Notes

1. Arhat (one who is worthy of worship, i.e., holy) is a synonym for a Kevalin or a Jina as described in Chapter I (n. 1).

2. The terms "nirvana," "moksa," and "mukti" are employed synonymously in all Jaina texts, and all have the meaning of total liberation or emancipation of the soul from all forms of karmic bondage leading immediately to the status of the Siddha as described in Chatper I (n. 3). The term "nirvana" is additionally employed by the Jainas to indicate the death of a Jina-comparable to the use of the term "parinirvana " among the Buddhists-an event regarded as a kalyanaka (an auspicious occasion, together with his conception, birth, renunciation, and the attainment of kevalajnana), and the places associated with this event are called nirvana-bhumis (see n. 51), common pilgrimage sites for both the Digambaras and the Svetambaras.

3. Kevalibhukti is the title of the second treatise (in thirty-seven Sanskrit verses) composed by the Yapaniya acarya Sakatayana together with an autocommentary (svopajnavrtti ) edited by Muni Jambuvijayaji in his volume entitled the Strinirvana-Kevalibhuktiprakarane (pp. 39-52). Whether a person may continue to eat (bhukti ) after attaining to the status of a Kevalin, that is, an Omniscient Being, is a major controversy between the Yapaniyas (who shared this view with the Svetambaras) and the Digambaras. The latter have held that desirelessness (vitaragata ) and the accompanying omniscience (sarvajnata ) that characterize an Arhat are not compatible with the mundane practices of eating and drinking that can proceed only from some form of residual desire. Accordingly they have maintained that the Jina Mahavira ceased to partake of food and water (and consequently ceased also to perform such bodily functions as sweating, answering the calls of nature, and even sleeping) the moment he attained kevalajnana at the age of forty-two and yet lived the normal life of a teacher for thirty more years, for the duration of his life, without becoming weak or subject to any disease. The same rule applied to all other Arhats whose bodies underwent a similar miraculous change at the attainment of kevalajnana. The Yapaniyas and the Svetambaras have refuted the Digambara position by the counterargument that hunger and thirst exist independent of desire and cannot be abated merely by removing desire for food and water-unlike anger, for example, which can be overcome by cultivating its opposite, friendship. They have therefore argued that even a Kevalin must be considered subject to the laws of nature and hence his partaking of food could not detract from his desirelessness or his omniscience. No Yapaniya biography of Mahavira is extant; but the Svetambara

accounts of Mahavira (as preserved in the canonical Bhagavatisutra and the postcanonical Kalpasutra ) show that although no one saw him eating or answering the calls of nature he did eat food procured for him and also that he suffered from diseases and partook of medicine to cure himself. (See JPP , p. 23, n. 56.) The Digambaras have rejected these accounts as blasphemous and have maintained that, simultaneously with the attainment of kevalajnana, the body of a Kevalin (whether he be a Tirthankara or an ordinary Arhat) undergoes a miraculous change. His ordinary body (audarika-sarira , lit., the gross body) that had hitherto depended upon morsels of food (kavalahara ) is automatically transformed into a supremely pure gross body (parama-audarika-sarira ; see Chapter VI, n. 28), and the impure bodily fluids such as blood, urine, and semen change into a milklike substance. This body of the Kevalin neither decays nor needs replenishment and is not subject to the normal laws of nature including digestion and evacuation. Instead, it is sustained for the duration of the remainder of his life by the influx of the most auspicious kind of karmic matter alone, called the nokarma-vargana , which ordinarily accounts for the involuntary biological functions suitable to the nature of each species. The Svetambaras, while they assert that the Arhat's body is purer than that of the ordinary human being, emphatically reject the notion of such a miraculous body and contend that it runs counter to the doctrine of karma. For a Digambara rebuttal, see Nyayakumudacandra , II, pp. 852-865. For a critical discussion on the nature of the Kevalin with particular reference to this controversy, see Dundas (1985).

4. The Three Jewels together constitute the path to moksa as stated in the Tattvarthasutra (i, 1): samyagdarsanajnanacaritrani moksamargah. Of these the first, namely the samyagdarsana , is defined as tattvarthasraddhana , faith (sradhhanam ) in the existents (tattva ), which in fact amounts to holding the Jaina worldview and hence is translated here as the "right view." The Tattvarthasutra (i, 2) speaks of seven existents:jivajivasravabandhasamvaranirjaramoksas tattvam: (1) jiva (infinite number of souls); (2) ajiva (nonsouls), which comprise the following five dravyas (substances):pudgala (the infinite number of physical matter), dharma (the principle of motion), adharma (the principle of rest), akasa (infinite space), kala (infinite time); (3) asrava (influx of subtle karmic matter into the space occupied by the soul within a given body); (4) bandha (bondage of the soul by that karmic matter); (5) samvara (stopping of the new influx by the soul); (6) nirjara (dissociation of the soul from the accumulated karmic matter); and (7) moksa (total emancipation of the soul from all karmic matter and thus freedom from all forms of embodiment). A person who believes in the manner in which these seven tattvas are described by the Jina is said to be a true Jaina endowed with the right view. Conversely, lack of faith in them or faith contrary to the teachings of the Jina is called mithyadarsana , the wrong view. The second Jewel, the right knowledge (samyagjnana ), is not a new variety of knowledge but merely the knowledge of these seven knowables accompanied by the right view. Worldly knowledge, even if correct from the conventional point of view, is therefore considered mithyajnana or wrong knowledge if it is not accompanied by the right view. The third Jewel, the right conduct (samyakcaritra ), is the holy conduct of a person with the right view. The partial holy conduct begins with the five minor vows (anuvratas) prescribed for the laity. These lead to the five great vows (mahavratas) of the mendicants, which are gradually developed through meditational practices and culminate in the perfect

holy conduct of the Arhat. Conduct that is devoid of the right view, even if it is apparently in keeping with the Jaina lay and mendicant practices, is considered wrong conduct, mithyacaritra , as it is not conducive to moksa.

5. For details on the Jaina doctrine of samsara, a beginningless transmigration of souls in such abodes as the heavens, hells, and human and animal existences, including the most subtle vegetable forms of life, see JPP , chap. 4.

6. Sakatayana does not identify the sect against which this treatise is written. One cannot discount the possibility that the Yapaniya author may be disputing with a faction within his own sect, but in the absence of any supporting evidence one can fairly assume that his real opponents are the Digambaras who, as we know from the words of Kundakunda, rejected a woman's ability to assume the five great vows of a mendicant. Although no pre-Sakatayana Digambara work devoted to the topic of strimoksa that might have served as the source for Sakatayana's prima facie view (purvapaksa ) is extant, his presentation corresponds in many ways with the authoritative Digambara position as found in the subsequent works of Prabhacandra and Jayasena, as will be seen in Chapters III and IV.

7. All Jaina sects agree that moksa can be attained only by human beings and only from the regions called the karmabhumis ("the regions of action") as opposed to the bhogabhumis ("the realms of enjoyment"). The bhogabhumis are parts of the human abodes in the Jaina cosmology (see JPP , chap. 4) where conditions like paradise prevail. The beings there are believed to be free from all strife and subsist on wish-fulfilling trees without any control or competition. Because of the ease that they enjoy without interruption, they (like devas , the beings in the heavenly abode) are said to be incapable of assuming any vows and hence unable to attain moksa in that life. The karmabhumis (which incidentally include our planet earth) undergo great fluctuations in the climatic and other conditions and hence are suitable for the pursuit of moksa. Even in the karmabhumis the attainment of moksa is possible only during certain specified times when the Jinas may appear and establish the Jaina mendicant order. For details on the appropriate times for these events, see JPP , chap. 1.

8. Ganadhara (lit., a leader of the gana , i.e., a group [of mendicants]) refers to the immediate mendicant disciples of a Jina, responsible for compiling his sermons into organized scripture (agama ). For details on the eleven ganadharas (all Of whom were Brahmans by birth) of the twenty-fourth Jina, Mahavira, see JPP , chap. 2.

9. Pratyekabuddha is a mendicant who attains omniscience without the direct aid of a teacher. He is comparable to the recluse known by the same designation in the Theravada canon because he was able to achieve nirvana during the period when a Buddha was not around.

10. Srutakevalin is a mendicant who has mastered the entire Jaina canon comprising both the Purva and the Anga . He is not an Omniscient Being, but ranks just below the ganadhara in the Jaina hierarchy. Bhadrabahu, the great acarya of the Jaina mendicant community prior to the sectarian division described in Chapter I (i), is regarded by the Digambaras as the last Srutakevalin of our era.

11. The Purvas constitute an ancient, now nonextant, part of the Jaina canon. See JPP , pp. 49-51. The tenth book of this collection is said to have contained instructions on controlling various occult powers and their presiding deities (vidya-devatas ) that an advanced mendicant might encounter in his yogic pursuit. A

dasapurvin (one who mastered the tenth Purva ) was therefore considered a most holy mendicant, next in authority to the Srutakevalin in all matters of doctrine. See JSK IV, p. 55.

12. The Jaina texts speak of gunasthanas (lit., stages of spiritual quality) as a ladder of fourteen rungs that an aspirant must climb in order to reach the status of a Siddha, the Perfected Being. The following fourteen stages mark the progress of the soul as it gradually overcomes the various causes of bondage: (1) mithyadrsti : the lowest stage, the stage of wrong views. (2) sasvadana : the stage of "mixed taste," reached only when the soul falls from the fourth stage. (3) samyak-mithyadrsti : a mixed state of the right and wrong views, a transitional stage from the first to the fourth. (4) samyagdrsti : the stage of the right view, the first step in the direction of moksa. (5) desavirata (lit., the stage where one refrains partially from evils): the state attained by a samyagdrsti when the partial vows (anuvrata and so forth) prescribed for the laity are assumed. (6) sarvavirata (lit., the stage where one renounces all evils): the state attained when a layperson assumes the great vows (mahavratas) of a mendicant. This stage indicates that such a person has fully overcome the wrong views as well as all gross forms of passions (kasaya ) such as anger (krodha ), pride (mana ), crookedness (maya ), and greed (lobha ). (7) apramattavirata (lit., the stage of refraining from carelessness, pramada ): the stage of complete mindfulness, a prerequisite for engaging in meditational activities. (8) apurvakarana . (lit., the stage of unprecedented meditational activity; (9) anivrttikarana (lit., the stage of irreversible meditational activity); (10) suksma-samparaya (lit., the stage where only the most subtle passions remain): three meditational stages called the "ladder" (sreni ), in which the aspirant may progressively suppress (upasama ) even the subtle passions (including the sexual desires called the vedas) or destroy (ksaya ) them completely. (11) upasantamoha (lit., the stage where passions, moha , are suppressed): this stage is reached only if one climbs the ladder of suppression, a fall from which is inevitable. (12) ksinamoha (lit., the stage where all passions are destroyed): this stage is possible only to those who have climbed the ladder of destruction and thus succeeded in totally eliminating all forms of passion. This is an irreversible stage, and the aspirant now proceeds immediately to the next stage called (13) sayoga-kevalin (lit., Kevalin with activities). This is the state of enlightenment, where the aspirant will become an Arhat or a Kevalin, endowed with infinite knowledge (kevalajnana ), infinite perception (kevala-darsana ), infinite bliss (ananta-sukha ), and infinite energy (ananta-virya ). Yoga is a Jaina technical term that means activities of mind, speech, and body. The Kevalin because of his omniscience has no use of the senses or the mind that coordinates their functions; but he still is not free from the vocal and physical activities such as preaching and moving from place to place. Even this last vestige of embodiment is removed during the few final instants immediately preceding his death. When these activities are also brought to cessation, the aspirant reaches the last stage called (14) ayoga-kevalin (lit., Kevalin without activities). Freed from the totality of the bonds of karma the Arhat's soul rises automatically and instantaneously to the summit of the Jaina universe and resides there eternally in the state of the Siddha, the Perfected Being.

This is a brief outline of the gunasthana scheme common to all Jaina sects. For further details and a chart, see JPP , p. 273.

13. The second line of this verse reads: manuyagadiye vi taha. caudasa gunanamadheyani. The purport of this passage (found in the Digambara text Pancasangraha ) is that of the four possible births according to the Jaina doctrine, the beings in hell and beings in heaven can have no more than the first four gunasthanas. Animals can have one more, namely the fifth gunasthana, as certain samjni animals (those possessing the mind and the five sense faculties, e.g., elephants and lions) may even assume certain minor vows of the laity. (For a discussion on this spirituality of animals, see Jaini, 1987.) The animals may not go beyond the fifth stage, but all fourteen gunasthanas are possible for human beings. The Yapaniya argues that if women, as the Digambaras allege, could not rise to the sixth stage then this scripture would have said so explicitly as it does in the case of animals. Therefore women must be considered capable of possessing all the fourteen gunasthanas that the text says are available to "human beings." See notes 69 and 71.

14. The "last moment of inactivity" is the fourteenth gunasthana, called ayogakevalin, described above in note 12.

15. On the jinakalpa, see note 35.

16. The manahparyayajnana is not to be confused with ordinary telepathy. It is rather a special type of supernatural knowledge that is gained only by the Jaina mendicants of the highest purity, and it is believed that its acquisition also carne to an end with the death of the venerable Jambu (see #23). It must be noted, however, that one can achieve moksa even without attaining such knowledge. For details, see Sarvarthasiddhi , i, 23-25.

17. For the corresponding Digambara scripture, see Chapter III (#11). In the Jaina cosmology the hellish region (called naraka ) occupies the lower part of the universe (adholoka ), immediately below the terrestrial level (madhyaloka ) inhabited by animals and human beings, and consists of seven tiers each darker than the one above. (For a chart of the Jaina universe, see JPP , pp. 128-129.) Rebirth into the hells is not available to a heavenly being (deva ) or to one who is already an infernal being (naraki ). The scripture quoted above therefore gives rules only with regard to the species in the animal and human existences who alone may be reborn in the hellish abodes. The text does not provide any rationale for the differences in the destinies available to the species mentioned. It is generally agreed that rebirth in a particular abode is determined by the soul's intensity of volition, which to a great extent is determined by the amount of physical strength and mental vigor (virya or sattva) innate to a given state of embodiment. Thus it is explained that quadrupeds may go to a lower hell than the birds and that snakes-presumably thought to be more cruel because of their venom-may go to a still lower level. By the same token it is believed by all Jaina sects that women because of their lack of strength, and the consequent weakness of their volition, may not fall into the seventh, the lowest hell. That is the prerogative of men alone, a proof of their physical and volitional strength-and, for the Digambaras, a sure indication that men alone may reach the other extreme of the cosmos, the Siddhaloka, the abode of the Perfected Beings.

One can understand the disparity between snakes and humans (because of which the former were denied rebirth in hells lower than the fifth) and even grant that women may be constitutionally weaker than men and thus incapable of committing the most evil deeds deserving retribution in the lowest hell. What is truly baffling, however, is the singular exception the Jainas make of fish by admitting the

possibility of their rebirth in the seventh hell, a fate denied even to women because of their alleged lack of mental vigor.

The belief that fish can be extremely wicked is quite old and is attested to in the Bhavaprabhrta of the acarya Kundakunda, where the author illustrates the importance of volition by the story of a fish called Salisiktha: maccho vi salisittho asuddhabhavo gao mahanarayam (86a). ("The fish called Salisiktha [lit., 'Rice Grain'] of impure intensions went to the great hell." (Kundakunda does not give the story, but it appears in the tenth-century Brhatkathakosa (no. 147, Salisikthakathanakam) of the Digambara Harisena and was probably the source of the sixteenth-century Srutasagara's narrative in his commentary on the Bhavaprabhrta , which may be briefly summarized here. In the city of Kakandipura there was a king named Saurasena born in the family of a Jaina layman (sravakakula ). According to the tradition of his religion he took the vow of not eating meat. But implored by his Saivite physician he conceived a desire to consume meat. Fearful of people knowing his weakness, he called his favorite cook named Karmapriya ("Work Lover") and secretly informed him of his desire. Although the cook procured meats of animals on land as well as in the water, the king did not get an opportunity to eat those dishes. Karmapriya, the cook, died and was reborn as the Great Fish (Mahamatsya) in the great ocean called the Svayambhuramana (which circles the middle region of the Jaina universe). King Saurasena died craving for meat dishes and was born in the same ocean as a fish called Salisiktha (Rice Grain) because of its tiny size. Sa1isiktha took his residence in the ear of the Great Fish living on the dirt that accumulated there. One day Salisiktha saw the Great Fish sleeping and the multitude of small and large schools of fish moving in and out of its wide-open mouth and thought: "Alas! How unfortunate of this Great Fish! It cannot eat them even when they fall into his mouth! If fate had given me as large a body as his, I would have rendered this entire ocean empty of all life!" Thinking thus he died and by the force of his mental agitation was reborn in the seventh hell. The great Fish also died and was also reborn in the same hell as a consequence of his devouring the multitude of beings in the ocean (Satprabhrtadisangrahah , pp. 235-237). It seems possible that Kundakunda was referring to the story of the fish only to illustrate the primacy of volition (bhava ) over action, but his words "gao mahanarayam" were understood by the later storytellers literally to mean the seventh hell.

18. The eight siddhagunas : (1-3) perfection of the Three Jewels; (4) infinite energy (ananta-virya ); (5) invisibility (suksmatva ); (6) ability to occupy the same space (at the summit of the Jaina universe) with other Siddhas (avagahanatva ); (7) freedom from expansion and contraction of the soul's space points (agurulaghutva ); and (8) freedom from both pleasure and pain (avyabadhatva ). The former four are attained when one becomes an Arhat; the latter four are attained when the Arhat dies and is forever released from the bondage of embodiment and thus becomes a Siddha. For details on the last four qualities, see JPP , pp. 124-127.

19. Sahasrara is the twelfth heavenly abode in the Jaina cosmology. See Sarvarthasiddhi , iv, 19.

20. For a discussion on the definition of a samjni, see Sarvarthasiddhi , ii, 24.

21. The samayika here probably refers to the single mendicant restraint assumed by Mahavira himself when he renounced the world saying, "No evil actions are to be committed by me." See JPP , p. 17.

22. Muni Jambuvijayaji notes (p. 17, n. 1) that this is a very old verse and is quoted by the Svetambara acarya Jinabhadra in his Svopajnavrtti on the Visesavasyakabhasya . The complete verse reads as follows:

mana-paramodhi-pulae aharaga-khavaga-uvasame kappe,
samjamatiya-kevala-sijjhana ya Jambummi vocchinna. [verse 3076]

The Jaina tradition unanimously believes that the mendicant Jambu was the last person to attain moksa in the current time called the avasarpini-pancama-kala (the fifth period of the descending half of the time cycle) in the Jaina cosmology. He was the disciple of Sudharman, one of the two ganadharas (the other being Gautama) who survived Mahavaira. The Svetambara tradition believes that Sudharman relayed the twelvefold Jaina canon (as received from Mahavira) orally to the mendicant Jambu, who thus became the chief preserver of the holy scripture. Jambu is believed to have died in 463 B.C. , sixty-four years after the nirvana of Mahavira. According to the fifth-century acarya Jinabhadra's Visesavasyakabhasya , referred to above, with the death of Jambu the jinakalpa (see note 35)-suggested by the term "kappa " in the verse quoted above-ceased to exist, as also the attainment of moksa by anyone, whether a monk or a nun. Jainas are unanimous in their belief that moksa cannot be attained by either a monk or a nun until the present time cycle is completed and a new era begins and a new Jina appears here (after a lapse of several thousand years). In view of this belief the controversy over women's ability to attain moksa would appear to be irrelevant, aimed rather at asserting the validity of the sectarian position on the true definition of a mendicant. It should be remembered, however, that the path of moksa is not altogether closed, since it is open for human beings who are reborn in an area called Videha-ksetra. Tirthankaras are believed to exist at all times in this blessed region inhabited by human beings but lying far outside our known earth and inaccessible to humans except through transmigration. The earth we inhabit forms part of the area known as the Bharata-ksetra (the Land of Bharata, named after the first Jaina universal monarch or cakravartin of our time cycle) in the Jaina cosmology. See JPP , chap. 1. For further details on Jambu, see Mehta (1970-1972).

23. The verses quoted are to be found in the Nisithabhasya , a Svetambara text. No Digambara text corresponding to this is to be found, and the Svetambara texts are not authoritative to them. One wonders, therefore, if the Yapaniya author may be confronting a faction within his own mendicant community or if the \ had once accepted the scriptures quoted by him.

24. It is doubtful whether the "opponent" here also is a Digambara, since the scripture quoted is found in the Svetambara Brhatkalpa only. To the best of my knowledge there is no extant Digambara scripture that specifically forbids the vow of mendicant nudity to a woman. But such a prohibition must have obtained in their tradition, as can be deduced from the following statement of the Digambara acarya Virasena (c. 817) in his commentary called the Dhavala on the Satkhandagama (quoted in JSK Ill, p. 597, from the Dhavala , xi, 4, 2.6-xii, 114, 11): na ca davvatthinam niggamtham atthi, celadipariccaena vina tasim bhavaniggamthabhavado. na ca davvatthinavumsayavedenam celadiccago atthi, Chedasuttena saha virohado. ("There is no state of total mendicancy [the state of a nirgrantha] for a person who is biologically female, since there is absence of internal freedom from all

bonds without the abandonment of such external properties as clothes and so forth. Nor is the abandonment of clothes and so forth [allowed] for those who are biologically female or hermaphrodite, as this [nudity] is contrary to the Chedasutra [the Digambara book of mendicant discipline, which is no longer extant].")

It may be mentioned in this connection that the twelfth-century Digambara layman Asadhara, in his manual for the laity called the Sagaradharmamrta , states that a nun (whom he also considers only to be an advanced laywoman and not a "mendicant") may, if she so wishes, be allowed to assume the vow of nudity, like a man, at the last moments of her life, as part of her sallekhana ritual (voluntary fasting to death, see JPP , p. 227-233): yad autsargikam anyad va lingam uktam jinaih, striyah pumvat tad isyate, mrtyukale svalpikrtopadheh (viii, 38). Asadhara is undoubtedly following here a very old tradition preserved in the ancient Bhagavati-aradhana : itthivi ya jam limgam dittham ussaggiyam va idaram va, tam taha hodi hu limgam parittam uvadhim karemtie (verse 81). I am informed by Digambara scholars that this verse should not be construed as a sanction for nudity as the dying nun must remain in strict privacy and, moreover, that her vows do not thereby become the mahavratas of a Digambara monk for the biological disabilities associated with the female body cannot be removed. Furthermore, acarya Sivakoti, the author of the Bhagavati-aradhana , is, as seen above in section (v), probably a Yapaniya mendicant and hence does not necessarily represent the traditional Digambara position as expressed in the Sutraprabhrta (see Chapter I above) of Kundakunda and the Dhavala of Virasena.

25. In modern times, this whisk broom is made of tufts of wool (called rajoharana ) or peacock feathers (called pinchi ); these are used by mendicants of the Svetambara and Digambara sects, respectively.

26. This work is not extant, but the title Siddhiviniscaya ("Determination of Siddhahood," i.e., the attainment of moksa) indicates that it too dealt with the topic of strimoksa. For a discussion on the identity of this acarya Sivasvamin with the acarya Sivakoti, the author of the Bhagavati-aradhana , see Premi (1956, pp. 67-73).

27. This quotation is also found only in the Svetambara Brhatkalpa . The tala-palamba , however, is mentioned in the (Yapaniya?) Bhagavati-aradhana (verse 1124) as an illustration to show that the word "tala " stands not only for the palm tree but also for all trees (shoots of which are also forbidden for monks). Similarly, it is said, the word "cela " (clothes) in the compound "acelaka" (lit., free from clothes) stands for other possessions as well that must be given up by a mendicant. See JSK I, p. 39.

28. The following four verses as well as the verse beginning with the words "ye yan na bhuktibhajah" (see #69) are called sangraha-aryas (collected verses) in the Svopajnavrtti and yet are counted as original verses (nos. 13-16 and 30, respectively) in Muni Jambuvijayaji's edition. In explaining this he notes (p. 1, n. 1) that in the manuscripts of the Strinirvanaprakarana the verses were not numbered at all, except in one incomplete manuscript where only the last three verses were numbered respectively 52, 53, and 54. Assuming therefore that the text originally might have consisted of fifty-four verses he decided to count these five sangraha-aryas (numbering them as 13-16 and 30) also as the original verses of the Strinirvanaprakarana . I have treated these five verses as quotations only, and hence the total number of the Strinirvanaprakarana verses here is forty-nine instead of the fifty-four

in his edition. In this regard I am following the earlier edition of the Strinirvanaprakarana (published by Muni Jinavijayaji as reprinted in the Sakatayana-Vyakarana , intro. app. II, pp. 121-124), which does not contain these five verses.

29. For a Digambara reply to this point, see Chapter III (#58).

30. See the Pravacanasara of Kundakunda, iii, 17.

31. Compare this with the following passage from the Svetambara Acaranga-sutra , II, 5, 1: je niggamthe tarune jugavam balavam appayamke thirasamghayane se egam vattham dharejja, no bitiyam. ("If a monk be youthful, young, strong, healthy, and well set, he may wear one robe, not two"; Kalpasutra , Jacobi's trans. 1884, p. 157.) Because of the difference between the two passages Muni Jambuvijayaji (p. 103, n. 4) has suggested that the present passage is not taken from the extant Acaranga-sutra but can be traced to a non-Svetambara source. This is the famous Vijayodaya commentary by the Yapaniya Aparajita on the Bhagavati-aradhana of Sivakoti (who as noted above could have been a member of the Yapaniya sect). In this commentary on verse 421 dealing with the rule of nudity a questioner asks: Acara syapi dvitiyadhyayo Lokavicayo nama, tasya . . . vatthesanae vuttam: tattha je(?) se hirimane segam vattham va dharejja (Bhagavati-aradhana , p. 611). This shows that the Yapaniyas had a different recension of this canonical text and had interpreted the rules pertaining to clothes in a manner quite different from that of the Svetambaras who advocated the use of clothes not as a concession to weakness but as a requirement for all Jaina mendicants.

32. Muni Jambuvijayaji notes (p. 21, n. 2) that this verse is missing from two manuscripts and suggests that as there is no commentary on it by Sakatayana it is probably a quotation from some unknown text. He gives the following parallel passages from the Svetambara Sthananga-sutra : tihim thanehim vattham dharejja, tam jaha, hiripattiyam dugumchapattiyam parisahavattiyam (iii, 3, 171).

In this connection the explanation given by the Yapaniya acarya Aparajita in his commentary on the Bhagavati-aradhana on the requirement of nudity for a mendicant is worth noting. Commenting on the verse (no. 421) that dealt with nudity (acelakatva ), Aparajita gives a long discourse (in some forty lines) on the virtues of nudity and the defects inherent to wearing robes. A questioner, who could be a proto-Svetambara, raises at this point a pertinent question as to why the scripture directs a monk to seek robes and so forth (as quoted above in note 31) and how this command can be reconciled with the vow of nudity (evam sutranirdiste cele acelata katham). In reply to this question Aparajita says: atrocyate, aryikanam agame 'nujnatam vastram, karanapeksaya bhiksunam-hriman ayogyasariravayavo duscarmabhilambamanabijo va parisahasahane va 'ksamah sa grhnati. ("The scripture enjoins clothes for nuns and for monks for the following reasons: a monk who is full of shame, or whose body and limbs are not suitable because of genital deformities, or one who is unable to bear the afflictions [such as cold], takes clothes"; Bhagavati-aradhana , p. 612.) It is noteworthy that Aparajita does not give any reason for enjoining clothes to nuns, an omission that leaves room for the Digambaras to question women's ability to assume the great vows of the monks. As for the concessions made to certain males, it must be noted that they run counter to the Digambara rules of mendicancy and hence are not admissible to them. I am informed that a person suffering from genital or other defects is not eligible to receive initiation into the Digambara mendicant order, and should he develop them

subsequently he will be enjoined to return to the lower status of a layman. This Digambara position thus appears to be consistent with the position taken by the opponent in #46.

It should be noted, however, that the Digambara tradition has occasionally shown the ability to make concessions (subject to expiations, etc.) under difficult political conditions. In late medieval times, public nudity was proscribed in areas ruled by Muslims, making it difficult for Digambara monks to move freely. The sixteenth-century commentator Srutasagara has left one record of a situation where the Digambara monk Vasantakirti (of unknown date) of Mandapadurga (in modern Rajasthan?) allowed his monks an exceptional garb or appearance (apavadavesa ), namely, to cover themselves with a mat or a piece of cloth for the duration of their outings for meals and the like: kalau kila Mlecchadayo nagnam drstva upadravam yatinam kurvanti, tena Mandapadurge sri Vasantakirtina svamina caryadivelayam tattisadaradikena sariram acchadya punas tan muncatity upadesah krtah samyaminam ity apavadavesah; Satprabhrtadisangrahah , p. 21. Srutasagara, while reporting this incident, does not fail to comment that such an apavadavesa is nevertheless heretical (mithyavesa eva; ibid.). Pandit Premi (1956, p. 66) has suggested that this was the beginning of the Bhattaraka tradition among the Digambaras, a new group of resident (and clothed) "monks" who in medieval times presided over a large number of temples and libraries, remnants of whose seats (called mathas and administered by the laymen of the ksullaka rank) can still be found in parts of Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and Karnataka.

33. Muni Jambuvijayaji notes (p. 103, n. 1) a countertext in the Svetambara scripture: kappai niggamthana va niggamthina va celacilimiliyam dharittae va pariharittae va; Brhatkalpa , i. 18.

34. Compare: mithyadarsanaviratipramadakasayayogah bandhahetavah; Tattvarthasutra , viii, 1. For a discussion on the nature of these five causes of bondage, see JPP , pp. 157-159.

35. The words "sapeksa " (qualified) and "nirapeksa " (unqualified or total) samyama (mendicant restraint, i.e., vows), purportedly used here to describe the sthavirakalpa (lit., Course of the Elders) and the jinakalpa (lit., Course of the Victors), respectively, do not adequately express the precise distinctions between the two courses of mendicancy as understood by the Yapaniyas. Both the Digambaras and the Svetambaras accept these different courses, but they disagree on the meaning of the terms.

According to the Svetambaras, jinakalpa is the course of a monk who leads a life in the manner of the Jina Mahavira, including the adoption of the practice of nudity; he is not bound by the rules of the ecclesiastical community. He is not obligated to abide by the rules of congregation or engage in such activities as preaching. Leading an isolated life (probably because of his nudity) is thus the major characteristic of a jinakalpa monk. The sthavirakalpa, by contrast, is a course which requires that the mendicant wear the prescribed number of clothes (no more than three) and keep begging bowls, the whisk broom, and other such signs of mendicancy. He is subject to the ecclesiastical laws and must remain loyal and obedient to his spiritual masters, the acaryas. Propagation of the Teaching is one of his duties, and he is encouraged to initiate his own disciples and to impart the law among the laity as well. While the Svetambaras thus uphold the jinakalpa as a legitimate and even a superior mode of

mendicancy (since it was practiced by Mahavira himself), they nevertheless believe that it is totally unsuitable and hence forbidden to women and also to the majority of men, for whom only the sthavirakalpa is recommended. Nudity is not an essential characteristic of mendicancy for them, and hence they believe that both courses are equally capable of achieving the goal of moksa. They have furthermore maintained that the jinakalpa came to an end with the death of the Venerable Jambu (see #23 and n. 22), the last Jaina monk to have attained nirvana in the mendicant lineage of Mahavira, and that what survives now is only the sthavirakalpa. For them the option of the jinakalpa, or most important the practice of nudity associated with it, is no longer available, and hence they question the legitimacy of the current Digambara order of monks.

The Digambara definitions of these two terms, as can be expected, are strikingly different. For the Digambaras, nudity is the essential characteristic of mendicancy, without which a monk's vow of total nonpossession (aparigraha) is not complete. Therefore, in their tradition, monks of both jinakalpa and sthavirakalpa courses must adopt nudity. The true distinction between the two is that a monk of the jinakalpa order leads a solitary life without belonging even formally to an ecclesiastical community; he could thus be described as an anchorite, engaged in his own austerities and meditation. Mendicants of the sthavirakalpa order are distinguished by the fact that they live in a group directly under the supervision of their acaryas and engage in such activities as the study of the scripture or preaching the law to the laity; they are cenobites. They also believe that as a consequence of the declining morality associated with the pancamakala, the jinakalpa ended with the death of the Venerable Jambu, but they declare that it did not spell the end of monkhood, which of course cannot be separated from the practice of total nudity. The Digambaras thus claim that they are the true followers of the sthavirakalpa tradition, which has continued uninterrupted since the days of Mahavira, and also that it may be expected to last until the very end of the pancamakala, an event that will not take place for some seventeen thousand years. Since there can be no mendicancy without total nudity, and since the latter is forbidden to a woman, a "nun" in the Digambara tradition belongs neither to the jinakalpa nor to the shavirakalpa. Her status in their tradition is that of an advanced laywoman (uttamasravika), as pointed out by Kundakunda (see Chapter I, #7-#8). But she is honored by the term "aryika" (noble lady), as she has reached the highest status available to a woman, equivalent to that of a Digambara monk among men, and may therefore be conventionally said to belong to the sthavirakalpa.

As for the Yapaniyas, it is evident from the text under study that they, like the Svetambaras, identified the practice of nudity with the jinakalpa only and approved of the status of the sthavirakalpa to clothed mendicants, whether nuns or monks. Probably they too considered the jinakalpa to be superior to the other mode, since the jinakalpa monks did not even return the greetings of the sthavirakalpa monks as shown in #67. The major difference between the Svetambara and the Yapaniya seems to lie in the Yapaniya rule that clothes may be allowed to men not as a regular practice (as was claimed by the Svetambaras, for which see Chapter V, #9) but as an exception, applicable only to those who suffered from the three defects pointed out in Sakatayana's verse 15. But if the Yapaniyas, as indicated above (in #23), also believed that the jinakalpa came to an end after the time of the Venerable Jambu, then they will have no option but to declare all men desirous of becoming

mendicants as "exceptional cases" and consider their use of clothes not as a concession to weakness but as the only legitimate practice. This could result in removing any essential difference that might have existed between the monks and nuns, as claimed by the Digambaras, and render them equal—a position that they currently enjoy, at least in theory, in the Svetambara tradition.

For further details on the jinakalpa and the sthavirakalpa in the Svetambara and the Digambara traditions, see, respectively, Tatia and Kumar (1981, pp. 41-69) and Jnanamati (1982, pp. 186-189).

36. For different varieties of these fasts, see JSK III, p. 405.

37. I understand from Digambara scholars that such a person will cease to be a monk if he accepts the bandages and will revert to the position of a layman. His case will be somewhat similar to the one described by Srutasagara as quoted above in note 32.

38. This story of the monk Mrgadhvaja cannot be traced in extant Jaina literature. For a Digambara response to this argument, see Chapter III (#58).

39. Compare: murccha parigrahah; Tattvarthasutra , vii, 17. "What is murccha? Murccha is activity relating to the acquisition or safeguarding of possessions such as the cow, the buffalo, jewels, pearls, and so on, and also inward thoughts like desire and so on. . .. Infatuation or attachment is at the root of all evils. If a person has the idea 'this is mine,' he has to safeguard it. In safeguarding it, violence is bound to result. For its sake he utters falsehood. He also commits theft and attempts copulation. And this results in various kinds of pain and suffering in the infernal regions"; Sarvarthasiddhi , vii, 17, translated by S. A. Jain, p. 199.

40. On the Jaina practice of voluntary death by fasting called sallekhana, see JPP , pp. 227-233.

41. For a discussion on these two courses, which are differently described in the Svetambara scriptures and in the Vijayodaya commentary of the Yapaniya author Aparajita (Bhagavati-aradhana , pp. 352-367), as Tatia and Kumar (1981, pp. 69-78); see also Caillat (1965, pp. 52-55).

42. If by the term "jinakalpa" in this passage the Yapaniya understands the practice of nudity (in addition to other requirements), then it would follow that the vow of nudity could not be administered to a boy of eight and, as the following quotation states explicitly, to anyone under the age of thirty. I am unaware of a Digambara text that stipulates the minimum age requirement of a person eligible to assume the vow of nudity. I understand from my informants that it is customary to give this initiation only to men in their advanced age and only to those who have spent years practicing the anuvratas and other vows of a layman. As a rule, only a ksullaka or an ailaka would be allowed to become a Digambara monk, and therefore the custom of child initiation (baladiksa ) that openly prevailed among the Svetambaras in medieval times was totally unknown among them. For details on this practice, see The Life of Hemacandra (Bühler, 1899).

43. This verse, the source of which cannot be traced and the meaning of which is obscure, merits comparison with the following verse in the Gommatasara (and its Hindi commentary), which seems to preserve certain ancient rules applicable to a mendicant of the jinakalpa in the Digambara tradition:

tisam vaso jamme, vasapudhattam khu titthayaramule,
paccakkhanam padhido, samjhunadugauyaviharo.

("Commentary: A person who is thirty years old and has after his initiation as a monk spent eight years in the study of the ninth book of the Purva under a Tirthankara comes to possess the conduct called pariharavisuddhi . Such a person travels every day, that is, he is not subject to the rules of mendicant retreat during the rainy season and yet remains pure in his conduct"; Gommatasara (Jivakanda ), verse 473).

44. I have been unable to find a scriptural authority to support the Yapaniya statement that an eight-year-old person may attain moksa. It is, however, agreed by the Digambara that only a person over the age of eight may become eligible to receive the anuvratas of the laity. (gabbhado nikkhamtapadhamasamayappahudi atthavassesu gadesu samjamaggahanappaogo hodi, hettha na hodi tti eso bhavattho; quoted in JSK (from the Dhavala ), IV, p. 141.) Compare in this context the Buddhist belief that a boy must be at least eight years of age to attain Arhatship. The Dhammapada-Atthakatha (II, p. 248; Burlingame, 1921) contains the story of an eight-year-old boy named Samkicca who attained Arhatship during his ordination as a novice (samanera ). Although I am unaware of a similar story among the Jainas, the tradition is unanimous that Prabhasa (whom the Digambaras claim to be a naked monk), the youngest of Mahavira's eleven ganadharas, was only twenty-four when he attained Arhatship. (See JPP , p. 44.) Accordingly, the "thirty-year-old" age requirement for becoming a naked monk as stated above in note 43 was not recognized in ancient times—or, more probably, the age requirement applied only for undertaking additional austerities allowed to a (naked) monk who had chosen the mode of jinakalpa.

45. In the Digambara community the question of monks returning the greetings of the nuns does not arise, as the latter, being only advanced laywomen, will not be treated as equals of the monks. In the Yapaniya and the Svetambara communities they should be treated as equals, yet the monks there do not return the greetings of their nuns. The Yapaniya Aparajita in his Vijayodaya commentary gives the following reasons for the inferiority of the nuns and the superiority of monks over them: pancamahavratadharinyas cirapravrajitaya 'pi jyestho bhavaty adhuna pravrajitah puman. ity esa saptamah sthitikalpah purusajyesthatvam. purusatvam namopakaram raksam ca kartum samarthah. purusapranitas ca dharma iti tasya jyesthata. tatah sarvabhih samyatabhih vinayah kartavyo viratasya. yena ca striyo laghvyah, paraprarthaniyah, pararakso(a)peksinyah, na tatha pumamsa iti ca purusajyesthatvam. ("A man who renounces the household life only today is senior to a nun who keeps the five mahavratas and has renounced the household life a long time ago. . .. Manhood means the ability to protect. Moreover the dharma is taught by a man [i.e., the Tirthankaras are men only] and thus his superiority. Therefore it is the duty of all nuns to respect a monk. Women are inferior because they are objects of men's lust and require protection from others, but not so a man; this is the reason for his superiority"; Bhagavati-aradhana , p. 614.) It will be noticed that the reasons provided are primarily of a social nature and reflect the social attitudes prevalent in India in ancient times. Aparajita makes no reference to the physiological disabilities stressed by the Digambara Kundakunda in his Sutraprabhrta . For this reson the Yapaniya (and the Svetambara) Jaina rule about greetings of monks by the nuns bears comparison with the rules laid down by the Buddha for the initiation of women into his community of nuns (bhiksuni-sangha), for which see the Introduction (#41-42, n. 33).

46. Muni Jambuvijayaji notes (p. 25, n. 5) that a complete folio is missing at this point and that he has reconstructed these two verses (24 and 25abc) from the Svopajnavrtti .

47. This verse appears as no. 30 of the Strinirvanaprakarana in Muni Jambuvijayaji's edition. See note 28 above. I have also reordered the sequence of the text by placing this verse ahead of verse 25d to maintain the continuity of argument pertaining to the rules of greeting.

48. This quotation also appears in the Nyayakumudacandra ; see Chapter III (#76).

49. Baladeva (or balabhadra ), narayana (or vasudeva ), and pratinarayana (or prativasudeva ) are three Jaina literary types together with cakravartins (universal monarchs) and Tirthankaras and are called the great illustrious beings (salakapurusas ). A baladeva is the elder brother and companion of a narayana. The narayana is a hero, the chief destroyer of the villain called pratinarayana. The Jaina Puranas narrate the exploits of these great Jaina laymen who periodically appear when a cakravartin is not ruling the earth. These three categories are modeled on the Brahmanical epic and Puranic heroes, namely, Rama (of the Ramayana ) and Balarama (of the Mahabharata-Harivamsaparva ), Laksmana, the brother of Rama, and Krsna, the brother of Balarama, and Ravana and Jarasandha, the chief villains of the two epics, respectively. For details on these illustrious Jaina heroes, see Helen Johnson's translation (1962) of the Trisastisalakapurusacaritra of Hemacandra.

50. The Jaina Puranas have maintained that Krsna and Laksmana as well as Ravana and Jarasandha were reborn, as a result of the violence they perpetrated, in the fourth hell. They are all destined to be reborn as human beings in their next life and, having renounced the world in the manner of the Jaina monks, will attain moksa in that very life. See Trisastisalakapurusacaritra , vol. v.

51. All Jainas believe that of the twenty-four Jinas of our time, the first (Rsabha), the twelfth (Vasupujya), the twenty-second (Nemi), and the twenty-fourth (Mahavira) attained nirvana respectively at Mount Kailasa, Campa (in Bihar), Ujjayanta (also called Giranar in Gujarat), and Pava (in Bihar). The remaining twenty attained the nirvana from the holy Mount Sammeta (called Parasnath Hills) near the city of Patna in Bihar. Rajagrha was the ancient capital of Magadha where Mahavira preached his first sermon after becoming the Jina. For details on these pilgrimage sites sacred to both the Digambaras and the Svetambaras, see the Vividhatirthakalpa by the fourteenth-century Jinaprabhasuri and also Jain (1974).

52. The identity of Ramaka(u?)lya is not known. Probably the author has in mind some holy springs, called Sitakunda, or Ramakunda, which are located at various Hindu pilgrimage spots.

53. Six configurations (samsthanas) refer to the physical conditions or structures of the human body: (1) perfectly symmetrical body (samacaturasra-samsthana ), meaning symmetry of both the upper and lower parts of the body; (2) upper body symmetry (nyagrodhaparimandala-samsthana ); (3) lower body symmetry (svatisamsthana ); (4) hunchback (kubja ); (5) dwarf (vamana ); (6) deformed (hunda ). The heavenly beings have only the first and the hell beings only the last samsthana, whereas humans and animals can have any of the six. See also Chapter VI (#85 and n. 48).

54. Brahmi and Sundari were two daughters of the first Tirthankara Rsabha, who became nuns without entering the household life. Rajimati was the fiancée of

the twenty-second Tirthankara, Nemi; on the eve of their wedding, her fiancé renounced the world, and Rajimati followed him into mendicancy. Candana was the head of an order of thirty-six thousand nuns in the mendicant order of Mahavira (see Mehta, 1970-1972, I, p. 246). It is to be noted that the Yapaniyas, while mentioning the names of several women appearing in the Puranic literature, have omitted the name of Tirthankara Malli, considered the only female Jina by the Svetambaras. Her story appears in the Svetambara canonical text Nayadhammakahao , which is rejected by the Digambaras, who declare Malli to be a male Jina (see Introduction, #24). The omission here could signify that her story in the extant Svetambara canon was not accepted as authentic in the Yapaniya tradition. See also Chapters IV (#13) and VI (#77, n. 38).

55. Unlike her ultimate suicide in the Ramayana (of Valmiki), in the Jaina version of the epic, Sita, the wife of the Rama, eventually becomes a Jaina nun. See Trisastisalakapurusacaritra , iv, 10.

56. Satyabhama, the wife of Krsna, also became a Jaina nun according to the Jaina Harivamsa-purana : Rukmini Satyabhamadya mahadevyo 'sta sasnusah, labdhanujna Hareh stribhih sapatnibhih pravavrajuh (chap. 61, verse 40).

57. Both traditions agree that a person who is in possession of samyagdarsana (the right view) will not be reborn into a female body, whether in the human or the deva realms. While it is admitted that such rebirth might be possible for the upasama-samyagdrsti , whose wrong view (mithyadarsana) is only temporarily suppressed, it is declared absolutely impossible for the ksayika-samyagdrsti , whose wrong view has been permanently obliterated. In either case, however, if a person dies while still endowed with samyagdarsana, he or she will not be reborn as a female.

According to this rule, therefore, at the time of their birth, all women would have to be considered as having wrong views, although this would not preclude them from developing the samyagdarsana during their lifetimes. The tradition is unanimous in declaring that the surest way to avoid rebirth as a female is to be in possession of samyagdarsana at the time of death. By this same rule, even women who are destined to become the mothers of the Tirthankaras would have to be considered mithyadrstis at the time of their conception as a female embryo.

58. The debate here focuses on the question of whether a person on the second gunasthana, the sasvada-samyagdrsti—who has left behind the fourth stage of samyagdrsti and is hurtling inexorably toward the lower stage, the mithyadrsti—or the person on the third stage, the samyagmithyadrsti—who has left the mithyadrsti stage and is on the transition stage to samyagdrsti—would be reborn as a woman. The discussant declares that the second gunasthana is, in fact, a state of wrong view, and a person on that level should be treated identically to the one on the first gunasthana, the mithyadrsti. The third gunasthana is, however, a state where the right view is not yet firm; even so such a person can be regarded as if he were a samyagdrsti. Hence, a person on the second gunasthana would be reborn as a female, while a person on the third would not.

59. This compares well with the following Digambara text: samyagdarsanasuddha narakatiryannapumsakastritvani, duskulavikrtaipayurdaridratam. ca vrajanti napy avratikah. ("Those who are pure on account of the right view, even if they are without the vows of a layman, will not be reborn in the hells, in animal existences, or

as hermaphrodites, or as females; nor will they be born with deformed bodies, nor in families that are poor or low"; Ratnakarandasravakacara , verse 30.)

60. For these Jaina designations for various units of time, see JSK I, p. 217.

61. This verse is also quoted in the Nyayakumudacandra ; see Chapter III (#27).

62. This is one more occasion where one doubts that the opponent here is a Digambara. As will be seen below, the Digambara author Prabhacandra rejects this evidence as unauthentic. See Chapter III (#81).

63. Both Jaina sects agree that there is no necessary correlation between the biological gender (called linga or dravyaveda ) of a person and that person's sexual desires, or libido (called bhavaveda or only veda ). The Jainas have classified sexual desire into three types, which are not physical but mental states: (1) striveda , the desire of a female to mate with a male; (2) pumveda , the desire of a male to mate with a female; and (3) napumsakaveda , the desire of a hermaphrodite to mate with another hermaphrodite. At one extreme, according to the Jaina doctrine of karma, the heavenly beings, who are distinguished only as male or female, have only the libido appropriate to their gender. At the other extreme, all denizens of hell are only hermaphrodites and may have the hermaphroditic libido only. Humans and animals, however, can be born with any one of the three biological genders, which they will retain for the duration of their lifetime, but their libidos are not fixed. They may experience, at different times, any of the three libidos, irrespective of their physical gender. Because of this doctrine, the opponent claims that the word "stri" (woman) in this passage refers to a man (purusa) at the moment of his experiencing the female libido (striveda), who can therefore be called, psychologically, a "woman" although biologically he is a man. As will be seen below, the Yapaniya, or at least Sakatayana, the author of this text, seems to hold a view that is not shared by the mainstream Jaina tradition—that one's libido cannot be contrary to one's biological gender. For further discussion on this problem, see Chapter VI (#2-7).

64. Citta-vikara: citta is a synonym for manas (mind). The physical basis of manas consists of subtle atoms of matter and is therefore called dravya-manas . The nonphysical basis of manas, however, through which the soul experiences happiness or unhappiness, is a faculty of the soul itself and is called the internal mind (bhava-manas ). The citta-vikara in this passage would therefore indicate the modification of the soul that induces sexual desire.

65. Palya : According to the Jaina doctrine of karma, a woman can continue to be reborn as a female for from three to nine hundred palyas—an immense length of time stretching into millions of years. The Digambara is attempting to show here that because no physical body can possibly last this long, the word "female" in this passage cannot refer to a woman's body but to the internal sexual feeling.

66. Although Siddhahood is a state achieved after the final death of an Arhat, the word here refers to the thirteenth gunasthana, where that Arhat is still alive.

67. The ninth gunasthana can be characterized by either suppression (upasama) or destruction (ksaya). The destruction of all three types of sexual desire—namely, striveda, pumveda, and napumsakaveda—along with the other subtle passions takes place only when the aspirant enters the path leading to destruction. Hence, attainment of this path, where gross passions are destroyed, engenders a state of nonretrogression.

68. Muni Jambuvijayaji notes (p. 36, n. 4) that an entire folio is missing at this

point and that he has reconstructed the portion which appears here in angle brackets (i.e., verses 42 and 43).

69. Margana refers to a Jaina method of examination of the states of the soul by focusing on the following fourteen aspects during its state of embodiment: destiny, that is, birth (gati ), senses (indriya ), body (kaya ), activity (yoga), sexual desire (veda), passions (kasaya), cognition (jnana ), restraint (samyama ), perception (darsana ), mental colorings (lesya ), the capacity to attain moksa (bhavyatva ), right view (samyaktva ), mental faculties (samjna ), and intake of food (ahara ). In examining these aspects, the texts ask such questions as, which gunasthanas are possible for a being in a particular birth? The answer here, for example, is that the beings born in hell and heaven can have only the first four gunasthanas, as they are unable to assume any of the restraints. In the animal births, it is possible to attain even the fifth gunasthana. All fourteen gunasthanas are possible, however, for human beings. This same analytical method is employed in examining the remaining thirteen marganas.

70. This refers to the jnanavaraniya (the knowledge-obscuring) and the darsanavaraniya (the perception-obscuring) karmas. See JPP , p. 115.

71. These texts can be compared with the following sutras of the Digambara Satkhandagama : manussa coddassu gunatthanesu atti micchaitthi . . . ajogikevalitti (i, 1, sutra 27); manusinisu micchaitthi-sasanasammaitthitthane siya pajjattiyao siya apajjattiyao (sutra 92); sammamicchaitthi-asamjadasammaitthisamja-dasamjadatthane niyama pajjattiyao (sutra 93); quoted in JSK III, p. 285.