on the other hand, faced a wider range of options as well as fairly rapid advancement in the civil service. Although all graduates of the HCSE theoretically

[26] he rates of withdrawal or nonresponse were calculated from the data in Jinji-in, Komuin hakusho , 1978-1986.

qualified as kyaria (career civil servants), in practice the prestige and upward mobility implied by the term kyaria were not equally shared by all of them. In Japan, kyaria refers to elite-track bureaucrats, and nonkyaria (noncareer) refers to all the remainder.^[27]

Since 1971, the largest proportion of type-B graduates was hired by the National Tax Administration Agency (Kokuzeicho). In that year the proportion was 51.6 percent, and by 1975 it had risen to 59.0 percent. In 1985, the last year for which type-B graduates were eligible for civil-service appointment, the proportion stood at 77.8 percent.^[28] In the Finance Ministry, of which the NTAA is an external bureau (gaikyoku ), informal distinctions are maintained among honsho kyaria ("career" civil servants hired by the ministry proper), kokuzei kyaria ("career" civil servants hired by the NTAA), zaimu kyaria ("career" civil servants hired by the Financial Bureau [Zaimukyoku], and zeikan kyaria ("career" civil servants hired by the customs). Journalists who cover the Finance Ministry sum up the differential speeds of promotion among the various groups of civil servants as follows: "The honsho kyaria rides the jet airplane, the kokuzei kyaria the bullet train (shinkansen ), the zaimu kyaria the special express (tokkyu ), the zeikan kyaria the express (kyuko ), and the nonkyaria the slow train (donko )."^[29]

The successful applicants who either voluntarily withdraw their names or fail to fill out forms required for further consideration do so because they have other options. Some have offers from private firms. Others may choose to pursue graduate studies. Still others may have passed the judicial examination and opted for entry into the Judicial Training Institute. If we add up those who are hired and those who withdraw, then we are left with only 20 to 25 percent of the successful applicants who fail to receive offers of appointment from government ministries and agencies. No data are available regarding what happens to those people.^[30]

[27] ashiro Ku, "Nihon gyoseikan kenkyu, VII: kyaria to nonkyaria" [A Study of Japanese Public Administrators, Part VII: Career and Noncareer], Kankai , Apr. 1982, pp. 68-79.

[28] he National Tax Administration Agency (NTAA) began to hire type-B graduates in 1968; however, the number remained small (17 in 1968, 16 in 1969, and 26 in 1970) until 1971, when 197 were hired. Jinji-in, Nenji hokokusho , 1961-1986 (Tokyo: 1962-87).

[29] Kuribayashi, Okurasho shukeikyoku , p. 43.

[30] he proportion of the successful candidates who neither withdrew nor were hired in selected years is as follows: 1960, (type A) 15.4 percent, (type B) 26.0 percent; 1965, (A) 26.1 percent, (B) 27.3 percent; 1970, (A) 20.9 percent, (B) 18.2 percent; 1975, (A) 25.0 percent, (B) 7.1 percent; 1980, (A) 23.2 percent, (B) 10.0 percent; 1985, (type I) 19.6 percent. Jinji-in, Nenji hokokusho , 1961, 1966, 1971, 1976, 1981, and 1986 (Tokyo, 1962-1987).